Renewable Energy in Zimbabwe

Renewable Energy in Zimbabwe T. Makonese 

Abstract—This paper explores and outlines the development of renewable energy in Zimbabwe. To date, there is a dearth of information on renewable energy in the country and existing frameworks to support it. The prospects and challenges to the promotion and adoption of renewable energy technologies are discussed. The paper makes recommendations to aid the development and dissemination of renewable energy technologies (RETs) in the country. Index Terms— renewable energy, policy, energy efficiency, Zimbabwe

1

INTRODUCTION

Zimbabwe has been faced with energy challenges since the late 2000s, which saw massive power outages around the country of up to 16 hrs a day [1]. The country relies on a carbon intensive model to generate grid electricity for both the industrial and household sectors. About 43% of the country’s electricity supply comes from burning coal, while 57% of the country’s supply comes from hydropower systems. Recent efforts to revive the economy have seen an increase in electricity demand across all sectors of the economy. The Ministry of Energy and Power Development (MEPD) has committed itself to the development and adoption of renewable energy technologies (RETs) in the country. The MEPD has established a technical department (i.e. department of Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy - DECRE), which is responsible for energy conservation technologies and techniques as well as the promotion of new and renewable sources of energy [www.energy.gov.zw]. The mission of the department is to develop and promote increased use of renewable energy sources and technologies, and to ensure efficient production and utilization of the resources in the country. The department has been mandated to formulate renewable energy and energy conservation policies, strategies, and action plans concerning the facilitation and implementation of energy conservation and renewable energy projects and programmes [www.energy.gov.zw]. Institutions of higher learning (universities and technical colleges) are collaborating with the DECRE in an effort to research renewable energy technologies (RETs) and energy efficiency in both the industrial and the household sectors. This is line with the government’s 2030 vision of providing sustainable energy solutions to all citizens, irrespective of their geographical location. The government of Zimbabwe

T. Makonese is with the SeTAR Centre, Faculty of Engineering & the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, P. Bag 4524, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa (E-mail: [email protected]).

has committed to advancing the Sustainable Energy for All (S4ALL) agenda in the country and seeks to achieve the three S4ALL objectives, mainly the universal energy access, renewable energy, and energy efficiency. This will ensure that each household and industrial sector will receive a convenient supply of energy supplied in a sustainable, efficient and cost-effective manner [2]. This also entails that clean energy sources are adopted that will facilitate a green economy in the energy sector and can enhance socioeconomic and sustainable development, with minimal environmental impacts. The aim of this paper is to review the status of renewable energy systems in Zimbabwe. This research is important in that it will provide information relevant for research, and the development of a renewable energy policy in the country. 2

THE ELECTRICITY SECTOR

Zimbabwe’s electricity sector is dominated by the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) holdings Pvt, which is a state owned enterprise. ZESA holdings is mandated to generate, transmit, and distribute electricity to all sectors of the economy in the country. The company owns and operates the national transmission system. Less than 1% of electricity in Zimbabwe is produced by private companies, such as Nyangani Renewable Energy (Pvt) Ltd. At the turn of the century, ZESA holdings delegated tasks to its divisions namely, the energy generating company Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC), and the Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and Distribution Company (ZETDC). The company has a subsidiary investment branch called ZESA Enterprises (ZENT), and provides internet services under PowerTel Communications (Pvt) ltd.

Figure 1: Zimbabwe 30 year electricity generation profile (billion kilowatthours) Adopted from [U.S. Energy Information Administration]

Since the late 1990s, ZESA holdings Pvt has failed to produce enough electricity to meet the growing demand. It is possible that these shortages are caused by rising demand due to increased urbanisation and inadequate investment in additional and new forms of energy. Currently, only 40% of households in Zimbabwe have access to electricity. In the near future, the demand for electricity in Zimbabwe is expected to increase as the country takes steps to revive all sectors of the economy including mining, manufacturing and production industries. Figure 1 shows electricity generation (Billion kilowatthours) in Zimbabwe during the period 1980 to 2010. The primary energy sources used in electricity production are hydropower (57%) and coal (43%). Hydroelectric power is generated at the Kariba dam situated in the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Zambezi River Authority (ZRA) owns and operates the Kariba dam, and is owned jointly and equally by Zimbabwe and Zambia. The Kariba (South) hydropower station, which feeds electricity to Zimbabwe, has a capacity of 666 MW, against a theoretical hydropower potential of 750 MW. The drawback of hydropower systems is their reliance on the availability of water. Recently, it has been reported in the press that water levels at the Kariba dam dropped to 12% of capacity, raising alarm that the power station may be forced to shut down. To preserve water in the dam, the Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC) needs to scale down capacity of the hydropower plant from the current 400 MW to 250 MW. Concerning thermal power, the coal used is easily accessible in the Hwange area, where the Hwange power station is situated. There are large coal deposits in Hwange, which remain underutilised. The Hwange Colliery Company – a state owned company – has failed to boost output due to limited financial resources. The colliery is the sole provider of coal to the Hwange Thermal Station; a company owned by ZESA holdings and is operating below capacity. The power station has an installed maximum capacity of ~ 900 MW, yet it produces less than 250 MW. Zimbabwe’s power generation is currently ~ 1,000 MW, which is less than half its peak demand. According to Maasdorp [3], as of October 2011, the national daily peak demand was about 2 000 MW against a power generating capacity of about 1200 MW. This has forced some industries to rely on diesel-powered generators, during peak and load shedding periods, to meet their energy needs. Recent China-Zimbabwe ties have given the power sector a boost, with China Africa Sunlight Energy, announcing plans to develop a 600 MW coal-fired electricity plant in western Zimbabwe, in 2014 [www.energypedia.info]. In December 2015, China agreed to provide a $1.2 billion loan to Zimbabwe for the purposes of adding 600 MW of generating capacity to the Hwange station. Although this is welcome news to the power sector in Zimbabwe, environmentalists and climate change practitioners are of the opinion that this strategy will exacerbate the emissions problem developing countries are battling. The country needs to move away from a carbon intensive model of generating electricity and invest in renewable energy sources. To meet the rising demand, the government has indicated that it will put a barn on the use of electric geysers

in residential and commercial sectors, in a bid to save ~ 400 MW of electricity, in 2016. The regulations will make it mandatory for all new buildings to use solar water heaters or solar geysers instead of electric geysers. According to the proposed regulations, only buildings where it is impossible to connect solar geysers or that generate their own power would be exempted. The development and promotion of RETs can provide a solution to the electricity supply and the carbon intensive economy [4] of the Zimbabwe power generation industry. The following section explores the potential of renewables in Zimbabwe. 3

RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL IN ZIMBABWE

Zimbabwe has a potential to be one of the leaders in the Southern Africa, in the development and promotion of renewable energy technologies. Renewable energy comes in the form of hydro, solar, geothermal, wind, and biomass. 3.1

Hydropower Zimbabwe has a gross theoretical hydropower potential of ~ 18 500 GWh a year, of which the technically feasible potential is approximated at 17 500 GWh per year. Less than 20% of this potential has been exploited this far. For example, the Rusitu and the Nyamingura hydro power plants have been commission to tap, a combined 1.2 MW from hydropower. Rusitu hydro is a privately owned hydropower plant, which generates ~750 kW and sells the energy to the ZETDC. Table 1: Sites and potential generation capacity (MW and GWh) [Adopted from www.energy.gov.zw] District

Site

Capacity (MW)

Annual Energy Production (GWh)

Mwenezi*

Manyuchi

1.4

5.5

Masvingo*

Mutirikwi

5

40

Mutasa*

Osborne

3

23.6

Bikita*

Siya

0.9

5.6

Mutasa

Duru

2.3

6.0

Nyanga

Gairezi

30

70

Nyanga

Tsanga

3.3

8.8

* Refers to sites that are on dams; the rest are on rivers The Nyamingura mini hydro is a 1.1 MW plant operated by Nyangani Renewable Energy (Pvt) Ltd. All the power generated by this plant is sold to the ZETDC at a rate of US$ 0.16/kWh. To date, ten small-hydro plants have been installed in different areas around the country, with capacities ranging from 1 kW to over 800 kW. The most promising mini hydropower plant is Gairezi, located in the Nyanga district, and has an estimated potential of up to 30 MW. The combined small-hydro potential in Zimbabwe is estimated at 120 MW. Table 1 shows some of the sites that have been earmarked for development.

3.2

Solar power Solar energy is one alternative that the Zimbabwean government can utilise to improve the country’s energy generation mix. The average solar insolation in the country varies between 5.7 and 6.5 kWh m-2 day-1 [5]. For the domestic sector, the potential for renewable energy from solar PV and solar water heaters is enormous (300 MW). To date, this potential has not been sufficiently exploited, with only about 1% utilised. However, the demand for solar PV and solar water heaters in expected to increase in the Batidzirai [6] is of the opinion that solar water heating (SWH) offers a partial but significant contribution to the energy mix, by reducing electricity demand and energy expenditure, and on the other hand, by improving general living standards for communities. The authors argue that for this to be attainable there is a need for appropriate and broad-based policy initiatives [6] that create market transformation for SWH.

investigated by Ziuku [5]. The authors found that CSP technologies could provide opportunities for utilizing clean and sustainable energy to augment the existing thermal and hydropower supply. The CSP technologies can easily be adapted and implemented in the north-west and south-west parts of Zimbabwe due to the abundant solar radiation resource, proximity to grid power and water bodies (Figure 3). The region that is suitable for CSP technology covers an area of about 250 000 km2. Assuming that only 10% of the available space is used for CSP technology (with a maximum solar to electricity efficiency of 10%), the authors contend that about 71 GW of electricity can be generated. This is more than 30 times the current electricity demand of the country [5].

Figure 3: Consolidated map for areas with a potential for CSP plants Adopted from [5]

3.3 Figure 2: Global solar radiation map for Zimbabwe Adopted from [5]

Mulugetta [7] investigated the potential of photovoltaics in Zimbabwe. The authors explored the complexities associated with the diffusion of small-scale photovoltaic systems in rural areas of the country, under the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Solar project. The authors concluded that there is a great potential for photovoltaics in Zimbabwe. They noted that donor-driven energy projects have the potential to benefit the users directly and they help to stimulate technology transfer and capacity building initiatives [7]. However, donor-driven projects have limitations in that they tend to distort market prices, thereby derailing efforts (however small) already made in the renewable energy sector [7]. The authors argue that the Zimbabwean experience during the project, illustrates the need for sustainable energy development programmes that require multi-pronged interventions, which should survive beyond the donor commitment period. On a commercial scale, the potential and prospects of concentrated solar power (CSP) in Zimbabwe was

Geothermal power In 1985, the geothermal power potential was established to be 50 MW. To date, Zimbabwe has not gone beyond the resource potential inventory work. There is a dearth of information in the country pertaining to this renewable resource. Zimbabwe is close to the rift valley, where a great potential for geothermal energy lies. Kenya and Ethiopia were the first countries to tap geothermal energy for electricity power generation; Kenya produces 170 MW of electricity, while Ethiopia produces 7 MW. For Zimbabwe to benefit from this resource there is a need for further geological surveys on geothermal areas around the country. Once the potential has been identified and mapped, pilot plants can be rolled out. However, the challenge will be to finance such projects given the dire economic difficulties the country is facing. Most of the economies currently developing geothermal power qualify for development assistance through organisations including the World Bank. 3.4

Wind The average wind speeds in Zimbabwe were estimated at 3.5 m s-1. Bulawayo has average wind speeds of 4.4 m s-1

and some areas around the Eastern Highlands have prevalent wind speeds that range between 4 and 6 m s-1. However, Mungwena [8] is of the opinion that wind energy resource in Zimbabwe is mostly suitable for water pumping. The author argues that the wind speeds are not high enough for electrical power generation, even though sometimes there are some very high wind speed gusts [8]. The frequency and duration of such gusts are not sufficient to warrant in investing in the technology for power generation on a noteworthy scale [8]. Emodi & Boo [9] reported similar results for Nigeria, citing that average inland wind speeds below 5 m s-1 are relatively moderate to be considered for power generation. The authors, however, found that there is a great potential for exploiting wind energy in the coastal and offshore regions were the wind speeds are generally high [9]. In Zimbabwe, currently no commercial wind energy technologies are connected to the national grid. The few wind energy technologies that exist are found in rural communities, clinics to cater for telecommunications, lighting and refrigeration needs. The systems provide power for a 3 kV inverter to provide electricity for the services mentioned above. The potential for wind energy to generate electricity for the commercial and industrial sectors needs to be further explored in light of the moderate wind speeds in the country. 3.5

Biomass Energy and Technologies Biomass resources found in Zimbabwe include woody biomass, grass, forage, shrubs, and plant and animal waste. Biomass is the primary energy source for over 80% of rural households in the country [10]. However, biomass fuel holds a great potential in the generation of electricity through co-generation processes. According to the IEA [11], it is estimated that the use of biomass for energy generation in countries including Zimbabwe, will increase through to 2020 at the same rate as the population growth. There exists evidence that suggest that biomass has the potential to become a major primary energy source, with modernised bioenergy systems playing an important role in the development of sustainable energy solutions [12]. According to Jingura et al. [10], the bulk of bioenergy used in Zimbabwe is traditional biomass energy (refers to the direct combustion of various forms of solid biomass materials). The authors argue that there is a need to shift towards improved traditional biomass and modern biomass energy technologies. This notion is supported by Karekezi et al. [13]. 3.5.1 Bagasse The country has the potential to generate electricity from bagasse. Bagasse is the moist fibre that remains from

shredded sugar cane after the sugar juice has been extracted. The co-generation potential for bagasse is estimated to be 633 GWh. Triangle Limited and Hippo Valley Estates jointly produces over 1 million tonne of bagasse from crushing about 5 million tonnes of sugar cane [14]. During a 10-day trial carried out in 2003, it was discovered that Hippo valley estates produces more electricity from the power plant than is required [14]. Nevertheless, this surplus electricity, which is generated from excess bagasse, was not fed into the national grid. The

author argues that the sugar industry in Zimbabwe, after meeting its own requirements for electricity, has the potential to generate 210 MW of electricity while exporting about 517 GWh of bagasse-generated electricity to the grid [14]. This emphasizes the need for the Zimbabwean government, to develop polices around renewable energy feed in tariffs (REFIT). Recently the government, through its regulatory authority Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority (ZERA), drafted an independent power producer (IPP) framework meant to incentivise and stimulate investment in the renewable sector. The authority has also come up with a REFIT programme, which is still waiting government approval. 3.5.2 Biomass The total amount of aboveground terrestrial woody biomass production was estimated at 713 pJ [15]. According to Jingura et al. [10], about 6 million tonnes of wood are consumed annually against a sustainable output of natural forests is 4.6 million tonnes [www.zera.co.zw], mainly by rural and urban low-income households. This translates to a loss of 330 000 ha of forest area, or over 60 million trees per year, with the annual tree-planting rate is only 10 million trees [16]. Woody biomass is generally a low quality raw material and this imposes challenges in using the resource effectively and efficiently. Apart from that, this resource is useful for co-generation and gasification as it does not compete with agricultural interests for growing food crops. The technology exists to produce heat energy directly from woody biomass resources. 3.5.3 Domestic biomass combustion technologies The role of improved cookstoves cannot be underestimated in this regard. The majority of rural households use cookstoves, which vary in terms of performance, for cooking and water heating. Makonese et al. [1] investigated the use of improved cookstoves in the rural communities of Zimbabwe. The authors contend that although improved cookstoves (ICS) are in greater use in rural areas than in urban settlements of Zimbabwe, their potential remains largely unexploited [1]. Technology exists that can turn the heat energy generated from a stove into electricity [17]. Thermoelectric generators can be retrofitted into a cooking device. The thermoelectric generators provide electricity that can be used to run an electric fan, increasing the fuel to air ratio during combustion, reducing the amount of harmful substances the stove emits into the immediate environment. The electricity can also be used to charge cell phones and other electronic devices, and to provide lighting. However, this potential has not been exploited yet in Zimbabwe. 3.5.4 Biomass gasification Biomass gasification converts solid biomass fuels into combustible gases, with high conversion efficiencies of up to 85% [18]. According to Jingura et al. [10], the gasification and liquefaction technologies are not yet established in Zimbabwe, although their potential exists due to large forestry residues especially from forest plantations. It is estimated that the timber industry generates over 70 000 tonnes of biomass waste annually, with long term projections expecting the figure to double by 2018

[www.reegle.info]. As such, it will be feasible to build gasification technologies close to plantations where there will be a constant supply of raw materials. This technology has been successful in other developing countries such as India. There is therefore a need for more work to be done in promoting this technology in Zimbabwe. 3.5.5 Biogas production In Zimbabwe, about 400 bio-digesters are installed around the country with capacities ranging from 3 m3 to 16 m3. The ministry of energy and power development has commissioned these bio-digesters as demonstration projects at institutions, schools, and exhibition centres. Some biodigesters have been built for private investments by individuals in commercial farms and industries. Although this technology has been practised in the country for over a number of years, only 8% of the biogas potential has been exploited thus far [19]. The technical potential for biogas units in Zimbabwe is estimated to be 5 000 m3 [10]. 3.5.6 Bioethanol and biodiesel The Zimbabwe biofuels production program was established in 2004, with a mandate to reduce energy imports through local production of biodiesel and bioethanol [20]. A large ethanol plant, with a capacity to produce 500 million litres per annum, was built in 2011 in Chisumbanje. The plant machinery includes milling, electricity generation, fermentation, distillation, and dehydration of ethanol [20]. The plant was expected to generate 18.5 MW of electricity in 2011 that could be expanded to 36 MW in 2012 [10]. Potential exist in production of ethanol from cellulosic plants that are in abundant in the country. Technologies exist that can be used to exploit these resources for ethanol production [10]. Recently it has been reported in the press that the government has given Zimbabwe Bio-Energy, the go ahead to develop a US$ 500 million ethanol plant in Nuanetsi ranch in Mwenezi. In the late 1980s, there were efforts to promote the production of biodiesel from Jatropha curcas. However, during the 5 year trial period there was no significant progress as no production or utilization of the biodiesel was done [10, 20]. In 2005, there were renewed interests on biodiesel production. The production of Jatropha as an energy crop was well received, with companies such as the National oil Company of Zimbabwe (NOCZIM) spearheading the Jatropha growing project in 2007. In the same year, a biodiesel refinery was established on the outskirts of Harare, with a biodiesel generation capacity of 35 million litres. In 2010, the government stopped supporting the NOCZIM biodiesel project citing lack of funds. Estherhuizen [20] argues that the biodiesel program failed because although the Ministry of Energy and Power Development, the Ministry of Science and Technology, and the Ministry of Agriculture were all involved the project development, they did not have any clear mandates or coordination among them. Recently, a UK-based Sunbird Bioenergy has entered into an agreement with the government of Zimbabwe to develop a cassava-tobioethanol plant in the country, with a capacity of 120 million litres.

3.6

Coal bed methane Coal bed methane (CBM) has the potential to be a clean supply of energy to the Zimbabwe energy mix. Unlike natural gas, CBM contains fewer heavy hydrocarbons such as propane and butane, making it less polluting. In the past decades, the fuel has become an important energy source in countries like China, Australia and the United States. Zimbabwe is believed to hold the largest reserve of CBM in the whole of southern Africa. It is estimated that at the Hwange and Lupane basins there is over 800 million cubic metres of CBM per square kilometre, against a combined 400 million cubic metres in other southern African states. These resource estimate figures are likely to change as more future geological work is done in the area. Coal bed methane can be used as a substitute for coal in thermal power plants for the generation of electricity. However, the initial CBM development costs will likely to be high, and CBM policies and fiscal incentives may be required before this resource may be exploited fully. The exploitation of CBM will only succeed if the government invests in the necessary infrastructure, including a solid pipeline network to deliver the gas to customers as soon as production commences. 4

BARRIERS TO THE ADOPTION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Detailed discussions on the barriers affecting the development and use of renewable energy technologies have been elucidated before [see 21, 22, 23]. This section seeks to summarise these barriers in the context of the Zimbabwe situation. The barriers could be unique to a country or region and there is a need to address then in the context of the specific country. Notable barriers include technological, policy, economic, institutional, and socio-cultural. 4.1

Policy and Institutional barriers Lack of consistent policies and regulatory frameworks to support renewable energy has been cited to be a barrier [24]. The lack of policy is coupled with a lack of suitable legal and regulatory frameworks for dissemination of renewable energy technologies. In Zimbabwe, policies are biased towards fossil fuels, with the government planning to build more coal power plants in the next two decades. Although the government of Zimbabwe has adopted an energy policy, currently there is no specific policy for renewable energy. However, the Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority (ZERA), through the Ministry of Energy and Power Development (MEPD) is in the process of developing a renewable energy policy. The policy seeks to address gaps in the current energy policy such as incentives for increased uptake and investment in renewable energy and legislation. A renewable energy feed-in tariff (REFIT) framework has already been developed, although it is still to be implemented. However, this policy framework can only be successful if it is implemented in parallel with other policies, such as investment cost–reduction policies [25]. In liberalising the energy sector in Zimbabwe, Painuly [26] suggests that institutional measures that include setting up of independent regulatory bodies are important. The purpose of liberalisation is to increase efficiency of the energy sector through facilitating market competition [26].

The author argues that the increased competitiveness may have an initial impact on RETs rendering the systems unfavourable. However, in the long term a liberalised energy market may provide a better environment for the healthy growth of RETs [26]. 4.2

Technical barriers Technical barriers refer to those barriers associated with resource, technology and skill attributes of the system, which prevents the utilization of the resource from reaching its full theoretical or practical potential [2, 21; 22]. Technical barriers include sub-barriers pertaining to (i) the availability of the resource to be exploited; (ii) technology – design, installation, and performance; (iii) skills resource base for the design, installation, operation and maintenance of the technology [21]. In Zimbabwe, there is uncertainty with respect to wind availability for purposes of power generation. It has been reported that the wind resource in Zimbabwe is not suitable for power generation on a large scale [8]. Seasonal fluctuations of wind have been reported in Greece [27] to be a barrier to the diffusion of wind installations. It can therefore be inferred that the unavailability and or intermittency associated with the specific renewable energy makes resource availability a key factor in renewable energy development. An example of a technology barrier in the use of renewable energy resources is that of improved domestic cooking devices. Makonese et al. [1] noted that the diffusion of energy efficient and less polluting improved biomass cookstoves in Zimbabwe is hampered by the following: inflexibility of the stove with regard to the number of pots; inadequate satisfaction of perceived needs such as low pollutant emissions and high efficiency over the baseline; and the need for maintenance. Availability of skilled labour is important in the quest to disseminate renewable energy technologies in the country. Due to the prevailing economic hardships, Zimbabwe has experienced substantial brain drain of skilled labour to more stable economies in the continent and abroad. Skilled labour is needed for design and development, manufacturing, installation, operation and maintenance services [21]. The lack of skills and adequate information on renewable energy technologies may have increased perceived uncertainties and blocked decisions concerning quick roll out of RETs in the country. Availability of infrastructure for after sales service is crucial for continued use of renewable energy. Underdeveloped extension services for spare parts supply and maintenance services are reported to hinder the continued use of green technologies [21]. In Zimbabwe, the GEF photovoltaic programme was hailed as a success as it delivered lighting for over 9 000 households [7]. Just how many of the households continued to use the solar systems is not known. Again, the number of companies that were registered for the project reduced from 60 to 30 once funding stopped. It was envisaged that growth in locally produced components would be vital for the overall sustainability of the solar industry, as it would help reduce the price of PV systems in the long term as well as

encourage competent local entrepreneurs to enter the renewable energy business [Mulugetta, 2000]. Financial barriers The diffusion of renewable energy technologies faces financial barriers [21]. The following are listed in literature as economic barriers to the diffusion of renewable energy: high initial capital cost, high investment costs, high transaction costs, lack of access to capital, lack of disposable income – lack of purchasing power, availability of cheaper alternatives [2, 21]. Renewable energy technologies often suffer from high initial costs. In Zimbabwe, the majority of households generally construct their cookstoves from locally available material (mud and stones) at low cost and they collect firewood from nearby forest resources at almost zero cost. According to Yaqoot et al. [21], availability of such a zero cost option for cooking usually discourages a rural household to invest in technologies with high initial costs. Currently in Zimbabwe, the energy market structure is distorted towards established conventional fossil fuel power plants. Such distortions in energy market are a result of policies that favour conventional energy technologies through various incentives (subsidies, tax rebates, etc.) and discourage the utilization of renewable energy technologies through trade barriers and non-internalization of externalities [2, 21, 26]. The continued subsidy model for electricity in the country acts as a barrier to the diffusion of RETs, by distorting a distorted market for these resources. Thus, the abundance of fossil fuels and cheap electricity will always put RETs at a disadvantage. Lack of access to credit facilities is a critical barrier to the dissemination of RETs. For example, limited access to financial resources (credit and loans from banks and other credit facilities) and high cost of finance (including higher interest rates) are preventing commercialization of RETS in rural Zimbabwe. Microcredit lending for household-scale renewable energy systems does not exist in the country. 4.3

4.4

Socio-cultural barriers Socio-cultural barriers are more critical to the dissemination of cooking related technologies [21, 26]. According to Quadir et al. [23], socio-cultural barriers may exist when the technology fails to satisfy the perceived needs of the user and non-integration of the technology with the social structure, and disharmony with prevailing social values and ideology [23]. For example, in Zimbabwe, many rural households did not adopt improved cookstoves, because the stoves did not satisfy other perceived needs of the user such as, lighting, space heating, drying of farm produce and preservation of agricultural seed, smoking of meaty products, and repelling flies and insects [1, 28]. Household members prefer certain cuisines that are prepared on a fire, such as cowheels/ trotters, samp and beans, and tripe [28]. Again, the three stone fires (now replaced by grates for convenience of holding more than one pot) are used in some sections of Zimbabwe for rituals. In the Chiwundura communal area, when the umbilical cord falls from a new born baby, it is buried in the kitchen near the three stone fire stove. This was done to tie the new born baby with the ancestors, and to be accepted as part of the family. Furthermore, the traditional stove plays an important

role in the culture of rural Zimbabweans. The stove is generally perceived to represent symbolically “the mother of the house” [28]. It is important for government department and agencies involved in energy projects to understand how socio-cultural factors (especially in rural communities) influence the uptake of renewable energy technologies before introducing the technologies to the communities. This will help in the design and development of technologies that encompass some of the cultural norms of the end user. 5

PROMOTING RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

5.1

Creating a vibrant RET market There is a great need to create a vibrant renewable energy market in Zimbabwe. According to Beck and Martinot [25], market facilitation supports market institutions, participants, and rules to encourage renewable energy technology deployment. A number of policies can be put in place to build and maintain this market. This includes design standards and equipment (where the Standards Association of Zimbabwe – SAZ can take the lead), and education and licensing. Policies that support local manufacturing of renewable energy technologies and direct sales of the systems to customers at reasonable rates facilitate market development [25]. The government of Zimbabwe should be able to raise public funds to support the renewable energy market in the country. The funds may be appropriated from the current electricity levies based on per kWh of electricity consumed. These funds can then be used for addressing and bridging the pricing gap between renewables and traditional generating facilities, providing energy efficiency services and capacity building, reducing the cost of renewable energies by way of subsidies, education and training on energy issues and supporting research and development, and providing low-income energy assistance [25]. The government could also put in place government procurement policies, through ZERA. This would promote a vibrant and sustainable development of renewable energy in the country. A further advantage is that institutional barriers are avoided when the government purchases renewable energy at the early market stages [25]. This has an added advantage of encouraging the development of suitable infrastructure and provides a market environment conducive for technologies that require integrated technical, infrastructure, and regulatory change [25]. 5.2

Import duties and taxes on RETs Although renewable energy products have been recognised in statutory instruments, high costs compounded by custom duties on technology imports make them inaccessible to the majority of people in Zimbabwe. The government, through ZERA and the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority (ZIMRA) may support the diffusion of renewable energy through putting in place incentives such as capital subsidy, soft loan, and reduction or waiver of taxes and duties on renewable energy technologies. Since the government has established a REFIT framework, this should be seen as a positive move. However, these incentive frameworks cannot work in isolation of other policies such as cost reduction policies. Thus, there is a great need for the

government to speed up the development of a renewable energy policy. Again, the incentives need to have a defined phase out period to ensure efficiency improvements in RETs [26]. Investment tax credits for renewable energy are key to the success of the renewable energy industry in Zimbabwe. Businesses and residences can receive tax credits for purchases of any renewable energy technology or property. The tax credit may vary from as little as 5% to 40% depending on the nature of the project. In the USA, investment credits have been offered to businesses and residences, with businesses receiving a 10% tax credit for solar and geothermal property purchases, however subject to certain limitations. Beck & Martinot [25] suggest that some US states have tax credit incentives of up to 35%. The government may also offer production tax credits to businesses supplying electricity through renewable energy systems. Production tax incentives are generally estimated based on the annual generation capacity of an energy facility. For example, tax credits can be offered to investors who, after a single year of operation, would have reached and / surpassed electricity generation capacity targets for that year, set by ZESA holdings. This allows for improved operating performance. In the USA, production tax credits of 1.5 cents/kWh (adjusted each year to inflation) were offered for electricity generated from wind, closed-loop biomass, or poultry waste resources [25]. Funds to support these incentives can be obtained from a suit of sources, not limited to the following: green funds, public funds, and general funds. 5.3

Legal and regulatory framework In Zimbabwe, ZESA holdings Pvt still control a monopoly on electricity production and distribution in the country. In the absence of a legal framework, independent power producers are unlikely to invest in renewable energy technologies and sell power to the utility under power purchase agreements. In situations where the independent power producers invest in renewable energy, power purchase agreements with the utility are likely to be made on an individual ad hoc basis. Such agreements are likely to be in favour of ZESA holdings and not the independent power producer. For example, the Nyamingura mini hydro power plant generates electricity independently, which is sold to ZETDC under a power purchase agreement tariff of US$ 0.16/kWh. However, it has been argued that this current tariff is in inadequate if the mini hydropower plant is to remain operational. The company had intended for a US$ 0.25/kWh tariff to compensate for lost production time due to load shedding. There is no sufficient load near the plant to allow it to operate in island mode. The Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority (ZERA) has already established a REFIT framework. However, the following legal actions as specified in Poh and Kong [2] are needed to ensure the viability of renewable energy:  Renewable energy plants have the right to sell power to the grid on transparent terms, based on a lucrative tariff plan.  Fixed price-setting mechanisms are accorded to renewable energy grid-connected plants. However, the new law should have provisions for regular

 

adjustments to prices to address technological and market development concerns. Renewable energy electricity sales must be regulated by the Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority. Competitive bidding for renewable energy should be discouraged. Energy services companies (ESCOs) who are involved in this process, are likely to bid below cost in order to capture contracts. This has a knock on effect on those investors who are already established in the industry.

‘Cross pollination’ between government departments Lack of coordination between government ministries and departments has been seen as a barrier to the diffusion of RETs in Zimbabwe. According to Estherhuizen [20], the biodiesel programme failed in Zimbabwe because the three government ministries, the Ministry of Energy and Power Development, the Ministry of Science and Technology, and the Ministry of Agriculture did not have any clear mandates or coordination among them – efforts were disjointed. There is therefore a great need for the different arms of government to coordinate their activities to avoid conflicting approaches, such as a feed-in tariff and a competitive bidding process for electricity provision [4].

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CONCLUSION

Zimbabwe is endowed with renewable energy resources, including solar and biomass energy. Tapping into these resources would help the country meet the energy supply challenge. Although there is no national policy on renewable energy in Zimbabwe at present, there exists a great potential for the development of renewable energy in the country. Barriers to the diffusion of renewable energy technologies in the country can be addressed through a policy environment and supportive regulatory framework that is conducive. However, the development approach should be based on a model that is inclusive of both legal and financial institutions. Measures to overcome the barriers may be unique to a country. Thus what worked in Germany or the USA may not necessarily work in Zimbabwe. The development of a competitive market for renewable energy technologies should be the main driver for the implementation of renewable energy in the country.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial assistance by the University of Johannesburg through a URC fellowship to T.M.

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[11] [12]

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[14] [15] [16] [17] [18]

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AUTHORS BIOS AND PHOTOGRAPHS Tafadzwa Makonese is an air quality scientist and the manager of the SeTAR Centre stove testing and combustion science laboratory within the University of Johannesburg. He holds a PhD in Energy Studies from the University of Johannesburg. His current research interests are on air pollution and related health effects. He researched the development of culturally appropriate stove performance testing protocols, and their usefulness in wider stove dissemination programmes funded the World Bank, the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (GACC) and others. [email protected]

Presenting author: The paper will be presented by T. Makonese