Advanced studies on the archaeology and history of hunting edited by the ZBSA
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11
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Advanced studies on the archaeology and history of hunting
9 783529 014901
Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism
ISBN 978-3-529-01490-1
edited by the ZBSA
Karl-Heinz Gersmann ∙ Oliver Grimm (eds.)
Falconry, the art of hunting with birds (Frederick II) and a living human heritage (UNESCO), has left many traces, from western Europe and northern Africa to Japan. The oldest ascertained testimonies belong to the first millennium BCE. The present book, a cooperation between falconers and scientists from different branches, addresses falconry and bird symbolism on diverse continents and in diverse settings.
Karl-Heinz Gersmann ∙ Oliver Grimm (eds.)
Raptor and human –
falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale
Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale
Advanced studies on the archaeology and history of hunting, vol. 1.1–1.4 Edited by the ZBSA/Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology in the Foundation of the Schleswig-Holstein State Museums, Schloss Gottorf, Schleswig (northern Germany)
Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale
13 Edited by Karl-Heinz Gersmann and Oliver Grimm Publication in considerable extension of the workshop at the Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology (ZBSA) in Schleswig, March 5th to 7th 2014
Cover picture: Skilled eagle master. Western Mongolia, August 2011 (photo used with the permission of Dr. Takuya Soma). Top to the left: Seal of the Danish king Knud IV (late 11th century). Redrawing. Taken from M. Andersen/G. Tegnér, Middelalderlige seglstamper i Norden (Roskilde 2002) 129.
Technical Editor: Isabel Sonnenschein Layout, typesetting and image editing: Matthias Bolte, Jürgen Schüller Print and distribution: Wachholtz Verlag – Murmann Publishers, Kiel/Hamburg 2018 https://www.wachholtz-verlag.de/raptor-and-human.html ISSN 2511-8285 ISBN 978-3-529-01490-1 Bibliographical data of the German National Library. The German National Library catalogues this publication in the German National Bibliography; detailed bibliographical information is available online under . All rights reserved, including the reprint of extracts, in particular for duplication, the insertion into and processing in electronic systems and photomechanical reproduction and translation. © 2018 Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology (ZBSA) in the Foundation of the Schleswig-Holstein State Museums, Schloss Gottorf, Schleswig, Germany. The editors have made every effort to identify all copyright owners. In the case that copyrights have not been cleared, please contact the editors or the publishing house.
5.000 km
3.000 km
Base Map: ESRI data set 9.3/ ZBSA Göbel 2014
Base Map:ESRI Data 9.3/ ZBSA Göbel 2014
The global perspective of the book. Orange: Eurasian steppe (presumed area of origin of falconry); green: the areas considered in the book (map Jürgen Schüller, ZBSA).
Falconry definition Falconry is defined as the taking of quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of trained birds of prey (according to the International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey [IAF] = www.iaf.org).
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen with a bird of prey. Miniature in his falconry book (folio 1v, Codex Pal. lat. 1071, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg/Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana). Redrawing. After: Hunting in Northern Europe (Neumünster 2013) 344 fig. 1. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen was an early global actor in the 13th century, bringing together falconers and falconry traditions from far and wide.
UNESCO recognition of falconry as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (cf. Hewicker in this book, Fig. 6).
Book sponsors
The Archives of Falconry (Boise, Idaho, USA)
Association Nationale des Fauconniers et Autoursiers (France)
(Cultural Division, CIC/Headquarters, and CIC/German Delegation)
Emirates Falconers‘ Club
Deutscher Falkenorden (DFO)
European Foundation for Falconry and Conservation
Hagedoorn Stichting (Netherlands)
The Falconry Heritage Trust (Wales)
Club Mariae Burgundiae (Belgium)
North American Falconers’ Association
International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey
Marshall GPS
Orden Deutscher Falkoniere
Japanese Falconiformes Center
Nederlands Valkeniersverbond Adriaan Mollen
The Peregrine Fund (USA)
List of contents Book 1 Forewords Claus v. Carnap-Bornheim and Berit V. Eriksen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 His Highness Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Oliver Grimm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Karl-Heinz Gersmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Oliver Grimm and Karl-Heinz Gersmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Adrian Lombard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Glossaries Bird glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Falconry glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Indices Short index: by author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Short index: by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Short index: by topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Summaries Summary English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Summary German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Summary Russian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Summary Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 1 – Falconry in action and raptor propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Thomas Richter Practicalities of falconry, as seen by a present-day falconer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Mohammed Ahmed Al Bowardi, Majed Ali Al Mansoori, Margit Gabriele Müller, Omar Fouad Ahmad and Anwar S. Dawood Falconry in the United Arab Emirates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Ata Eyerbediev This world is a hunting field and good deeds are the prey – the ethical side of tradition . . . . . 101 Dennis Keen The hunter, the eagle, and the nation: Qazaq traditional knowledge in the post-Soviet world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Keiya Nakajima Japanese falconry from a practical point of view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 V
Karl-Heinz Gersmann Some thoughts on the emergence and function of falconry from the perspective of a practicing falconer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Ellen Hagen From museum education to practical falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 S. Kent Carnie North American falconry, from its earliest centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 S. Kent Carnie The Archives of Falconry: a North American effort to preserve the tangible heritage of falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Jevgeni Shergalin Falconry Heritage Trust: history, structure, goals, current and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Hans-Albrecht Hewicker The History of the Deutscher Falkenorden (DFO) and its international relations . . . . . . . . . . 187 Tom J. Cade and Robert B. Berry The influence of propagating birds of prey on falconry and raptor conservation . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Chapter 2 – Raptors in zoology and biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Frank E. Zachos Birds of prey – An introduction to their systematics, taxonomy and conservation . . . . . . . . . 223 Anita Gamauf Palaearctic birds of prey from a biological point of view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 3 – Human evolution, history of domestication and the special role of the raptor-human relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Kristiina Mannermaa Humans and raptors in northern Europe and northwestern Russia before falconry . . . . . . . . 257 Dirk Heinrich Are trained raptors domesticated birds? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Walter Bednarek Emotions and motivation of the falconer and his relationship with the trained raptor – attempt at an evolutionary-biological interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Sara Asu Schroer A view from anthropology: falconry, domestication and the ‘animal turn’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 VI
Chapter 4 – Raptors and religion, falconry and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 David A. Warburton Egypt and earlier: birds of prey in the human mind at the dawn of history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 By Kerry Hull, Mark Wright and Rob Fergus Avian actors: transformation, sorcery, and prognostication in Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Daniela Boccassini Falconry as royal “delectatio”: understanding the art of taming and its philosophical foundations in 12th- and 13th-century Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Chapter 5 – History of falconry: pioneers of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Leor Jacobi and Mark Epstein Hans J. Epstein: falconry’s extraordinary historian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Rolf Roosen “The noblest form of hunting ever” – Kurt Lindner and falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Chapter 6 – History of falconry: basic reflections and new perspectives . . . . . . . . . 421 Ivan Pokrovsky Stable isotope analysis in raptor and falconry studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Alexandra Pesch Confiding birds: some short remarks on the “head-with-bird-on-top-of-horse-motif” on Migration Period gold bracteates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Vera Henkelmann The evidential value of falconry depictions in book illuminations, on seals, and on tapestries in middle Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Wietske Prummel The archaeological-archaeozoological identification of falconry – methodological remarks and some Dutch examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Book 2 Oliver Grimm From Aachen in the west to Birka in the north and Mikulčice in the east – some archaeological remarks on bird of prey bones and falconry as being evidenced in premodern settlement contexts in parts of Europe (pre and post 1000 AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
VII
Ulrich Schmölcke Central European burials with birds of prey from the middle of the 1st millennium AD – a short survey of the early history of archaeozoology in connection with these burials . . . . . 495 Stephan Dusil Falconry in the mirror of normative sources from Central Europe (5th–19th centuries) . . . . . . 507 Baudouin Van den Abeele “On the dunghill”: the dead hawk in medieval Latin and French moralising literature . . . . . . 523 Ricardo Manuel Olmos de León The care of hunting birds in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance according to the Spanish falconry treatises (1250–1565) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Robert Nedoma New words for new things – an overview on lexical borrowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Chapter 7 – Eurasian steppe: geographic origins of falconry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Pavel Kosintsev and Aleksei Nekrasov An archaeozoological survey of remains of birds of prey in the West Eurasian steppe . . . . . . 565 Leonid Yablonsky (†) Were the Early Sarmatian nomads falconers in the southern Urals, Russia, during the 4th century BC? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Ulambayar Erdenebat A contribution to the history of Mongolian falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Takuya Soma Ethnoarchaeology of falconry in nomadic and sedentary society across Central Asia – rethinking the “Beyond the Boundary” phenomenon of ancient falconry culture . . . . . . . . . . 603 Ádám Bollók A history of the Hungarians before the end of the ninth century: a reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Claus Dobiat, with an archaeological-historical introduction by Oliver Grimm The rider fibula from Xanten in western Germany (around 600 AD) with a reference to the falconry of nomadic horsemen of the Eurasian steppe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 Hans Nugteren Names for hunting birds and falconry terms in Kipchak (Northwestern Turkic) . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Jürgen Udolph Eastern Slavic names of birds of prey – traces of contact with Turkic peoples? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
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Chapter 8 – Roman Empire: the West (Rome) and East (Constantinople) with very little evidence for falconry up to the 5th/6th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Florian Hurka Falconry and similar forms of hunting according to ancient Greco-Roman sources . . . . . . . . 685 Andreas Külzer Some notes on falconry in Byzantium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Chapter 9 – Case study: raptor catching, raptor trade and falconry in northern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 Oliver Grimm and Frans-Arne Stylegar A short introduction to Norway, its Viking Age (800–1000/1050) and the question of the origin of falconry in the country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Terje Gansum The royal Viking Age ship grave from Gokstad in Vestfold, eastern Norway, and its link to falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Ragnar Orten Lie Falconry, falcon-catching and the role of birds of prey in trade and as alliance gifts in Norway (800–1800 AD) with an emphasis on Norwegian and later foreign participants in falcon-catching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Inge Særheim Place names from south-western Norway with reference to the catching of falcons . . . . . . . . . 787 Lydia Carstens Land of the hawk: Old Norse literary sources about the knowledge and practice of falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 Maria Vretemark Birds of prey as evidence for falconry in Swedish burials and settlements (550–1500 AD) . . . 827 Sigmund Oehrl An overview of falconry in Northern Germanic and insular iconography, 6th /7th centuries AD to c. 1100 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Åsa Ahrland Imagery of birds of prey and falconry in the High and Late Middle Ages (1150–1500) in the Nordic countries – reflections of actual hunting practices or symbols of power? . . . . . 861 Joonas Ahola, Frog and Ville Laakso The roles and perceptions of raptors in Iron Age and medieval Finno-Karelian cultures through c. AD 1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
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Matti Leiviskä The role of birds of prey in Finnish place and personal names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935 Anne Birgitte Gotfredsen Traces of falconry in Denmark from the 7th to the 17th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
Book 3 Dirk Heinrich, with an appendix by Wolf-Rüdiger Teegen Falconry in the Viking Age trading centre of Haithabu and its successor, the medieval town of Schleswig? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973 Natascha Mehler, Hans Christian Küchelmann and Bart Holterman The export of gyrfalcons from Iceland during the 16th century: a boundless business in a proto-globalized world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 Brian Smith and John H. Ballantyne The collection of falcons and ‘hawk hens’ in Shetland and Orkney, 1472–1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Kristopher Poole Zooarchaeological evidence for falconry in England, up to AD 1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 David Horobin The pen and the peregrine: literary influences on the development of British falconry (8th century to the present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 Eric Lacey The charter evidence for falconry and falcon-catching in England and Wales, c. 600–c. 1100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089 Richard Almond Hunting from the fist: looking at hawking and falconry in late medieval England (1000–1500) through art history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117 Kester Freriks Bird trapping and falconry in Valkenswaard, the Netherlands, from the 17th to the 20th centuries – about wild birds as jewels on the falconer’s hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149 Ignaz Matthey The symbolism of birds of prey and falconry in the visual arts of the Netherlands, 1400–1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
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Chapter 10 – Raptors and falconry in premodern Europe: overall studies . . . . . . . . 1193
José Manuel Fradejas Rueda Falconry on the Iberian Peninsula – its history and literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195 Algirdas Girininkas and Linas Daugnora Premodern hunting with birds of prey in the historical Lithuanian lands: entertainment, politics or economic necessity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215 Liina Maldre, Teresa Tomek and Jüri Peets Birds of prey from Vendel Age ship burials of Salme (c. 750 AD) and in Estonian archaeological material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229 Andrei V. Zinoviev Early falconry in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251 Baudouin Van den Abeele Medieval Latin and vernacular treatises on falconry (11th–16th c.): tradition, contents, and historical interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271
Chapter 11 – Raptors and falconry in premodern Europe: specific studies . . . . . . . 1291 Babette Ludowici Chamber grave 41 from the Bockshornschanze near Quedlinburg (central Germany): evidence of the practice of falconry by women from the middle of the 1st century? . . . . . . . . 1293 Ralf Bleile Falconry among the Slavs of the Elbe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1303 Wolf-Rüdiger Teegen The skeletons of a peregrine and a sparrowhawk and the spatial distribution of birds of prey in the Slavonic fortification of Starigard/Oldenburg (Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany, 7th–13th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371 Zbigniew M. Bochenski, Teresa Tomek, Krzysztof Wertz and Michał Wojenka Falconry in Poland from a zooarchaeological perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1399 Virgílio Lopes Hunting scene with hawk from Mértola in Portugal (6th /7th centuries AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1411 Cliff A. Jost A depiction of a falconer on a disc brooch of the 7th century from the cemetery of Münstermaifeld, District of Mayen-Koblenz, south-western Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1421 Katharina Chrubasik The tomb of the Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło (1386–1434) and its possible connection with falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427 XI
Andreas Dobler The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel and falconry in the 18th century. Depictions of a hunt with falcons in the Schloss Fasanerie museum near Fulda, Hesse (Germany) . . . . . . . . 1439
Book 4 Martina Giese The “De arte venandi cum avibus” of Emperor Frederick II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459 Martina Giese Evidence of falconry on the European continent and in England, with an emphasis on the 5th to 9th centuries: historiography, hagiography, and letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471 Agnieszka Samsonowicz Falconry in the history of hunting in the Poland of the Piasts and the Jagiellons (10th–16th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1491 Sabine Obermaier Falconry in the medieval German Tristan romances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507 Baudouin Van den Abeele Falconry in Old French literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519 Ingrid A. R. De Smet Princess of the North: perceptions of the gyrfalcon in 16th-century western Europe . . . . . . . 1543 Péter Kasza Falconry literature in Hungary in an international perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1571 Robert Nedoma Germanic personal names before AD 1000 and their elements referring to birds of prey. With an emphasis upon the runic inscription in the eastern Swedish Vallentuna-Rickeby burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1583 Jürgen Udolph Falconry and bird catching in Germanic and Slavonic place, field and family names . . . . . . . 1603
Chapter 12 – Raptors and falconry in premodern times in areas outside Europe . 1629 Karin Reiter Falconry in the Ancient Orient? I. A contribution to the history of falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 Karin Reiter Falconry in the Ancient Orient? II. The Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1643
XII
Karin Reiter Falconry in Ugarit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659 Susanne Görke and Ekin Kozal Birds of prey in pre-Hittite and Hittite Anatolia (c. 1970–1180 BCE): textual evidence and image representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1667 Paul A. Yule Archaeology of the Arabian Peninsula in the late pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods (1st millennium CE): background sketch for early falconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1691 Anna Akasoy Falconry in Arabic literature: from its beginnings to the mid- 9th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769 Touraj Daryaee and Soodabeh Malekzadeh Falcons and falconry in pre-modern Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793 Ulrich Schapka The Persian names of birds of prey and trained raptors in their historical development . . . . 1809 Leor Jacobi ‘This Horse is a Bird Specialist’: Falconry intrudes upon the Palestinian Mishnah in Sasanian Babylonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831 Leslie Wallace The early history of falconry in China (2nd to 5th centuries AD) and the question of its origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847 Fangyi Cheng From entertainment to political life – royal falconry in China between the 6th and 14th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 Fangyi Cheng and Leopold Eisenlohr Ancient Chinese falconry terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1883 Ho-tae Jeon Falconry in ancient Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891 Takayo Kaku Ancient Japanese falconry from an archaeological point of view with a focus on the early period (5th to 7th centuries AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919 Yasuko Nihonmatsu Japanese books on falconry from the 13th to the 17th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937 José Manuel Fradejas Rueda Falconry in America – A pre-Hispanic sport? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
XIII
Falconry in Poland from a zooarchaeological perspective By Zbigniew M. Bochenski, Teresa Tomek, Krzysztof Wertz and Michał Wojenka
Keywords: Falconry, hawking, diurnal birds of prey, avian remains, taphonomy, Middle Ages Abstract: There are numerous written accounts, both direct and indirect, on falconry in Poland but the zooarchaeological records are very scarce. So far, there are just two case studies that suggest hawking was practised, and a more general approach that analyses all skeletal remains of diurnal birds of prey from archaeological sites in Poland. This review article, which is based on published sources, summarizes our knowledge on the subject and indicates possible avenues of research for future studies. Even though falconry is not well documented in Polish written sources until the very early 12th century, present-day knowledge suggests that it might have come earlier to the Polish lands, maybe in the very late first millennium AD, possibly as a high status activity. Numerous indirect clues indicate that during the later stages of the Middle Ages (mid 13th –early 16th c.) hawking was popular among noblemen.
The very beginnings of hawking remain somewhat obscure. It is believed that the activity originated somewhere in the Asiatic steppes (Benecke 1994; Epstein 1943; Serjeantson 2009), and spread to Europe in the 3rd/4th centuries AD. The first written sources and illustrations of falconry in Europe date to about AD 500 (Prummel 1997; 2013). In terms of archaeological sources, it is worth mentioning that some indirect evidence for early falconry (500–1000 AD) are bones of birds of prey found in Swedish graves, which were discovered mostly in the eastern central part of this country (Jennbert 2007; Tyrberg 2002; Vretemark 2013 and in this book). In this respect, very valuable sources of information are also two boat burials from Salme in the Estonian island of Saaremaa, unearthed just a few years ago. In the first boat, two decapitated skeletons of a goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) and a sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) were found (Allmäe et al. 2011), while the second contained, among others, bones of goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and saker falcon (Falco cf. cherrug) (Peets et al. 2012). Both burials are associated with eastern Swedish population and are reliably dated within the mid 7th to mid 8th centuries (Allmäe et al. 2011; Peets et al. 2012; Maldre et al. in this book). It is worth noting that burials containing the remains of birds of prey are also known from Germany, where they are dated from the 6th to the 9th centuries (Dobiat 2013; Schmölcke in this book). It is unclear when the first trained birds were used in Poland. Already Gallus Anonymus, the author of the earliest Polish chronicle, which was composed a little before 1116 AD, probably indirectly mentions hawkers (austringers) in his account of the life of the Polish ruler Boleslaw Chrobry, who reigned around 1000 AD (Knoll/Schaer 2003). Later written accounts leave no doubt about the popularity of hawking in Poland – it was practiced there during the rest of the Middle Ages (until the early 16th c.) and post-medieval times (from the early 16th c. onwards) (e.g., Cygański 1584; Samsonowicz 2011 and in this book; Wodzicki 1858). In this respect, Poland was obviously similar to other European 1399
countries where falconry became a common activity among people of high social ranks, reaching its peak in medieval and post-medieval times (Benecke 1994; Prummel 1997; Serjeantson 2009). The relative abundance of written accounts of hawking in Poland contrasts with the poor zooarchaeological record. Until now, there are only two case-studies that interpret animal remains from strongholds at Kałdus and Ostrów Lednicki as evidence of possible hawking (Makowiecki et al. 2007 and 2014, respectively). A more general approach to the problem is our recent attempt to critically analyze published accounts from all archaeological sites in Poland that include the remains of birds of prey (Bochenski et al. 2016). The present paper is intended as a summary of our knowledge on hawking in medieval and post-medieval Poland from a zooarchaeological perspective. We apply various types of zooarchaeological evidence for hawking that are discussed in a number of papers (e.g., Cherryson 2002; Dobney/Jaques 2002; Gál 2012; Mulkeen/O’Connor 1997; Prummel 1997; Serjeantson 2009) to the data gathered from Poland. In Poland, fossil (i.e., many thousand or even million years old) and/or subfossil (i.e., several hundred up to several thousand years old) avian remains were found on at least 236 sites dated from the Early Oligocene (c. 30 million years ago) to present times (Bochenski et al. 2012). Their geographical distribution is very uneven: most of them are located in the western and southern parts of the country, with eastern regions being insufficiently explored. A possible type of evidence for hawking is the presence of hawk bones at a given archaeological site (Cherryson 2002; Prummel 1997). Bearing this in mind, let us focus on those archaeological sites that include the remains of birds of prey. Our survey indicated 65 Holocene (i.e., not older than 12 000 years) sites that fulfill the condition but only 38 of these sites are dated to the Middle Ages or later times, i.e. to the period when falconry was practised (Fig. 1). Some of the 38 sites include more than one occupational phase or period, in which case we treat the remains from each period separately and ascribe them to particular “time-site units”. Thus, the remains of birds of prey from the 38 archaeological sites represent 49 time-site units that include strongholds (31), castles (7), stronghold/castle (1), towns (5), settlements (4) and an unspecified site type (1) (Bochenski et al. 2016). The long pre-medieval (and also pre-falconry) period that, in our study, spans between the Late Palaeolithic (from 12 000 BP) and the 1st millennium AD and includes 15 time-site units is used here as reference background. Of course, the sole presence of hawk remains cannot be interpreted as evidence for hawking. To draw such conclusions, we have to apply other criteria. As many as 327 skeletal remains (NISP) of diurnal birds of prey have so far been recovered from all the Holocene sites in Poland. These include 281 bones representing 12 species of diurnal birds of prey that date to the Middle Ages and Modern Times, and 46 bones of 7 species from the very long pre-medieval period (Tab. 1; Bochenski et al. 2016). The altogether 12 species represent both categories distinguished by Mulkeen/O’Connor (1997) on grounds of their feeding and nesting behaviour – those that may be expected in human settlements (Haliaeetus albicilla, Buteo buteo, Buteo lagopus, Falco tinnunculus and possibly Falco peregrinus, whose presence would depend on the availability of suitable roosting/nesting sites that are more common in modern settlements), and others that are not to be expected and whose remains in the bone deposit, depending on other factors, may therefore be connected with hawking (Accipiter gentilis, Accipiter nisus, Circus aeruginosus, Falco subbuteo). There are three dominant species of raptors in the combined material from the Middle Ages and post-medieval times in Poland: A. gentilis (NISP=98, MNI=50, 29 time-site units), H. albicilla (NISP=81, MNI=33, 18 time-site units) and to a lesser degree also A. nisus (NISP=36, MNI=27, 9 time-site units) (Bochenski et al. 2016). Such a predominance clearly contrasts with the pre-medieval period where no dominant taxa can be distinguished (Fig. 2), and is most probably connected with a change in human habits and/or their environment. A similar situation is observed in other parts of the world. Goshawks and sparrowhawks were the most important hawks in Western Europe between the 6th and 17th centuries (P rummel in this book). Also, in Sweden, remains of goshawks 1400
Fig. 1. Distribution of time-site units (i.e., occupational phases of archaeological sites) in Poland from pre-medieval vs. the Middle Ages (8th –early 16th c.) and later times (early 16th –18th c.) that yielded remains of diurnal birds of prey (modified after Bochenski et al. 2012).
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Fig. 2. Distribution of birds of prey at archaeological sites in Poland in pre-medieval versus the Middle Ages (8th –early 16th c.) and later times (early 16th – 18th c.). Imprecisely identified accipitrids are classified according to their size: large (e.g., Aquila sp. or Aquila/Haliaeetus), middle (e.g., cf. Buteo or A. gentilis/B. buteo) or small (e.g., Falco sp.).
were by far more numerous than other raptors between 550–1500 AD (Vretemark in this book). In Great Britain, an increase in numbers of A. nisus and A. gentilis in the Middle Ages has been interpreted in favour of falconry (Yalden/Albarella 2009; Poole in this book), which seems to be the most plausible explanation also in Poland. On the other hand, the large number of H. albicilla remains may result from the fact that most archaeological sites that yielded the remains of birds of prey in Poland are located in areas of the species’ natural occurrence, i.e., in lake districts and along rivers (Fig. 1). The birds that not only actively hunt but are also scavengers could have been attracted by human refuse from nearby settlements (Mulkeen/O’Connor 1997) and then killed by people who considered them as pests to domestic animals and wild fauna (Zeiler 2010). In the past, when a trained hawk or falcon died, its body was not eaten but thrown on a garbage heap (Prummel 1997; Van den Abeele “On the Dunghill” in this book). Therefore, we may expect to find partial or even complete skeletons of birds used for hawking, which was indeed reported on some occasions (Cherryson 2002; Prummel 1997; Teegen in this book). Very few zooarchaeological reports in Poland provide information on whether the remains described may come from the same individual. To better assess the problem, we checked the number of remains of particular species of bird of prey per every time-site unit (Fig. 3). It turned out that in most cases each species was represented by a single bone in a particular time-site unit. More numerous remains were recorded, among others, in 10 out of 29 time-site units for A. gentilis, and 4 out of 9 time-site units for A. nisus – something that speaks in favour of hawking on those sites (Bochenski et al. 2016). This does not preclude hawking on sites that yielded single bones of raptors, especially if the sites were situated outside the usual range of the birds (Serjeantson 2009). Actually, most sites in our survey constituted various types of human settlements that are normally avoided by A. gentilis and A. nisus as the two species usually hunt in woodlands (Cramp/Simmons 1980; Mulkeen/O’Connor 1997).
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Fig. 3. Number of time-site units that yielded one, two and three or more bones of particular bird of prey species in the Middle Ages (8th –early 16th c.) and later times (early 16th –18th c.).
One of the best clues for hawking that zooarchaeology can provide is the predominance of female birds of prey in deposits (Cherryson 2002; Prummel 1997; 2013, and in this book). Sexual size dimorphism observed in raptors ensures that females are noticeably larger than males and therefore more suitable for hunting larger prey. Unfortunately, the zooarchaeological literature in Poland relatively seldom includes data on the sex of birds of prey (Bochenski et al. 2016). Nevertheless, the reports that do provide such data support the assumption of hawking because females clearly prevail among the remains that have been sexed. In A. gentilis the female : male ratio is 17 : 4, and in A. nisus 24 : 0 (data pooled for all sites). Another important clue that may indicate hawking is the presence of not fully ossified remains (i.e., with bone tissue not fully formed) of subadult birds of prey. The rationale behind the assumption is that in the Middle Ages professional hawk catchers often took young birds from the nests to train them for the sport (Serjeantson 2009). Some of the captured birds must have died before they reached adulthood and their remains may have been preserved on some archaeological sites. In Polish zooarchaeological literature, very few subadult birds are reported from the Middle Ages and later times (Bochenski et al. 2016). However, it is noteworthy that they include five A. gentilis (three of them females) and a female of A. nisus – all of them found on various high status sites (castle and strongholds), which increases the likelihood that they belonged to trained birds. The knowledge of the biology of birds of prey may also be used as indirect evidence for hawking. For instance, it is very unlikely for species that in the wild occupy different ecological niches to die and be preserved at an archaeological site unless they were trained birds. Therefore, the presence of more than one species of raptor may, in certain conditions, be interpreted in favour of hawking (Cherryson 2002). In our recent survey (Bochenski et al. 2016), about 60 % of the time-site units dated to the Middle Ages and later times yielded remains of a single species of bird of prey, whereas the remaining 40 % contained two or more species (Fig. 4). It seems that the criterion may be good for deposits that accumulated over a short period of time. However, caution is advised whenever the accumulation took place over hundreds or even thousands of years. A good example is our reference pre-medieval (and pre-falconry) material that covered multiple occupation phases and where various factors must have been responsible for the accumulation of the remains but, surprisingly, the share of time-site units with a single species of raptor and with multiple species was nearly identical.
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Fig. 4. Number of time-site units that yielded remains of one or more species of diurnal birds of prey in pre-medieval versus the Middle Ages (8th –early 16th c.) and later times (early 16th –18th c. ).
At sites where hawking was practiced it can be expected that some of the prey bones may represent food remains of the hawks. Consequently, the presence of typical prey remains is thought to be an additional clue to falconry (Prummel 1997; 2013, and in this book) but the criterion is far from perfect because the prey of raptors is often similar to the game taken by humans in nets and traps (Serjeantson 2009). The survey of Polish sites (Bochenski et al. 2016) indicates that the criterion is very weak indeed. Nearly all time-site units, regardless of the period (pre-medieval as well as medieval), had an associated, often rich, bird fauna. As suggested recently (Bochenski et al. 2016), a possible clue for hawking may be damage to prey remains done by the hawks’ beaks and claws. The presence of specific holes and perforations that accumulate on certain skeletal elements is a characteristic feature that can be ascribed to particular types of raptors, including those used for hawking (Bochenski/Tornberg 2003; Bochenski et al. 2009; Laroulandie 2002). Although such studies were originally performed in order to help differentiate damage to bird bones done by humans from damage done by raptors, they can probably also be used as additional evidence of falconry. However, the theory still needs to be proved on archaeological material. It is noteworthy that the list of birds of prey found on medieval sites in Poland does not include the gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus (Bochenski et al. 2012; 2016). Its remains were not found even at the stronghold in Ostrów Lednicki (Makowiecki et al. 2014), which at the turn of the 11th century is regarded as one of the most important ducal seats of the state of early Piasts’, the first Polish dynasty (Górecki 2001) (Fig. 5). Instead, only the remains of a goshawk Accipiter gentilis were found there which – assuming that the remains come from a trained bird – suggests that Polish kings might have used goshawks rather than gyrfalcons. This is an apparent contradiction to the information given in the well known “Boke of St Albans”, which states that a female gyrfalcon was appropriate for a king, a female goshawk for a yeoman, a female sparrowhawk for a priest and a kestrel for a servant (Bartosiewicz 2012; Cherryson 2002; Serjeantson 2001; 2009; Yalden/A lbarella 2009). However, the strict allocation of particular species for people of different ranks was criticized by various authors who pointed out obvious mistakes and inconsistencies (e.g., Serjeantson 2009; Yalden/Albarella 2009; see also Almond and Horobin in this book). It seems that in Poland native birds were used by people 1404
of various ranks, even though the most noble of them could certainly afford to import a gyr- falcon from Norway or Iceland where gyrfalcon catching was common (Orten Lie in this book). In this respect, Polish kings did not differ from other European rulers who, like Emperor Frederick II, are also known to have used goshawks (Yalden/A lbarella 2009). Therefore, we agree with Serjeantson (2009) that the Boke of St Albans is not a reliable source of information regarding hawking in Europe. Also worth mentioning is the problem of medieval falconry in Poland from the perspective of the archaeological records. In this respect, the most valuable archaeological source is the falcon’s and falconer’s equipment, such as jesses, leashes, bewits, hoods or gloves (Prummel 1997; Serjeantson 2009; R ichter in this book). Unfortunately, the organic raw material from which these accessories were made is usually too fragile to survive Fig. 5. The stronghold at Ostrów Lednicki, situated on an isand such finds are rather rarely discovered at land on Lednica Lake, is thought to be one of the central places archaeological sites. With the exception of of the first rulers of the Piast dynasty at the turn of the 11th century. Ruins of a chapel, church and palace as well as a ramsome leather mittens (which could have been part surrounding it are still visible (drawing based on Górecki used by falconers), discovered in the Wawel 2001, photos by Teresa Tomek). hilltop in Kraków (Eberle 1970) and within the 14th century layers of the town of Kołobrzeg (Wywrot 1996; Wywrot-Wyszkowska 1998; on the other hand compare the iconographical sources published by Ławrynowicz/Nowakowski 2009, where the falconers use rather gloves than mittens), the direct evidence of hawking is difficult to identify in the Polish archaeological record. In neighbouring countries, the situation is similar. Some more evident falconer’s equipment, such as leather hoods, were noted within the medieval layers of the Vilnius Lower Castle in Lithuania (Blaževičius et al. 2012; Girininkas/Daugnora in this book). Two cages that could have been used for keeping trained birds of prey (Durdík 2010) were discovered in the royal castle of Křivoklát in the Czech Republic, next to the palace building, which is dated to the first quarter of the 15th century (Durdík 1988). Some falconry equipment is also known from Russia (Zinoviev in this book) and France (Van den A beele “On the Dunghill” in this book). Another category of portable artefacts that are often considered to be a part of falconry equipment are small bells, usually made of bronze, which could be attached to the bird’s leg or feathers and falconer’s gloves (Fröhlich et al. 2010; Ławrynowicz/Nowakowski 2009; P rummel 2013). How- ever, it must be noted that such metal objects could have been used for different purposes (Laul/ Valk 2007; Odoj 1958) and it is difficult to attribute them only to trained birds, unless the archaeological context allows for it, as in the case of Louvre, France (Van den Abeele “On the Dunghill” and Bleile in this book). Although very rare, the archaeological data corresponds well with other clues that indicate the popularity of falconry in medieval Poland. Besides written records, the depictions of falconers/ hawkers (austringers) are known from numismatic (Kiersnowski 1994) or sphragistic sources (Piech 1405
1993). Medieval falconry is also visible in place names such as Sokolniki (“sokolnik” is a Polish name for a falconer), which are considered to be the so-called “service settlements”. This term is commonly used to refer to the localities which, in the Middle Ages (in this respect from the 10th or 11th–the 13th c.), were probably inhabited by specialized workers, who served the exclusive needs of the ducal or royal estate in the early Piast state (Buczek 1958; 1977; Modzelewski 1961; Udolph “Germanic and Slavonic names” in this book). The etymology of the place name Sokolniki can be easily traced to hawking birds. The dispersion of zooarchaeological data (Fig. 1) clearly reveals that fortified places are of special interest in relation to the problem of medieval falconry/hawking in the territory of present-day Poland. It does not come as a surprise as the defensive structures are the sites where the presence of nobility is expected. Fortified sites can be divided into two different groups: wooden-earth strongholds and more advanced castles made of stone or brick. Apart from the site in Mrówki, which represents a motte-type stronghold (a wooden tower situated on a raised conical earthwork), used at the turn of the 13th century by an unspecified nobleman (K amińska 1953; Marciniak-K ajzer 2011), the rest of wooden-earth structures generally correspond to the earlier phases of the Polish Middle Ages (before the mid-13th c.). It needs to be emphasized that, in the light of archaeology, some of these can be regarded as high status sites, e.g. the strongholds in Ostrów Lednicki, Gniezno, Wrocław, Opole-Ostrówek, Kałdus, Gdańsk, Kołobrzeg, Szczecin or Wolin. Interestingly, in a few cases like Demblin or possibly Kulczyn-Kolonia (Poleski 2004; Buko 2009) the stronghold may be earlier than the process of formation of the early medieval Piast state. It is beyond doubt that all the medieval or post-medieval castles in the social landscape were places of higher importance, as they were inhabited by noblemen or people from an elite background. Excluding strongholds, castles and towns, bones of birds of prey are known from few open settle- ments. Interestingly, some of them were at a given time probably functionally linked with fortified sites, creating sort of ‘satellite’ settlements, like in the case of Kałdus (11th c.), Ostrów Lednicki (11th c.) or Chełm (first half of the 13th c.). The site of Krosno Odrzańskie is marked on the map as an “unspecified” type. This results from the state of archaeological publication, which does not allow for firm determination of the site type, contrary to Bochenski et al. (2016), where it was mistakenly classified as a “burial”. Although zooarchaeology cannot provide hard evidence for hawking, it puts at our disposal a number of clues that can be applied in our studies. As shown above, not all clues are equally good; some of them are more reliable while others should be used more cautiously. The more clues that suggest hawking at a particular site, the more likely it is that it was practiced there. Some of the sites in Poland are indeed high status places (e.g., castles or strongholds) that yielded subadult females of species typically used for hawking (e.g., A. gentilis or A. nisus) that normally are not expected at human settlements. Moreover, some locations provided the remains of more than one species of raptor and a number of associated bird fauna. Since this is only a review article, based entirely on published records and we did not have the opportunity to study the remains that are stored in many various institutions throughout the country, we prefer not to draw final conclusions regarding hawking at particular archaeological sites. Such an analysis would require a detailed archaeological context and some more work on the remains including re-identification, sexing, aging and dating. An interested researcher is welcome to use our database that includes detailed information on raptor remains from archaeological sites in Poland retrieved from all published reports (Bochenski et al. 2016). In conclusion, we believe that the existing zooarchaeological evidence strongly suggests that hawking was indeed widespread in medieval Poland, which is in agreement with the written sources (e.g., Cygański 1584; Samsonowicz 2011; Wodzicki 1858).
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Tab. 1. Distribution of diurnal birds of prey (based on bone remains) at particular time-site units (i.e., occupational phases of archaeological sites) in Poland. For more details see Bochenski et al. (2016).
Species
Pre-medieval timeTotal site units NISP n Names
Middle Ages and later times time-site units n Names
Dudka, Pandion haliaetus
8
3
Aegypius monachus
1
Pychowice,
1
Strongholds: (9th–10th c.)
Szczepanki
Castles: Człuchów (14th–early 16th c.), Mała Nieszawka (14th– 15th c.), Stare Drawsko (mid-14th c.–18th c.), Tykocin (15th–early 16th c.); Strongholds: Biskupin (8th–9th c.?), Cedynia (9th–12th c.), Haliaeetus albicilla
87
2
Biskupin, Niedźwiedziówka
Gdańsk (10th–14th c.), Gwieździn (late 10th–12th/13th c.), 18 Kołobrzeg (Budzistowo) (9th–13th c.), Opole-Ostrówek (10th–13th c.), Santok (8th/9th–13th c.), Stare Drawsko (in two different stratigraphical contexts: 8th/9th–12th c. and 8th/9th–18th c.), Szczecin-Mścięcino (9th–11th c.), Szczecin-Rynek Warzywny (10th–13th c.), Wolin-Miasto (9th–13th c.); Towns: Białogard (early 16th–18th c.), Kołobrzeg (13th–early 16th c.) Castles: Stare Drawsko (mid 14th–18th c.);
Janikowo, Aquila chrysaetos
6
2
Komorowo
3
Strongholds: Brodnica-Michałowo, (11th–early 14th c.), Węgry (11th–12th c.)
Aquila pomarina
1
1
Strongholds: Kałdus (site 3) (11th–early 13th c.) Castles: Człuchów (14th–early 16th c.), Koło (early 14th–18th c.), Puck (late 14th–18th c.), Stare Drawsko (mid-14th c.–18th c.); Settlements: Kałdus (site 2) (9th–13th c.), Ostrów Lednicki (site 2) (mid 10th–13/14th c.), Santok (8th/9th–13th c.); Strongholds: Bnin (Phase I) (10th–11th c.), Bnin (phase III) (13th c.), Bnin (layers overlapping the settlement of Phase III (13th c. or later), Brodnica-Michałowo (11–early 14th c.), Gdańsk (10th–14th c.), Gniezno (10th–14th c.), Gwieździn (Phase
Accipiter gentilis
101
2
Dąbki, Sobiejuchy
I) (mid 9th–mid 10th c.), Kałdus (site 3) (11th–early 13th c.), 29 Kołobrzeg (Budzistowo) (9th–13th c.), Krępsk (mid 8th–9th c.), Kruszwica (late 10th–14th c.), Legnica (8th–mid 13th c.), Mrówki (late 13th–mid 14th c.), Opole-Ostrówek (10th–13th c.), Ostrów Lednicki (site 1) (mid 10th–13/14th c.), Santok (8th/9th–13th c.), Stare Drawsko (8th/9th–12th c.), Szczecin-Mścięcino (9th–11th c.), Szczecin-Rynek Warzywny (10th–13th c.), Wrocław-Ostrów Tumski (10th–13th c.); Strongholds or castles: Międzyrzecz Wielkopolski (9th–early 16th c.); Towns: Poznań (mid 13th?–18th c.)
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Species
Pre-medieval timeTotal site units NISP n Names
Middle Ages and later times time-site units n Names Settlements: Chełm (12th–13th c.), Kałdus (site 2) (9th–13th c.), Santok (8th/9th–13th c.); Strongholds: Opole-Ostrówek (10th–13th c.), Santok (8th/9th–13th
Accipiter nisus
36
9
c.), Wrocław-Ostrów Tumski (in two different trenches: both 10th–13th c.); Towns: Kraków (mid 13th?–18th c.) Unspecified: Krosno Odrzańskie Strongholds: Kołobrzeg (Budzistowo) (9th–13th c.), Legnica
Jakuszowice, Buteo buteo
19
3
Krzesławice,
6
(8th–mid 13th c.), Santok (8th/9th–13th c.), Stare Drawsko (8th/9th– 12th c.), Wrocław-Ostrów Tumski (10th–13th c.);
Szczepanki
Towns: Wodzisław Śląski (16th–18th c.) Buteo logopus
1
1
Strongholds: Grzybowo (10th–11th c.)
Circus cyaneus
2
1
Brześć Kujawski
Circus aeruginosus
4
1
Strongholds: Wrocław-Ostrów Tumski (10th-13th c.) Castles: Koło (early 14th–18th c.); Settlements: Santok (8th/9th–13th c.);
Falco tinnunculus
10
1
Iwanowice
8
Strongholds: Kałdus (site 3) (11th–early 13th c.), Legnica (8th–mid 13th c.), Myślibórz (9th–10/11th c.), Wrocław-Ostrów Tumski (in two different trenches: both 10th–13th c.); Towns: Kraków (mid 13th?–18th c.)
Falco subbuteo
1
1 Brześć Kujawski,
Large size
15
5
Dąbki, Dudka, Sobiejuchy,
Castles: Człuchów (14th–early 16th c.); Tykocin (15th–18th c.) 5
c.) Strongholds: Kulczyn-Kolonia (9th–10th c.), Szczecin-Mścięcino
Dudka, 32
3
Gorszewice,
Settlements: Ostrów Lednicki (site 2) (mid 10th–13/14th c.); Strongholds: Biskupin (8th–9th c.?), Szczecin-Mścięcino (9th–11th
Szczepanki
Middle size
Castles: Tykocin (15th–18th c.)
3
(9th–11th c.), Wrocław-Ostrów Tumski (10th–13th c.)
Opatów Small size [Falco sp.]
2
1
Dudka
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Prof. Dr. hab. Zbigniew M. Bochenski, Dr. hab. Teresa Tomek, MSc Krzysztof Wertz Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences Slawkowska 17, 31-016 Kraków Poland
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected] Dr. Michał Wojenka Institute of Archeology, Jagiellonian University Golebia 11, 31-007 Kraków Poland
[email protected]
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