of PW and PW contaminants ingested. ... contaminants will contribute ..... water, distilled water lines, drinking fountains, faucets, and humidifier water. They.
t
NASA
Technical Memorandum
58279
Quality Requirements for Reclaimed/Recycled Water
Daniel S. Janik, Richard L. Sauer, Duane and Yvonne
March
L. Pierson,
R. Thorstenson
1987
(It&.S ft-TB- 5827 9) GI3&Ll'tl litSt) ii ICL AIBJ I)/lIZC ICL]_ D W&T|R tO1 trail: ll'1IS BC 103/xf
187-27392
kOJ
|EGDIJBBI|TS
35 p CSCL
061_ G3/52
N/ A i
National Aeronautics Space Administration
i
Lyndon B. Johnson Houston, Texas
F
and
5pace
O
Center
! i
!
/ !
/
NASA
Technical Memorandum
Quality Requirements Reclaimed/Recycled
58279
for Water
Daniel S. Janik, M.D.M.P.H. National Research Council NASA/JSC Research Associate Houston, Texas
Richard L. Sauer, M.S.P.E., and ndon B. Johnson Space Center uston, Texas
Yvonne R. Thorstenson, NPI Salt Lake City, Utah
M.S.
Duane
L. Pierson,
Ph.D.
_r_
NASA
Pot#ble
U_S.S.R.
W_ter
Potable
Water
Potable
POTABLE
Systems
5
...................
5
.....................
5
Specifications Water
Water
Specifications
TECHNOLOGY
............
9 9
Terminology
TechnoloRy
U.S.S.R.
10 11
.........................
RELEVANT
Sumnmry
9
........................
Technologies
EXPERIENCE
9
...................
..........................
Technology
TO
RECLAIMED/RECYCLED
POTABLE
WATER
.......
11 11
..............................
Flight
U.S.S.R.
Experience
Flight
Other
NASA
Other
U.S.S.R.
Other SUMMARY
8
...............
..............................
Recl#mation
Other
5
.................
WATER RECLAMATION/RECYCLINC
Sunm3ary
Experience
12
.....................
12
.......................
Experience
13
....................
13
.........................
RECOMMENDATIONS
15
....................
15
.............................
Sunm_sry
Recommendations Base
Knowl_ge Interim B#sic
11
.......................
Experience
Experience AND
Summary
Reclaimed/Recycled Science
Testing
and
Manned,
Closed
REFERENCES
Potable
Experiments
Existing
Flight-Testing
16
Hardware
Monitoring Testing of
Water
Specifications
16
......
.....................
17
.....................
18 19
....................... of
Prototype
Integrated and
LSS/CELSS Operational
Systems LSS/CELSS
19
....... Systems
. . .
2O 2O
.............................. A
16
.....................
..........................
Testing
APPENDIX
2
.....................
..............................
U.S.S.R.
NASA
Systems
WATER SPECIFICATIONS
_umnary
NASA
W_ter
Potable
POTABLE
NASA
2
.ooooooeoo_oooeooeoooooooooeeo
A-I
..............................
iii
PAGE BLANK NOT FILM_'O
Table
I
Page
pES_RE LSS
CONSTITUENTS
REQUIRED
TO
SUPPORT
? SINGLE
.....
'
2
" _:
FIGURES Figure Page I
Potable
water
nodule
(ref.
Space
Shuttle
system 9)
for
Apollo
command/service
......................
4
2 potable
water
system
(ref.
12)
.......
i
6
\
J¥
®
ABSTRACT Water used during current and previous carried or made aloft. Future human space of water reclamation and recycling. There
space missions has been either endeavors will require some form is little experience in the U.S.
space program with this technology. Water reclamation and recycling constitute engineering challenges of the broadest nature that will require an intensive research and development effort if this technology is to mature in time for practical use on the proposed U_S. Space Station. this to happen, reclaimed/recycled water specifications vi 11 Inneedorderto be for devised to guide engineering development. Present NASA Potable Water Specifications are not applicable to reclaimed or recycled water. Adequate specifications for ensuring the quality of the reclaimed or recycled potable water do not exist either within or outside of NASA. NASA experience with potable water systems is reviewed, limitations of present water specifications are examined, world experience with potable water reclamation/recycling systems and system analogs is reviewed, and an approach to developing pertinent biomedical water specifications for spacecraft is presented. Space Station water specifications should be designed to ensure the health of all likely both separately
spacecraft inhabitants and collectively.
including
man,
animals,
and
plants,
INTRODUCTION
carried
Presently, water or generated
tion of of need
the missions to conserve
necessary aloft by
to fuel
support cells.
(Mercury/Vostok, mass during orbital
human life This reflects
Gemini/Voskhod, insertion
in
cpace is the short
Apollo/Soyuz), (Skylab), and
either duralack
existence
of
a dependable reprovisioning system (Soyuz/Salyut/Progress). In each case, however, human space activities have been constrained primarily by the limitations of the human life support cystem (LSS) employed. The proposed U.S. Space Station, scheduled for implementation in the 1990's, is being designed to support a permanent manned presence in space (ref. I). Present plans require that the Space Station be capable of supporting commercial/industrial applications, be assembled from a minimum number of modules within the size and weight limitations imposed by the U.S. Space Transportation System (STS) (Shuttle), and be as independent of (refs. I and 2). Therefore, limitations imposed will likely prove unacceptable.
ground support by present LSS
as possible technology
Of LSS constituents, water occupies first place by weight (ref. 3). Indeed, the human body's daily weight requirement for water exceeds that of oxygen and food substances combined (ref. 4). The minimum amount of potable water (PW) necessary to support human life in space is about 2.5 liters per sedentary crewmember per day (ref 3). See table i. U.S. and U.S.S.R. day may
experiments be necessary
amount of water proportional to
indicate that as much a; 6 liters per crewmember per to support vigorous activity in space. The minimum
necessary to support a manned space the duration of the mission; all of
mission is roughly this water must be
consun_able, or potable. In addition, PW may be used for such as handwashing, cooling, oxygen generation, or even generation. If PW is used for multiple purposes, it can limiting consumable.
other purposes fuel (hydrogen) become the primary
One method under consideration for providing PW for longer duration missions such as the Space Station is reclamation and recycling of previously used water (e.g., humidity condensate, wash water, food wastes, urine, or feces). This represents a e_ajor departure from the fill-and-draw type PW systems used on previous and present space flight. The authors wish to acknowledge the help of Charles Willis, Technology Incorporated, Houston, Texas and Mary Cleave, Ph.D., Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, whose technical editorial support made this memorandum possible.
TABLE
1 -
SOME LSS
CONSTITUENTS IN
Amount Consti_.__tuent
REQUIRED SPACE
(kilograms
per
erda
er
TO SUPPORT
i
Ph.D., NASA and
J
A SINCLE
PERSON
person)
ear
er
lifetime
70
r
Water -hygiene -drinking* Oxygen Food (dry) * includes
19.1 2.5 0.9 0.6 food
6,972 913 320 219
488,040 63,910 23,000 15,300
rehydration.
POTABLE
WATER SYSTEMS
USED
IN
SPACE
Summary
ence
The with
experience experience proposed
United States fill-and-draw
and the U.S.S.R. have extensive PW systems. The United States,
with in-flight generation of PW. There is little with the design and development of a reclaimed U.S. Space Station,
NASA
for
space flight in addition,
A fill-and-draw all water needs.
Potable
type PW system In general, a
Water
space PW system
experihas flight for
Systems
has been utilized spacecraft's PW
by U.S. spacecraft system is disinfected
in advance of a launch by flushing with chlorinated or iodinated water, an ethanol water mixture, or some combination thereof before filling or refilling. Spacecraft water is public drinking water which has been filtered, polished, tested, and certified potable using prevailing NASA PW Specification criteria (app. A). Water thus treated is then supplied to the spacecraft and periodically monitored for chemical/microbiological purity. Prior to launch, a bactericide is introduced, final samples are tested, and the PW system is certified for launch. Once aloft, water is used
and
spent
water
is
returned
to
Earth
or
vented
to
space.
Beginning
the
with Gemini 2, routine in-flight testing and
postflight periodic
During Project Mercury, surized, plastic pouch which inserted, when desired, into flap valve (refs. 5 and 6).
between holding
Gemini the tank
spacecraft spacecraft's in the
testing disinfection
was instituted; were introduced.
on
the PW system was a 2.7-liter, supplied drinking water through the astronaut's pressure helmet
later
flights,
passively presa flexible tube via a one-way
utilized a single, integrated l_d system distributed reentry and adapter modules. A single, 7-liter reentry module delivered ground-supplied l_d (CSW) to
the
crew. A second PW tank in the adapter module replenished the holding tank as necessary. A third water tank, also located in the adapter module, was designed to receive water produced from fuel cells. The original plan was to use fuel cell water to replenish consumed water, however, fuel cell water (FCW) did not meet NASA PW Specifications. As a result only CSW was used for consumption. Upon reentry, the adapter module was jettisoned. PW also provided spacecraft and space suit cooling. The system was pressurized by nitrogen gas/fuel cell water (refs. 5 and 6). Much llke Gemini, Apollo spacecraft utilized a single, integrated PW system distributed between command and service modules (fig. I). A single, 16-1iter holding tank, located in the command module, provided water to the crew vis drinking water and food rehydration injection ports. Water could be heated and cooled. Unlike Gemini, Apollo FCW was capable of meeting NASA PW Specifications and was used to continuously replenish PW stores. Fuel cell water beyond PW usage requirements was directed toward a second 16-1iter (waste water) holding tank, which also received humidity condensate from the spacecraft and space suits. water for spacecraft or space suit cooling, mon distribution lines (refs. 9 and I0).
Either or be
or both tanks could supply vented overboard via com-
The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) had a separate PW supply. PW loaded in the LM prior to launch was stored in two 19-1iter holding tanks located in the upper, ascent module and one 151-1iter tank in the lower, descent module. The LM provided PW for drinking, for food reconstitution, and for spacecraft and space suit cooling. The system was pressurized by nitrogen gas and was independent of the waste water system. It was the first system to use iodine rather than chlorine for disinfection (refs. 3, 5, 9, and I0). Skylab represented the first moderate-duratlon, craft. The Skylab orbital workshop (OWS) had three systems. Water for drinking and food reconstitution supplied personal
from one of hygiene/waste
six 278-1iter management
multicrewed U.S. independent water (wardroom water)
tanks. Three additional water and another provided
spacesubwas
tanks supplied air lock ser-
vicing/contingency water. A 12.7-1iter, PW tank provided for emergencies. All tanks were launched fully charged with CSW; water was not generated in flight. During each of the three manned Skylab missions (Skylab 2, 3 and 4), the crew reconnected and filled the wardroom water distribution system, checked disinfectant residuals, added iodine disinfectant as necessary, and drew samples for certification and further testing prior to use. Upon mission completion, the crew disconnected, vented, and sealed the wardroom water distribution system for subsequent pressurized by nitrogen gas (refs. 5,7,
I
use. and 8).
The
water
subsystems
were
_2 Sep
Dump
cb
_
7
If
._
,jjw.,,.
c_nd;._,e I,I
; Ur'a'_;' e
Legend (_
One-way
Q
FSow
Check
Valve
'
Water Tank
Valve
Pressure
._
C
r"
7
Ou,ck
ReI:ef
_/_.
Water
F*JI
O,sconnec_.
HYO'ogen
ill
Valve
Gas Separator
(H
SeD) Pressur,zecl 'Gas
.
Fisure
Chlor,ne
1.-
m_ect,on
Potable
Por! (C!:)
water
system
for
Apollo
command/service
modules
(re£.
9).
The Shuttle PW system (fig. 2) consists of four parallel water _enks replenished continuously with FCW. At launch, the primary tank is practically empty, while the second, third, and fourth tanks are fully charged with CSW. The primary tank is left empty to provide space for FCW produced during early phase. Degassed FCW is routed to the first tank passing through an iodine/anion-exchange bed [Microbial Check Valve (NCV)]. The first tank is the source of hot and cold PW for drinking and food reconstitution in flight. The second, third, end fourth tanks receive degassed water routed to bypass the MCV. Water from these tanks can be directed to the spacecraft system (via
the
cooling service
needed. Interconnections and from various tanks with gaseous nitrogen
system (flash and cooling between as needed. (refs. 11
evaporators) umbilical)
on and/or
the space suit cooling vented overboard as
the tanks allow reshunting The Shuttle PW system is and 12).
U.S.S.R.
Potable
Water
of water pressurized
to
Systems
U.S.S.R. Vostok, Voskhod, Soyuz, and Salyut spacecraft utilize filland-draw technology roughly analogous to Mercury, Cemini, Apollo, and Skylab (refs. 3 and 14). However, Salyut, which the U.S.S.R. describes as a space station, may augment stored wardroom water with reclaimed water from urine. k]_at portion, if any, of the PW is _owever, Salyut's stores of PW are Progress cargo ships (ref. 15).
POTABLE
actuall 7 regenerated regularly provisioned
WATER
is not explicit. with GSW from
SPECIFICATIONS
Summary The terrestrial spacecraft
NASA PW Specifications applications. environment and
NASA
are presently These data have are not directly
Potable
Water
based marginal applicable
on data compiled from applicability to the to recycled water.
Specifications
The NASA PW Specifications were formalized during Apollo for the testing and certification of CSW and FCW (ref. 16). They were later used for testing and evaluation of pre-flight and postflight PW samples, and were revised in 1970 and again in 1971 primarily to incorporate a more testable definition claimed or
of microbial sterility. They do not recycled water (refs. 17 and 18).
specifically
address
re-
I •
Pressu?
Gas
b
zeO
I
i
I _, Secondary E vaporator
_1, Ground
Figure
2.-
Potable
water
system for Space
Shuttle
$erv,ce
Dram
(re£. 12),
The U.S. standards
water
recommended as major 20, 21, inherent
Public Health Service (DWS) as amended, water
quality
(1962) and the
standards
for
primary National manned
and secondary drinking Academy of Sciences (NAg)
space
source documents in development of the_e and 22). The present NASA PW specifications to these source documents, and correspond
Protection
Agency
1.
Humans
2.
Spacecraft
3.
Crew
(EPA) are
the
I_S's,
namely:
only
PW consumerc
PW systems
exposure(s)
are
from
similar
sources
to other
missions
(SNR's)
specifications reflect to present
public than
served
(refs. assumptions Environmental
19,
PW systems PW are
known
or
insignificant. DWS/S_'s Present the the
address
plans
call
Space Station, cultivation
substances
for of
associated
support
including animals
of
exclusively
multispecies
metabolic and plants
life
studies for food.
on
with sciences
human
disease.
experiments
animals and plants, Plans also exist for
on and flight
testing advanced LSS's which incorporate plants into the controlled environmental life support system (CELSS). Substances which cause dysfunction and disease in humans do not necessarily cause such in animals or plants. Substances which might cause dysfunction and disease in animals or plants are not addressed. Unless each species of spacecraft inhabitants has its own isolated PW and waste-collection systems, NASA PW Specifications will have to
support
their
DWS/SMR's
individual
define
and
human
collective
exposure
requirements.
whenever
possible
in
terms
of maximum
allowable concentrations (MAC's) (refs. 19 and 22) or maximum concentration limits (MCL's). MACs are based on an "average," terrestrial PW consumption of less than 2 liters per person per day. Consumption of more than this amount, food,
especially would
during
result
vigorous
activity,
in correspondingly
higher
or
through
the
rehydration
of
exposures.
The MCL's do not apply well to situations in which cohabitant lifeforms are involved in a food chain. For instance, if a plant preferentially bioaccumulates a particular substance, even though the substance might be present in PW in concentrations the plant would experience an exposure
to the
well below the MCL, an astronaut consuming increased and otherwise difficult-to-explain
substance.
Clinical human dysfunction and disease is addressed by MCL's. However, subclinical or physiologically "correctable" metabolic dysfunction (stress) is not addressed. In addition, MCL's do not address minimum necessary concentrations (MNC's), or optimal concentrations (OTC) of nutrients essential to various life-forms. MNC's and OTC's are of critical importance in maximizing yield and quality whenever animals or plants are cultivated for consumption
or
commercial
Organoleptic
data
are
when present in chlorinated able. MCL's do not address extent of the PW's positive method,
and
total
quantity
use. based
on
rudimentary
studies
of
substance_
which,
terrestrial surface water, make water unpalatsubstances which enhance the flavor of PW. The character will, nonetheless, determine the form, of
PW
and
PW
contaminants
ingested.
4 The I)NS/SMR's were directed at undesirable substances commonly present in terrestrial surface water (refs. 19 and 20). CSW, FCW and reclaimed spacecraft PW are considerably different in physical, chemical, microbiological, and radiological makeup than surface water. Some substances common in terrestrial surface waters will not be present at all in spacecraft PW. Negative results of tests for such substances may inappropriately imply overall I_ purity. Spacecraft PW will potentially contain a variety of unique substances, determined to a large extent by (I) materials used in construction of the spacecraft and I_ system, (2) route(s) and mode(s) of introduction into the PW system, and (3) interaction with environmental reservoirs (sinks). If the water is recycled, these substances (which may or may not have been present in CSW or FCW) will slowly change in concentration until a characteristic, but different chemicoecological ecuilibrium is attained. Spacecraft PW systems are similar to terrestrial, public PW systems in that both involve water treatment, disinfection, storage, and distribution (refs. 19, 20, end 23). However, because of weight, size, interdependence and rellability restrictions, unique technologies are proposed for space applications. In addition, system byproduct, wear-and-tear, and componentfailure contaminants will contribute significantly to water contamination. The
DWS/SMR's
are
based
on
the
assumption
that
the
non-PW
sources
of
contaminants (e.g., food, air) are quantifiable or insignificant. For example, exposures from substances found in food were generated from U.S. Food and Drug Administration data on the composition and use of common, public consumables (ref. 20). Exposures from substances found in air were similarly derived from urban, ambient air pollution information prepared by the NAS for the U.S. EPA (ref. 23). These resource data do not incorporate terrestrial indoor and occupational exposure data. They are not at all applicable to spacecraft.
reused
The NAS water
recently completed (ref. 24). In it,
i.
Total
organic
2.
Coliforms
3.
Applicability
as
carbon
as
indicators of
U.S.S.R.
a monograph on water quality criteria for they question several assumptions including: an
indicator
of microbial
fill-and-draw
Potable
of
chemical
toxicity
contamination
criteria
Water
organic
co reclaimed
PW
Specifications
The U.S.S.R. All-Union State (GOST) Standards have been reportedly applied to reclaimed/recycled PW without substantive change. They do nct, however, address or apply to such. COST Standards are similar to U.S. primary and secondary DWS's in that they incorporate the basic a_sumptions discussed above (ref. 25).
8
POTABLE
WATER RECLAMATION/RECYCLING
TECHNOLOGY
Sun_uary Water reclamation and recycle technology is uncommon_ largely experimenta1_ and poorly developed, especially for PW reclamation. PW reclamation and recycle prPprototypes are Under evaluation at NASA_ and probably within the U.S.S.R.. U.S. efforts are mainly directed toward developing engineering test beds. Some analogs to PW reclamation systems exist within the public and private sectors which provide some additional information useful in determining reclaimed PW specifications.
Water
Reclamation
Terminol.ggy
Water may be used once and disposed of, reused without reprocesslng, or reprocessed and reused (reclaimed). Reclaimed water may be applied to the same purpose for which it was previously expended (e.g., used wash water reclaimed for reuse as wash water), or to different purposes (e.g., used wash water to PW). Water reprocessed and then celntroduced into a system for the same purpose is termed recycled. To some extent, the concept of recycling depends on perspective. For example, urine which is reprocessed and reused as PW could be called recycled if one considers that urine is only an intermediate step in the PW cycle (PW/urine/PW). For this reason, it is probably better to specify the immediate influent and effluent of a particular water processing system, and then categorize it as a reclamation or recycling system in the broader context. In addition, recycled water systems may be configured to diminish or eliminate the need for outside resupply. A recycled water system which eliminates the need for outside resupply is called a closed-loop system. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. have yet to demonstrate spaceflight-tested, reclaimed, recycled, or closed-loop PW systems.
NASA Several possible use
PW on
reclamation systems the Space Station.
1.
Air
2.
Vapor
3.
Thermal,
evaporation compression
system
Technology are being ground-tested These include
for
(AES)
distillation
integrated,
by NASA
system
membrane-evaporative
(VCDS) system
(TIMES)
The AES is the oldest, best desc:ibed, and most thoroughly tested PW system. Used water is stabilized and fed into an array of wicks. Water vapor is taken up oy air flowing over the saturated wicks and is condensed. The reclaimed water requires further filtration, polishing, and disinfection for reuse. The wicks require either regular servicing or replacement. Mixed urine/humidlty condensate to PW recycling, and used washwater to washwater recycling have been tested in partially closed 60- and 90-day manned ground tests using this technology (refs. 26 and 27).
9
g
An advanced is stabilized
water ing the
drum. drum.
tion duced
Wate_ vapor The reclaimed
prior into
strated.
drum and reclamation
A spent
washwater
tested
(refs.
TIMES
under
22
(VCD2A) is also low pressure
condensed under high water requires filtration,
The residual (concentrator
The I_
to
The
is
to reuse. the influent
efficiency. condensate being
VCDS preprototype and boiled
and
housing and to
fluid
pressure
(brine) loop) to
require urine to
centrator (refs.
preprototype
regular servicing. I_ recycling have
PW reclamation
is
u_dergoing
of
the water vapor across condenses on a porous Reclaimed water must be Residual fluid (brine) is loop. The and 30).
PW
Used rotat-
outside of and disinfec-
i
and reintrorecovery Atmospheric been demon-
demonstration
system
is
also
similar
development
membranes
side filters.
of
and a
heat Low vaporization
testing. exchanger, pressure and
the membranes. As water vapor is fed plate on the cold side of the heat exfiltered, polished, and disinfected for collected and reintroduced using a con-
require
U.S.S.r. U.S.S.R.
the
testing. of a
28).
it
29
on polishing
is collected increase system
Spent water is stabilized, pasteurized in the hot and fed into bundles of hollow, tubular, membrane maintained outside the filters causes low-temperature migration through, changer. reuse.
undergoing on the inside
reclamation/recycling
regular
servicing
and
replacement
Technology technology
is not
well
described
in
the literature. A humidity condensate and/or urine to PW reclamation system was reportedly tested on Salyut #6. However, the system is said to have produced an insufficient amount of PW for life support purposes, and PW was regularly supplied to the spacecraft during this period (ref. 7). A l-year, manned, closed-loop life support system for recycling humidity condensate/ urine to PW was announced. Dttails, however, are incomplete (ref. 33). In addition, freeze-drying, lyophilization, vacuum distillation, and catalytic processes have been reported by the U.S.S.R. for use in urine to PW reclamation and also in mixed humidity condensate/urine/spent washwater to PW recycling. In the lyophilization process, uriI_e is subjected to low pressure in the presence of heat and sublimed water vapor is condensed, filtered and polished. Descriptions of the freeze-dry, vacuum distillation and catalytic processes were not available to the author st the time of _his report
(refs. The
34 and
U.S.S.R.
has
sate/spent washwater In addition, various have been reportedly
35). reported
space-flight
testing
of
a humidity
to washwater recycllng system on Salyut (ref. partially closed, unmanned, "higher life-form flown (ref. 36).
Experimentation with long-duration (as loop hermetically sealed "habitats" (BIOS I, higher plant life-forms, have been conducted
)ng as I year), 2, and 3) which (ref. 36).
conden32). habitats"
manned, closedincorporate
I0
,)
Other The
U.S.
systems (ref.
EPA has
for 37). The
interest
use.
Army) and for were found
in
However,
U.S. Department Pg systems for
cla_med (U.S. reports
expressed
public
T_¢hnolozie_
no
of Defense possible use
desalinization in the literature.
developing
reports
RELEVANT
testing
found
in
(DOD) has indicated at advanced_ remote (U.S.
Navy)
Various other PW reclamation/recycling for Disease Control and various state public extensive experience with recycled swimming Numerous reports in the medical literature humidifier water.
EXPERIENCE
and
were
(ref.
I_ the
reclamation
literature
interest military 37).
in resites
However,
no
analogs exist. The U.S. Center health departments have had pool and hydrotherapy water. have been directed at recycled
TO RECLAIMED/RECYCLED
WATER
POTABLE
Summary World experience with is thus far restricted
tise ware. ing
Organic procedures
chemical are
PW reclamation to engineering
and
of
is extremely bench tests
bacteriological
greatest
quality
immediate
NASA
Flight
condensate
(ref.
The
command
Apollo
specifications
experhard-
and
test-
interest.
Experience
During Gemini, it was found that bacteria Some persisted and even multiplied during short bacteria identified were generally non-coliforms, where it was concluded that coliforms had been suit
limited. NASA of preprototype
could be cultured from GSW. duration missions. The except during Gemini II, introduced into PW via space
38). and
service
module
experienced
problems
with
in
flight chlorination, gas bubble formaticn and PW palatability. Of the inorganic chemicals specified in the NASA PW Specifications, nickel, cadmium, aluminum, and manganese were occasionally detected in excessive levels. Approxinmtely 150 organic compounds were detected in inflight "grab" air samples from Apollo 7-17 spacecraft (corresponding inflight PW samples were not obtained). Pre- and postflight bacterial cultures of PW were frequently _ositive. F_vobacterium and Pseudomonas, both conditional human pathogens, were commonly present. No coliforms were cultured. The highest bacterial concentrations and greatest numbers of positive plate cultures were consistently
obtained
species branes, 41). The levels.
did not clothing
from
the
crew
hot-water
correlate well or spacecraft
Apollo LM No bacterial
dispenser.
Postflight
PW
bacterial
with those found on crew skin, mucous environmental surfaces (refs. 39, 40,
experienced gas contamination
bubble formation and increased problems were identified. It
memand
nickel was
11
® z.
concluded that (refs. 39, 40,
iodine disinfection and 41).
On Skylab,
over
300
low
was
superior
umlecular
to
weight
inflight
organic
compounds
tected in inflight air samples. Again, corresponding was not done. OWS PW data further supported the use fectant. As long as effective iodine residuals were contaminants remained within yes successfully incorporated problems (refs. 39, 40, 42,
flight
Although STS-8,
NASA Ptd specifications. to control previous and 43).
not directly an experiment
related suffered
Fiavol_c_rium in spite of extensive Combined Shuttle flight data are (refs. 44, 45, end 46).
_.S.S.R. Details ture. with
on
Soviet
to
preflight presently
Flight
spacecraft
Other NASA's experience mental9 preprototype,
In the McDonnell condensate/urine was from a "gram negative
NASA
de-
PW sampling as a disinbacterial
An ion exchange iron, and
PW system, on by Pse_omonas
sterilization being collected
system chromium
Shuttle and
precautions. for analysis
Exverience
PW quality
Unsubstantiated reports suggest fecal coliform contamination.
were
inflight of iodine v_aintained,
nickel,
the Shuttle contamination
chlorination
that
were
not
Salyut
found
has
in
the
experienced
literaproblems
Experience
with PW reclamation systems ground-tested systems.
is
Douglas 60-day, 3-man test of reclaimed to PW and recycled. rod of the AcAromobacter group"
limited
to experi-
the AES, mixed humidity Bacterial contamination was noted to occur
starting at • filtration device and eventually contaminating the entire distribution system forcing a temporary system shutdown approximately mid-test (ref. 47). Similar problems were experienced during the 90-day, 4-man test of AES/VCD systems on about the 30th and 60th days. Offending microbial species were not identified. A gradual rise in PW conductivity, total organic carbon and continuing until
ammonia system
were reported shutdown (ref.
starting 48).
at
about
the
30th
day
and
Data from 1200 hours of noncontinuous operation of the VCDi preprototype revealed si_,ilar problems, where mixed urine was reclaimed to PW but was not recycled. A variety of non-coliform bacteria were isolated; Fia_.o. bacterium and Pseudomonas species predominated. Fungal cultures revealed Asper&ifius.CephaIosporium, and Caadida species (refs. 49 and 50).
Ten and 30-day noncontinuous where mixed urine was reclaimed problems (ref. 50).
Over I00 nitrobenzenes) batches
of
low molecular were detected
pooled
human
operation of the VCD2 to PW but not recycled,
weight organics (including. in TIMES and VCDS effluent
urine
in various 12
bench
tests.
preprototype system, showed similar
halobenzenes and reclaimed from About
25
percent
of these c ound, havebeen identified Urine
in physical
Soviet
•tmospheric •nd
chemical
experience
in Shuttle •it .•mple. 3Opercen , re
condens•te
with
samples
compo,itlon
from
,,,
PW reclamation
not
Shuttle
flisht
reported
systems
(ref.
•ppe•rs
l•raely
STS-9. 50).
limited
to similar experimental, preprototype, ground-tested systems. A 3-month rat test and 8 30-day, 3-man teat of • "catalytic method" were described. In each case, mixed humidity condensate/urine/washwater was reclaimed to PW and recycled. PWwas reported to meet select physical/chemical CGST Standards and several NASA PW Specifications. "Clinical and physiologic" tests performed revealed "no pathological changes or manifestations of toxicoses." PW organoleptic properties were judged to be poor and salt was added "with the aim of giving it the customary taste properties" (ref. 51).
Other
Experience
Most other PW reclamation experiences represented in the literature would more accurately be described as reclaiming various mixtures of fecal, urine, wash, and/or industrial waste water to effluent meeting EPA surface waste water standards. Such effluents are usually diluted, percolated through soil or ground-injected and then subjected to classical water treatment prior to reuse as PW. As such, most public "recycle" systems are more accurately characterized as pass-through systems with partial, indirect recycle. However, a number of anecdotal observations may be applicable to recycle systems in general. The types of inorganic and organic contaminants present in undiluted effluent appear related to the types of contaminants present in influent, while their concentrations appear related more to the reclamation process employed. Corrosion produces and consumes contaminants, attracts charged bacteria, affords them a surface on which to adhere, and provides them protection from disinfectants. Filtration devices filter and concentrate microorganisms as well as chemical contaminants, remove disinfectants, and soon act more like a biological rather than a physical/chemical filtration device. There is evidence that chemical filters, such as activated carbon filters, may exert a distinctly bimodal activity pattern; chemical adsorbante changes rapidly to selective biological treatment. Bacteria embedded in corrosion flakes or slime (biofilms) may be undetectable on standard plate units, but may be infecti e after passing through an acid solution, such as gastric acid. Chemical contaminants are competitively adsorbed, concentrated and desorbed onto granular activated carbon (CAC) filters in pulses. Hence, grab samples of CAC-filtered water may be contaminant-free, while consumers may receive infrequent, concentrated pulses of poorly adsorbed contaminants. Little is known about the chemical interactions of organics captured and medical effects zation of effluent determining (refs. 52,
on
filters, contributions of of microorganism by-products. organics remains one of the
the chemical and 53, 54, and 55).
microbiological
13
fungi,
viruses and phages, Quantitative characteribiggest problems in
dynamics
of
recycle
systems
I d |
_|J
!
i_I il
#|J !|
Organolepsis and the characterization of PW are both highly experimental. Organoleptic determine the particular ways that 1_ will be water, juice, food) and ultimately affect total 57, and $8). Recent epidemiologlc evidence suggests borne diseases are increasing in frequency. identify an etiologic organism in less than 60 percent of outbreaks occur in the presence
organoleptic properties of properties, however, will consumed (e.g., drinking human exposures (refs. 56,
that public outbreaks of waterStandard tests for bacteria 5 percent of outbreaks. Up to of repeatedly negative, stand-
ard bacterial tests. There is some evidence that encysted protozoa, bacteria and fungi may be favored in terrestrial tion/ recycle systems. Coliform tests are and will continue detecting sewage contamination in the presence of inadequate However, it "environmental" Serratm tems. bacteria
is
likely bacteria
that,
in such
will pose the greatest Standard plate counts (refs. 59, 60, 61, Pseudomonas
as a contaminant and whirlpools, PW supplies. human, animal a U.S. astronaut
is
bacteriological consistently and 62).
ubiquitous
and
of
a fecal F_vobac_rm,
contamination Legionel_,Proteus
challenge underestimate
hardy
organism
which
has
have
been
fountains, Flavobacter_
cultured
from
distilled
water,
faucets, and humidifier water. have been implicated in hospital
been
in
even_, or
to PW recycle these particular
in "sterile" distilled water, chlorinated faucets, public PW stores, space experiments, Pseudomonads have been associated with a wide and plant diseases, including a urinary tract (refs. 63, 64, and 65).
Flavobacterm lines, drinking tive to heat.
a
the absence as Pseudomonas,
or spore-forming partial reclamato be of use disinfection.
sys-
identified
swimming pools and spacecraft variety of infection in
distilled
water
They are sensideaths (ref. 66).
During outbreaks of Legionaire's Disease, Legionel_ has been identified in cooling tower water, evaporative cooler water, evaporative condenser condensates, hot water tanks, and public PW supplies. LegioneUa has not been specifically looked for in spacecraft PW supplies or during PW reclamation system ground tests. It has, however, been demonstrated to grow in nutritionally deficient media in the presence of Flavobacteria, and may yet prove be a commensal or secondary invader of clinical significance in spacecraft PW recycling systems (refs. 67 and 68).
to
Environmental bacteria have been shown to grow, multiply and spread in plastic_ corrosion tubercles, corrosion pits, PW pipe coatings, GAC beds and ion exchange resins. CAC devices may act much like biological trickle filter beds in providing an ideal medium onto which such bacteria can attach and multiply. Adsorbed inorganic/organic chemicals provide nutrients. Slime coats and multiple layers of bacteria can provide protection from disinfectants. A contaminated GAC may serve as an area for virulence (V) and/or resistance (R), plasmid selection, and transmission. Seeding of a recycle system would theoretically proceed (and has anecdotally proceeded) from this site and can rapidly overgrow a system (refs. 69, 70, 71, and 72). Environmental bacteria produce metabolic are offensive, irritating, toxic or mutagenic It is theoretically possible that PW recycle 14
_m
by-products, many of which to humans, animals or plants. systems could concentrate
endotoxins, exotoxins characteristics of employed (ref. 73).
the
and pyrogens by-products
depending and the
on the particular
physical/chemical treatment
method
It is assumed that viruses are generally spread from person-to-person. However, if smell quantities of infective virus are ingested by smell numbers of people on a daily basis, this would also result in an epidemiologi¢al pattern consistent with person-to-person spread. In fact, waterborne transmission has been demonstrated for hepatitis At polio, and several viral gastroenterldities. No public or spacecraft I_ standards exist for viruses. It is generally assumed that if bacteria are absent, so are pathological viruses. However, infective viruses have been recovered from public PW treatment plants in the presence of negative coliform and plate counts, and in sroundwater which has received reclaimed effluent. Active poliovirus in public PW treatment plant effluent has been recorded to increase 24-fold following community-wide Sabin poliovirus immunization. Animal tumor and _lant disease viruses have been isolated from public PW treatment plant effluents. Friend Disease virus, a reticulum cell leukemia virus similar in a_my respects to HTLV III (AIDS virus), has been transmitted to mice via treated PW. Some pathogenic viruses, like cytomegalovirus, are shed large quantities in human urine. Bacteriophages virulence or resistance factor transmitters. In able of concentrating and surviving on GAC beds, and ion exchange resins. Such devices may serve within a recycle system (refs. 74 and 75).
in
and plasmids a_sy serve as addition, viruses are capelectropositive filters as sites for viral seeding
The environmental conditions present in water recycle systems may similarly favor growth and multiplication of contain fungi. CephaZosporiumfungi are ubiquitous, hardy, and are capable of producing potent toxins. Aspergillus can produce aflatoxin, an extremely potent human carcinogen. Candida produces metabolic by-products which have been shown to increase co-bacterial infection and enhance the medical bolic by-products, like bacterial centrated within a recycle system
effects of bacterial toxins. Fungal metaby-products, could theoretically be con(refs. 76 and 77).
The physical, chemical and medical properties of iodine disinfection productions are poorly understood. Pseudomona8 has been cultured in iodine ampules. Little is know_ about the interaction of iodine with residual organics and resultant polyhalomethane production. Iodine exhibits potent physiological activity in man. The effects of iodine disinfection products on human, animal and plant metabolism are largely unknown (refs. 78, 79, and 80).
S_Y
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Present HASA PW Specifications inadequate for reclaimed/recycled
developed for non-recycled water are (RR) PW systems. RR PW Specifications
must be defined to appropriately direct Space Station LSS/CELSS development. The magnitude and complexity of this effort will probably require designation as a separate Research and Technology Operation Program. 15
Summry
Re¢0mmen0ations
In order to currently support development of Space Station LSS/CELSS technologies, an intensive, joint, priority effort between the Johnson Space Center Life Sciences, the Johnson Space Center and Marshall Space Flight Center Faagineering, and Ames Research Center Life Sciences will have to be undertaken to 1. iodinated,
Develop a detailed reclaimed/recycled
2.
Define
Interim
3.
Perform
necessary
4.
Perform
appropriate
5.
Standardize
6.
Develop
knowledge water
base
on
biomedical
effects
of
RR PW Specifications
and appropriate
basic
science
tests certify
of
experiments existing
RR PW testing methods
and
hardware methods
procedures
Knowledge
systems and
for
procedures
inflight
monitoring
Base
This memorandum is meant to serve as a starting point for developing an engineering/life sciences knowledge base on PW RR technology. It should be augmented with refereed papers on U.S. and foreign PW RR systems and system analogs. Requests for information should be made to the NAS, U.S. EPA, and DOD for similar information. Scientists currently involved in PW RR system research need to be identified. U.S. DOD classified literature needs to be searched for information on closed environments such as submarines, missile launch facilities, and hardened command facilities. National/international tified. Key research lected, visited and needs
to
be
searched
meetings on PW RR or RR sites, groups, scientists informed of NASA's interests. and
summarized
regarding
iodine disinfection products, and (2) station plant metabolic requirements,
Interim
Reclaimed/Recycled
technology need to be idenor meetings need to be seThe world literature (1)
the
biomedical
effects
optimal crew, test-animal and individually end collectively.
Potable
Water
of
space
Specifications
A set of interim medical RR PW Specifications must be developed for humans. In addition, comparable biomedical specifications must be developed for animals and plants likely to be present on the Space Station. Metabolic requirements for PW users need to be determined individually and collectively. Total contaminant exposures from all sources, including water, and food and air, need to be projected based on actual and projected mission exposures. Mission exposures must be calculated based on 24-hour exposure, should include contaminants likely to occur from spacecraft and PW system construction materials, and need to reflect NASA and Soviet PW RR system preprototype experience. NAS quality criteria for water reuse data needs to be incorporated where appropriate. Preferential qualitative and quantitative PW organoleptic specifications need to be specified. A set of Interim RR PW Specifications for Space Station inhabitants based on recal16
culated account
NCL's, (and where NASA PW consumption
ized. fluent_ special taminants. "carried organics
appropriate, NNC's and and co-exposure data,
OTC's) need
which to then
take be
into formal-
Specifications need to be consistent with presently available ineffluent and/or "at the tap" standard testing methodologies, with emphasis on inorganic, organic, bacterial, viral, and fungal conIndicators for low molecular weight organics (which may be over" with water during the reclu_stion), high molecular weight (e.g., steroids, antibiotics), inorganic/ organic substances which
are selectively retained in the concentrator loop (e.g., may become in effluent with wear-and-tear), key bacterial contminants (including Pseudomonas, F_vo[_c_rium, and Le&ione[_), viruses, and fungi will need consideration. The best bac:terial and fungal indicators Ny be their metabolic by-products. The best viral indicators may be oral vaccine viruses introduced periodically into influent.
Basic
eventual
Several areas certification I.
2.
3.
Properties
of of
of
(a)
corrosion
(b)
particulate
Properties
liquids
moving
in
in
MC colloidal
bubbles
in
(b)
liquid
(c)
solid
particles
(d)
mixed
colloid
Properties
of
(a)
piping
and
(b)
filters
pulsing
(2)
MG
(3)
plasmid
in
water
and
aggregates
adsorbed
onto
joints filter
beds
phenomenon
bacterial/viral
activities
interchange
biofilms of
in water
interactions
substances
and
(I)
suspensions
water
droplets
surfactants
in MC
17
development and to be examined:
microgravity
deposition
gas
Properties
pipes
to the and need
buildup
of
special unique
Experiments
fundamental importance PW RR Specifications
(a)
(c) 4.
are
Science
present
surfaces
(MC)
5. disinfection
The
6. dated
for 7.
elucidate have on
medical products
and biological need to be
Organoleptic humans,
parameters animals and
Specific
research
the effect, RR PW systems.
if
effects experimentally
critical plants.
to
experiments any,
need
these
Testin_
of
consumption
to
particular
Existing
consuming evaluated
be
devised
physical
iodine and
and iodine validated.
need
to
and
be
eluci-
executed
properties
to might
Hardware
Interim PN RR Specifications need to be tested against existing system prototype hardware. Techniques for sampling, testing, quality assurance, and evaluation of PW RR Specifications and hardware operation need to be critically defined, pretested, documented, and vigorously rehearsed. Present hardware will need to be adapted for sampling. invasive sampling methodology should be incorporated. for sensing, sampling and examination of components operation or introductions of contamination need to porated into systems engineering.
Whenever possible, nonReal-time mechanisms without interruption of be evaluated and incor-
Initially, unmanned PW reclamation tests need to be done on paired influent/effluent samples taken at fixed intervals during continuous system operation. Samples should be taken until influent and effluent physical, chemical and microbiological equilibriums are established. Similar testing will need to begin as soon as possible throughout the life expectancy of the system. Hardware and Interim PW RR Specifications will probably need to be revised periodically throughout this phase to reflect experience with actual PW RR hardware.
Unmanned PW reclamation tests need to be performed challenging differing fnfluent/effluent reclamation prototype system hardware with specific substances of biomedical concern. Sterile ultradistilled water (or other appropriate negative Challenge substances I.
Iodinated
2.
Concentrator
3.
Particulate
4.
Solvents
5.
Volatilized
6.
Human
7.
Antibiotics
8.
Atmosphere
controls) needs to be used for comparison should include at least the following:
purposes.
water loop
water
colloidal which
will
organics
steroids
(e.g.,
commonly humidity
solutions probably which
be used tend
the
condense
Space like
Station water
premarin) excreted
in urine
condensate
18
Q
to
on
(e.g.,
ampicillin)
9.
tion
Space
suit
coolant
I0.
Space
suit
humidity
II.
Washwater
12.
Spacecraft
wastewater
13.
l.,ac_bacillus
or
14.
Pseudomonas
bacteria
15.
Sabin
16.
Aepergillus
17.
Endotoxin/exotoxin
oral
if
E.
condensate
coli
bacteria
pollovirus
(vaccine)
fungi
During this as experiments
determine
concentrate
analogs
period, or
for
plants food
bioaccumulation
which may production
of
substances
Testin_ As open-loop testing nears revised for microcomputerized, tems may need to be reengineered
be introduced should be
and
of
concern
into evaluated is
the and
Space Statested to
likely.
Monitorin?
completion, testing methodologies online, real-time monitoring. to accommodate such.
need Prototype
to
be sys-
Unmanned, closed-loop, integrated LSS/CELSS system recycle tests using animals, bioaccumulator plants, and plants which may eventually be cultivated for human consumption tracer tests, will need to be conducted. Atmospheric contamination tracer tests will need to be considered if humidity condensate to PW reclamation is anticipated. Testing should be done insitu and should allow parallel evaluation of monitoring techniques. These tests will need to be run continuously until system equilibrium is reached. Test animals, _est plants, cultivated plants, and effluent equilibrium concentrates need to be ination of common
subjected to standardized, toxicological and biologically significant substances
ment of their dose-response tiate MCL's and interim PW
curves will need RR Specifications.
to
testing. Determand the establish-
be accomplished to substanIt is likely that PW RR
Specifications will undergo major revision at this stage. Hardware, monitoring and testing may need corresponding revision. A reasonable list of organic substances of concern for spacecraft PW RR should result. Final PW RR Specifications will need to be promulgated. Specific plant bioaccumulatore may substances
be inselected man.
Manned.
using
Continuous, human test
conducted
to
to act
Closed
ss
Testing
closed-loop, subjects and
system
total
_quilibrium,
of
accumulated
exposure
Integrated
LS$/CELSS
integrated LSS/CELSS bioaccumulator test and
should 19
indicators
for
Systems
system recycle tests plants will need to
be extended
key
to
include
at
be least
the
duration
ical fat, lated
tests muscle, with
of
likely
operation
aboard
including enzyme-activity bone, liver, hair, bioaccumulator plant
Flieht-Testing
of
the
Space
Station.
Selected
assays for key organ nail and other analyses) results for later inflight
Prototype
and
Operational
systems need to use.
LSS/CELSS
biomed(e.g., be corre-
System-
Water recycle technology represents a new technology largely without precedent. Prototype and/or operational LSS/CELSS systems should be flighttested in parallel with existing life support systems prior to certification. Where this is not possible, such systems should be regarded as experimental until sufficient inflight experience is obtained. It is likely that the Space Station LSS will represent a first milestone in advanced LSS design and will utilize mainly physical/chemlcal processes. It would seem wise
to
engineer
the
towards duration
a
combined missions
be Lade chemical engineering
for inflight and biological redesign.
operational
LSS
physical/chemlcal/biological (e.g., Moon base, modification subsystems
system Mars).
to
accommodate
For
of the Space in parallel
rapid
advancement
CELSS necessary for instance, provision Station without
LSS to requiring
test
longshould
physical, major
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26
APPENDIX A NASA
4.1 The
POTABLE
WATER SPECIFICATION
(MSC-SPEC-SD-W-0020
MAY 16,
1970)
WATER PROPERTIES potable
water
shall
the
following
specific
requirements:
Limits: Maximum Allowable Concentrations
_Toperties Ph Total
Solids
Total Taste
Organics and Odor
6.0-8.0
at
Test
25 ° C (77 ° F)
4.3.1.5 4.3.1.6 4.3.1.7
Species
Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron Lead Manganese Mercury Nickel Silver Zinc Selenium Microbial
(Hexavalent)
0.01 0.05 1.0 0.3 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.05 0.05 5.0 0.01
mg/liter mg/liter mg/liter mg/liter mg/liter mg/liter mg/liter mg/liter mglliter mg/liter mg/titer
Control
Positive microbial control is required throughout the potable The agent or mechanism of th_s control shall be determined by requirements and shall require the approval of the MSC Medical Operations Directorate. Sterility
Note:
Paragraph 4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.3 4.3.1.4
TBD but
