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Standards Review Transparencies

Earth Science

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13-digit ISBN 978-0-13-364576-7 10-digit ISBN 0-13-364576-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 09 08 07

TO THE TEACHER

The transparencies in this Prentice Hall Georgia Earth Science Standards Review Transparencies book are intended to serve as refreshers of the characteristics of science and content skills covered by the Grade 6 Georgia Performance Standards for Science. The Table of Contents presents a list of the titles of the transparencies grouped by standard. The correlation on the pages following the Table of Contents gives a statement of each of the Grade 6 performance standards and the number of each transparency that reviews that standard.

You can use these transparencies in several ways: ◆ The transparencies lend themselves to whole-class review. You can choose a standard to focus on, project the related transparency, and discuss the topic as a class. ◆ You can leave a transparency projected for a period of time, allowing for independent review of a particular standard. Students can then view the transparency at their convenience. ◆ You can arrange for students to view those transparencies that cover standards of particular concern to them. You may wish to let students decide for themselves which topics they need to review. Or you may choose to guide them to particular transparencies you think would be most helpful to them. However you choose to present them, the transparencies are a valuable tool for reviewing the Georgia Grade 6 Science Performance Standards.

ii

© Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The art may support the information in the text, relay information beyond what appears in the text, or supply data that students can use to interpret the text or answer the questions. The questions, in turn, are designed to take students beyond the material in the review points. Some questions require an interpretation of the graphic; others give students an opportunity to exercise critical-thinking skills.

CONTENTS

To the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ii


Transparency Correlation to Georgia Performance Standards v SCIENCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scientific The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12 E13 E14

CONTENT STANDARDS Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E15 E16 E17 E18 E19 E20 E21 E22 E23 E24 E25 E26 E27 E28 E29 E30 E31 E32 E33 E34 E35 E36 E37 iii

CONTENTS (continued)

iv

E38 E39 E40 E41 E42 E43 E44 E45 E46 E47 E48 E49 E50 E51 E52 E53 E54 E55 E56 E57 E58 E59 E60 E61 E62 E63 E64 E65 E66 E67 E68 E69 E70 E71 E72 E73 E74 E75 E76 E77 E78 E79 E80 E81 E82 E83


The Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS (continued) E84 E85 E86 E87 E88 E89 E90 E91 E92 E93 E94 E95


Earth’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weathering and Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weathering and Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conserving Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conserving Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conserving Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v

TRANSPARENCY CORRELATION TO GEORGIA PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

SCIENCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Transparency

Characteristics of Science: Habits of Mind E1

S6CS2 Students will use standard safety practices for all classroom laboratory and field investigations.

E2

S6CS3 Students will use computation and estimation skills necessary for analyzing data and following scientific explanations.

E3, E4

S6CS4 Students will use tools and instruments for observing, measuring, and manipulating equipment and materials in scientific activities.

E5

S6CS5 Students will use the ideas of system, model, change, and scale in exploring scientific and technological matters.

E6, E7

S6CS6 Students will communicate scientific ideas and activities clearly.

E8, E9

S6CS7 Students will question scientific claims and arguments effectively.

E10

Characteristics of Science: The Nature of Science

vi

S6CS8 Students will investigate the characteristics of scientific knowledge and how it is achieved.

E11, E12

S6CS9 Students will investigate the features of the process of scientific inquiry.

E13, E14


S6CS1 Students will explore the importance of curiosity, honesty, openness, and skepticism in science and will exhibit these traits in their own efforts to understand how the world works.

TRANSPARENCY CORRELATION TO GEORGIA PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (CONTINUED)


Transparency

Content Standards


S6E1 Students will explore current scientific views of the universe and how those views evolved.

a. Relate the Nature of Science to the progression of basic historical scientific theories (geocentric and heliocentric) as they describe our solar system, and the Big Bang as it describes the formation of the universe.

E15, E16

b. Describe the position of the solar system in the Milky Way galaxy and the universe.

E17, E18, E19, E20, E21

c. Compare and contrast the planets in terms of • Size relative to the earth • Surface and atmospheric features • Relative distance from the sun • Ability to support life

E22, E23

d. Explain the motion of objects in the day/night sky in terms of relative position.

E24, E25

e. Explain that gravity is the force that governs the motion in the solar system.

f. Describe the characteristics of comets, asteroids, and meteors.

E26, E27, E28

E29

S6E2 Students will understand the effects of the relative positions of the earth, moon, and sun.

a. Demonstrate the phases of the moon by showing the alignment of the earth, moon, and sun.

E30

b. Explain the alignment of the earth, moon, and sun during solar and lunar eclipses.

E31, E32

c. Relate the tilt of the earth to the distribution of sunlight throughout the year and to its effect on climate.

E33

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TRANSPARENCY CORRELATION TO GEORGIA PERFORMANCE STANDARDS


Transparency

S6E3 Students will recognize the significant role of water in earth processes.

a. Explain that a large portion of the Earth’s surface is water, consisting of ocean, rivers, lakes, underground water, and ice.

b. Relate various atmospheric conditions to stages of the water cycle.

c. Describe the composition, location, and subsurface topography of the world’s oceans.

E37

E38, E39

E40, E41, E42, E43

S6E4 Students will understand how the distribution of land and oceans affects climate and weather.

a. Demonstrate that land and water absorb and lose heat at different rates and explain the resulting effects on weather patterns.

E44, E45, E46, E47

b. Relate unequal heating of land and water surfaces to form large global wind systems and weather events such as tornados and thunderstorms.

E48, E49

c. Relate how moisture evaporating from the oceans affects the weather patterns and the weather events such as hurricanes.

E50, E51

S6E5 Students will investigate the scientific view of how the earth’s surface is formed.

a. Compare and contrast the Earth’s crust, mantle, and core including temperature, density, and composition.

b. Investigate the composition of rocks in terms of minerals.

c. Classify rocks by their process of formation.

d. Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of the earth.

viii

E52, E53, E54, E55

E56, E57, E58

E59, E60

E61, E62, E63


d. Explain the causes of waves, currents, and tides.

E34, E35, E36

TRANSPARENCY CORRELATION TO GEORGIA PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (CONTINUED)


Transparency


S6E5 Students will investigate the scientific view of how the earth’s surface is formed. (continued)

e. Recognize that lithospheric plates constantly move and cause major geological events on the earth’s surface.

E64, E65, E66, E67, E68, E69, E70, E71

f. Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans (composition, currents, and tides).

E72, E73, E74, E75, E76, E77

g. Describe how fossils show evidence of the changing surface and climate of the earth.

E78, E79, E80, E81, E82, E83, E84

h. Describe soil as consisting of weathered rocks and decomposed organic material.

i. Explain the effects of human activity on the erosion of the earth’s surface.

j. Describe methods for conserving natural resources such as water, soil, and air.

E85, E86

E87

E88, E89

S6E6 Students will describe various sources of energy and with their uses and conservation.

a. Explain the role of the sun as the major source of energy and the sun’s relationship to wind and water energy.

E90, E91, E92

b. Identify renewable and nonrenewable resources.

E93, E94, E95

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Scientific Habits of Mind S6CS1 Students will explore the importance of curiosity, honesty, openness, and skepticism in science and will exhibit these traits in their own efforts to understand how the world works.

E1

Pose Questions Form a Hypothesis

Communicate

Design an Experiment

Draw Conclusions Collect and Interpret Data

Quick Review


◆ Scientific investigations include developing a testable hypothesis, taking accurate measurements, collecting data and observations, and using logical reasoning to formulate explanations. ◆ Scientific knowledge is constantly reviewed and critiqued. Scientists should keep clear, honest, and accurate records of their research so that other scientists can repeat their experiment and confirm their results. ◆ Scientists should be open-minded to new ideas but also skeptical about information presented without evidence. ◆ Not all scientific investigations result in defensible explanations. However, even incorrect hypotheses are valuable even if they turn out not to be completely accurate.

Questions 1. Identify the steps in the scientific inquiry process. 2. Why is it important for scientists to keep accurate and clear records of their investigations? 1. Pose questions, form a hypothesis, design an experiment, collect and interpret data, draw conclusions, communicate 2. Clear and accurate records enable other scientists to review and replicate the work.

Scientific Habits of Mind

E2

S6CS2 Students will use standard safety practices for all classroom laboratory and field investigations.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8


Quick Review ◆ Safety procedures in the laboratory and in field studies include recognizing potential hazards and working carefully in order to prevent accidents. ◆ While performing experiments, manipulate all materials and equipment safely. Follow the directions as written or told to you by your teacher. ◆ Safety symbols alert you to possible dangers in the laboratory and remind you to work carefully.

Questions 1. Why is it important to wear goggles during many experiments? 2. Which of the symbols shown means that you will be working with sharp objects? 3. What is the meaning of the symbol labeled 1? 1. To protect your eyes from chemicals, flames, or heat 2. The symbol labeled 4 3. Wash your hands thoroughly before and after experiments.

Scientific Habits of Mind S6CS3 Students will use computation and estimation skills necessary for analyzing data and following scientific explanations.

Neither Precise nor Accurate

Precise but Not Accurate

E3

Both Precise and Accurate

Quick Review


◆ Scientists must sometimes rely on estimates when they cannot obtain exact numbers. ◆ Accuracy and precision are both important when you make measurements. ◆ You may determine an “average” by finding the mean, median, or mode.

Questions 1. True or false: Estimating is the same as guessing. 2. What does it mean to say a measurement is accurate? 3. What are the mean, median, and mode of the following set of numbers: 2, 5, 3, 8, 5, 0, 5?

1. False 2. It means that the measurement is close to the true or accepted value. 3. The mean is 4, the median is 5, and the mode is 5.

Scientific Habits of Mind S6CS3 Students will use computation and estimation skills necessary for analyzing data and following scientific explanations.

E4

Quick Review


◆ A scientific explanation must be supported by evidence from investigations.

Questions 1. Which conclusion is best supported by the information in the graphs? A. Ocean water is primarily composed of chloride. B. More than 30 percent of ocean water is made up of salts. C. Chloride ions make up more than half of the dissolved salts in ocean water. D. Together, calcium and potassium ions make up about 2 percent of ocean water. 2. What should a scientist do if the results of an experiment do not support the hypothesis?

1. C

2. The scientist should change the hypothesis and test a new hypothesis.

Scientific Habits of Mind S6CS4 Students will use tools and instruments for observing, measuring, and manipulation equipment and materials in scientific activities. Thermometer

E5 Balance

Graduated cylinder

Ruler

Quick Review © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

◆ Scientists use tools such as balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars to perform tests and collect data. ◆ Technology such as calculators and computers help scientists perform tests, collect and store data, and and measure, compute, and communicate their information.

Questions 1. Which of the tools shown could you use to measure the volume of a liquid? A. thermometer

B. ruler

C. graduated cylinder

D. balance

2. How long is the shell in front of the ruler?

1. C

2. About 4.5 cm

E6

1. The sun and Earth 2. Rotate the ball while holding the flashlight still. 3. Scientific models can help people to visualize or understand certain objects or scientific processes that cannot be observed directly.

3. How are models useful in science?

2. How would you manipulate this model to explain what causes night and day?

1. Look at the photo. The student is modeling day and night on Earth. What do the flashlight and the ball in the model represent?

Questions

◆ Preparing a model or simulation may help you communicate your findings and defend your conclusions orally and in writing.

◆ Models help people study and understand phenomena that are complex or can’t be observed directly. It’s important to select the appropriate model to examine a phenomenon.

Quick Review

S6CS5 Students will use the ideas of system, model, change, and scale in exploring scientific and technological matters.




E7

S6CS5 Students will use the ideas of system, model, change, and scale in exploring scientific and technological matters. Mount Whitney N

Key Glacier

W

Trail

Contour interval

E S

Contour interval 20 meters 0

0.25 mi

0

0.5 km

0.5 mi 1 km


Index contour

Quick Review ◆ Maps and globes are models of Earth’s surface. Maps are drawn to scale and use symbols to represent topography and other features on Earth’s surface. ◆ Topographic maps use contour lines to show elevation and relief.

Questions 1. If you climbed Mount Whitney, you would find the gentlest slopes if you climbed from the A. northeast.

B. east.

C. southeast.

D. southwest.

2. What is the highest elevation on the map?

1. D

2. the summit of Mount Whitney, 4416.9 m


Average Temperature (°C)

Temperature and Precipitation Combined 300

30 20

200

10 0

100

–10 –20 –30

J F MAM J J A S ON D

0

E8

Average Precipitation (mm)

S6CS6 Students will communicate scientific ideas and activities clearly.

Month


Quick Review ◆ Scientists can construct and use graphs to draw conclusions about patterns in the data or the relationships between variables.

Questions 1. The graph shows climate data for a city in Kenya in East Africa. Which months have the least precipitation? A. June through September B. October through December C. January through May D. January, February, and May 2. The graph shows data for a tropical wet-and-dry climate. Based on the graph, what are the characteristics of this climate? 1. A 2. The weather is hot throughout the year and there are two seasons with peak precipitation: March through April and November through December.

Scientific Habits of Mind S6CS6 Students will communicate scientific ideas and activities clearly.

E9

Comparing Insulated Mugs 100 90

Temperature (ºC)

80 70 60

Insulated Mug A

50 40 30 Insulated Mug B

20 10 0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60


Time (minutes)

Quick Review ◆ In science, it is important to communicate the steps and results of investigations.

Questions 1. In what section of a lab report should the graph above appear? A. procedure

B. hypothesis

C. list of materials

D. results

2. Why is it important to record the steps of an investigation accurately?

1. D

2. So that other scientists can repeat the experiment

Scientific Habits of Mind S6CS7 Students will question scientific claims and arguments effectively.

Scientific or

E10

Not?

specific? • Is the claim made by an • Is the claim subject? t expert in tha based on • Is the claim opinions? evidence, not ? ugh evidence • Is there eno st conclusion e b e h t is h t e • Is rawn from th that can be d evidence?

Quick Review


◆ Be skeptical of vague claims or those made by people outside their area of expertise. ◆ Remember that research and arguments may be designed poorly; that is, they may be based on flaws of reasoning or inappropriate samples. ◆ Recognize that there may be more than one way to interpret a given result.

Question 1. A new sneaker is promoted on television by a Dr. Randy Jones. Of the questions on the checklist above, which question should you ask in your mind about Dr. Jones’ qualifications?

1. “Is the claim made by an expert in that subject?”

The Nature of Science S6CS8 Students will investigate the characteristics of scientific knowledge and how it is achieved.

E11


Quick Review ◆ Scientists ask and try to answer questions about the natural world. Although all experiments are different, many follow a similar pattern. ◆ In any scientific investigation, you must identify a testable hypothesis related to the question. After identifying the question and hypothesis, you must design an experiment to test the hypothesis. ◆ Scientific knowledge is sometimes modified as new information challenges old theories. A scientific theory is accepted only when it is supported by a large body of evidence.

Questions 1. Turn this question into a hypothesis: “Which freezes faster—fresh water or salt water?” 2. In designing an experiment to test this hypothesis, what materials will you need?

1. If I add salt to fresh water, the water will take longer to freeze.

2. Salt, water, containers, and a freezer

The Nature of Science


S6CS8 Students will investigate the characteristics of scientific knowledge and how it is achieved.

E12

Quick Review ◆ Scientists can use observations to determine a sequence of events, such as the order in which rocks formed.

Questions 1. If a layer of volcanic material cuts across the Hermit shale, the Coconino sandstone, and the lower part of the Toroweap limestone, when did the volcanic layer form? A. after Kaibab limestone B. after Toroweap limestone C. before Supai sandstone D. at the same time as Coconino sandstone 2. What type of rock formed after Toroweap limestone?

1. B

2. Kaibab limestone

The Nature of Science S6CS9 Students will understand the features of the process of scientific inquiry.

E13

Pose Questions Form a Hypothesis

Communicate

Design an Experiment


Draw Conclusions Collect and Interpret Data

Quick Review ◆ A hypothesis is a possible explanation for a set of observations or answer to a scientific question.

Questions 1. Scientists usually test a hypothesis by A. drawing a conclusion. B. conducting a controlled experiment. C. posing questions. D. developing a theory. 2. Why is it important in an experiment to collect and interpret data carefully?

1. B 2. Careful data collection and interpretation provide the evidence needed to draw a conclusion—that is, to decide whether the results of the experiment support or disprove the hypothesis.

The Nature of Science S6CS9 Students will investigate the features of the process of scientific inquiry.

E14

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. Fill 3 containers with 300 milliliters of cold tap water. 2. Add 10 grams of salt to Container 1; stir. Add 20 grams of salt to Container 2; stir. Add no salt to Container 3. 3. Place the 3 containers in a freezer. 4. Check the containers every 15 minutes. Record your observations.


Quick Review ◆ In a well-designed experiment, you need to keep all variables the same except for one. ◆ An investigation in which only one variable is manipulated at a time is called a controlled experiment.

Questions 1. Which is the manipulated variable in the experimental procedure above? A. amount of water B. starting temperature C. temperature of the freezer D. amount of salt in the water 2. What is a variable?

1. D

2. A factor that can be measured in an experiment

Astronomy S6E1.a Relate the Nature of Science to the progression of basic historical scientific theories (geocentric and heliocentric) as they describe our solar system, and the Big Bang as it describes the formation of the universe.

E15

A cloud of gas and dust formed a spinning disk.

Gas in the center of the disk collapsed to form the sun.

The remaining gas and dust formed the planets.

The solar system includes the sun, planets, and belts of rock, ice and dust.

Quick Review


◆ About 5 billion years ago, a giant cloud of gas and dust collapsed to form our solar system. ◆ Most early Greek astronomers believed that the planets and stars revolved around Earth. This geocentric system was widely accepted until Copernicus further developed a heliocentric theory. ◆ Galileo’s observations of Venus and Jupiter’s major moons supported the heliocentric system.

Questions 1. How did the early Greek astronomers explain the movements of the planets and the stars? 2. What observations did Galileo make about Venus that supported Copernicus’s heliocentric idea? 3. What two factors did Newton conclude keep the planets in orbit?

1. They believed that Earth is at the center of a rotating dome they called the celestial sphere. The planets and stars were thought to revolve around a stationary Earth.

2. Galileo discovered that Venus goes through phases similar to those of Earth’s moon. 3. Inertia and gravity.

Astronomy S6E1.a Relate the Nature of Science to the progression of basic historical scientific theories (geocentric and heliocentric) as they describe our solar system, and the Big Bang as it describes the formation of the universe.

E16


Quick Review ◆ According to the big bang theory, the universe was formed in an enormous explosion about 13.7 billion years ago. Since then, the universe has continued to expand. ◆ Evidence for the big bang theory includes Hubble’s law and the presence of cosmic background radiation. ◆ Hubble’s law states that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us.

Questions 1. How can astronomers tell how fast a galaxy is moving? 2. What is cosmic background radiation?

1. By examining the spectrum of the galaxy

2. Leftover thermal energy from the big bang

Astronomy


S6E1.b Describe the position of the solar system in the Milky Way galaxy and the universe.

E17

Quick Review ◆ The sun is one of many stars in the Milky Way galaxy.

Questions 1. Which layer of the sun is its visible surface? A. corona

B. chromosphere

C. photosphere

D. core

2. What characteristic of the sun determines its yellow color? 1. C

2. Its surface temperature

Astronomy

E18


Parallax of Stars B

C

D

Star A C B

C D

A

B

Sky as seen from Earth in January

A

D

Sky as seen from Earth in July

Earth in January

Earth in July


Sun

Quick Review ◆ Interstellar and intergalactic distances are expressed in terms of how far light travels in one year, the light-year: 1 ly ⫽ 9.5 ⫻ 1015 meters.

Questions 1. Star A is 100 ly from Earth. How long will it take the light from Star A to reach Earth? A. 100 years B. 1,000 years C. 10,000 years D. 1 million years 2. Why do astronomers use light-years to measure the distances to the stars?

1. A

2. The stars are very far away.


1. A

20,000

6,000

Surface Temperature ( ˚C)

10,000

White Dwarfs

Sun

Alpha Centauri B

Giants

Aldebaran

5,000

Red

3,000

Betelgeuse

Red-orange

Alpha Centauri A

Polaris

Supergiants

Yellow

2. In general, brightness increases as surface temperature increases.

50,000

Sirius A

Sirius B

White

Algol

Main Sequence

Rigel

Blue or blue-white

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

E19

2. What is the trend between brightness and surface temperature of mainsequence stars?

D. brighter and cooler.

C. dimmer and hotter.

B. dimmer and cooler.

A. brighter and hotter.

1. Sirius A is a star on the main sequence according to the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. Compared to our sun, Sirius A is

Questions

◆ Stars may differ in size, temperature, and color.

Quick Review


Astronomy

Absolute Brightness Increasing

Astronomy



E20

Quick Review ◆ A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars. ◆ Our solar system is located in a spiral arm of a galaxy called the Milky Way. The center of the Milky Way is about 25,000 light-years away.

Questions 1. Which types of galaxies contain many bright, young stars and lots of gas and dust? A. elliptical and spiral B. irregular and elliptical C. spiral and irregular D. spiral, irregular, and elliptical 2. What is a nebula? Why isn’t it a galaxy?

1. C

2. A nebula is a large cloud of gas and dust. It is too small to be a galaxy and it does not contain billions of stars.

Astronomy S6E1.b Describe the position of the solar system in the Milky Way galaxy and the universe.


X

E21

Y

Z Quick Review ◆ Galaxies are classified as spiral, elliptical, or irregular based on their shapes.

Questions 1. Which of the galaxies pictured above is an example of an elliptical galaxy? A. X

B. Y

C. Z

D. None of them are elliptical galaxies.

2. What kinds of stars are found in an irregular galaxy?

1. B

2. Bright, young stars

Astronomy S6E1.c Compare and contrast the planets in terms of size relative to the earth, surface and atmospheric features, relative distance from the sun, and ability to support life.

E22

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Mars

The Inner Planets Planet

Period of Rotation (Earth days)

Average Distance From Sun (AU)

Period of Revolution (Earth years)

Number of Moons

Diameter

Radius

4,879

2,440

59

0.39

0.24

0

Venus

12,104

6,052

243

0.72

0.62

0

Earth

12,756

6,378

1

1.0

1

1

Mars

6,794

3,397

1.03

1.5

1.9

2

Mercury © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Size (kilometers)

Quick Review ◆ The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are relatively small, dense, and have rocky surfaces.

Questions 1. Which of the inner planets is most comparable in size to Earth? A. Mercury B. Mars C. Jupiter D. Venus 2. How are the atmospheres of Venus and Mars similar to each other and different from the atmosphere of Earth?

1. D 2. The atmospheres of Venus and Mars are made up mostly of carbon dioxide. Earth’s atmosphere is mostly a mix of nitrogen and oxygen.

Astronomy S6E1.c Compare and contrast the planets in terms of size relative to the earth, surface and atmospheric features, relative distance from the sun, and ability to support life.

E23

Pluto Neptune

Uranus Jupiter Saturn


The Outer Planets and Pluto Size (kilometers) Radius

Period of Rotation (Earth days)

Average Distance From Sun (AU)

Period of Revolution (Earth years)

Number of Moons

143,000

71,490

0.41

5.2

12

63+

Saturn

120,500

60,270

0.45

9.6

29

47+

Uranus

51,120

25,560

0.72

19.2

84

27+

Neptune

49,530

24,760

0.67

30.0

164

13+

2,390

1,200

6.4

39.2

248

3

Planet or Dwarf Planet

Diameter

Jupiter

Pluto

Quick Review ◆ The outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are much larger and more massive than the inner planets. They all have many moons and are each surrounded by a set of rings.

Questions 1. Which of the outer planets moves fastest around the sun? A. Jupiter B. Saturn C. Uranus D. Neptune 2. Which two elements make up most of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn? 1. A

2. Hydrogen and helium

Astronomy S6E1.d Explain the motion of objects in the day/night sky in terms of relative position.

E24

Northern Horizon IA

PE

DRA

CO

S

SS IO

EU

CA

eba

ran

se

VELA

ge

s

Ri

riu

l

OR IO

Si DR A

eu

M AJ OR

HY

lg

S PU LE

CA NI S

US CORV

CANIS MINOR e t e B

ERID

n

yo

lus

N

oc

gu

Western Horizon

Ald

Pr

ica Sp

Re

IES

es P e ad

TAURUS

Pollu

ANUS

ER CANC

O VIRG

Castor x GE MIN I

AR

RS PE

Ca A IG R AU

Arcturus

O

IAN TR

lla pe

UR SA (BIG MAJ OR DIP PER )

ES

EU

S

L GU

AN UM

DR

OM

CE

ED

A

PH

URSA MINOR (LITTLE DIPPER)

(N Po or lar th is St ar )

B OO T

Eastern Horizon

LE

LU CO

A MB

Southern Horizon


Quick Review ◆ Constellations are imaginary patterns of stars that look like people or animals. Unlike the planets, constellations stay in a fixed position relative to one another. Therefore, astronomers use the constellations to locate objects such as planets in the night sky. ◆ The positions of the constellations in the sky change as Earth revolves around the sun. Different constellations are visible from different latitudes as well. ◆ Star charts map the constellations that appear during different seasons and time of year.

Questions 1. Are the stars in a particular constellation all close to one another? 2. Around what star do the Northern Hemisphere stars appear to revolve?

1. No, they just happen to lie in the same part of the sky as seen from Earth.

2. The North Star

Astronomy S6E1.d Explain the motion of objects in the day/night sky in terms of relative position.

E25

Quick Review


◆ Earth moves through space in two major ways: rotation and revolution. ◆ Earth rotates once around its axis in about 24 hours. Earth’s rotation causes day and night. Objects such as the sun, moon, and stars appear to move from east to west in the sky as Earth rotates from west to east. ◆ Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. As Earth moves around the sun, different objects, such as stars and planets, become visible in the night sky as the relative positions of Earth, the sun, and these objects change.

Questions 1. One complete revolution of Earth around the sun is called a(n) A. hour.

B. day.

C. month.

D. year.

2. Why do the planets appear to wander among the stars? 1. D. 2. Like Earth, the planets revolve around the sun. As Earth and the planets move, the angles between them change, and the planets’ appear to wander slowly among the distant stars.

Astronomy S6E1.e Explain that gravity is the force that governs the motion in the solar system.

E26

The force of gravity acts between all objects.

If mass increases, the force of gravity increases.

If distance increases, the force of gravity decreases.

Quick Review


◆ Gravity is an attractive force between any two objects that have mass. ◆ The strength of a gravitational force depends on mass and distance. The force is stronger for larger masses and at shorter distances. ◆ The gravitational attraction between Earth and an object gives an object weight. ◆ The sun’s gravitational pull holds Earth and other planets in their orbits.

Questions 1. Why does it seem that objects such as cars and rocks do not have gravitational attraction toward each other? 2. Why is the weight of an object on the moon less than the weight of the same object on Earth? 3. What causes ocean tides? 1. The mass of these objects is very small compared to Earth, so the force attracting them to Earth is much stronger than the force attracting them to each other.

2. The mass of the moon is less than the mass of Earth, so the gravitational force is smaller. 3. The moon’s gravity pulling on the Earth

Astronomy S6E1.e Explain that gravity is the force that governs the motion in the solar system.

Force of gravity

Moon

E27

Earth

Actual orbit

Moon’s motion without gravity


Quick Review ◆ Inertia and gravity combine to keep Earth in orbit around the sun and the moon in orbit around Earth.

Questions 1. Why does the moon stay in orbit around Earth? Why doesn’t the moon fall to Earth? 2. What would happen to the moon if there were no gravity? A. It would stop moving. B. It would fall toward Earth. C. It would leave orbit and move in a straight line. D. It would continue to orbit Earth.

1. The moon’s inertia keeps it moving ahead, and gravity pulls the moon toward Earth. The combination of these two factors keeps the moon in orbit around Earth. 2. C

1. B

2. What would happen to the sun if gravity were suddenly turned off?

D. convection

C. momentum

B. outward pressure

A. inertia

1. What opposing force balances the sun’s gravity, keeping the sun stable over time?

Questions

2. The outward pressure from the sun’s core would no longer be balanced by gravity, causing the sun to explode.

Gravity in

Pressure out

E28

◆ Gravity is the force that attracts all objects toward each other. It is responsible for forming the sun into its spherical shape.

Quick Review

S6E1.e Explain that gravity is the force that governs the motion in the solar system.

Astronomy


Astronomy S6E1.f Describe the characteristics of comets, asteroids, and meteors.

E29

Comet orbit

Sun Coma Dust tail Gas Tail


Quick Review ◆ Comets are loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. They typically have long, narrow elliptical orbits. When a comet gets close enough to the sun, some of its ice turns to gas, forming a coma and one or two long tails. ◆ Asteroids are chunks of rock in space. Most revolve around the sun in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. ◆ Meteoroids are chunks of rock or dust in space. Meteoroids come from asteroids or comets.

Questions 1. What force pushes gas and dust away from a comet to form its tail? 2. Why is a comet difficult to see when it is far from the sun? 3. What do scientists think happened when one or more large asteroids hit Earth about 65 million years ago? 1. The solar wind 2. It remains frozen and does not have a coma or a tail. 3. A catastrophic explosion led to the extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species.

Astronomy

E30

S6E2.a Demonstrate the phases of the moon by showing the alignment of the earth, moon, and sun.

Phases of the Moon View From Space 7. Third Quarter 8. Waning Crescent

6. Waning Gibbous

1. New Moon

5. Full Moon

2. Waxing Crescent

4. Waxing Gibbous


Sunlight 3. First Quarter

Quick Review ◆ The phase of the moon you see depends on how much of the sunlit side of the moon faces Earth. ◆ The same side of the moon is always visible from Earth because the moon revolves once around Earth and rotates once on its axis in the same period of time.

Questions 1. When the moon is in the new moon phase, how much of its surface receives light from the sun? 2. Since the moon does not produce its own light, how can you see it? 1. Half the moon’s surface receives sunlight no matter what the phase. However, at the time of a new moon, the sunlit half of the moon is facing away from Earth. 2. Sunlight reflects from the moon’s surface.

Astronomy S6E2.b Explain the alignment of the earth, moon, and sun during solar and lunar eclipses.

E31

Solar Eclipse Penumbra Umbra

Moon

Earth

Sun


◆ A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes directly between Earth and the sun, blocking sunlight from reaching the Earth. ◆ During a total solar eclipse, a small section of Earth’s surface lies in the moon’s umbra, the darkest part of the moon’s shadow.

◆ A partial solar eclipse can be seen in areas that lie in the moon’s penumbra, the larger, less dark part of its shadow.

Questions 1. What phase is the moon in during a solar eclipse? A. new moon

B. first quarter

C. third quarter

D. full moon

2. Why can a total solar eclipse be seen from only a small part of Earth’s surface?

1. A

2. The moon casts only a small shadow on Earth because it is much smaller than Earth.

Astronomy

E32

S6E2.b Explain the alignment of the earth, moon, and sun during solar and lunar eclipses.

Lunar Eclipse

Penumbra Moon

Umbra

Earth

Sun


Quick Review ◆ During a total lunar eclipse, Earth is directly between the moon and the sun. Earth blocks sunlight from reaching the moon, which is in Earth’s shadow. ◆ A total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon is in Earth’s umbra. A partial lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes partly into Earth’s umbra.

Questions 1. What phase is the moon in when a lunar eclipse occurs? A. new moon

B. waning crescent

C. waxing gibbous

D. full moon

2. Why doesn’t a lunar eclipse occur every month?

1. D 2. The moon’s orbit is tilted about 5 degrees relative to Earth’s orbit around the sun. So, in most months the moon revolves around Earth without moving into Earth’s shadow.

Astronomy S6E2.c Relate the tilt of the earth to the distribution of sunlight throughout the year and to its effect on climate.

E33

March Equinox December Solstice

June Solstice September Equinox


Quick Review ◆ Earth has seasons because its axis is tilted as it moves around the sun. The axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5° from the vertical. ◆ As Earth revolves around the sun, its axis is tilted away from the sun for part of the year and toward the sun for part of the year. ◆ When the north end of Earth’s axis is tilted toward the sun, the Northern Hemisphere has summer and the Southern Hemisphere has winter.

Questions 1. Why are the seasons not affected by changes in Earth’s distance from the sun? 2. What is a solstice? When does it occur? 3. What is an equinox? When does it occur?

1. The directness of sunlight and the hours of daylight influence the seasons more than small changes in the sun’s distance. 2. A solstice occurs when the noon sun is overhead at either 23.5° N or 23.5° S on or about the 21st of June and December. 3. An equinox occurs when the noon sun is directly overhead at the equator on or about the 21st of March and September.

Earth’s Waters S6E3.a Explain that a large portion of the Earth’s surface is water, consisting of oceans, rivers, lakes, underground water, and ice.

E34

Distribution of Earth’s Water

Ice 76% Shallow groundwater 12% Deep groundwater 11%

Fre sh w er at

Salt water in oceans and salt lakes 97%

Lakes and rivers 0.34% Water vapor 0.037%


◆ Most of Earth’s water is salt water found in the oceans. Oceans cover about 70 percent of Earth’s surface. ◆ Most of Earth’s fresh water is locked in the thick sheets of ice that cover Antarctica and Greenland.

Questions 1. What percentage of Earth’s water is fresh water? A. About 0.34% B. About 3% C. About 76% D. About 97% 2. How much of Earth’s fresh water is located underground?

1. B

2. About 23%

Earth’s Waters S6E3.a Explain that a large portion of the Earth’s surface is water, consisting of oceans, rivers, lakes, underground water, and ice.

E35

Aquifer Spring

Well

Impermeable layer

Saturated zone Water table

Saturated zone

Quick Review


◆ Roughly 25 percent of Earth's fresh water is groundwater. ◆ An aquifer is a permeable layer of rock that is saturated with water. ◆ People depend on aquifers for drinking water and irrigation.

Questions 1. What does it mean for a rock to be permeable? 2. According to the illustration, which layer of rock is the source of the water in a spring? 3. How might a rise in air temperature lead to a drop in the amount of water in an aquifer?

1. Water can pass easily through a permeable rock. 2. The aquifer layer 3. Higher temperatures can cause more water to evaporate instead of sinking into the ground.

Earth’s Waters

E36

S6E3.a Explain that a large portion of the Earth’s surface is water, consisting of oceans, rivers, lakes, underground water, and ice.

Tributary Oxbow lake Meander

Ocean


Quick Review

Delta

◆ Rivers begin in the mountains, where many streams come together to form the fast-moving headwaters. Downriver, the land’s slope is less steep, and tributaries increase the river’s volume. ◆ The river then flows through its flood plain, where it can meander back and forth. Sometimes a meander is cut off from the river and forms an oxbow lake. ◆ At the mouth, the river flows into a larger body of water—a larger river, a lake, or an ocean. Sometimes deposits of sediment build up at the mouth of the river to form a delta.

Questions 1. What makes up a river system? 2. What two factors affect how fast a river flows? 3. What is the name of the land area that supplies water to a river system?

1. A river and all its tributaries

2. The steepness of its slope and the volume of its water

3. A watershed or drainage basin

RUNOFF AND GROUNDWATER

Groundwater

PRECIPITATION

CONDENSATION

3. What happens to rain that falls into the oceans?

2. How does the water cycle renew Earth’s supply of fresh water?

1. What source of energy drives the water cycle?

Questions

◆ Precipitation that falls on land can evaporate, flow into rivers, lakes, and oceans, or seep into the Earth’s crust where it will become groundwater.

◆ Water vapor condenses as it cools to form clouds in the atmosphere. When the water droplets become heavy enough, they fall back to Earth as precipitation.

1. The sun 2. Most of the water that evaporates comes from the salty oceans but becomes fresh as it evaporates. 3. It remains in the ocean until it evaporates and continues the cycle.

Ocean

Lake

EVAPORATION

Water vapor

E37

◆ The water cycle begins when water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and rivers, and is released from plants or animals.

Quick Review

S6E3.b Relate various atmospheric conditions to stages of the water cycle.

Earth’s Waters


The Oceans S6E3.c Describe the composition, location, and subsurface topography of the world’s oceans.

E38


Quick Review ◆ About 97% of Earth’s water is salt water, mostly found in oceans. About 3% is fresh water found in icebergs, groundwater, lakes, and rivers. ◆ On average, one kilogram of ocean water contains about 35 grams of salts, or has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand. Salt water has a higher density and a lower freezing temperature than fresh water. ◆ Water is one of Earth’s best solvents. Minerals from rocks such as limestone and gases dissolve in groundwater, lakes, and oceans.

Questions 1. Where is most of Earth’s fresh water found? 2. What percentage of the dissolved salts in ocean water is comprised of sodium and chloride?

1. In ice sheets and icebergs

2. 85.6%

PPLS

The Oceans S6E3.c Describe the composition, location, and subsurface topography of the world’s oceans.

E39

Quick Review


◆ The continental shelf is a gently sloping, shallow part of the ocean floor that extends outward from the edge of a continent. Beyond the edge of the continental shelf is a steeply declining area called the continental slope. ◆ The smooth, nearly flat region of the ocean floor is called the abyssal plain. Mountains rise and deep canyons called trenches drop off from the abyssal plain.

Questions 1. A mountain that rises from the ocean floor, but whose peak does not break the ocean surface, is called a A. volcanic island.

B. trench.

C. mid-ocean ridge.

D. seamount.

2. Which section of the ocean floor would you touch as you walk into the ocean from a beach?

1. D

2. The continental shelf

The Oceans

E40

S6E3.d Explain the causes of waves, currents, and tides.

Direction of wave movement

Wavelength Crest

Particle motion

Wave height

Trough

No particle motion below this depth


Quick Review ◆ Waves carry energy. ◆ Although an ocean wave travels through the water, the water particles remain in place. ◆ Most waves form when winds blowing across the water’s surface transmit energy to the water.

Questions 1. What does the wave transfer in the direction of its motion? A. water particles B. troughs C. energy D. crests 2. How does the wave get its energy?

1. C

2. Wind makes contact with the water and transfers energy to it.

The Oceans

E41

S6E.d Explain the causes of waves, currents, and tides.

Sea level Ocean floor Earthquake

Quick Review


◆ Tsunamis are giant ocean waves. They travel at sea as a long, low wave. Near shore, the height of the wave increases dramatically. Tsunamis can cause great destruction. ◆ Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes beneath the ocean floor.

Questions 1. What is the source of energy for a tsunami? A. change in sea level B. ocean winds C. heat of Earth’s interior D. earthquake 2. Predict how a tsunami could affect human habitats.

1. D

2. Sample answer: Buildings near the shore may be destroyed.

The Oceans

E42

S6E.d Explain the causes of waves, currents, and tides.

Major Surface Ocean Currents

ic

Arctic Ocean

St r

North America

nia Califor nt Curre

N. Pacific Ocean

rth No

lf Gu

A

Dr

ift

Arctic Circle

nt tla

60º N

Europe Asia

m ea N. Atlantic Ocean

30º N

Africa Equator

0º

South America N

Indian Ocean

S. Atlantic Ocean

Australia

E

30º S

Antarctic Circle

90 ºE

30º W

15 0º W

ºW 90

Key Warm current Cold current

30º E

0º

W

S. Pacific Ocean

E 0º 15

60º S

Antarctica


Quick Review ◆ Surface currents are mainly driven by wind. ◆ The sun’s radiation is the ultimate source of energy that powers global winds and surface currents in the ocean.

Questions 1. Which of the following causes surface currents to form? A. conduction from deeper water B. wind blowing over the surface C. the Coriolis force D. unequal heating of the ocean 2. How do surface currents affect the distribution of thermal energy in the oceans and the atmosphere?

1. B

2. Surface currents carry thermal energy away from the equator and toward the poles.

The Oceans S6E.d Explain the causes of waves, currents, and tides.

E43

Point A The moon pulls on water at Earth’s surface more strongly than on Earth as a whole. Point B The moon pulls less strongly on the water at Earth’s surface than on Earth as a whole. Point C and D Low tides occur between the two high tides.

Quick Review


◆ Tides are caused by the gravitational interactions of Earth, the moon, and the sun. ◆ As Earth rotates, most coastlines experience two high tides and two low tides each day. ◆ During both a new moon and a full moon, the combined pull of the moon and sun produce a spring tide. When the moon is at right angles to the sun, a neap tide results.

Questions 1. Why is a bulge of water created on the side of Earth opposite the moon? 2. What is a spring tide? A neap tide? 3. How often do spring tides and neap tides occur?

1. The water on the opposite side of Earth is pulled less 2. A spring tide has the greatest difference between 3. Spring and neap strongly toward the moon than the rest of Earth. This consecutive high and low tides; a neap tide has the tides each occur water is less affected by the moon’s gravitational force. least difference between consecutive high and low tides. about twice a month.

Weather and Climate S6E4.a Demonstrate that land and water absorb and lose heat at different rates and explain the resulting effects on weather patterns.

E44

Heat transfer by radiation

Heat transfer by convection

Heat transfer by radiation


Heat transfer by conduction

Quick Review ◆ Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a hotter object to a cooler one. ◆ In the atmosphere, heat is transferred by radiation, conduction, and convection.

Questions 1. What form of heat transfer in the diagram involves the motion of air? A. conduction from the ground to the air B. radiation from the sun through the air C. radiation from the ground to the air D. convection in the air 2. In what form is energy transferred from the sun to Earth? 1. D

2. Radiation or electromagnetic waves

Weather and Climate

E45

S6E4.a Demonstrate that land and water absorb and lose heat at different rates and explain the resulting effects on weather patterns.

Seattle 45/37

COLD Billings 38/25

San Francisco 55/42 Los Angeles 60/48

Minneapolis 32/26 Chicago 36/28

Denver 40/22 Kansas City

CHILLY Detroit 37/26

New York 44/34 Washington 48/33

34/30

DFW WINDY Metroplex El Paso 66/46 58/40 Houston 70/50

Atlanta 42/38


Miami 74/60

Quick Review ◆ Changes in weather are caused by differences in pressure, heat, the movement of air, and humidity.

Questions 1. The map shows a high-pressure area near Washington, D.C. What type of weather will most likely occur in that area? A. heavy snow B. overcast skies C. sunshine and dry air D. thunderstorms 2. Air masses tend to move from west to east. What is the likely forecast for Chicago?

1. C

2. The approaching low-pressure system will probably bring snow and sleet to Chicago.

Weather and Climate



E46

Quick Review ◆ Colliding air masses can form four types of fronts: cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.

Questions 1. Which of the following is NOT likely to happen as a cold front passes through an area? A. The sky remains clear. B. Precipitation falls. C. Temperature drops. D. Clouds form. 2. How does a cold front form?

1. A 2. Cold and warm air masses meet, and the dense, rapidly moving cold air slides under the warm air, pushing the warm air upward.

E47

1. They release gas and ash into the atmosphere. These substances can filter out radiation and may lower temperatures. 2. When warm, humid air is forced to rise up to pass over mountains, the air cools and its water vapor condenses to produce clouds and precipitation. 3. Tropical rainy, with some dry regions

3. What types of climate predominate between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?

2. Why does precipitation fall mainly on the windward sides of mountains?

1. How can volcanic eruptions affect climate?

Questions

◆ Temperature is influenced by latitude, altitude, distance from large bodies of water, and ocean currents.

◆ The major climate types are tropical rainy, dry, temperate marine, temperate continental, polar, and highlands.

◆ Climate is determined by temperature and precipitation. Climate can also be influenced by natural events, such as volcanic eruptions or glacial melting.

Quick Review


Weather and Climate


Weather and Climate S6E4.b Relate unequal heating of land and water surfaces to form large global wind systems and weather events such as tornados and thunderstorms.

E48

Sea Breeze Warm air rises Cooler air moves beneath warm air


Quick Review ◆ Local winds are caused by the unequal heating of Earth’s surface within a small area.

Questions 1. The energy for a sea breeze originally comes from A. conduction from Earth’s surface. B. energy of ocean currents. C. radiation from the sun. D. the water cycle. 2. How does unequal heating during the day produce a sea breeze?

1. C 2. As a result of unequal heating, the land is warmer than the water. Therefore, the air above the water is cooler and denser than the air above the land. A breeze develops as the cooler air moves beneath the warm, rising air.

Weather and Climate S6E4.b Relate unequal heating of land and water surfaces to form large global wind systems and weather events such as tornados and thunderstorms.

E49

90ºN Polar Easterlies 60ºN

30ºN

Horse Latitudes

Prevailing Westerlies

Trade Winds Doldrums

Equator 0º Trade Winds 30ºS

Horse Latitudes

Prevailing Westerlies


N W

E

60ºS 90ºS

S

Quick Review ◆ Temperature differences between the equator and the poles create global winds.

Questions 1. The trade winds blow from the A. west to the east. B. horse latitudes to the poles. C. horse latitudes to the doldrums. D. equator to the horse latitudes. 2. What causes the prevailing westerlies?

1. C 2. The prevailing westerlies are caused by the difference in air pressure between the horse latitudes (high pressure) and the poles (low pressure). The westerlies move warm air toward the poles, but they are turned east by the Coriolis effect.

1. They bring warm, humid air to the West Coast.

2. A stationary front

E50

3. Abrupt weather changes, such as thunderstorms, followed by cooler, drier weather.

3. What type of weather do cold fronts usually bring?

2. What type of front forms when two air masses meet and neither one can move?

1. How do maritime tropical air masses from the Pacific Ocean affect the weather on the West Coast?

Questions

◆ When two air masses of different temperatures and densities collide, they form a front.

◆ Maritime air masses are humid, while continental masses are dry. Tropical and polar refer to the temperature of the air.

◆ Four types of air masses influence the weather in North America: maritime tropical, continental tropical, maritime polar, and continental polar.

Quick Review

S6E4.c Relate how moisture evaporating from the oceans affects the weather patterns and the weather events such as hurricanes.

Weather and Climate


Weather and Climate

E51

S6E4.c Relate how moisture evaporating from the oceans affects the weather patterns and the weather events such as hurricanes.

➋ Air flows outward near the top of the hurricane.

➌ Cool, dry air sinks in the eye, the center of the hurricane.

Eyewall

➊ Warm, moist air rises around the eye and in spiraling bands of clouds. Heavy Rain


Quick Review ◆ A hurricane is a tropical storm that has wind speeds of at least 119 kilometers per hour. ◆ Hurricanes form over warm ocean water. The water evaporates from the ocean’s surface. As this humid air rises and forms clouds, more warm air is drawn into the system.

Questions 1. The process by which clouds form from water vapor in the air is called A. precipitation.

B. condensation.

C. evaporation.

D. combustion.

2. What is the “eye” of a hurricane?

1. B

2. The calm, quiet area at the hurricane’s center

Earth’s Structure


S6E5.a Compare and contrast the Earth’s crust, mantle, and core including temperature, density, and composition.

E52

Quick Review ◆ The crust is a layer of solid rock that forms Earth’s outer surface. It includes both dry land and the ocean floor. ◆ The mantle is a thick layer of hot rock between Earth’s crust and core. ◆ The core at Earth’s center is metallic and very dense.

Questions 1. Which of Earth’s layers is liquid? A. crust

B. mantle

C. outer core

D. inner core

2. Which layer(s) of Earth are included in the lithosphere? 1. C

2. The crust and the upper part of the mantle

1. Crust

Inner core 1220 km

2. Mantle

Atmosphere

3. Inner core

Outer core 2260 km

Mantle 2850 km

Crust 5–75 km

E53

3. Which layer of the Earth’s core is smaller and believed to be made up of solid metal?

2. Which layer of Earth contains a layer of soft, flowing rock known as the asthenosphere?

1. If Earth is like a hard-boiled egg, which layer would relate to the shell?

Questions

◆ The mantle is located between the crust and the core.

◆ The core is a large sphere of metal at Earth's center. The inner core is believed to be solid, but the outer core is liquid.

◆ The crust is the rocky outer layer, which is divided into continental crust and oceanic crust.

◆ Earth can be divided into a core, mantle, and crust.

Quick Review


Earth’s Structure


Earth’s Structure S6E5.a Compare and contrast the Earth’s crust, mantle, and core including temperature, density, and composition.

E54

Oceanic crust

Depth (km)

0

Continental crust

Lithosphere

100

200

Upper mantle

Asthenosphere

300 350


Quick Review ◆ The three main layers of Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the core. These layers vary greatly in size, composition, temperature, and pressure. ◆ The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle form a rigid layer called the lithosphere. The soft, less rigid part of the mantle below the lithosphere is called the asthenosphere. ◆ The forces that shape the lithosphere include crustal plate movement, folding and faulting, deposition, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

Questions 1. What makes Earth’s plates move? 2. How are the inner and outer core different?

1. Convection currents in the mantle 2. The outer core is a layer of molten metal that surrounds the inner core. The inner core is a dense ball of solid metal.

Earth’s Structure

E55


Lithosphere Mantle


Convection currents

Core

Quick Review ◆ Heat from the core and the mantle itself causes convection currents in the mantle. ◆ Convection carries heat from Earth’s interior to the surface.

Questions 1. Most of the heat that causes the convection currents shown originally comes from the A. asthenosphere.

B. core.

C. lithosphere.

D. sun.

2. What causes convection currents to form in the mantle?

1. B

2. Hotter, less dense material rises in the mantle as cooler, denser material sinks.

1. Feldspar; quartz

2. Fast-cooling igneous rocks

E56

2. What is typically the origin of rocks with no visible grain?

1. Which mineral is most abundant in the thin section of rock shown? The least abundant?

Questions

◆ The texture of a rock is described based on the size, shape, and pattern of the rock’s grains.

◆ The mineral content of a rock can be determined by observing a very thin section of the rock under a microscope.

◆ Geologists classify rocks according to their texture, mineral composition, and origin.

◆ A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition.

Quick Review

S6E5.b Investigate the contribution of minerals to rock composition.

Rocks and Minerals


2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Feldspar Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond

1. It would have a hardness of 6.

1

Rating

Talc

Mineral

Mohs Hardness Scale

2. Talc

E57

3. What tools would a geologist need to determine the density of a mineral?

2. Which mineral on the scale is the softest?

1. What would be the hardness of a mineral that was scratched by feldspar but not by quartz?

Questions

◆ The density of a mineral is found by dividing the mass of a sample by its volume.

◆ The hardness of an unknown mineral is tested by scratching it with a mineral of known hardness.

◆ Each mineral has specific physical properties that can be used to identify it, including hardness, density, color, streak, luster, crystal system, cleavage patterns, and fracture patterns.

Quick Review

3. A scale or balance and a graduated cylinder partially filled with water

Hardest known mineral. Diamond can scratch all other substances.

Can scratch topaz.

Can scratch quartz.

Can scratch steel and hard glass easily.

Cannot be scratched by a steel knife, but it can scratch window glass.

A steel knife can scratch it.

A steel knife can easily scratch it.

A fingernail cannot scratch it, but a copper penny can.

A fingernail can easily scratch it.

Softest known mineral. It flakes easily when scratched by a fingernail.

Testing Method

S6E5.b Investigate the contribution of minerals to rock composition.

Rocks and Minerals


Rocks and Minerals S6E5.b Investigate the contribution of minerals to rock composition.

E58

Properties and Uses of Minerals Name

Magnetite

Quartz

Rutile

Hardness

6

7

6ⴚ6

Color

Black

Transparent or in a range of colors

Black or reddish brown

Lemon yellow to yellowish brown

Streak

Black

Colorless

Light brown

White

Cubic

Hexagonal

Tetragonal

Orthorhombic

Metallic

Glassy

Metallic or gemlike

Greasy

Fractures like broken glass

Not easily melted

Melts easily

1 2

Sulfur 2

Crystal System

Luster


Special Magnetic Properties

Quick Review ◆ The color and luster of a mineral are easily observed properties. The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder when rubbed against an unglazed tile. ◆ Geologists classify crystal structures into six groups based on the number and angle of the crystal faces. ◆ Some minerals also have unique properties such as fluorescence, magnetism, radioactivity, or electrical properties.

Questions 1. What color is sulfur? What color is its streak? 2. Which crystal systems shown have crystal faces that intersect at right angles to each other? 3. Which mineral on the chart is magnetic? 1. The color of sulfur is yellow to yellowish brown, but the streak is white. 2. Cubic, tetragonal, and orthorhombic 3. Magnetite

Rocks and Minerals

E59

S6E5.c Classify rocks by their process of formation.

Igneous Rock forms when magma or lava cools and hardens.

Sedimentary Rock forms when pieces of rock are pressed and cemented together.

Metamorphic Rock forms from other rocks that are changed by heat and pressure.

Quick Review


◆ Geologists classify rocks into three main groups: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. ◆ Igneous rock forms when molten rock cools. ◆ Sedimentary rock forms when particles are pressed and cemented together. ◆ Metamorphic rock forms when rock is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.

Questions 1. In what way do the three main groups of rocks differ from one another? 2. What is the rock cycle? 3. What type of rock is granite?

1. By the way they were formed

2. The series of processes that change rocks from one kind to another

3. Igneous

1. Yes, because new minerals are formed.

2. Weathering and erosion

S6E5.c Classify rocks by their process of formation.

Rocks and Minerals

E60

2. What processes break down rocks in the rock cycle?

1. Does the formation of metamorphic rocks involve chemical changes? Explain.

Questions

◆ These processes are part of the rock cycle. During the rock cycle, the total amount of material stays the same as its form changes.

◆ Heat and pressure within Earth’s crust produce metamorphic rocks.

◆ Sedimentary rocks form from rock fragments or dead organisms buried deep in Earth.

◆ When magma hardens, igneous rocks form.

Quick Review


Rocks and Minerals

E61

S6E5.d Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of the earth.

Sediment


Igneous Rock

Sedimentary Rock

Magma and Lava

Metamorphic Rock

Quick Review ◆ The rock cycle is a series of processes on and beneath Earth’s surface that slowly change rocks from one kind to another.

Questions 1. What might cause rocks to bend? A. erosion

B. heat and pressure

C. deposition

D. precipitation

2. What is the process of erosion?

1. B

2. Erosion is the process in which running water, ice, or wind breaks down rocks and carries the pieces away.

Earthquakes S6E5.d Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of the earth.

E62

Footwall Hanging wall

Strike-slip fault Normal fault Key

Footwall

Hanging wall

Force deforming the crust Movement along the fault

Reverse fault


Quick Review ◆ Earthquakes are sudden motions along faults, or breaks in Earth’s crust. Stress in the crust produces three main types of faults.

Questions 1. Which type of plate boundary causes motion similar to the motion along a strike-slip fault? A. convergent B. transform C. normal D. divergent 2. What causes an earthquake to occur?

1. B 2. Plate movement causes stress to build up in the crust, storing energy in the rock. Finally, the rock breaks, and the stored energy is released suddenly in an earthquake.

Earthquakes

E63

S6E5.d Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of the earth.

Locating an Epicenter Key Earthquake

N

Seismographic station

E

Chicago

W S

Savannah Houston

0


0

300 300

600 mi

600 km

Quick Review ◆ Geologists use seismic waves to locate an earthquake’s epicenter.

Questions 1. Which type of seismic wave would reach the seismographic stations first? A. P waves B. surface waves C. Mercalli waves D. S waves 2. Explain how the epicenter of the earthquake shown on the map was located.

1. A 2. Geologists in three cities used the difference in the arrival times of seismic waves to find the distance of the epicenter from those cities and drew circles using that distance as the radius. The place where the circles intersect is the epicenter.

Earthquakes S6E5.e Recognize that lithospheric plates constantly move and cause major geological events on the earth’s surface.

Epicenter

Fault

E64

Focus


Seismic waves

Quick Review ◆ Plate motions cause major geologic events, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building.

Questions 1. Along the fault in the diagram, masses of rock slide past each other horizontally. What type of fault is the fault shown? A. reverse fault B. block fault C. strike-slip fault D. normal fault 2. Describe the process that causes an earthquake. 1. C 2. Plate motion causes stress in the crust, leading to the formation of faults. Stress builds up, storing energy in rock, until the rock along a fault suddenly breaks, releasing the energy as an earthquake. Seismic waves carry the energy away from the focus.

Plate Tectonics S6E5.e Recognize that lithospheric plates constantly move and cause major geological events on the earth’s surface.

E65 2. Folding tilts the rock layers.

1. Sedimentary rocks form in horizontal layers.

Unconformity 3. The surface is eroded.

4. New sediment is deposited, forming rock layers above the unconformity.

Quick Review


◆ The geologic record preserved in rocks is not always complete. Rock layers can be broken by faults, pushed up by folding, and eroded away. ◆ Tectonic plate movements can cause rock layers to buckle and fold, sometimes turning them upside down. ◆ An unconformity occurs when some rock layers have been lost because of erosion. New rock layers are then deposited on top of a much older rock surface.

Questions 1. Is a fault younger or older than the rock it cuts through? 2. How can scientists determine the relative age of rock layers that have been overturned or tilted? 3. What can you infer about the land in the area where the unconformity shown above was found?

1. A fault is younger than the surrounding rock. 2. By looking for index fossils in the rock

3. At some point the rock was pushed toward the surface and subjected to erosion, but then it was covered with water and a deposition of new sediment.

Plate Tectonics

E66

S6E5.e Recognize that lithospheric plates constantly move and cause major geological events on the earth’s surface.

Earth’s Lithospheric Plates

Eurasian Plate Juan de Fuca Plate

Caribbean Plate

Philippine Plate

Pacific Plate

In

do

-A

ust

rali

Eurasian Plate

North American Plate

Arabian Plate

African Plate

Cocos Plate

Nazca Plate

an P late

South American Plate

N


Antarctic Plate

Scotia Plate

Key

W

E S

Convergent boundary Divergent boundary

Transform boundary Uncertain boundary

Direction of plate movement

Quick Review ◆ Earth’s lithosphere is broken into huge plates, which move because of convection in the mantle.

Questions 1. Which plates are colliding with each other? A. Antarctic plate and Pacific plate B. Caribbean plate and African plate C. Nazca plate and South American plate D. South American plate and African plate 2. How will plate movements change the Atlantic Ocean along the boundary of the African and South American plates? 1. C

2. The Atlantic Ocean will slowly become wider as the plates spread apart.

Plate Tectonics

E67


Earth’s Ocean Floor Arctic

Ocean

Iceland

Asia

Europe

North America

Atlantic Ocean Africa

Pacific Ocean South America Australia

Indian

Ocean


Key Deep-ocean trench Mid-ocean ridge Antarctica

Quick Review ◆ Earth’s plates move apart along mid-ocean ridges. ◆ Oceanic plates sink into the mantle beneath deep-ocean trenches.

Questions 1. The mid-ocean ridges and deep-ocean trenches shown in the map are evidence for the location of A. mountain building.

B. calderas.

C. fossils.

D. plate boundaries.

2. What explains the fact that volcanoes are common around the edges of the Pacific Ocean? 1. D 2. Plate boundaries are found at the edges of the Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes are common where plates are colliding or moving apart.


E68

Quick Review


◆ As tectonic plates move, they meet at plate boundaries. There are three kinds of plate boundaries: transform, divergent, and convergent boundaries. ◆ Convergent and divergent boundaries generally result in the formation of volcanoes, because magma tends to break through the crust in these areas. ◆ Faults, breaks in Earth’s crust where rocks have slipped past each other, form along boundaries. There are three types of faults: normal, reverse, and strike-slip.

Questions 1. What happens at a convergent boundary between two continental plates? 2. Why are volcanoes concentrated around the rim of the Pacific Ocean? 3. What three categories describe a volcano’s stage of activity? 1. The plates crash head-on and buckle, forming mountain ranges. 2. The Pacific plate is subducting under most of the plates around it, producing areas of high volcanic activity. 3. Active, dormant, and extinct

Plate Tectonics



E69

Quick Review ◆ The supercontinent Pangaea formed millions of years ago, then broke apart. ◆ The continents slowly moved to their present-day positions.

Questions 1. What process is shown in the maps? A. continental drift

B. faulting

C. conduction

D. magnetic field reversal

2. What caused the changes shown in the maps?

1. A 2. Convection in Earth’s mantle caused large sections of the lithosphere, called plates, to move, carrying the continents with them.

Plate Tectonics



E70

Quick Review ◆ Alfred Wegener’s evidence for continental drift included the distribution of fossils, rocks, and ancient climate zones.

Questions 1. Which of the following is found in both Antarctica and Australia? A. Mesosaurus fossils

B. Lystrosaurus fossils

C. Glossopteris fossils D. coal beds 2. South America and Africa are widely separated, but Mesosaurus fossils are found on both continents. What explains this fact?

1. C

2. South America and Africa were connected at the time that Mesosaurus lived.


E71

Mendocino Triple Junction 0

125

250 mi

50 º N

0

N W

125 250 km

E S Juan de Fuca Plate

4 5º N

North American Plate

Pacific Plate

Mt. Shasta

Gorda Plate

40 º N

Lassen Peak

Mendocino Triple Junction 130º W

CALIFORNIA

San Andreas fault

125º W

Key


Direction of plate motion Divergent boundary Convergent boundary Transform boundary Volcano

Quick Review ◆ The movements of the Pacific and North American plates have produced major faults, volcanoes, and mountain ranges along the West Coast.

Questions 1. What feature shown on the map is involved in subduction beneath the North American plate? A. Baja Peninsula

B. Pacific plate

C. San Andreas fault

D. Juan de Fuca plate

2. In what areas of the map is volcanic activity most likely to occur?

1. D

2. On the North American plate near the convergent boundary and along the divergent boundaries in the ocean

Volcanoes


S6E5.f Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans (composition, currents, and tides).

E72

Quick Review ◆ Volcanoes form where magma reaches the surface. ◆ Magma is molten rock that contains water vapor and other gases under great pressure. Magma that reaches the surface is called lava.

Questions 1. What causes magma to erupt from a volcano? A. increase in density

B. convection currents

C. temperature changes

D. expanding gases

2. Magma forms deep beneath Earth’s surface. How does this magma reach the surface? 1. D 2. Magma is hotter and therefore less dense than the solid material around it. This difference in density causes the magma to flow upward. If there is an opening in the rock, the magma reaches the surface and a volcano forms.

Volcanoes S6E5.f Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans (composition, currents, and tides).

E73

Mid-ocean ridge Trench

Is

la

n d

ar

Trench

c

Volcano

Volcano

Oceanic crust

Continental crust Subducting plate Asthenosphere

Key

Subducting plate

Plate movement Subduction


Quick Review ◆ Volcanoes often form where oceanic plates collide or spread apart. ◆ Volcanoes also form where an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate and at hot spots.

Questions 1. In the diagram, the volcanoes on land formed as a result of A. a hot spot. B. sea-floor spreading. C. continental rifting. D. subduction. 2. Identify two ways in which plate motions can form mountains.

1. D 2. Subduction can cause volcanoes to erupt, forming volcanic mountains. Colliding continental plates can push land higher, forming mountain ranges.

Erosion and Deposition S6E5.f Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans (composition, currents, and tides).

Runoff

E74

Sheet erosion

Rills

Gullies


Stream

Quick Review ◆ Moving water is the major agent of the erosion that has shaped Earth’s land surface.

Questions 1. Over time, how would erosion affect the land surface in the diagram? A. raise the surface

B. lower the surface

C. fill in the gullies

D. dry up the stream

2. What is runoff, and how does it cause erosion?

1. B

2. Runoff is water that flows over the ground. As it moves, runoff loosens and carries particles of sediment.

Erosion and Deposition

E75

S6E5.f Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans (composition, currents, and tides).

Waterfalls and Rapids

V-Shaped Valley

Tributary Oxbow Lake

Flood Plain Valley Widening Meanders Bluffs


Beaches

Delta

Quick Review ◆ Erosion creates valleys, waterfalls, meanders, and oxbow lakes. ◆ Deposition creates deltas and beaches.

Questions 1. Through the process of valley widening, a meandering river forms a(n) A. delta.

B. waterfall.

C. flood plain.

D. beach.

2. What is the source of the material that formed the delta?

1. C

2. Sediment was eroded by or washed into the river as the river flowed across the land.


E76

Meander Erosion

Deposition 2

1

Oxbow lake

4


3

Quick Review ◆ A river often develops meanders where it flows through easily eroded sediment.

Questions 1. As erosion occurs along a meander’s outer edge, the bend A. gets smaller. B. stays the same size. C. gradually straightens out. D. gets bigger. 2. How does an oxbow lake form?

1. D

2. An oxbow lake forms when a river forms a new channel that separates a meander from the rest of the river.


E77


Quick Review ◆ Waves shape the coast through erosion by breaking down rock and eroding sediment. ◆ When waves deposit sediment, they form beaches, sand bars, and spits.

Questions 1. What feature may form where a coast turns abruptly and interrupts longshore drift? A. barrier beach B. sea arch C. spit D. headland 2. How will the headland change over time?

1. C 2. The sea arch will erode, leaving a sea stack. Overall the headland will get smaller and the coastline will tend to even out.

Earth’s History S6E5.g Describe how fossils show evidence of the changing surface and climate of the Earth.


Fossil sand ripples

E78

Modern sand ripples

Quick Review ◆ Fossils provide information about the life and environments of the past. ◆ The oldest fossils are simple organisms. Much younger rocks contain the fossils of more recent and more complex organisms.

Questions 1. What does it mean when fossils of aquatic organisms appear in today’s desert-like areas? A. They are index fossils. B. The areas were once under water. C. The organisms did not belong in the water. D. The researcher made a mistake in her records. 2. Name the principle that states that geologic processes occurring today also occurred in the past. 1. B

2. The principle of uniformitarianism


E79

G F E D C B


A

Quick Review ◆ Fossils can show how an environment has changed over time.

Questions 1. What important evidence does the fossil record provide? 2. What do fossils of clam shells of similar shape and thickness to clams today suggest about the environment in which the ancient organisms lived? A. They lived in an environment similar to that of modern clams. B. The environment was above sea level. C. There were no predators that fed on clams. D. There were only land animals on Earth.

1. It provides evidence about the history of life and past environments on Earth.

2. A


E80

Kaibab-Toroweap limestone Coconino sandstone

Younger

Hermit shale Colorado River

Supai sandstone Redwall limestone Muav limestone Bright Angel shale Tapeats sandstone Vishnu schist

Older


Quick Review ◆ Geologists try to determine the ages of rocks and the fossils within them. ◆ Relative age compares rock layers by the order in which they were formed. ◆ Radioactive dating determines the actual age of rocks by the amounts of radioactive isotopes present within them.

Questions 1. Which is older—a fossil found in Muav limestone or Hermit shale at the Grand Canyon? 2. Which layer of the Grand Canyon contains the youngest rock?

1. Muav limestone

2. Top layer (Kaibab-Toroweap limestone)


E81


Elements Used in Radioactive Dating Radioactive Element

Half-life (years)

Dating Range (years)

Carbon-14

5,730

500–50,000

Potassium-40

1.3 billion

50,000–4.6 billion

Rubidium-87

48.8 billion

10 million–4.6 billion

Thorium-232

14 billion


Uranium-235

713 million


Uranium-238

4.5 billion


Quick Review ◆ Radioactive dating is used to determine the absolute ages of rocks. ◆ During radioactive decay, the atoms of one element break down to form atoms of another element.

Questions 1. What is a half-life? 2. Which radioactive element is useful in dating materials from plants and animals that lived up to about 50,000 years ago? A. carbon-14

B. potassium-40

C. uranium-235

D. uranium-238

1. The amount of time it takes to change one half of the atoms of a parent element into a daughter element

2. A

Cambrian

Ordovician

Silurian

Devonian

Carboniferous

Permian

Triassic

Jurassic

Cretaceous

Tertiary

Quaternary

39

67

30

48

74

41

37

64

78

65

1.8 to present

2. B

544 million years ago–4.6 billion years ago

544

505

438

408

360

286

245

208

144

66.4

1.8

1. A record of the life forms and geologic events in Earth’s history

Precambrian

Paleozoic

Mesozoic

Cenozoic

Era

Geologic Time Scale Millions of Duration Period Years Ago (millions of years)

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D. the diversification of mammals in the Cenozoic Era

C. an asteroid impact

B. a rapid increase in forms of life

A. a catastrophic volcanic eruption

2. What was the Cambrian Explosion?

1. What is the geologic time scale?

Questions

◆ Geologists use the geologic time scale to show the time span of Earth’s history.

Quick Review

S6E5.g Describe how fossils show evidence of the changing surface and climate of the Earth.

Earth’s History


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1. D 2. A major catastrophic event such as a meteor impact or major volcanic eruption would send a vast amount of fine particles into the air, partly blocking out the sun and changing the climate. Many species would be unable to live or find food in the suddenly colder climate. (Accept other reasonable answers.)

2. Describe how a major catastrophic event might lead to mass extinction.

D. all of the above

C. meteor impact

B. asteroid impact

A. major volcanic eruption

1. Which of the following events could potentially disrupt life on Earth?

Questions

◆ About 65 million years ago, a mass extinction occurred. Scientists hypothesize that this mass extinction occurred when an object from space struck Earth.

Quick Review

S6E5.g Describe how fossils show evidence of the changing surface and climate of the Earth.

Earth’s History



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Families of Ocean Animals

Mass Extinctions Since the Cambrian Period 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0

500

400

300

200

100

0

Millions of Years Before Present


Mass extinctions

Quick Review ◆ Earth’s long geologic history has been punctuated by sudden events, including the Cambrian Explosion, the Permian extinction, and the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction.

Questions 1. What is a mass extinction? 2. The number of species on Earth A. has remained the same for millions of years. B. increases steadily over time. C. decreases steadily over time. D. has been affected by periods of catastrophic events.

1. A sudden extinction of many forms of life at the same time

2. D

Weathering and Soil Formation S6E5.h Describe soil as consisting of weathered rocks and decomposed organic material.

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Quick Review ◆ Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller pieces of rock and soil by mechanical means and by chemical changes. ◆ Mechanical weathering occurs by freezing and thawing, heating and cooling, growth of plants, actions of animals, and abrasion. Chemical weathering is caused by water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living organisms, and acid rain. ◆ Erosion moves weathered rock and soil from one place to another, where it is deposited.

Questions 1. What factors determine the rate of weathering? 2. What happens to the surface area of a rock as it is broken apart? 3. What is soil? 1. The type of rock, the climate, and the amount of surface area exposed. 2. As the rock is broken apart, the exposed surface area increases. 3. Loose, weathered material on Earth’s surface in which plants grow.

Weathering and Soil Formation S6E5.h Describe soil as consisting of weathered rocks and decomposed organic material.

➊

The C horizon forms as bedrock weathers and rock breaks up into soil particles.

➋

The A horizon develops as plants add organic material to the soil and plant roots weather pieces of rock.

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➌

The B horizon develops as rainwater washes clay and minerals from the A horizon to the B horizon.

A horizon C horizon

A horizon

B horizon C horizon

Bedrock

C horizon

Quick Review


◆ Soil is a mixture of rock particles, minerals, decayed organic matter, water, and air. ◆ Soil forms as rock is broken down by weathering and mixes with other materials on the surface. Soil is constantly being formed wherever bedrock is exposed. ◆ A soil horizon is a layer of soil that differs in color and texture from the layers above or below it.

Questions 1. Top soil is the main ingredient of A. the A horizon. B. the B horizon. C. the C horizon. D. bedrock. 2. What are the main factors that influence the rate at which soil forms? 1. A 2. Climate and type of bedrock. Weathering occurs most rapidly in a warm, rainy climate. Some types of rock weather much faster than other types.

Stream

Gullies

Rills

Sheet erosion

Runoff is water that flows over Earth’s surface. As runoff flows, it causes erosion by loosening and carrying off particles of soil. Plants reduce erosion by absorbing water and holding soil in place.

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D. paving over a dirt field

C. contour plowing

2. Name two factors that affect the amount of runoff in an area.

B. planting grass on a dirt field

A. runoff

1. Which of the following is an example of a human activity that is likely to increase erosion?

Questions

◆ The Dust Bowl was caused in part by human activities. Plowing exposed the soil and promoted erosion. A long drought turned much of this soil to dust. The wind then blew great clouds of dust over long distances.

◆ Human activities may increase erosion. For example, a paved area absorbs no water, and all the rain that falls on it becomes runoff.

◆

1. D 2. Any two: amount of rain the area receives, amount of vegetation, type of soil, shape of the land, and how people use the land.

Runoff

Quick Review

S6E5.i Explain the effects of human activity on the erosion of the earth’s surface.

Conserving Natural Resources


Conserving Natural Resources S6E5.j Describe methods for conserving natural resources such as water, soil, and air.

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Soils of North America GREENLAND

Quick Review ◆ Scientists classify soil based on climate, plants, and soil composition. Soil is a valuable natural resource.


◆ Farmers conserve soil through contour plowing, conservation plowing, and crop rotation. In contour plowing, farmers plow their field along the curves of a slope to reduce runoff. In conservation plowing, farmers disturb the soil and its plant cover as little as possible. In crop rotation, farmers plant different crops each year.

Questions 1. Crop rotation helps to conserve soil because A. it slows runoff from excess rainfall. B. it disturbs soil as little as possible, returns nutrients to the soil, and holds soil in place. C. different types of plants absorb different nutrients. D. it prevents droughts by returning moisture to the ground. 2. What are three methods farmers use to conserve soil?

1. B

2. Contour plowing, conservation plowing, and crop rotation

Conserving Natural Resources

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S6E5.j Describe methods for conserving natural resources such as water, soil, and air.

Take shorter showers. If you take baths, fill the tub only halfway.

Keep drinking water in the refrigerator instead of running the water until it gets cold.

If you have a lawn, water it early in the morning or late in the afternoon so the sun won’t evaporate the water.

Scrub vegetables in a basin of water, not under running water.

Turn off the faucet instead of letting the water run while you brush your teeth.

Only run the washing machine when you have a full load.

Quick Review


◆ A natural resource is anything in the environment that humans use. Natural resources include water, air, soil, and energy and mineral resources. ◆ The supply of natural resources is limited. This supply can be extended by using resources more efficiently and by reducing the use of existing supplies. Conservation is the practice of using less of a resource so that its supply will last longer. ◆ The quality of natural resources can be affected by human activities. For example, pollution can decrease the quality of air and water resources.

Questions 1. Most air pollution is the result of A. nuclear fission.

B. forest fires.

C. burning fossil fuels.

D. volcanic eruptions.

2. Name three ways you can conserve energy. 1. C

2. Sample: walk or ride a bike for short trips, recycle, use fans instead of air conditioners when it’s hot, and turn off the lights and television when leaving a room

Solar Energy S6E6.a Explain the role of the sun as the major source of energy and the sun’s relationship to wind and water energy.

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Condensation Evaporation Precipitation a Ev

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Quick Review ◆ Sunlight provides energy for many processes on Earth. ◆ Solar energy powers the water cycle, winds, and surface currents in the ocean.

Questions 1. For which process in the water cycle does the sun provide energy directly? A. condensation

B. runoff

C. precipitation

D. evaporation

2. Describe the movement of water through the water cycle.

1. D 2. Solar energy causes water to evaporate from Earth’s water bodies. Plants also release water vapor into the atmosphere. Water vapor rises, cools, and condenses forming clouds. The moisture in clouds eventually falls to Earth as precipitation.

Solar Energy S6E6.a Explain the role of the sun as the major source of energy and the sun’s relationship to wind and water energy.

Longer wavelengths

Infrared radiation

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Shorter wavelengths

Visible light

Ultraviolet radiation

Quick Review


◆ Energy from the sun reaches Earth in the form of radiation. ◆ Most energy from the sun travels to Earth in the form of visible light.

Questions 1. The diagram shows the electromagnetic spectrum. How do electromagnetic waves carry energy? A. conduction B. convection C. condensation D. radiation 2. In which area of the electromagnetic spectrum is most of the energy that reaches Earth from the sun?

1. D

2. Visible light

1. C

Large windows on the south and west sides act as passive solar collectors.

Window Design

Water is pumped from a storage tank to an active solar collector on the roof. Sunlight heats the water, which is the returned to the tank. The water then heats pipes that heat the air throughout the house.

Solar Water Heater

Warm air

Sunlight that passes through the windows is absorbed by the walls and floors and is converted to heat. At night, shades covering the windows prevent the heat from flowing back outside.

Passive Interior Heating

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D. active solar system.

C. solar cell.

2. Is solar energy a renewable or nonrenewable energy source? Explain.

B. passive solar system.

A. solar power plant.

1. Solar energy is converted directly into electricity in a

Questions

◆ A passive solar system converts sunlight into thermal energy, which is then distributed without using pumps or fans.

◆ An active solar system uses fans and pumps to distribute thermal energy from the sun.

◆ Solar energy can be converted directly into electricity in a solar cell.

2. Solar energy is a renewable energy source. It is produced from sunlight, which is constantly being produced by the sun and is virtually inexhaustible.

The house has a wood stove to provide backup heat on cloudy days.

Backup Heat Source

Cool air

Active solar cells on the roof generate an electric current. A battery stores energy for night use.

Solar Cells

Quick Review

S6E6.a Explain the role of the sun as the major source of energy and the sun’s relationship to wind and water energy.

Solar Energy


Energy Resources

E93

S6E6.b Identify renewable and nonrenewable resources.

Steam Furnace Transformer Turbine

Power lines

Generator

Water


Fuel

Condenser

Intake pipe

Quick Review ◆ Burning a fuel releases energy stored in the fuel. Most of that energy is released in the form of heat.

Questions 1. The furnace in the diagram mainly produces A. chemical energy. B. thermal energy. C. light. D. radiation. 2. What form of energy is stored in a fuel such as coal or natural gas?

1. B

2. Chemical energy

Energy Resources



E94

Quick Review ◆ There are advantages and disadvantages to using different sources of energy. These advantages and disadvantages depend on what it takes to convert an energy source into useful forms.

Questions 1. The diagram shows one way in which electrical power is produced. What type of energy source is shown? A. solar

B. hydroelectric

C. geothermal

D. biomass

2. Identify one advantage and one disadvantage of the energy source shown in the diagram.

1. C

2. Sample answer: Advantage: It is a renewable source of energy. Disadvantage: It can only be used cheaply in places where magma is close to the surface.

PDFS 1. D

2. Nonrenewable; the process that forms coal requires millions of years

E95

2. Is coal a renewable or nonrenewable resource? How do you know?

1. Which of the following is NOT true of coal as a resource? A. It stores solar energy captured by plants. B. It is a fossil fuel. C. It is the most plentiful fossil fuel in the U.S. D. It is a source of nuclear energy.

Questions

◆ Fossil fuels are formed over millions of years from the remains of ancient plants and animals. They are made of hydrocarbons.

◆ Renewable energy sources include sunlight, wind, and hydroelectric power. Nonrenewable energy sources include fossil fuels and the uranium used for nuclear fission.

Quick Review


Energy Resources
