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Volume LII, Issue 4, 4th Quarter 2015

Published by MEYER & MEYER SPORT

International Journal of Physical Education A Review Publication Editors-in-Chief: Prof. em. Dr Dr h.c. Herbert Haag, M.S. University of Kiel Institute for Sport Science Kiel, Germany

Theme ISSUE 4/2015

Conceptual and Empirical Sports Pedagogy Contents

Martin Holzweg International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) Berlin, Germany E-mail: [email protected]

Editorial ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 1

Associate Editor: Prof. Dr Filip Mess Technical University of Munich (TUM) Department of Sport and Health Sciences Munich, Germany

E. Cope, R. Bailey, & D. Parnel

Review Article Outsourcing physical education: A critical discussion ...................................................... 2

Editorial Assistant: Natalie S. Wilcock, Frankfurt, Germany

Research Article

Issue 4/2015 – Contributors’ Addresses:

Measuring verbal aggressiveness in sport and education ..................................................... 12

Dr Richard Bailey International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) Hanns-Braun-Straße, Friesenhaus II, 14053 Berlin, Germany Tel.: +49 30 311 023210 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Annika Steinmann Germany Sport University Cologne, Institute of Pedagogy and Philosophy Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Köln, Germany Tel.: +49 4982-3650 E-mail: [email protected] Assist-Prof. Dr Alexandra Bekiari University of Thessaly, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science Karyes, 42100, Trikala, Greece Tel.: +30 24310 47040 E-mail: Email: [email protected]

A. Bekiari, & N. Digelidis

Sport International S. Körner, A. Steinmann, & T. Symanzik Status quo - Safeguarding youth in German sport .............................................................. 22 IJPE Digest ................................................................ 34 News of International Organisations • ICSSPE (International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education) .................. 36

• AIESEP (Association Internationale des Ecoles Supérieures d‘Education Physique) ............ 37 • •

ECSS (European College of Sport Science) .......... 38

EUPEA (European Physical Education Association) ........................................... 39 Published by Meyer & Meyer Sport Von-Coels-Straße 390, 52080 Aachen Tel.: +49 (0)241 95810-0 Fax: +49 (0)241 95810-10 E-mail: [email protected] Web: http://www.m-m-sports.com Member of the World Sport Publishers’ Association (WSPA) ISSN: 0341-8685

• FIEP (Fédération International d’Education Physique) ........................................... 40 • ISCPES (International Society for Comparative Physical Education and Sport) .......... 41

IJPE Table of Contents 2015 ���������������������������������� 42 IJPE Guidelines for Contributors 2016 ����������������� 43 Upcoming Events ����������������������������������������������������� 44

Editorial Issue 4/2015 of the International Journal of Physical Education (IJPE) deals with the topic conceptual and empirical sports pedagogy. This issue contains one review article ‘Outsourcing physical education: A critical discussion’ by the British research group consisting of Dr Ed Cope and Daniel Parnel, led by Dr Richard Bailey (Germany/United Kingdom), discussing concerns that have been raised as a consequence of shifting patterns of policy and practice in Primary physical education (PE) provision. A research article ‘Measuring verbal aggressiveness in sport and education’ is provided by the Greek researchers Assist.-Prof. Dr Alexandra Bekiari and Assoc. Prof. Dr Nikolaos Digelidis describing the development of a scale for the assessment of verbal aggressiveness in physical education, sport and education contexts. IJPE issue 4/2015 also contains a sport international article on ‘Status quo – Safeguarding youth in German sport’ by the German research group of Prof. Dr Swen Körner giving a good overview of the structure of elite sport in Germany as well as describing existing laws regulating child protection in general and in (elite) sport. In addition to the IJPE Digest this issue also contains news of the six associations: ICSSPE, AIESEP, ECSS, EUPEA, FIEP and ISCPES. The Upcoming Events section provides an outlook on scientific conferences until winter 2016. IJPE 4/2015 is again available either as print or online version. Access data for the online version: NKm37eRa5 (mmurl.de/ijpe0415, user: ijpe). The IJPE editors wish all IJPE subscribers and readers a recreative end of the year as well as a good start in the new academic year.

IJPE REVIEW TOPICS AND DATES TOPIC Instructional Theory of Sport Health Foundations Sports Curriculum Theory Historical and Philosophical Foundations Physical Education Teachers and Coach Education Psychological and Sociological Foundations Comparative Sports Pedagogy Conceptual and Empirical Sports Pedagogy

ISSUE 1/2014 1/2016 2/2014 2/2016 3/2014 3/2016 4/2014 4/2016 1/2015 1/2017 2/2015 2/2017 3/2015 3/2017 4/2015 4/2017 1

Review Articles Outsourcing physical education: A critical discussion Ed Cope1, Richard Bailey2, & Daniel Parnel3 2 Berlin/Germany, 3Manchester/United Kingdom) 1 2 3 4

(1Hull/United

Kingdom,

Introduction Physical activity during childhood Outsourcing primary PE Conclusion

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the concerns that have been raised as a consequence of the shifting patterns of policy and practice in Primary physical education (PE) provision. The landscape of Primary school PE has, and continues to experience change both in England and internationally. The employment of external providers, notably sports coaches, has become the dominant discourse within Primary PE. This has been met with some level of apprehension from the PE academic community, who have expressed concern that coaches are not suitably qualified to deliver Primary PE, nor do they have the required knowledge, skills and understanding of the National Curriculum. However, some evidence would suggest there are positive benefits of having coaches delivering Primary PE. Either way, the evidence base appears fragmented and limited, or worse still, non-existent. What this paper attempts to do is provide a reasoned argument for is currently known, as well as offer recommendations for future research in this area. Keywords: Primary, physical education, outsourcing, coaches 1 Introduction Compulsory education is in the midst of rapid change. Centralising pressures from international bodies, calling for universal standards and expectations, have coincided with radical rethinking of the relationships between states, non-governmental agencies and the private sector in many areas of public service, traditionally assumed to be the domain of the state (Ball & Junemann, 2012). This is the case in PE and school sport, as well as other areas of the school curriculum (McLennan and Thompson, 2015; Hardman, 2011). Indeed, the force of these changes could be most intensified in PE and sport, as their educational role has been increasingly paralleled by a public health dimension in which they have been identified as key elements within physical activity’s response to wide-scale sedentariness and the associated rise in noncommunicable diseases (Heath, et al., 2012; Kahlmeier, et al., 2015). In this context, there is renewed debate about the sorts of PE and sport provision, and the kinds of institutional settings necessary to meet these challenging demands. A key factor in ensuring the delivery of this provision meets the demands of learners have been schools teachers (Rowe, 2007). However, the landscape of Primary PE has changed. The purpose of this paper is to address some concerns that have been raised as a 2

consequence of the shifting in Primary PE provision. 2 Physical activity during childhood Numerous agencies (e.g., European Union, 2014; World Health Organisation (WHO), 2009) and researchers (e.g., Prentice-Dunn & Prentice-Dunn, 2011; Wilks, Besson, Lindroos & Ekelund, 2010) have expressed concerns at the levels of physical activity during childhood. There is a trend towards sedentary lifestyles across both developed and developing countries (Kohl et al., 2012). This is cause for concern as active lifestyles have been associated with a wide range of health, psychosocial and educational outcomes (Bailey, Hillman, Arent, & Petitpas, 2012; Bailey, Hillman, Arent, & Petitpas, 2013). The relationship between physical activity and physical health is now established beyond doubt, and there are serious costs – both individual and societal – of inactivity (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008; WHO, 2010). Less well-known are the potential non-physical benefits of activity, such as self-esteem (Bowker, Gadbois, & Cornock, 2003), pro-social behaviours (Hartmann & Massoglia, 2007), and academic performance (Singh, Uijtdewilligen, Twisk, van Mechelen, & Chinapaw, 2012). Evidence suggests that regular physical activity can contribute to healthy human development and functioning throughout the lifespan (Malina, et al., 2004). However, there is a growing consensus that childhood is of particular importance, both for the benefits it can deliver at that stage and in later life (Malina, et al., 2004). The Primary / Elementary phase of schooling coincides with this foundational stage, which has led some to describe it as a critical period for development (Nike, International Council for Sport Science and Physical Education and American College of Sports Medicine, 2012). Children begin to learn basic movement skills, known as fundamental motor skills (FMS), during early childhood (Haywood & Getchell, 2005). These skills form the foundation for future movement and physical activity (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002). In essence, these FMS are the equivalent of the vocabulary of physical activity. Clark and Metcalfe (2002) state, “the overall goal of this period is to build a sufficiently diverse motor repertoire that will allow for later learning of adaptive, skilled actions that can be flexibly tailored to different and specific movement contexts” (p. 176). Adults, given responsibility to develop these skills are crucial in facilitating this process, and depending on their actions and behaviours can serve to be either a positive or negative influence on development. This is important to consider because if children cannot proficiently move in a variety of fundamental ways, they will have restricted opportunities for engagement in physical activities later in their lives because they will not have the prerequisite skills to be active. Primary schools hold a unique role as a context for children’s physical activity. They work with a captive audience for a significant part of children’s waking hours, during a period when they are most receptive for health messages, attitudinal, and behaviour change (Lu & Montague, 2015). For many children, Primary school is the main setting for being physically active and developing active lifestyles, whether through PE lessons or after-school activities (Buchan et al., 2011; Telama, 2009). This is due to a combination of economic pressures and parental concerns for safety, which means that fewer children are able to play games in non-school settings, such as at local parks, or cycling and walking to and from school (Carver, Timperio, & Crawford, 2008; Weir, Etelson, & Brand, 2006). Most curricula around the world aim to promote regular physical activity (Bailey & Dismore, 2005). A factor that determines whether any form of physical activity, including PE, has a positive impact on children’s experiences and physical activity levels are the quality of sessions (Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & Deakin, 2005; Horn, 2008). 3

Primary school teachers in many countries are not specially trained in PE. Instead, they are generalists, who have a university-level teaching degree, but receive no specialist training in PE (Whipp, Hutton, Grove, & Jackson, 2011), and therefore most have limited expertise in this subject. The PE training these teachers do receive has been claimed as being insufficient and inadequate in preparing them to deliver PE well (Sloan, 2010). A 2013 OFSTED report in England supported these claims stating that improvements in PE were required in a third of Primary schools, with only 4% of lessons determined as ‘outstanding’ based on OFSTED criteria (OFSTED, 2013). What teachers teach and how they teach will influence children’s learning (Rowe, 2007). It is therefore important to consider how capable Primary school teachers are in their delivery of PE. There has been the emergence of an alternative model of provision of PE, building on the progressive encroachment of private business into state schooling and other domains traditionally associated with solely state provision. This alternative model has arisen from widely voiced concerns about the capability of many Primary teachers to deliver PE lessons of a sufficient high quality to realise its ambitions of positively contributing toward children’s development, and positively influencing physical activity habits. This approach has been witnessed and discussed in a number of countries, including Australia, Hong Kong, New Zealand and the United Kingdom (UK) (Williams, et al., 2011; Ng, 2015; Davis, 2006; Macdonald, et al., 2008). Our focus in this article is England1. 3 Outsourcing primary PE In 2012, the UK government announced the Primary PE and Sport Funding for English schools. This was £450 (636€) million of dedicated money (on average, this equated to about £9,250 per school; 13,188€) for Primary school head teachers to use to assist in improving the quality of PE and sport activities offered to children from 2013-2016. The objectives for this funding were to: contribute to teacher professional development; increase the level of competitive sport for children; and educate teachers and children to recognise the value and benefits of high quality PE and how it can be used for whole school improvement. Governmental, non-governmental, and professional organisations provided guidance about the ways the funding might be spent, which included but was not limited to: hiring Primary PE specialists; providing existing staff with continuous professional development (CPD) opportunities; running sport competitions; and buying equipment or paying for specialist facilities. Ultimately, however, the decision rested with the head teacher. In most instances, head teachers spent the PE and Sport Premium money on hiring sport coaches (Department for Education (DfE), 2014). Given the financial restraints placed upon schools, it could be argued that for some, getting value for money was an important consideration, with it often being that sport coaches are cheaper to employ than PE specialists. In fact, a survey conducted by the DfE (2014) reported that 67% of schools had used the sports premium funding to pay for the services of sports coaches. Moreover, since the investment of this money, there had been a 45% increase in the number of sports coaches working in English schools (DfE, 2014). Who head teachers employed was not a straightforward or simple process given the plethora of providers potentially available to them (Petrie, Penney, & Fellows, 2014), which included non-for profit and commercial organizations that offered a range of services in a variety of sports, which invariably differed in quality. This led to claims that the decision of who to employ was complex and often confusing (Jones and Green, 2015), a difficulty made worse by the fact that few head teachers had specialist 1

It is important to distinguish between the four countries that make up the UK, as each has its own educational system.

4

training in PE, themselves. This lack of subject knowledge and the inherent complexity of the situation confronting head teachers was problematic, of course, as it was difficult to identify the reference points on which they were making decisions. This raised serious questions about the types of judgements being made. Were potential external providers assessed in terms of their adherence to the statutory National Curriculum requirements? Or rather was cost, convenience, or their own personal views of the subject what informed their decision? Changing funding opportunities, along with the growth of a large supply of external providers has radically changed the pattern of delivery of PE in England. Indeed, commentators have described "an increasing commercialisation, commodification and marketisation of educational services and a proliferation of extra-educational interest groups seeking a stake in the development and delivery of these services” (Williams, Hay, & Macdonald, 2011, p. 403), and expressed concern as to the effects this has on the progressive undermining of the PE profession (Tinning, 1992). There was a clear expectation from central Government that the funding should be used to support and enrich existing PE teaching. However, there is evidence from internal evaluations that some schools have resisted bringing external providers into their schools, while others have taken the opportunity to outsource their entire PE and sports programme, with it likely being the case that teachers are not using this as a professional development opportunity (Jones & Green, 2015). So a mixed economy has emerged, with considerable variation across England and some other countries (DFE, 2014; Petrie et al., 2014). Not surprisingly, the influx of sports coaches delivering PE was met with further scepticism. Griggs (2010) expressed concerns about coaches who deliver PE, as he believed that coaches who do not have an educational background do not understand the key tenets of planning and assessment. However, as in the case of some other critics, these criticisms have not been based on evidence. In addition, it has been claimed that the National Governing Body (NGB) qualifications that coaches are required to complete do not appropriately prepare them to deliver the entirety of PE (Blair & Capel, 2011; Parnell, Stratton, Drust, & Richardson, 2013). In some cases, coaches themselves have acknowledged how little they knew about curriculum requirement (Blair & Capel, 2011). Furthermore, Rainer, Cropley, Jarvis & Griffiths (2012) found head teachers to be dissatisfied with coaches they had employed as they were ‘inexperienced’, ‘inconsistent in their delivery’, and only interested in ‘selfpromotion’. Concerns have also been raised regarding the quality of PE coaches have offered, as well as their ability to link PE to other areas of the school curriculum (Ng, 2015). However, these findings are not consistent with findings from all studies conducted in this area. There has been some research that reported coaches having a positive influence in Primary PE environments. A study with teachers in Hong Kong (Ng, 2015) found that they perceived the employment of coaches to reduce their workloads, enhanced their expertise, and better catered for students’ needs. Other evidence suggests it can be beneficial for teachers’ professional development to observe coaches delivering PE (Harris, Cale, & Musson, 2012). Whipp et al.’s (2011) experimental study showed that teachers who received an externally provided physical activity programme, which required them to work alongside and observe PE taught by a PE specialist, considered themselves to have had improved their skills, knowledge and confidence of teaching PE. Generally, though, critical voices have been sounded without the benefit of a strong, or indeed any, empirical basis. Where data have been collected, the research has tended to be limited and fragmented, often because the topic of outsourcing has not been the primary focus of the research (Williams et al. 2011). 5

One of the most frequently mentioned concerns has been the fact that sports coaches have been given responsibility to deliver Primary PE despite not having a recognised formal teaching qualification. Of course, the force of this argument is dependent on the suitability of coaching qualifications in different countries, but it does seem to be the case that typical qualifications tend to have an over-riding focus on developing coaches’ content knowledge (Cushion, Armour & Jones, 2003; Nelson & Cushion, 2006). These qualifications are also typically short in duration, which has raised questions regarding the extent to which they impact on learning (Armour & Yelling, 2004). Sports coaches generally have a different suite of pedagogical skills from teachers, work with a wider range of participants from children to older adults, who usually have different motivations for engagement, and often focus on one specific sport. So it seems reasonable to assume that most coaches will not have the necessary knowledge, skills and understanding necessary to deliver a statutory school subject, or indeed knowledge of child development. In light of the evidence suggesting Primary school teachers lack enthusiasm, confidence, competence, training and expertise to deliver Primary PE (DeCorby, Halas, Dixon, Wintrup & Janzen, 2005; Hardman & Marshall, 2001; Morgan & Bourke, 2005; Morgan & Hansen, 2008) this situation raises an interesting question for educational leaders: it is better that children are introduced to formal physical activities by an otherwise highly qualified educator, who may have no interest in delivering that subject, or by a coach who has sportspecific knowledge, but a limited understanding of the wider educational terrain? There seems little doubt that motivation plays a role in complicating this situation, too. Evidence suggests that motivation and personal interest direct and sustain learning (Perkins, 2010), and that effective learning is somewhat inseparable from emotional engagement (Bailey & Pickard, 2010). The other limitations of sports coaching notwithstanding, it may be that coaches are still generally better placed to present positive and inspiring messages about physical activity and sport than that portion of generalist practitioners, who in some cases would rather not be there at all. Indeed, the relative youth and enthusiasm of coaches suggests that they might be wellplaced to act a role-models for encouraging active lifestyles for some children (MacCallum & Beltman, 2002). Few would deny the potential problems that could result from wide-scale replacement of Primary school teachers by sports coaches in PE, but it could equally be argued that the current situation of generalist teachers covering a subject that many do not feel able to do adequately is equally as problematic. In other words, the criticism directed at coaches’ lack of pedagogical knowledge could just as fairly be directed toward the generalist teachers. Delivering quality PE requires different pedagogical knowledge and skills to delivering within a classroom-based environment. For example, the way the lesson is structured is obviously different, as are lesson progressions and assessment. What is needed is pedagogical content knowledge (Cassidy, Jones & Potrac, 2009), which is knowledge of how to deliver, but also what to deliver. None of these points are with the purpose of condemning the practices of generalist teachers. On the contrary, it is necessary to acknowledge their broad base of knowledge and skills required to teach the whole curriculum and the pressures associated with this. It also does not follow that, as a matter of policy, sports coaches ought to replace generalist teachers in the delivery of PE lessons. Despite the evident difficulties experienced by Primary school teachers, there are those who do feel confident and competent to teach PE (30%, according to Unilever’s survey), and some are genuine specialists, with highly developed and practised skills. Generalist teachers are also able to make cross-curricula links and are aware of children’s progress in other areas of the curriculum, something coaches have been claimed to not do very 6

well (Ng, 2015). It would appear that the shortfalls in coaches’ knowledge could be filled by the knowledge and understanding generalist teachers’ hold, and vice versa. Considering this, a possible, strategy would appear to be that teachers and coaches complement each other’s practices. This story has taken an interesting turn in recent years. Recent changes to international standards in coach education, that have placed a much greater focus on the pedagogical elements of practice had already began to address some of the stated concerns about coaches’ narrow range of skills. In addition, the changes by the English government to funding patterns have led to the development of an additional qualification, designed by the Association for Physical Education, a professional body for teachers. The organisation offered an Advanced level Certificate in ‘Supporting the Delivery of Physical Education and School Sport’, which has been widely accepted as a minimum requirement for those external providers intending to teach PE. The aim as this qualification has been to provide sport coaches with a greater understanding of programmes of study for statutory national curriculum for PE, as well as the wider educational environment in which they will be operating. While this qualification is not equivalent of a teaching qualification, it is a step toward providing coaches with a firmer educational foundation of knowledge, skills and understanding to equip them in their delivery of quality PE. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this has been achieved. Primary school PE presents perennial problems for schools. It is a / the critical phase in the development of children’s sporting and physical activity behaviours, yet it is also the only period of formal schooling when children are not usually taught by specialist teachers. This will require new thinking about the relationship between teachers and coaches, and, perhaps, new ways of thinking about their professional education. Ng (2015) claimed that many of the disadvantages associated with coaches delivering PE could be overcome if a relationship was built where teachers and coaches respected and trusted each other. Indeed, the significance of trust has been evidenced as a positive factor in promoting school effectiveness (Hoy & Sabo, 1998; Bryk & Schneider, 2002), as well as playing a key element in supporting peers in the sharing of good practice and learning between professionals (Hargreaves, 2003; Cosner, 2009) and organisations (Hudson, Hardy, Henwood, & Wistow, 1999). 4 Conclusion The purpose of this paper was to address some concerns that have been raised as a consequence of the shifting in Primary PE provision. The employment of sport coaches to deliver Primary PE has become common place both in England and further a field. This has resulted in some academics raising concerns over sports coaches being given responsibility to teach a statutory curriculum subject. While these concerns are acknowledged, it must be made clear that some of these have been based on limited or no empirical evidence, and therefore caution should be taken. Equally, the evidence that supports the use of coaches to deliver Primary PE is also fragmented and not altogether clear. What evidence that does exist suggests that a potentially effective strategy would be a closer working relationship between Primary teachers and coaches, as this may make up for the shortfalls in knowledge and skills of both groups. However, this claim needs exploring further. This area of study is in it’s infancy, with further evidence required before any substantive claims can be made regarding the delivery of Primary PE. Considering current evidence, we suggest these areas are in particular need of investigation. - Research has tended to view all coaches as the same, yet the coaching workforce is varied. Some coaches who deliver Primary PE will have a wealth of experience 7

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working with children, while others may have a suite of educational qualifications. Research is needed that better identifies, which types of coaches are best placed to deliver Primary PE. There is a lack of observational study that investigates the actual practices of coaches and teachers delivering Primary PE. So, while work has been conducted that has explored perceptions of delivery, this is by no means a reflection of what is actually happening. Whipp et al. (2011) accepted a limitation of their study was the lack of follow up observation to see whether change had actually occurred in generalist teachers’ practice. There is a limited awareness of how children receive the delivery of Primary PE (Whipp et al., 2011). We suggest the need for research that explores children’s perceptions of Primary PE when delivered by external providers and generalist teachers.

This is by no means an exhaustive list, but rather recommendations, some of which have emerged from existing literature that would advance the fields understanding. This is a necessary requirement to inform decisions made regarding the delivery of Primary PE. References

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Research Articles Measuring verbal aggressiveness in sport and education A. Bekiari, & N. Digelidis (Thessaly/Greece) 1 2 3 4 5

Introduction Assessment of verbal aggressiveness Study I 3.1 Method and procedures 3.2 Results Study II 4.1 Method and procedures 4.2 Results Discussion

Abstract The present study describes the development of a scale for the assessment of verbal aggressiveness in physical education. Two studies were conducted. In the first study, a previously developed seven-item scale, designed to assess verbal aggressiveness in sport contexts, was tested through confirmatory factor analysis. The results supported the existence of a single dimension. Nevertheless, it was revealed that modifications were needed for the scale to reach acceptable fit levels, and become appropriate for the physical education domain. In the second study, a revised eight-item scale was tested on a new sample. The results provided preliminary support for the psychometric integrity of the scale. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed adequate fit indices, whereas Cronbach’s alpha indicated high internal consistency for the scale. The modified instrument is easy to adapt so that it can assess verbal aggressiveness in a variety of different contexts (e.g. physical education, sport, education). Keywords: verbal aggressiveness, communication, sport, physical education 1 Introduction Verbal aggressiveness is defined as an attack on an individual’s self-concept instead of, or in addition to, inflicting emotional pain to a person through a communicational process (Infante & Wigley, 1986). A message can be considered as verbally aggressive if it attacks the self-concept of the target person, while the possible emotional pain can be considered a side-effect. The way and the reason of such an aggressive communication has been extensively explored in the field of education. Infante and Wigley (1986) described several common types of verbally aggressive messages which include: character attacks, competence attacks, background attacks, attacks on physical appearance, maledictions, teasing, ridicule, profanity, threats and nonverbal emblems. Kinney (1994) suggests there are three broad domains of self-concept attack: group membership, personal failings and relational failings. Infante, Riddle, Horvath and Tumlin (1992) found that people who are high in trait verbal aggression differ 12

significantly from those low in trait verbal aggression in terms of their use of these messages, but also that high verbal aggression individuals are less sensitive to the hurt caused by such messages. In a related study, Martin, Anderson and Horvath (1996) found that people do not feel greater hurt from verbally aggressive messages based on the closeness of the relationship. Whether the source is a friend or an acquaintance does not appear to make a difference. Infante, Hartley, Martin, Higgins and Hur (1992) further examined the reasons for using verbal aggression. They proposed twelve reasons for the use of verbal aggression which include: (i) reciprocity (reacting to verbally aggressive messages), (ii) disdain for the target (general distaste for the other), (iii) being angry (emotionally charged), (iv) unable to argue (unable to win the argument rationally, thus resorting to personal attacks), (v) discussion degenerates (conversation becomes a verbal fight), (vi) being taught to use verbal aggression (by parents, coaches, teachers, or peers), (vii) the situation reminds them of some past hurt (lashing out because of internal emotional distress), (viii) being in a bad mood (some situational variable caused the person to resort to verbal aggression), (ix) trying to be humorous (the verbally aggressive message is not intended to be malicious in nature), (x) imitating a TV character (the person was exposed to verbally aggressive messages in the media and is modelling them), (xi) trying to appear tough (the person wants to look like someone who doesn’t take anything from anyone), and (xii) wanting to be mean (the verbally aggressive message is intentional and malicious in nature). In another study, Infante, Martin and Bruning (1994) identified six justifications for the use of verbal aggression similar to those previously mentioned. The six types of justifications found in this study include: (i) reprimanding, (ii) manipulative, (iii) arguing, (iv) teasing, (v) self-defence, and (vi) anger. One interesting aspect regarding whether people believe that verbally aggressive messages are justified has to do with the trait verbal aggressiveness of the individual evaluating the verbally aggressive message. Martin, Anderson and Horvath (1996) found that when people were the source of a verbally aggressive message they were more likely to believe that the message was justified in comparison to when they were the receiver of the verbally aggressive message. Martin and his colleagues also explored whether trait verbal aggressiveness moderated the perception of hurt felt by the receiver of a verbally aggressive message. The assumption being that a person who is high in verbal aggressiveness will be less likely to feel hurt from such messages, and may not even be aware that the messages they are sending are hurtful to the receiver. While intuitively it is appealing to believe that someone who is high in verbal aggression would feel less hurt than someone who is low in verbal aggression, Martin, Anderson and Horvath (1996) found no evidence to support this claim. One justification for the use of verbal aggression that is implied by Infante, Martin and Bruning (1994) and Infante, Riddle, Horvath and Tumlin (1992) is the instrumental use of verbally aggressive messages to achieve a specific goal or outcome. In the case of wanting to be mean, the source of a verbally aggressive message has the clear objective of causing a negative emotional or psychological experience in the receiver. When a person uses verbally aggressive messages in order to appear tough, he/she is attempting to alter the receiver’s perception. It seems apparent that in some cases verbal aggression is used as a tool to achieve some other outcome. Studies in educational context revealed that verbal aggression act as a demotivating factor (Gorham & Christophel, 1992) that has a negative impact on the social attraction or liking of the person who exhibits aggressive behaviour (Martin, Heizel, & Valencic, 1999; Rocca & McCroskey, 1999; Syrmbas & Bekiari, 2014). 13

Furthermore, the study by Myers and Knox (2000) revealed that instructor’s verbal aggression influences negatively the instructor-student relation as well as the emotional learning and satisfaction of the student. Teachers’ communication with their students is likely to influence the learning process, students’ thinking, motivation, and behaviour (Richmond & Gorham, 1996). Similarly, Rocca (2004) suggested that teachers’ verbal aggressiveness related negatively with students’ participation and attendance in the learning process. Students’ state motivation negatively related to seven forms of aggressive messages which are perceived to be used by the sender-person (these may include: (i) attacking comments on competence, (ii) on character, (iii) on background, (iv) expression of malediction, (v) of ridicule, (vi) of threats, as well as (vii) non-verbal symbols) (Myers & Rocca, 2000). Moreover, it has been supported that verbal aggressiveness is negatively correlated with the classroom climate as well as the motivation state, as these are perceived by students (Myers & Rocca, 2001). The verbal aggressiveness of instructors also appears to be negatively correlated with students’ affect toward the instructors, the content of the course, as well as toward the recommended behavioural patterns within the classroom (Bekiari, 2012; Myers & Knox, 1999; Wrench & Richmond, 2004). The verbal aggressiveness of advisors in the academic sector seems to impact advisee affect and the credibility of the advisors (Wrench & Punyanunt-Carter, 2005). A negative correlation has also been revealed between the verbal aggressiveness of instructors (as perceived by the students) and the students understanding, credibility ascribed by them to the instructors, and general evaluations (Bekiari & Hasanagas, 2015; Hasanagas & Bekiari, 2015; Edwards & Myers, 2007; Schrodt, 2003). A negative relation between the students' wish to participate or motivation to communicate with the teacher is implied by another study which was conducted by Myers, Edwards, Wahl, and Martin (2007). Richmond, McCroskey, Kearney, and Plax (1987) found that anti-social tactics such as punishment from teacher and guilt, were negatively related to learning, whereas pro-social techniques such as deferred reward, reward from others, self-esteem, responsibility to class, normative rules, peer modelling, teacher modelling, expert teacher, and teacher feedback were positively related to learning. Almost by definition, the use of verbal aggression is an anti-social tactic. Myers (2003) identified six categories of instructor behaviours (misbehaviours, non-immediacy, attacks on student competence, criticism of studentship behaviours, attacks on student personal attributes and discouragement of student participation) that constitute perceived instructor verbal aggressiveness. Relatively few studies have provided information about teachers’ verbal aggression in physical education context. According to Bekiari, Kokaridas and Sakellariou (2005) students who perceive their physical education teachers as verbally aggressive report greater learning loss in physical education context. Also, Bekiari (2012) reported teachers’ perceived verbal aggressiveness negatively related with students’ affect toward the course, course-related behaviour and the instructor, and students’ satisfaction in physical education lesson. In the same context, findings of another study revealed that the teachers’ verbal aggression enhances anti-social reactions restricting pro-social behavioural patterns of fair play (Hassandra, Bekiari, & Sakellariou, 2007). Finally, Bekiari, Kokaridas, and Sakellariou (2006) supported that instructors’ verbal aggression impacts the satisfaction feeling of the students or the effectiveness of certain motivation factors on them, such as effort/importance, enjoyment/interest and competence. Furthermore, a negative relationship has been observed between verbal aggressiveness of instructors and the effectiveness of caring and intrinsic reasons as factors of discipline. 14

In a sports context, verbal aggressiveness still remains a scarcely examined subject. Studies mainly focus on the relationship between aggressiveness of athletes and the sport type (contact or non-contact). For example, Lemieux, McKelvie and Stout (2002) in their study examined the relationship between off-field hostile aggression and athletic participation. Larger participants present a higher level of fighting and hostile aggression than smaller participants while non-athletes and athletes did not differ. Also, Huang and Cherek (1999) found that individuals who participated in high contact sports (e.g. rugby) emitted significantly more aggressive responses than individuals who participated in low contact sports (e.g. basketball). Bredemeier, Weiss and Shields (1986) revealed that boys' participation and interest in high contact sports and girls' participation in medium contact sports were positively correlated with less mature moral reasoning and greater tendencies to aggress. The study of Harrell (1981) examined verbal aggressiveness in spectators at professional hockey games and revealed that spectators who were tolerant of violence in hockey showed significantly higher levels of irritability on the Buss-Durkee Hostility-Guilt Inventory than did spectators who were intolerant of violence. Spectators tolerant of violence were also angrier over the prospect of their favourite team losing. Also, Bekiari, Digelidis and Sakellariou (2006) supported that athletes participating in non-contact sports consider their coaches to be less verbally aggressive in comparison with athletes of highcontact sports. In another study it has been revealed that the male volleyball players scored higher on somatic anxiety feeling and appeared to be more affected by their coaches’ verbal aggressiveness than the female players (Bekiari, Patsiaouras, Kokaridas, & Sakellariou, 2006). Moreover, it has been found (Bekiari, 2014) that verbal aggressiveness is negatively related to the democratic style of the coach as well as to the ability, the effort and enjoyment of the athletes. In another study, Bekiari, Perkos and Gerodimos (2015) found that there is significant relationship between coaches’ verbal aggressiveness and athletes’ intrinsic motivation and the four forms of external motivation. Additionally, Bekiari and Syrmbas (2015) revealed that performance climate and coaches’ verbal aggressiveness have proved to be negative predictors of athletes’ satisfaction. Furthermore, female athletes presented higher levels of perceived verbal aggressiveness and performance climate than the male athletes. Finally, athletes of non-contact sports perceived as more verbally aggressive their coaches and more performance oriented the training climate compare to athletes of contact sports. Although, in most cases the verbal aggression used frequently leads to negative results in sports it is acceptable (Kish & Woodard, 2005; Reynolds & Allen, 2003). In addition Reynolds and Allen (2003) found that coaches’ verbal aggression it is likely to increase basketball players’ extrinsic motivation. 2 Assessment of verbal aggressiveness For the assessment of perceived verbal aggressiveness Infante and Wigley (1986) developed the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale. The scale contains 20 items scored on a five-point linear rating format. Techniques for measuring socially undesirable behaviour employed by Buss and Durkee (1957) in their Hostility-Guilt Inventory were utilized; for example, assume the existence of the behaviour and ask where, when, and so on, it is elicited. Reliabilities reported for the scale typically are in the low to mid .80s (Infante &Wigley, 1986). The Verbal Aggressiveness Scale also appears to be stable across time. Infante and Wigley (1986) reported test-retest reliability of .82 for a four-week period. Factor analysis of the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (Infante &Wigley, 1986) revealed two factors. However, the authors argued that the construct is one-dimensional, and attributed the results of the factor analysis to the positive and negative wording of the 15

items. All of the positively worded items loaded on one factor and all of the negatively worded items loaded on the other factor. The 20-item Verbal Aggressiveness Scale developed initially by Infante and Wigley (1986) has been adjusted for the Greek population and showed that it needs further improvement (Bekiari, Digelidis, & Sakellariou, 2006; Bekiari, Kokaridas, & Sakellariou, 2006; Hassandra, Bekiari, & Sakellariou, 2007). Therefore, the main aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable scale in order to assess verbal aggressiveness in physical education settings first. 3 Study I 3.1 Method and procedures Participants. One hundred and five junior high school students (54 boys, 51 girls), aged 13-15 years old (Μ = 14.67±.47) participated in the study. Instruments. A version with seven items was developed based on the theoretical framework of Infante and Wigley (1986). The questionnaire was administered to the students in their classroom, in the absence of their physical education teacher. Students were asked to indicate their perceptions regarding the physical education teacher’s verbal aggressive behaviour. Participants responded to the scale, stemmed by the phrase “In PE lessons, the teacher generally…” on a five-point Likert scale (I totally agree = 5, I agree = 4, so and so = 3, I disagree = 2, I totally disagree = 1). 3.2 Results Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted in order to examine the factorial validity of the scale. In addition to the chi square, five fit indices were used to assess the adequacy of the model, namely, the Non-Normed Fit Index, the Comparative Fit Index, the Incremental Fit Index, the Standardized Root Mean-Square Residual, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation. The results of the analysis are presented in table 1, whereas factor loadings and measurement errors are presented in table 2. In general, factor loadings were high and measurement errors were low; however the fit indices were below the contemporary criteria for fit assessment suggested by Hu and Bentler (1997). Examination of residual covariance matrix revealed that there were relatively high covariances for some of the items, and that the model could be further improved with minor modifications. More specifically, there were covariance problems for the following items: (i) threats students (ii) tries to decrease students’ self-image and (iii) attacks students' character and (iv) makes negative judgments on students’ ability. For this reason, these four items were modified. Table 1 Goodness of fit indices for the seven-item Verbal Aggressiveness Scale χ2 / df Non-Normed Fit Index Comparative Fit Index Incremental Fit Index Standardised Root Mean-Square Residual Root Mean Square Error of Approximation

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82.70 / 14 .88 .92 .92 .04 .23

Table 2 Factor loadings after confirmatory factor analysis for the seven-item Verbal Aggressiveness Scale In this PE class, the teacher generally… … makes negative judgments on students’ intelligence … insults students … makes negative judgments on students’ ability … tries to decrease students’ self-image … uses irony while talking to students … attacks students' character … threats students

Loadings .84 .95 .91 .93 .91 .86 .84

Measurement errors .55 .32 .42 .37 .42 .50 .54

4 Study II 4.1 Method and procedures Participants. Three hundred junior high school students, aged 13-15 years (Μ = 14.36±.49), from two high schools participated in the second study (153 boys, 147 girls). Instrument. Taking into consideration the results of the first study the following decisions were made: (i) three items remained the same, (ii) four items were modified and (iii) one item was added in order to proceed in the second study. All these modifications were kept in the frame of verbal aggressiveness as stated by Infante and Wigley (1986). The first item was modified as “makes students feel bad”, the second as “lessens students” the third as “befools students” and the fourth as “PE teacher is rude”. The modified scale in the second study consisted of eight items. 4.2 Results The modified eight-item Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS) was examined through confirmatory factor analysis. The results of the analysis are presented in table 3, whereas factor loadings and measurement errors are presented in table 4. The analysis revealed that the model adequately represented the data. All fit indices, with the exception of RMSEA, were above the stringent contemporary criteria for fit indices. Furthermore all items had loadings above .89 and measurement errors below .45, which were very satisfactory. Examination of the internal consistency of the scale supported the reliability of the scale (Cronbach’s α = .97). Overall, the results of the second study provided preliminary support regarding the psychometric integrity of the scale.

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Table 3 Goodness of fit indices for the VAS χ2 / df

122.14 / 20

Non-Normed Fit Index Comparative Fit Index Incremental Fit Index Standardised Root Mean-Square Residual Root Mean Square Error of Approximation

.96 .97 .97 .02 .13

Table 4 Factor loadings after confirmatory factor analysis for the VAS In this PE class, the teacher generally… … insults students … makes negative judgments on students’ ability … uses irony while talking to students … is rude … lessens students … makes students feel bad … befools students … makes negative judgments on students’ intelligence

Loadings .91 .90 .93 .93 .92 .89 .92 .92

Measurement errors .41 .44 .38 .37 .39 .45 .38 .40

5 Discussion The main aim of this study was the development of a reliable but short scale in order to measure Verbal Aggressiveness Scale in physical education settings. The results supported scale’s psychometric properties, especially in the second study. At first, the development of this scale was based upon the theoretical framework of the work by Infante and Wigley (1986). However, Infante and Wigley (1986) set the theoretical basis for verbal aggressiveness and developed a 20-item scale for use with university students that followed communication courses, and not for school settings. The results from the first study implied that the seven-item scale had to be modified. Four items were modified and one was added and so that the VAS had eight items which proved to be a reliable scale. The VAS during the second study had good indices and high internal consistency. This scale has another advantage in relation with the adaptability of it. By modifying the general theme “In this PE class, the teacher generally…” it can be adapted and examined for any kind of situation or context (e.g. in educational or sport or even work settings). The adaptability of this scale in different settings (e.g. sport, education etc.) is obvious. Nevertheless, further validation studies need to be conducted for supporting scale’s psychometric properties under different situations (contexts or settings). For instance, this scale could be used for measuring verbal aggressiveness in family, in education, at business organizations or work. Furthermore, verbal aggressiveness could be examined in relation to various communication aspects. 18

References

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Sport International Status quo - Safeguarding youth in German sport S. Körner, A. Steinmann, & T. Symanzik (Cologne/Germany) 1 2 3 4

The structure of Elite sport in Germany Existing laws regulating child protection in general and in (elite) sport Existing bodies, policies and regulations to safeguarding youth athletes in (elite) sport Best practice models 4.1 Doping prevention among juveniles. An evaluated concept for primary prevention at secondary schools in Cologne (Germany) 4.1.1 Introduction 4.1.2 Content 4.1.3 What makes this practice good? 4.2 Action Program Gene Technology In Competitive Sport (AGICS) – improvement of young athletes’ competence in decision making 4.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Content 4.2.3 What makes this practice good?

Abstract The paper describes the status quo of safeguarding youth in German sport, especially in elite sport. The first section shows the structure of elite sport in Germany. When speaking about sport in Germany today, we speak about one single organisation: the German Olympic Sport Confederation (DOSB) as head of organised sport in Germany. With few exceptions the DOSB is responsible for all sport federations, associations and clubs. Even though the Federal Government funds the DOSB, it remains independent concerning the appropriation of funds. It acts autonomously, has its own court of justice and enforces compliance with its respective code. The second section describes existing laws regulating child protection in general and in (elite) sport. The protection of children and young people is a top priority for the German Federal Government. The new federal child protection law came into effect only three years ago in 2012. It provides the basis for comprehensive improvements in child protection. The third section gives an overview on existing bodies, policies and regulations on safeguarding youth athletes in (elite) sport. In retrospective, several means have been taken over the last four years to improve the situation of major national sport organisations – a difficult task, considering the complex and decentralised structure of Germany’s sport system. The main challenge is to carry the action through the member organisations down to the base of the sport system“. To get an idea about safeguarding youth in German sport, especially with regard to doping, two best-practice models are presented in chapter four. One of them is the Action Program Gene Technology in Competitive Sport (AGICS) which aims to inform young athletes and other related target groups in the field of gene doping. The set goal is to be achieved by a threefold approach, including ethical, juridical and scientific perspectives, which are to enable participants to form a carefully considered 22

opinion and eventually take a stand on the topic. The second practice focuses on doping prevention among juveniles. An evaluated concept for primary prevention at secondary schools in Cologne (Germany) shows that doping is not only a phenomenon found in adult competitive athletes, but can also be found outside of competitive sports. In this context, evidence was produced that young adults also use doping to support their athletic performance. They tend to use doping to increase their muscle mass. The aim of both best practice models is to strengthen their decisionmaking. Altogether the paper shows, that a lot of things are done, but there is still plenty to do – in politics, sport and science. Keywords: Elite sport, child protection, doping 1 The structure of elite sport in Germany When speaking about sport in Germany today, we speak about one single organisation: the German Olympic Sport Confederation (DOSB) as head of organised sport in Germany. With only few exceptions the DOSB is responsible for all sport federations, associations and clubs. Even though the Federal Government funds the DOSB, it remains independent concerning the appropriation of funds. It acts autonomously, has its own court of justice and observes that the prevailing rules are obeyed. The DOSB records 27 million memberships in over 89,250 sports clubs. Affiliated to the DOSB are 16 regional sport confederations responsible for organising sport in their respective states; 63 national (sport-governing) federations (e.g. the National Paralympic Committee Germany [DBS]); and 20 sport federations with specific remits (e.g. Special Olympics Germany [SOD]), two IOC-members and 15 personal members (Rulofs, 2015; DOSB, 2014a). Organised sport is hence a “complex and powerful force in German society” with the DOSB being “responsible for both the development of elite athletes and community sport” (DOSB, 2013 as cited in Rulofs, 2014, p. 49). Since its task is to “promote humanistic values through sport, it challenges unethical conduct such as doping or other forms of manipulation” (cf. Rulofs, 2014, p. 49). As the youth organisation in the DOSB, the German Sports Youth (Deutsche Sportjugend [dsj]) connects and represents the interests of over 10 million children and youth up to the age of 27 as well as 2 million honorary assistants. They are organised in about 91,000 sports clubs in 16 Sports Youths on federal state level, 53 youth organisations of the national sport governing bodies as well as ten youth organisations of federations with specific tasks. Thus, the dsj is the largest independent body responsible for the support of children and youths in Germany (DOSB, 2014a). It is part of the system of child and youth services. According to the Child and Youth Welfare Act the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizen, Women and Youth (Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend [BMFSFJ]) is responsible for child and youths Services. Therefore, the dsj and its member organisations are funded by the statutory bodies of the child and youth service system (dsj, 2015). Next to this, the DOSB supports young athletes in so-called „Elite schools of sport”. This particular type of school is defined as “an Institution to promote young athletes in a co-operative combination of elite sport, school and living”, where “promising athletes can prepare for future top achievements in sport while guaranteeing their educational opportunities at school” (DOSB, 2014b). The title „Elite schools of sport” is awarded by the DOSB in a 4-year cycle, as the „Olympic cycle”. The currently 43 23

schools coordinate the „dual career” of 11,500 talents in such a way that neither sport nor school is neglected (DOSB, 2014c). In addition to the Elite schools of sport, two federal states of Germany, Brandenburg and North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), maintain their own networks. At the moment there are 44 locations in NRW with co-operative projects and a total of 51 involved schools, supporting the dual career in school and elite sport (MFKJKS, 2014). The five „Brandenburg special schools” support the transfer between national and regional concepts (Ministerium für Bildung, Jugend und Sport [MBJS], 2013). After finishing school education, elite athletes have the opportunity to take part in the sport support programmes of the Federal Armed Forces, the police or Federal Border Police (BGS), which support and assist the athletes in their sportive goals. Today the Federal Government is only involved in the sport politics and administration. Sport policy is a demanding area of activity, with highly differentiated aspects and a wide variety of approaches. The basic principles of sport policy are the autonomy of sport, subsidiarity of sport funding and co-operation with sport organisations (Federal Ministry of the Interior [BMI], 2014a). There are two departments in two ministries. The sport department in the BMI is in particular responsible for policy and legal affairs of the sports policy in Germany, the EU and worldwide. Furthermore, it is responsible for the promotion of competitive sports including disability sport, the fight against doping and the subsidy of sport complexes for elite athletes (BMI, 2014b). The federal chancellery owns another small department; which is responsible for national and international sports policy (Federal government, 2014). Next to this the Federal Government owns three external centres of science for elite sports. The first is the German Federal Institute of Sport Science (BISp), which initiates and supports scientific projects e.g. in fields of prevention and anti doping. The second is the Institute for Applied Scientific Training (IAT) conducting the research of training and competitions with the aim to identify and exploit the performance potential of top athletes. The third is the Institute for the Research and Development of Sports Equipment (FES), which represents the technology centre of professional sport in Germany. It is the technology-oriented developer of sports equipment and measurement systems in alliance with education, institutions and elite sport. On the Level of the Land governments there are similar departments. All responsible ministers are automatically members of the Conference of Sport Ministers (SMK). The SMK contributes to the common opinion and will of the sports ministers of the federal states and accompanied affairs of the sport of national significance. It represents the common concerns in particular in coordinating the promotion of sports in the countries and safeguards the interests in the field of sport on a national and international level. In spite of everything there is a lot of dissatisfaction in the elite sport system and the politics with the instantaneous development for example the number of won medals at the last Olympic games. This currently causes an intensive debate about a possible reorganisation of the promotion of elite sport in Germany (Bundestag, 2014). 2 Existing laws regulating child protection in general and in (elite) sport The protection of children and young people is a top priority for the German Federal Government. On January, 1st 2012 the new federal child protection law came into force. It provides the basis for comprehensive improvements in child protection. The law stands for comprehensive improvements regarding child protection in Germany. It equally promotes the prevention and intervention in child protection and strengthens all actors who are involved in the well-being of children – starting from the parents, 24

paediatricians or midwifes up to the youth welfare department or family court (BMFSFJ, 2014). Next to this the youth protection act (JuSchG) safeguards the activities of youths aged 14 to 18. The JuSchG protects the youth in public. It regulates the sale, supply and consumption of tobacco and alcohol and the respective taxation, as well as sale and rental of films and computer games or appearances in restaurants and at dance events (e.g., in discotheques) (BMFSFJ, 2013). The (elite) sport isn’t separately referenced in these laws. Furthermore, there is no setting out the legal responsibilities of sport agencies regarding child protection in elite sport in the German primary legislation. Thus there is no special national sport act in Germany existing the federal child protection law and the general German criminal code (StGB) is in effect for all society systems including elite sport (Rulofs, 2013). However, as Rulofs (cf. 2015, p. 49-50.) states in reference to Meinberg (1984), have ethical issues in children’s elite sport long been a concern in Germany. With empirical studies having “focused on the pressures and risks for adolescents performing at the elite level“ (Bette et al., 2002; Frei et al., 2000; Richartz & Brettschneider, 1996) policy measures such as developing coach-education have become prominent issues. Interestingly Rulofs (2015) remarks that: The terms ‘safeguarding children’ or ‘child protection’ – as they are used explicitly in the Anglo-American settings – are not common in Germany. The concept of ‘safeguarding children in sports’ with its broad perspective of including the prevention of emotional, physical and sexual abuse currently has no equivalent in German sport. Lately, the term ‘child protection’ has emerged on the sport-political agenda, but the term is strongly connected to activities concerning the prevention of sexual harassment and abuse (p. 49-50). Next to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, other international arrangements concerning the protection of children in Germany are the Hague Conventions from the 5th of October 1961, 25th of October 1980, 29th of May 1993, 19th of October 1996, the European Convention from the 20th of May 1980 and the 25th of January 1996 as well as the Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 and No. 1347/2000. Last not least Germany signed the European Convention from the 27th of November 2008 regarding the adoption of children as well as the European Convention from the 25th of October 2007 to protect children from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse are only signed by Germany up to now. Meanwhile the ratification is still pending. Referring to the legislative framework for child protection in civil and criminal law there is one example, which has to be considered more intensive. As stated above the term ‘child protection’ in Germany is strongly connected to activities concerning the prevention of sexual harassment and abuse. The StGB regulates these criminal acts against sexual self-determination in §§ 174-184g. One important Paragraph is 174c: Sexual abuse under exploitation of a consultation relation, of treatment relation or care relation”, witch includes the abuse of positions of trust like the manner of coaches in all kind of sport (dsj, 2011). A field with a so called lack of attention was the legislation for Anti-Doping. Till now the Medicines Act (§§ 6a, 95 AMG) regulates the „prescription”, the „use of doping at other persons” and the „placing on the market” with fine or imprisonment up to three years. Thus, the legal foundations are created to punish coaches, trainers and doctors about the drug law in doping violations. The Federal Government has also adopted the Act to improve the fight against doping in sport. But this isn’t enough, which became clear throughout the events of last year. Therefore, the Federal Ministries of Justice and the interior compose the first draft of an anti-doping act. Core of the template is a general prohibition of doping in sport. For a misdemeanour threatens imprisonment up to three years. Not only the backers would have been like face penalties, also the 25

athletes should be punished already in possession and purchase of small amounts. In addition, price money can already be drawn at a doping suspicion (Deutsche Presse Agentur [dpa], 2014). 3

Existing bodies, policies and regulations to safeguarding youth athletes in (elite) sport There are two lines to protect or safeguard children and youth in general. One line is the efforts of the governmental and the other of the non-governmental organisations. The government ventured special efforts in the fight against sexual child abuse. Therefore, an independent commissioner for questions concerning sexual child abuse was nominated by the Federal government. The commissioner’s tasks “are to hold up the national telephone help-line, to disseminate the recommendations of the round table into the specific structures of society and to monitor the process of implementation” (Rulofs, 2013, p. 3). A respective contract was signed with the DOSB concerning the monitoring of the German sport. Other efforts of the government in safeguarding children are a campaign by the central government office for health education (BZgA) named „making children strong”. The information, service and experience offer is a hands-on initiative for early prevention of addiction from the age of 4. With a tour throughout Germany the team of BZgA visits together with local prevention agencies large and small families and sports events (BZgA, 2014). Another special effort of the government is the fight against doping. For this reason, the national anti-doping-agency (NADA) was founded in 2002. Key objective was the centralisation of anti-doping measures in an organisation, which should be independent of both, sport and state. However, the Federal Government maintained its basic position to respond to the fight against doping and sports organisations to operate even within the limits of its obligation under international treaties guaranteeing responsibility (Krüger & Nielsen, 2013). The government sponsors the big predominant percentage of the capital today. One of the main goals of the NADA in their different projects is to empower (young) athletes in their decision making in situations where they are confronted to deal with doping. One of the bigger projects is the National Doping Prevention Plan (NDPP). It’s a cooperative project of the NADA, the DOSB, the dsj, the BMI and the SMK. The aim of the NDPP is to create synergies, share experiences, initiate new collaborations and to achieve a concentration of forces for a clean sport. To this end, a database was developed for prevention activities, which you can reach under http://www.dopingpraeventionsplan.de. You can find these activities not only for elite sport, but also in the areas of mass sports, health, education and training. All institutions can set and apply prevention activities in the database. Whether it is events or print and online materials, each enriching the database with prevention projects is encouraged (NADA, 2014). One non-governmental organisation with responsibility for child protection or safeguarding in general, and with this relevant for the subsystem (elite) sport as well is the German Society for the Protection of Children (DKSB). The DKSB consists of the Federation itself, 16 state associations and more than 430 local associations. Currently around 50,000 individual members are involved and thus form the basis of the largest child protection organisation in Germany. Since 1953 the DKSB acts as a lobby for children, standing up for the interests of youth and their families. Its wide range of services focuses on providing confidential advice and support to children and youth with difficult family situations, with the aim of giving them a better future. Therefore, the DKSB is an essential point of contact and has a key role representing the interests of children and young people (DKSB, 2014). Other organisations in this field are the 26

child protection centres. In total 26 centres are located in different German towns (Child protection centres, 2014). It is mainly set up as an advice centre for families with problems of violence, in particular in the case of physical and psychical child abuse, neglect of children and sexual abuse. The objectives and tasks of the child protection centre are to reduce, to avoid, respectively to prevent violence against children, child abuse, neglect of children and sexual abuse by development, application and passing on special aids which start at the roots of violence (Netzkraft Movement, 2014). Additional to this, there are quite more associations which address the same topic, for example the Task Force Child and Youth protection. “It is a characteristic of all these non-governmental organisations in Germany that they have a central national umbrella organisation that is split up into various member organisations at regional and local level” (Rulofs, 2013, p. 3). The number bodies and their activities represent the big engagement in this topic in Germany. Unfortunately, there isn’t much for guidance for (elite) sport organisations how to fulfil their responsibilities regarding child protection. The actions about the prevention of sexualised violence and doping are good examples for the future work. In 2010 the so called „Munich declaration on prevention of sexualised violence in sport”, was agreed by the General Assembly of the DOSB. “The main focus of this declaration is to raise a culture of attention for sexualised violence within sport organisations and to promote a widespread prevention campaign“ (Rulofs, 2013, p. 3). For example the dsj provides a website with information on prevention of sexualised violence, e. g. contact details of all commissioners of the member organisations as well as drafts for ethical codes that may be applied in the specific member organisations2. Next to this the German Football Association (DFB) has an own brochure on safeguarding children in football clubs (DFB, 2015). In retrospective several means have been taken over the last four years to improve the situation of major national sport organisations – a difficult task, considering the complex and decentralised structure of Germany’s sport system. According to Rulofs (2013), “the main challenge right now is to carry the action through the various member organisations down to the bottom of the sport system“ (p. 4). If there are cases of danger, there is not a general system for investigating concerns about children’s welfare and protection that sport bodies can report to. But again the two topics of sexualised violence and anti-doping are better positioned than others at the moment. Almost all member organisations of the DOSB have nominated a commissioner for the prevention of sexualised violence. Anyway some of the member organisations are more active than others3 (Rulofs, 2015). The prevention of doping is part of the current binding body of rules and regulations for top class sports set by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). This body of rules and regulations is transported into national practice according to national law. WADA states that every sport association has to appoint a representative for anti-doping policy. The task of the representative is to act as a contact partner for athletes and officials alike (Steinmann, 2013b). The Investigation for this article turned out that there are no national standards for child protection for (elite) sport professionals working with children and young people and any national bodies, which regulate the concerns about children’s welfare and protection. But sport organisations are able to check individuals’ criminal records as part of their recruitment procedures. They can ask the applicants to hand in an enhanced certificate of good conduct as an additional part of the police record check. But in the corresponding § 30a paragraph 1 No. 2b and c as well as in § 31 2 3

www.dsj.de/kinderschutz For example, in NRW: www.lsb-nrw.de/fuer-vereine/sport-sexualisierte-gewalt 27

paragraph 2 of the so called central registry (BZRG) it is not determined unambiguously, when an enhanced certificate of good conduct can be demanded. In the regulations of the letters b) and c) § 30a paragraph 1 No. 2 BZRG only different areas of responsibility are explicitly listed in which it should be suitable to ask for an enhanced certificate of good conduct. An obligation for the sport association to obtain the certificate is not written in the BZRG. Ethical codes that include the prevention of sexual violence (and can be signed on a voluntary basis) are quite common in German sport organisations (Rulofs, 2013). 4 Best practice models Based upon that theoretical framework, we want to introduce two best practice models concerning safeguarding youth by confronting them with the doping phenomenon. The aim of both best practice models is to strengthen their decision making. 4.1

Doping prevention among juveniles. An evaluated concept for primary prevention at secondary schools in Cologne (Germany)

Type of practice: 10 (international standard) Issue tackled by the practice: Doping is not only a phenomenon found in adult competitive athletes, but can also be found outwith competitive sports. Young adults also use doping to support their athletic performance. They tend to use doping to increase their muscle mass. Location: Cologne, Germany Implementing body: German Sport University Cologne Target group: Pupils, teachers, young athletes Year of implementation: 2008 Stakeholders: Financial/human recourses: German Sport University Cologne Website: none, but CD-ROM Author: Annika Steinmann Stakeholders involved: University and schools Timescale: 2008-2010 Future: Use of the CD-ROM Target group: Pupils, teachers Impact: Sensitizing Figure 1. Facts 4.1.1 Introduction Young adults and juveniles also use doping to increase their athletic performance. The concept analyses the hypothesis mentioned above by referring to several national and international scientific studies, which explore doping abuse in juveniles. These studies state that one of the main reasons for doping by young adults is their desire for perfect body. Young adults and juveniles tend to use doping to increase their muscle mass and size. In this paper a concept for primary prevention of doping abuse is developed. The bases of this programme are current scientific findings in this area. The prevention programme was tested in various schools in Cologne. The methods used underwent quantitative and qualitative analysis. A CD-ROM (2011) with the teaching material was funded by Ministry of Family, Children, Youth, Culture and Sport, North-Rhine Westfalia. A reprint followed in 2013, funded by The German Federal Agency for Civic Education. 28

4.1.2 Content The publication starts with the theoretical background of doping and doping prevention. The international prevalence of doping abuse is analyzed. Followed by the conduction of a prevention programme. The prevention concept is conducted for teachers to use it at schools, besides the regular curriculum. It is called body modification and contents include Powerpoint slides about the reasons and consequences of doping abuse, working sheets, and an instruction book for practical work: Acrobatic. The children learn the necessity of different physique. It ends with the results of the evaluation and a discussion. 4.1.3 What makes this practice good? The practice is close to children’s living environment. The practical examples as well as the topic are issue of this phase of life. At least in Germany, it is, as far as we know, the only practice which is scientifically conducted and evaluated. 4.2

Action Program Gene Technology In Competitive Sport (AGICS) – improvement of young athletes’ competence in decision making

Type of practice: 10 (international standard) Issue tackled by the practice: The aim of the workshop is to inform young athletes and other target groups about gene doping terms and social, ethical, medical, juridical conditions to initiate and engage them in a profound debate. Location: Elite Sport Schools in Germany Implementing body: German Sport University Cologne / University of Hildesheim Target group: Pupils, teachers, young athletes, coaches and officials Year of implementation: 2012/2016 Stakeholders: Financial/human recourses: Funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research Website: http://www.gentechnologie-im-sport.de/startseite Authors: Prof. Dr. Swen Körner, Prof. Dr. Stefanie Schardien Stakeholders involved: Schools Timescale: 5 to 6 hrs. Future: The workshop is accompanied by an online platform and an E-book (German and English) Impact: Sensitizing Figure 2. Facts 4.2.1 Introduction The idea of enhancement and the transfer to reality is an increasing phenomenon and almost omnipresent – in society as well as in its sub-system the high performance sport. The reason is to be seen in the internal logic that requires a never ending progression. At the boundary of legal and illegal or in other words at the boundary of enhancement and doping, gene-doping marks a special case. Gene-doping is not a traditionally approved method, but a prospective and promising one instead. Therefore, biomedical opportunities and their documented proof, possible side effects (long and short terms) and the public law have to be considered – always accompanied by ethical guidelines. Ethics starts, where scientific research, technical, economic, innovation and cultural movement challenges singular persons or society. Ethical standards support people in decision making. In the context of (gene-) doping the spectrum of ethical argumentation ranges from conservative restrictions and 29

negotiations to liberalization. The conservative argumentation of damnation and refusal relies on safeguarding and the ethos of sports. The safeguard is at danger because of anticipated serious health risks. These health risks might be even more dangerous because of illegal use and application. 4.2.2 Content The target group gets instructed to reflect systematically on norms, worthiness, rules and the guidelines of society and high performance sports in detail. What should the athlete or the coach do in order to enhance the performance? What shouldn’t they do? Which parameter can be named to make a difference between a good and a bad choice? Can we do everything if (technically) possible and should it be done? Where is the boundary between legal and illegal and what are the reasons for the parting? Knowledge transfer of biomedical opportunities plus documented proof. Gene therapy is in a rapid progress. Those newly developed methods tend to be misused for enhancement/doping. Consequently Gene-doping is listed in the Anti-Doping Code by WADA since 2003. The workshop participants get to know the latest findings in developing new methods for therapeutically reasons and in their documented proof by WADA laboratories in cases of misuse. Knowledge transfer of public law. The consumption of substances and the use of methods for a better performance that are listed by WADA are forbidden by law. The consequences for convictable athletes are manifold. They might influence the athlete’s career and his civil life. Considering the knowledge of ethics, biochemistry and law the workshop participants are lead to get into a well-grounded argumentation. At the end of the school teaching day, it might be a legitimate opinion to support gene doping, if the argumentation is convincing: Sport means to raise the performance – with all side effects: scouting, competitive sports and training twice a day/5 days per week at a very early age (< 10 yrs.), special boarding schools, dietary supplement, altitude training, medal table at sport events especially forced by national confederations and media (e.g. medal table). „Second place is just the first place loser” a meanwhile generally accepted slogan stated by Dale Earnhardt, who was a former US-American NASCAR-driver. Finally, we ask the pupils to judge. Would you – as an athlete – use gene doping? Why yes, why not? We evaluated the pupils’ opinion concerning the use of gene doping. Tab.1 shows that 87% of all participants express a negative attitude, 1% a positive one, 8% do not come to a clear judgement, they find pros and cons. Table 1 Evaluation (n = 381)

Number Percentage

Positive

Negative

Positive and Negative

None

4 1%

333 87 %

29 8%

15 4%

We have implied to the contents of the school teaching three main topics in the thread of argumentation pro and contra gene doping: a) Ethics, b) Medicine and c) Law. 30

48% of all refer to the field of Ethics in their argumentation: mainly they name fairness and the principle of equal opportunities in their argumentation but also the debate of nativeness contra artificiality and the origin sense of sports. 35% refer to medicine (possible/anticipated side effects of the consumption): mainly they name the anticipated side effects that may affect health issues. Furthermore, they refer gene doping being part of gene therapy. 9% are aware of the evidence in order of the doping control system by WADA. At least 14% refer in their argumentation to the juridical part: the national legal framework as well as the so called Sports law (Court of Arbitration for Sport [CAS]). “Other” sums up reasons, which remain a bit clouded. A national scientific symposium was held in 2013, another one was held in June 2015 in Cologne where latest findings and evaluation results were presented and discussed. 4.2.3 What makes this practice good? Gene-doping is expected to be the next generation of doping/enhancement. The multidisciplinary approach in this project is new and well-grounded. The aim is to sensibilise young athletes with terms of their living environment. At the end of the workshop and with reference to the online-platform the target group should be able to deliver a judgment based upon knowledge of ethics, biochemistry and law. References

Bahrke, M. S., Yesalis, C., Kopstein, A. N., & Stephen, J. A. (2000). Risk factors associated with anabolic-androgenicsteroid useamong adolescents. Sports Medicine, 29(6), 397– 405. Beiter, T., & Velders, M. (2012). Pimp my Genes – Gendoping zwischen Fakten und Fiktion. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 63(5), 16–27. Bette, K.-H., Schimank, U., Wahlig, D., & Weber, U. (2002). Biografische Dynamiken im Leistungssport: Möglichkeiten der Dopingprävention im Jugendalter. Köln: Sport & Buch Strauß. Biallas, J. (2014). Anhörung zur Spitzensportförderung. Retrieved from: www.bundestag.de/ presse/hib/2014_10/-/335064 Bundeszentrale für gesundheitliche Aufklärung (n. d.). Kinder stark machen. Retrieved from: www.kinderstarkmachen.de/mitmach-initiative/kinder-stark-machen.html Davey, C., Tiivas, A. (2013). Draft International Standards for Safeguarding and Protection Children in Sport. Retrieved from: http://assets.sportanddev.org/downloads/ international_ sports_safeguarding_children_standards_draft.pdf Deutsche Sportjugend (2011). Gegen sexualisierte Gewalt im Sport. Frankfurt: Deutsche Sportjugend. Die Kinderschutz-Zentren (n. d.). Zentren vor Ort. Retrieved from: www.kinderschutzzentren.org/zentren-vor-ort Diel, P. (2008). Superathleten aus dem Labor. Visionen und Wirklichkeit des Gendopings. Medical sportsnetwork (3), 28–35. dpa (2014). Anti-Doping-Gesetz: Erster Entwurf soll vorliegen. Pharmazeutische Zeitung online. Retrieved from: www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de/index.php?id =54420 Bundesregierung (2014). Organisationsplan des Bundeskanzleramtes. Retrieved from: www.bundesregierung.de/ContentArchiv/DE/Archiv17/_Anlagen/2010/2010-12-15organigramm-bkamt.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=11 Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (2013). Jugendschutzgesetz. Retrieved from: www.bmfsfj.de/gesetze,did=5350 Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (2013). Bundeskinderschutzgesetz. Retrieved from: www.bmfsfj.de/BMFSFJ/kinder-und-jugend, did=119832.html 31

Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (2014). Kinder und Jugendschutz. Retrieved from: www.bmfsfj.de/BMFSFJ/Kinder-und-Jugend/kinder-undjugendschutz.html Bundesministerium des Inneren (2014b). Aufgaben der Abteilung SP. Retrieved from: www.bmi.bund.de/DE/Ministerium/Struktur-Abteilungen/Aufgaben-AbteilungSP/aufgaben-abteilung-sp_node.html#siteInfo Deutscher Fußball-Bund (2015). Kinderschutz im Verein. Frankfurt: DFB. Deutscher Kinderschutzbund Bundesverband e.V (2014). Unser Verband: Groß und Stark. Retrieved from: www.dksb.de/CONTENT/SHOWPAGE.ASPX?content=524&tpl=1 Deutscher Olympischer Sportbund (2014a). Kurzporträt des Deutschen Olympischen Sportbundes. Retrieved from: www.dosb.de/en/organisation/wir-ueber-uns/dosb-profile/ Deutscher Olympischer Sportbund (2014b). "Eliteschule des Sports": Daten, Zahlen, Fakten. Retrieved from: www.dosb.de/de/eliteschule-des-sports/hintergrund/ daten-zahlen-fakten Deutsche Sportjugend (2015). Deutsche Sportjugend. Retrieved from: www.dsj.de/deutschesportjugend Federal ministry of the interior (2014a). Federal sport policy. Retrieved from: www.bmi.bund.de/EN/Topics/Sport/Federal-Sport-Policy/federal-sport-policy_node.html Frei, P., Lüsebrink, I., Rottländer, D., & Thiele, J. (2000). Belastungen und Risiken im weiblichen Kunstturnen. Teil 2: Innensichten, pädagogische Deutungen und Konsequenzen. Schorndorf: Hofmann. Hurrelmann, K., & Quenzel, G. (2012). Lebensphase Jugend. Eine Einführung in die sozialwissenschaftliche Jugendforschung (1st ed.). Weinheim: Beltz. Kläber, M. (2010). Doping im Fitness-Studio. Die Sucht nach dem perfekten Körper. Bielefeld: transcript. Kleinert, J. (2013). Motivation zum und gegen Doping: Zur Struktur und Ausprägung von Gründen und Barrieren. In: S. Körner & E. Meinberg (Eds.), Doping – Kulturwissenschaftlich betrachtet (Brennpunkte der Sportwissenschaft (pp. 173–191). St. Augustin: Academia. Körner, S. (2014). Technology Assessment of Elite Sports: A Systems Theoretical Approach to Doping of the Next Society. Athens Journal of Sports, 1(3), 163–172. Körner, S. & Meinberg, E. (2013). Doping – Kulturwissenschaftlich betrachtet (Brennpunkte der Sportwissenschaft). St. Augustin: Academia. Körner, S., & Schardien, S. (2012). Höher – schneller – weiter. Gentechnologisches Enhancement im Spitzensport. Avantgarde eines neuen Menschenbildes? Ethische, rechtliche und soziale Perspektivierungen. Paderborn: Mentis. Körner, S. (2011). Zwischen Höchstleistung und Moral. Doping und Spitzensport. Doping. Zeitschrift für Sport, Recht und Medizin, 4(2), 209–213. Körner, S. & Bittner, U. (2011). Gendoping und Spitzensport – Zeichen eines neuen Menschenbildes? Zeitschrift für medizinische Ethik, 57(4), 292–303. Körner, S. (2011). Coping durch Gendoping. Spitzensport im Zeitalter der Gentechnologie. Doping. Zeitschrift für Sport, Recht und Medizin, 3(2), 146. Körner, S., Schardien, S., Steven-Vitense, B., Albach, S., Dorn, E., & Arenz, T. (2013). Gendoping – Doping der Zukunft?: Unterrichtseinheit Gendoping im Leistungssport. Schorndorf: Hofmann Verlag. Krüger, M., & Nielsen, S. (2013). Die Entstehung der Nationalen Anti-Doping Agentur in Deutschland (NADA) im Kontext der Gründung der Welt Anti-Doping Agentur (WADA). Sport und Gesellschaft, 1, 55–94. Lang, M., & Hartill, M. (2014). Safeguarding, Child Protection and Abuse in Sport: International Perspectives in Research, Policy and Practice. London: Routledge. Ministerium für Bildung, Jugend und Sport – MBJS (2014). Spezialschulen Sport. Retrieved from http://www.mbjs.brandenburg.de/sixcms/detail.php/5lbm1.c.103 206.de Ministerium für Familie, Kinder, Jugend, Kultur und Sport des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen – MFKJKS (2014). Verbundsystem Schule und Leistungssport. Retrieved from: www.sportland.nrw.de/nf/verbundsystem-schule-und leistungssport.html Meinberg, E. (1984). Kinderhochleistungssport: Fremdbestimmung oder Selbstentfaltung? pädagogische, anthropologische und ethische Orientierungen. Köln: Strauß. 32

Meinberg, E., & Körner, S. (2013). Doping – kulturwissenschaftlich betrachtet. Academia: Sankt Augustin. Nationale Anti Doping Agentur (2014). Nationaler Dopingpräventionsplan. Retrieved from: www.nada.de/de/praevention/nationaler-dopingpraeventionsplan/#.VEdqFd 7JDfZ Netzkraftbewegung (2014). Die Kinderschutz-Zentren. Retrieved from: www.netzkraft.net/ mitglied.php?teilnehmer=98&lang=englisch Pope, H., Phillips, K. A., & O. R. (2001). Der Adonis-Komplex. Schönheitswahn und Körperkult bei Männern. München: dtv. Richartz, A., & Brettschneider, W.-D. (1996). Weltmeister werden und die Schule schaffen: Zur Doppelbelastung von Schule und Leistungstraining. Schorndorf: Hofmann. Rulofs, B. (2013). Prevention of sexualized violence in sports – impulses for an open, secure and sound sporting environment in Europe – The status-quo situation in Germany. Unpublished manuscript. Rulofs, B. (2015). Child Protection in German Sport. In M. Lang & M. Hartil (Eds.), Safeguarding, Child Protection and Abuse in Sport. International Perspectives in Research Policy and Practice (pp. 49–57). London: Routledge. Steinmann, A. (2013a). Projektwoche Körperkult. CD-ROM. In Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (Eds.), Saubere Leistung? – Grenzen akzeptieren. Bonn: BISp. Steinmann, A. (2013b). Die Profession der Anti-Doping-Beauftragten. In E. Meinberg & S. Körner (Eds.), Doping kulturwissenschaftlich betrachtet (pp.147–154). Academia: Sankt Augustin. Steinmann, A. (2012). Dopingprävention – Die Projektwoche Körperkult. Sportunterricht, 61(4), 111–115. Steinmann, A. (2011a). Dopingprävention bei Jugendlichen. Konzeption, Durchführung und Evaluation einer Primärprävention für die Sekundarstufe I Kölner Realschulen und Gymnasien. Lehmanns: Berlin. Steinmann, A. (2011b). Projektwoche Körperkult on CD-ROM. Cologne, Germany: Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln.

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IJPE Digest Compiled by F. Mess4 (Munich/Germany) For sorting out the studies of this IJPE Digest section the following peer reviewed IF journals were screened in order to present current papers of high-quality: (1) European Physical Education Review; (2) Journal of Teaching in Physical Education; (3) Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy; (4) Quest; (5) Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport; (6) Sport, Education and Society. However, other high-quality journals or papers will be taken into consideration in due time as well. Silva, P., Sousa, M., Sá, C., Ribeiro, J. & Mota, J. (2015). Physical activity in high school during ‘free-time’ periods. European Physical Education Review, 21(2), 135–148. Since there seems to be an overall decrease in physical activity (PA) in children and adolescents, schools as a setting for promoting PA and other healthy behaviour became more evident, especially in western countries. The main benefit of this setting for PA promotion is, that children and adolescents from the full socioeconomic spectrum are reached, and therefore a healthy lifestyle can be developed successfully within the mentioned target groups. The interesting aspect of Silva et al. in this research field now is, that they tried to take advantage of the already existing times and spaces at school where youth can chose to be active (e.g. active school transport, playgrounds and recess). Of course, PE programmes in schools have the potential to promote healthy active lifestyles, but Silva and colleagues have the opinion, that it may be more effective to promote activity during other portions of the school day, such as in recess. In this context, recess can be described as regularly scheduled periods within the school day for unstructured PA and play. According to other studies, children can be active during school recess periods and simple recess interventions have potential to further increase youth activity levels during these times. On the basis of this approach, Silva and colleagues aimed in their study to examine youth PA in free-time periods during high school days and their contribution to total daily PA. A second purpose was to analyse differences in terms of sex, age, body mass index (BMI) and school level. In this study a total of N=213 adolescents (135 girls and 78 boys) from Portugal, aged 14.6±1.7 years were recruited through their PE classes from two different public schools (urban school and rural school). The methods are described more detailed in the paper. Important to mention is, that the participants wore an accelerometer (ActiGraph) during seven consecutive days (only during waking time), in order to obtain a reliable picture of PA. Furthermore, the students completed a weekly diary with their school schedule, accelerometer wearing time, and major activities they performed in half-hour periods. Based on the diary information the authors were able to identify the following five important periods of the weekly school schedule where youth can choose to be active: (1) commute to school: 7:30am to 8:30am, (2) morning recess: 10:00am to 10:30am, (3) lunch recess: 12:30am to 2:00pm, (4) afternoon recess: 4:00pm to 4:30pm, and (5) after-school time: 6:30pm to 8:00pm. The most interesting results of the free-time periods in this study are, that girls were less likely to be active than boys in all periods (p < 0.05). In addition boys had significantly higher levels of PA (counts per min) than girls for two of the five periods 4

Prof. Dr F. Mess is W3 professor at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) in Germany.

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(afternoon recess and after-school time). Important to know is, that the most relevant period in terms of PA amount varied in boys and girls. Boys’ activity levels were higher during the after-school period while girls’ activity was higher during the lunch period. Older youth were less likely to be active than younger youth (p < 0.05), especially during three periods (before school, morning recess and afternoon recess) the activity levels were higher among younger students. BMI was not a significant variable in any of the free-time school periods. According to their findings, Silva and colleagues concluded that free-time periods in high school are a relevant context for PA promotion. In this study the free-time periods contributed significantly for total daily PA in both sexes, with 37.7–42.7% for girls and 40.1–42.1% for boys, and were a relevant opportunity to accumulate MVPA for both girls and boys. Due to some study limitations, the presented results should be interpreted carefully, and since the Portuguese school system is specific, the results cannot be generalised to other countries. Irrespective of this, the strength of the study is, presenting opportunities, how already existing times and spaces at school can be used to promote PA in children and adolescents.   Tinning, R. (2015). ‘I don’t read fiction’: academic discourse and the relationship between health and physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 20(6), 710– 721. Caused by the ‘obesity crisis’, Tinning explores in his paper the relationship between health (H) and physical education (PE), by focussing on the two main ‘positions’ (or camps) that seem to characterize the discourse regarding this relationship. According to the author this discourse is not new, but the obesity crisis has raised this relationship to a new level of attention. Therefore, it seems to be important, to analyse why the advocates of these two positions seldom speak to each other. Advocates of the first position (‘instrumentalists’) consider that the main mission of PE should be the facilitation of better health and, most recently, the prevention of obesity. Tinning names this position ‘instrumental’, because scientists tend to do research using interventionist strategies focusing on (H)PE as a site for the promotion of physical activity. Advocates of the second position (‘educationalists’) criticize this instrumental view of education, and much of the interventionist research that it promotes. They embrace a broad sociocultural view of health and argue that the purpose of PE should be fundamentally educational and not merely in the service of health. Based on these two positions, the purpose of this paper is to explore how the conventions of academic discourse in this topic are (mis)understood and accordingly confound the development of more considered responses to the relationship between health and PE. One of most interesting benefits of this paper is, how the author analysed the conflict between the two positions. Considering several conferences and references (and according to a theoretical background of the ‘academic discourse’), Tinning identifies two dimensions of the conflict of the relationship between H and PE: one regarding the substantive point of disagreement (the message), and the other the problem of communication (the medium). To solve this conflict, and in my opinion this is a valuable finding that can be generalised to all other academic discourses (independently of the topic), the author proposes that working productively with colleagues who have different perspectives on an issue requires an attitude or disposition that is characterized by an ‘openness to knowledge and ways of knowing’.

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News of International Organisations ICSSPE News www.icsspe.org / [email protected] Compiled by K. Koenen5 (Berlin, Germany) ICSSPE Bulletin No 69 on Research Methodology published The new issue of the ICSSPE’s journal is planned as an “Information Broker”. Different from the usual approach, this edition tries to give an overview on information on “research methodology of sport science”, and introduces important literature in the area. The collection of articles incorporates some foundations for upcoming researchers to know how to get needed and relevant information and how to conduct high quality research. Opportunities and Challenges in Sport – Germany and Israel to Intensify Cooperation Israeli Minister of Sport, Miri Regev, and German Parliamentary State Secretary, Ole Schröder, have agreed to intensify their long-standing relationship in sport. The decision was announced during a bilateral one-day symposium of Germany’s Federal Ministry of the Interior, which played host to the Israeli Ministry of Culture and Sport. The symposium, held on 8th October 2015 in Berlin, was organised by ICSSPE and offered government members, sport scientists, practitioners and other participants the opportunity to exchange knowledge and experiences on a number of current issues in sport politics. Sailing, Fencing and Equestrian – German-Chinese Expert Exchange Against the background of an agreement between both ministries, the General Administration of Sport of China and the German Federal Ministry of the Interior met for the fifth time for an extensive exchange in sport development. The topics addressed during the symposium, which took place 30th October until 3rd November in Shenzhen, China, were the development of strategies, funding systems and the administration of fencing, sailing and equestrian in both countries. Six specialists from each country introduced their experiences in sport politics, sport science and sport practice and laid a basis for an exchange and discussions about the three Olympic and Paralympic sports. As a follow-up, proceedings in English language will be published.

Further information can be found on the website of the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) www.icsspe.org or contact [email protected] / Phone: +49 (0)30 3110232 10 5

Kartin Koenen is director of scientific affairs at the ICSSPE Executive office (Berlin/Germany).

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AIESEP News www.aiesep.org / [email protected] Compiled by Mary O’Sullivan6 (Limerick, Ireland) If you are interested in hosting an International AIESEP conference during 20192021, we continue to welcome proposals. You may request a proposal application form from the AIESEP Secretary General at [email protected]. The deadline for completed proposals is 29 February 2016. A final decision will be announced on or before the AIESEP 2016 Conference in Laramie, Wyoming USA. AIESEP Board will present a new Strategic Plan for the organisation at the 2016 AIESEP conference in Wyoming. Registration and call for proposals for AIESEP Conference 2016 (9-12 June) in Laramie Wyoming (USA) is now available. See: www.uwyo.edu/kandh/aiesep_2016 The four keynote speakers are Professor Dawn Penny (Australia), Professor Hans van der Mars (USA), Professor Lars Bo Andersen (Denmark), and Dr Hayley Fitzgerald (UK). There will be a number of pre-conference workshops supporting early career academics as well as those interested in early childhood learning and teaching games for understanding. The AIESEP family continues to grow. If you wish to join AIESEP complete an application form via the AIESEP website at http://aiesep.org/membership/becominga-member Remember, institutional membership entitles you to discounted conference registration fees at AIESEP events for three members of your institution. You can keep up to date with AIESEP news by following us on Twitter: www.twitter.com/aiesep (@aiesep) and on Facebook. Next summer is a very busy time for conferences of interest to our members: ‐ In July is the Research on Teaching and Learning Using Visual Methods will be held in Vienna (10-14 July 2016, Vienna). See www.isa-sociolofy.org/ forum2016 ‐ The 6th Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) Conference is held from 25-27 July 2016, in Cologne / Germany. The 10th German dvsSportspielsymposium will be held at same time. For information, please visit: http://www.tgfu2016.info ‐ European Council for Educational Research (ECER) will host their annual conference in Dublin, Ireland from 22-26 August 2016. See http://www.eeraecer.de ‐ Association of Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE) is hosting its conference at the same time (22-24 August) in Eindhoven, Netherlands focussing on "Educating the Best Teachers: A Challenge for Teacher Education." See http://www.atee1.org Further information can be found on the website of the Association Internationale des Ecoles Supérieures d’Education Physique (AIESEP): www.aiesep.org or contact: [email protected] (AIESEP General Secretary) 6

Prof. Dr Mary O‘Sullivan is full professor at the University of Limerick (Ireland) and AIESEP General Secretary.

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ECSS News sport-science.org/ [email protected] Compiled by S. Neubert7 (Cologne, Germany) ECSS Vienna 2016 – Call for Abstracts – Crossing Borders through Sport Science On behalf of the Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna it is my great pleasure to invite you to attend the 21st Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science in Vienna. The congress will be held from 69 July 2016 at the Austria Center Vienna (ACV) which is located close to the city centre, the river Danube and also the United Nations Building. Key Dates: 15 December 2015 15 February 2016 1 April 2016 15 April 2016 1 May 2016

Opening abstract submission and registration Deadline for abstract submission Notification of acceptance to authors End of early registration Deadline registration for presenting authors

“Crossing Borders through Sport Science” as conference theme should reflect the long-lasting tradition of Austria in bringing together people from all over the world, as well as the emphasis of the European College to fully cover all disciplines and topics within Sport Science. Especially plenary but also invited symposia will be chosen carefully to highlight different viewpoints on specific topics in order to summarize existing knowledge but also to find new ideas and ways of research in our area. Similar to other ECSS conferences we aim to attract many early-stage researchers but also well-known experts to ensure a valuable information exchange at all formats of the conference from mini orals to plenary sessions. This might possibly lead to the discovery of high potentials within the Young Investigator Award, but certainly to the development of future projects, collaborations, and friendships. Of course visiting a conference is not only to meet other scientists but also to immerse in the spirit of the hosting city and its surroundings. For several years Vienna is ranked number one in the quality of living, reflecting not only political and economic factors but also health, education and public service including transportation. When coming to Vienna you will experience the historical heritage mixed with modernity not only when visiting museums, concerts and the different theatres but also when relaxing at one of the numerous restaurants, bars and of course at the traditional “Heurigen” in the vineyards of Vienna. Arnold Baca Congress President For further information please contact: European College of Sport Science (ECSS) Tel.: +49 (0)221 9626 2771 [email protected] / www.sport-science.org / www.ecss-congress.eu/2016 @ECSS2016 - #ECSS2016 - www.youtube.com/user/ECSSTV 7

Steffen Neubert is marketing and exhibition manager at ECSS (Cologne/Germany).

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EUPEA News www.eupea.com / [email protected] Compiled by C. Scheuer8 (Luxembourg, Luxembourg) 26th EUPEA Forum Meeting in Budapest (Hungary) – 1-4 October 2015 EUPEA organised the 26th EUPEA Forum Meeting in cooperation with the Hungarian School Sport Federation in Budapest (Hungary) from 1-4 October 2015. The main topic of the Forum was “Harmonization and diversity in PE curricula in Europe”, with a seminar organised on 2 October. The seminar was opened by EU Commissioner for Education, Culture, Youth and Sport, Mr Tibor Navracsics, who highlighted the importance of sport and physical activity as an asset for all of us as individuals and as members of society and a sport that has an enormous potential to be an effective tool for fostering social inclusion. Three new members were elected to the Board of EUPEA during the forum by the members of EUPEA: Gelly Aroni (Greece, PENALFA): Delegate for South-East Europe Chris Murphy (England, NWCPEA): Additional Board Member Tamás Csányi (Hungary, HSSF): Delegate for Institution Members Please consult our website www.eupea.com for more information on the highly mediated opening session and the outcomes of the seminar. Two more EU-funded projects with EUPEA The Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency of the European Commission has recently published the selection results of submitted projects in the action of collaborative partnerships in the area of sport. Two applications with the involvement of EUPEA as a partner were selected. With the lead of BG BE Active and with partners such as ISCA, Sport & Citizenship, HSSF or the Willibald Gebhardt Institute, EUPEA is going to implement the project Active School Communities in 2016 and 2017. In another project under the lead of ISCA and with partners such as ECF (European Cyclists Federation) or IASLIM (International Association of Sport and Leisure Infrastructure Management), EUPEA will implement the advocacy project Sportvoice from 2016 to 2018. Expert Group recommendations to encourage physical education in schools As set out in the EU Work Plan for Sport 2014-2017, an expert group on healthenhancing physical activity – including EUPEA as an observer represented by RoseMarie Repond and Marcos Onofre – has compiled a set of recommendations to encourage physical education in schools, including motor skills in early childhood, and to help create links with the sport sector, local authorities and the private sector. EUC Expert Group key recommendations: #10: Minimum PE time taught should be increased to at least five lessons per week #13: Qualified and specialised PE teachers should be preferred at all educational levels For further information please contact: European Physical Education Association (EUPEA) - Tel.: +41 55 640 75 46 www.eupea.com / [email protected] Twitter: @EUPEA_tweet / Facebook: www.facebook.com/eupea1 8

Claude Scheuer is researcher at the University of Luxembourg and EUPEA president.

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FIEP News www.fiepeurope.eu / [email protected] Compiled by B. Antala9 & D. Novak10 (Bratislava, Slovakia / Zagreb, Croatia) FIEP Visit of Department of Physical Education, Khalsa College, Amritsar, India FIEP representatives visited the Department of Physical Education of Khalsa College in Amritsar, India, on 17 October 2015. They discussed opportunities of future cooperation between bodies. APCESS 2015 7th Asia Pacific Conference on Exercise & Sports Science was held in New Delhi, India from 14-16 October 2015. The event was organised by Manav Rachna International University with FIEP participation and endorsement. Ming-kai Chin (USA) was awarded by FIEP Medalha Manuel Gomes Tubino for his lifelong contribution to PE development in the world. The award ceremony took place in JLN Stadium on 14 October 2015. 25th FIEP World Congress held in Rabat, Morocco, 12-15 November 2015 The 25th FIEP World Congress was held together with 10th FIEP European Congress and 1st FIEP Afro-European Conference on Physical Education and Sport in Rabat, Morocco from 12-15 November 2015. Congress venue was the Institut Royal de Formation des Cadres, Centre National des Sports Moulay Rachid, km 12, route de Meknès, Salé, Morocco. Congress topic was “Physical Education and Sport for Peace, Development and Multicultural Understanding”. Keynote speakers were Iricho Kawachi (Harvard University, USA), Eve R. Berstein (Columbia University, USA), Jose Fernades Filho (Escola de Educação Física e Desporto, Brazil), Dario Novak (University of Zagreb, Croatia), Arunas Emeljanovas (Lithuanian Sports University, Lithuania) and Victoria E. Machota Blas (Secondary School in Murcia, Spain). The Congress was attended by representatives from 39 countries. 2nd FIEP Asia Conference on Physical Education, Tokyo, Japan 2016 The 2nd FIEP Asia Conference on Physical Education will be held in Tokyo, Japan on 13-14 February 2016. The topic of the event will be “Cultural and Innovatory Practices in Physical Education in Asia”. The event will be organised in cooperation with Kogakuin University in Tokyo. 11th FIEP European Congress, Banja Luka 2016 The 11th FIEP European Congress will be held at the University of Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnja and Herzegovina from 14-18 September 2016. For more information please visit the congress website at www.fiep2016unibl.org/ index.php/en For further information on FIEP please contact: Fédération Internationale d’Education physique (FIEP) www.fiepeurope.eu / [email protected] 9 Dr Branislav Antala is professor at the Comenius University in Bratislava (Slovenia) and FIEP Europe president. 10 Dr Dario Novak is researcher at the University of Zagreb (Croatia) and postdoctoral fellow at the Harvard University (Boston/USA) and the Columbia University (New York/USA).

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ISCPES News

www.iscpes-info.org Compiled by W. K. Y. Ho11 (Macau, China) ISCPES Executive Board The ISCPES Executive Board (2014-2016) composes members of Officious, Exofficious, Committee Chairs and Advisors as follows: Officio Members: Walter King Yan HO (University of Macau, ISCPES President), Rosa de D’AMICO (Universidad Pedagogica Experimental Libertador, ISCPES VicePresident), Nyit-chin KEH (National Taiwan Normal University, ISCPES Secretary), Abel TORIOLA (Tshwane University of Technology, ISCPES Treasurer), Lateef. O. AMUSA, (University of Venda, ISCPES Regional Coordinator), Martin HOLZWEG (Stellenbosch University, ISCPES Research and Publication Coordinator), José PRADO, (Universidad de Los Andes, ISCPES Membership Coordinator). Ex-officio Members: Darwin SEMOTIUK (University of Western Ontario, ISCPES Immediate Past-President), John SAUNDERS (Australian Catholic University, ISS Chief Editor) Advisory Committee and Work Group: John SAUNDERS (Australian Catholic University, Chair ISCPES Editorial Committee), Rebeca OROPEZA (Universidad Pedagogica Experimental Libertador, ISCPES News Coordinator; Election Committee Coordinator), José PRADO, (Universidad de Los Andes, ISCPES Web Coordinator) ISCPES Conference Information and ISCPES Publication The 19th Biennial Conference was successfully held in Russian State University of Physical Education, Sport and Tourism (Russia) from 27th to 29th May. “National Health: Life Long Physical Education as a Foundation of Public Health” was the conference title and about 270 abstracts received. ISCPES expects to have Executive Board meeting and the arrangement of a half day seminar in Rio de Janeiro on 11th September 2015. The 20th Biennial plans to be held in Brazil 2016. The Society’s journal, International Sport Studies is printed with two issues per year and plans to further expansion with more issues in the coming time. Further conference information and research works will be announced in the next year.

For further information please contact: International Society for Comparative Physical Education and Sport (ISCPES) www.iscpes-info.org / [email protected] 11

Dr. Walter King Yang Ho is professor at the University of Macau (China) and ISCPES president.

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IJPE Table of Contents 2015 Review Articles Cope, E., Bailey, R., & Parnel, D. (2015). Outsourcing physical education: A critical discussion. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(4), 2–11. Herrmann, C., Bund, A., Gerlach, E., Kurz, D., Lindemann, U., Rethorst, S., Scheuer, C., Seiler S., &, Pühse, U. (2015). A review of the assessment of basic motor qualifications and competencies in school. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(3), 2–13. Kretschmann, R. (2015). Pupils’ and student‘s attitudes towards physical education: A review. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(2), 2–13. Novac, D., & Bernstein, E. (2015). A review of research on physical education teachers and coach education (2013-2014). International Journal of Physical Education, 52(1), 2–9. Pfeffer, I., Hummel, E., & Wagner, P. (2015). Psychology of physical activity behaviour and health. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(2), 14–24. Scheuer, C. (2015). A review of selected physical education teacher education texts in German (2013-2014). International Journal of Physical Education, 52(1), 10–20. Research Articles Bekiari, A., & N. Digelidis, N. (2015). Measuring verbal aggressiveness in sport and education. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(4), 12–21. Bernstein, E., & Phillips, S. R. (2015). Identifying contexts and analysis of affect during competitive activities. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(1), 21–31. Cecić Erpič, S., D. Boben, D., Zabukovec, V., & Škof, B. (2015). Slovene schoolchildren’s attitudes towards endurance activities: Do gender, age and urban/rural environment matter? International Journal of Physical Education, 52(2), 25–36. Holický, J. & Mess, F. (2015). The comparison of psychomotor development between adolescents aged 14 and 15 from Prague orphanages and their peers from grade schools. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(3), 14–24. Sport International Saunders, J. E., & Pink, M. (2015). The relationship between the ‘off-field’ activities and the ‘on-field’ engagement of professional Australian footballers. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(1), 32–39. Körner, S., Steinmann, A., & Symanzik,T. (2015). Status quo – Safeguarding youth in German sport. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(4), 22–33. Groll, M., Bronikowska, M., & Savola, J. (2015). Cultural aspects of traditional sports and games. International Journal of Physical Education, 52(3), 25–36.

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IJPE Guidelines for Contributors 2016 The International Journal of Physical Education (IJPE) is concerned with research and scholarship in the social sciences and humanities that focus upon different aspects of physical education, including the eight IJPE review topics ‘instructional theory of sport’, ‘health foundations’, ‘sports curriculum theory’, ‘historical and philosophical foundations’, ‘physical education teachers and coach education’, ‘psychological and sociological foundations’, ‘comparative sport pedagogy’ and ‘conceptual and empirical sport pedagogy’. All work submitted should be original, unpublished work, not under consideration elsewhere. All papers submitted for the sections ‘research articles’ as well as ‘sport international’ undergo a thorough double blind peer-review process. Accepted papers come under the copyright of the Journal. Articles should be submitted by e-mail as an attachment preferably in Microsoft Word. Manuscripts should be in English. Contributors whose native language is not English are encouraged to consult an English language specialist to ensure that the manuscript is suitable for publication. ‐

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Manuscripts (up to a maximum of 5500 words, including tables, figures and references) should include an abstract of 150-200 words on a separate sheet, and have 3-5 keywords placed at the beginning of the article. Should the manuscript contain tables and/or figures the amount of words is respectively less. The format of the article (including tables, figures and references) should conform to the American Psychological Association format (see APA Publication Manual, 2009, 6th Edition). As far as possible, any information that would lead to identification of the authors should be removed from the manuscript itself. A second file should be provided as a title page which includes the names of all authors in the appropriate order for publication and with details of their institutional affiliation(s). The lead or corresponding author must be clearly identified with full contact details. Articles not conforming to the above specifications will be returned to the authors for correction prior to the review. The editors retain the right to make limited editorial changes to manuscripts that have successfully completed the initial review process. Such changes will be returned to the author for approval prior to publication.

Submissions should: 1. be headed attention: International Journal of Physical Education in the subject line of e-mail 2. have attachments clearly labelled as a) title page b) manuscript, both with the name of the lead author 3. be e-mailed directly to: [email protected]

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Upcoming Events Prepared in cooperation with ICSSPE (Berlin) Tel. +49 (0)30 36418850 www.icsspe.org / [email protected]

AERA 2016 Annual Meeting ‘Public scholarship to educate diverse democracies’ 08 – 12 April 2016 Washington DC, USA www.aera.net/EventsMeetings/tabid/10063/Default.aspx Global Forum for Physical Education Pedagogy (GoFPEP) 2016 ‘Technology, networking and best practice in physical education and health: local to global’ 26 – 28 May 2016 Ankara, Turkey www.globalpeforum2016.hacettepe.edu.tr AIESEP Conference 2016 ‘Blazing new trails: Future directions for sport pedagogy and physical activity’ 8 – 11 June 2016 Laramie, Wyoming, USA www.uwyo.edu/kandh/aiesep_2016 ECSS 21st Annual Conference ‘Crossing Borders through Sport Science’ 06 – 09 July 2016 Vienna, Austria www.ecss-congress.eu/2016 ICSEMIS 2016 ‘Saying Yes to Diversity in Sport’ 31 August – 04 September 2016 São Paulo, Brazil www.icsemis2016.org 11th FIEP European Congress 2016 ‘Anthropological aspects of sports, physical education and recreation’ 14 – 18 September 2016 Banja Luka, Bosnia Herzegovina www.fiep2016unibl.org/index.php/en ICSS 2016 – International Congress on Science and Skiing 10 – 15 December 2016 St. Christoph a. Arlberg, Austria https://icss2016.at 44

SUCCESSFUL ELITE SPORT POLICIES An international comparison of the Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success (SPLISS 2.0) in 15 nations De Bosscher, Shibli, Westerbeek & van Bottenburg

Successful Elite Sport Policies An international comparison of the Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success (SPLISS 2.0) in 15 nations 400 pages, in color Paperback, 16.5 x 24 cm ISBN: 978-1-78255-076-1 € [D] 36.95 / € [A] 38.00 $ 39.95 US / £ 26.95 UK

How can nations improve their chances of winning medals in international sport? This book deals with the strategic policy planning process that underpins the development of successful national elite sport development systems. Drawing on various international competitiveness studies, it examines how nations develop and implement policies that are based on the critical success factors that may lead to competitive advantage in world sport. An international group of researchers joined forces to develop theories, methods and a model on the Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success (SPLISS).

The book presents the results of the large-scale international SPLISS-project. In this project the research team identified, compared and contrasted elite sport policies and strategies in place for the Olympic Games and other events in 15 distinct nations. With input from 58 researchers and 33 policy makers worldwide and the views of over 3,000 elite athletes, 1,300 high performance coaches and 240 performance directors, this work is the largest benchmarking study of national elite sport policies ever conducted. All information subject to change!

The Sports Publisher MEYER & MEYER Sport | www.m-m-sports.com | [email protected]

CLIMBING THE MOUNTAIN Cancer, Exercise, and Well-Being Paul Stoller & Mitchell Stoller

Climbing the Mountain Cancer, Exercise, and Well-Being 168 pages paperback, 16.5 x 24 cm ISBN: 978-1-78255-068-6 E [D] 17.95 / E [A] 18.50 $ 19.95 US / £ 13.95 UK

“You have cancer.” Three words that will change your life forever. The diagnosis is often followed by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and many other stressinducing treatments. Your future will seem like an insurmountable mountain. John, a 50-yearold corporate lawyer, found himself facing this exact situation when he was diagnosed with a low grade follicular lymphoma. But John was determined to win his fight. Doing research on how to cope with cancer, he found a way to cope with it and is now in long-term remission. Using his story, the authors provide a guide to climbing that mountain.

They show how using preparation (research), practice (exercise and activity), and a variety of social supports to live well within the parameters that cancer imposes can help you deal with the disease. They consider how to cope with the stresses and strains of diagnosis, first treatment, short-term remission, second treatment, long-term remission, and palliative care. In particular, the authors stress the important relationship between exercise, activity, and well-being.

All information subject to change!

The Sports Publisher MEYER & MEYER Sport | www.m-m-sports.com | [email protected]