SOCIAL RESEARCH: THEORY AND PRACTICE

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perspective. Bucureşti: Editura Academiei R.S.R.. Iliescu, A.-P. (1989). Filosofia limbajului şi limbajul filosofic. Bucureşti: Editura ştiinŃifică şi enciclopedică.
Social Research. Theory and Practice

Marius VasiluŃă ŞTEFĂNESCU (Editor) SOCIAL RESEARCH: THEORY AND PRACTICE

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Vasiluţ ţ--ţtefnescu • Mariana Eleonora Anghel Marius Vasilu ţ

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Social Research. Theory and Practice

Marius VasiluŃă ŞTEFĂNESCU (Editor)

SOCIAL RESEARCH: THEORY AND PRACTICE

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Vasiluţ ţ--ţtefnescu • Mariana Eleonora Anghel Marius Vasilu ţ

Coordonatori ai colecŃiei ŞTIINłE PSIHO-SOCIALE: Mihaela TomiŃă; Simona Maria Stănescu Copyright © 2015, Editura Pro Universitaria Toate drepturile asupra prezentei ediŃii aparŃin Editurii Pro Universitaria Nicio parte din acest volum nu poate fi copiată fără acordul scris al Editurii Pro Universitaria Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României Social research : practice and theory / ed.: Marius Vasiluţă Ştefănescu. - Bucureşti : Pro Universitaria, 2015 Bibliogr. ISBN 978-606-26-0319-9 I. Vasiluţă Ştefănescu, Marius (ed.) 303.1

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Notes on contributors

Marius VASILUłĂ ŞTEFĂNESCU has a PhD in Sociology from the A.I. Cuza University of Iasi (Romania). He is Lecturer at West University of Timisoara where he taught sociology for over eight years. His expertise includes Comparative Sociological Studies, Social Psychology, European Social Law, Employment, Social inclusion and Policies and other areas of interest in sociology and social economy. He participated in numerous national and international conferences, internships and international mobility, and he is the organizer of the Annual Conference of Doctoral School in Sociology at West University of Timisoara, also with a number of articles published. Since 2010 actively supports the master program in social economy at the Department of Sociology. Gheorghe Dan APĂTEANU is a PhD student in Sociology at BabeșBolyai University with thesis on social exclusion, successfully defended on 16 January 2015. He has obtained his MA in Social Policy Analysis at Catholic University of Leuven. Currently, he is working as a professor assistant at University of Oradea, where he teaches and does research in public policies, civil society and methologies in social sciences. He has published so far several papers and is interested in developing his research interests. Mariana BĂLAN is Senior Researcher, First degree of the Institute for Economic Forecasting-NIER– Romanian Academy and University Professor at the University "Athenaeum" Bucharest; Doctor in Mathematics, University Bucharest, Faculty of Mathematics, June 1997, Graduate degree in Mathematics (1976-1980), Univ. Bucharest, Faculty of Mathematics; Specialization in Solid Mechanics (1980-1981) Univ. Bucharest, Faculty of Mathematics; PhD Student in Economics, NIER- Romanian Academy; Member of the Board Romanian Journal of Economic Forecasting, ISI Review, Quarterly published by Institute of Economic Forecasting; Member —V—

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of Scientific Council of Institute for Economic Forecasting and NIER; Member of the Board Platform interdisciplinary "Roegen Nicholas Georgescu" Timisoara West University; Seven books, published in prestigious publishers in the country (single author or coauthor), more than 200 articles (in Romanian, English and French) and papers presented at national and international seminars/conferences mainly on macroeconomic issues economic modeling and forecast, economic policies and analysis, econometric research; As fields of interest: population and labour force mobility, labour market, demo-economy, social protection, theoretical and allocation of human resources; education market; technological progress vs. education and human resources training; wage systems and policies comparatives studies; macroeconomics; economic forecasting; econometrics and modelling; economic statistics. Dan BALICA is adjunct teaching assistant and researcher at Babeș Bolyai University, Department of Public Administration. He is doing his PhD on public sector entrepreneurship and is specialized on community development and organizational analysis. Dan was a Fulbright visiting researcher at Michigan State University and COST guest researcher at KU Leuven, publishing several papers in Romania and abroad. Marian Aurelian BÂRGĂU has a degree in Economics and he is a PhD student in management at University of Wallachia Targoviste. He is also Director of Bucharest Publishing House Pro Universitaria, publisher being accredited and found in the list A2 CNATDCU - the Social Sciences (publisher of recognized) and accreditation level B from CNCS. He participated in numerous national and international conferences, also with a number of articles published. Ioana BAUMGARTEN is a Phd. candidate at “Babes-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Sociology and Social Work. She participated in numerous national and international conferences, also with a number of articles published. Viorica BOBIC is PhD lecturer at the Faculty of Socio-Human Sciences, "Lucian Blaga" University of Sibiu, where she teaches courses at Social Work specialization; Bachelor in theology and social work at the Faculty of — VI —

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Theology “Andrei Saguna" Sibiu and got doctoral degree in educational sciences at the University of Bucharest in 2012; experience in social work practice and implementing of projects in the social work field; scientific activity and research in the social work field of dependent persons, family and child. Mircea-Constantin BREAZ is a PhD Associate Professor at the “BabeşBolyai” University Cluj-Napoca (Romania), Faculty of Psychology and Sciences of Education, The Institute for Didactic Training. He achieved his PhD in Philology at the “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania), with a thesis about the rhetoric of the tautology. He published several studies in the field of Philology and Science of Education. His main research interests include: sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, children’s literature, didactic rhetoric, intercultural education, and educational management, didactics of Romanian language and literature, didactics of classical, Romanic and Slavic languages. Silviu Ciprian BUCUR graduated “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Romanian Police Academy from Bucharest and Doctoral School of the Faculty of Sociology, University of Bucharest. Now he is the Head of the Regional Anti-Drug Centre from Ploiesti which is the part of National Anti-Drug Agency - Ministry of Internal Affairs. In parallel, since 2005 he is Associate Professor of the Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, where is carrying out teaching activities in the fields of sociology and economic sociology. The author is one of the researchers of the Economic Studies and Research Center from the Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti and he published several books and many articles in prestigious journals. Silviu Bucur Ciprian seeks to capture what is characteristic and essential in the social-economic area of Romanian contemporary society and universal one. Camelia BURGHELE is an ethnologist specialized on therapeutical traditional magic and on the dynamics pertaining to the traditional Romanian village cultural processes. She has several studies and books published within this field: In the name of theraputical magic; Shirt of sickness; Traditional Salaj County culture landmarks; Seven days in the Land of Sylvania; Wedding within Salaj County villages. Recently she has graduated the Romanian Academy Post-Doctoral School in Bucharest (2013) — VII —

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which she concluded by publishing the book Asumption of cultural identity by the Romanian communities within Ukraine Maramures (Trans-Carpatia – Ukraine) conservation and/or social cultural dynamics in a multi ethnical context (Sabina Ispas, Ph D as scientific superviser). Currently she studies the transition of traditional magic towards contemporary urban magic. Daniela Mihaela CIOCOIU is a PhD-student at the “George Enescu” University of Arts and a teacher of vocal arts - canto at the “Octav Băncilă” National College of Arts, Iaşi. Within her doctoral research and training she have performed in and also staged the children’s operas Povestea micului Pan [Peter Pan’s Story] by LaurenŃiu Profeta (performed during the Festival of Romanian Music and with the orchestra of the “Moldova” Philharmonic Orchestra during the Christmas concert of 2014), Capra cu trei iezi [The Goat and Her Three Kids] by Alexandru Zirra (2015) and Spiridusul Artist [The Artist Elf] by Diana Cotoman (2015). She is passionate about working with children and her experience of over ten years in this field is mirrored by the numerous activities in which she has involved children aged 3 to 19; she has organised various shows and competitions and has worked in partnership with educational establishments from the country and from abroad. Sorina CORMAN is PhD Lecturer at the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, „Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu. She graduated Social Work and Sociology at the University "Lucian Blaga" of Sibiu and got her doctoral degree in sociology at the "Al. I. Cuza” University in Iasi. In 2004 – 2007 she worked as Head of Programs, Projects and Strategies at the General Directorate of Social Assistance and Child Protection Sibiu. She is one of the authors of "The national system of social work today" and also coauthor of "Social Work Dictionary" Sibiu, 2010. She participated in developing and implementing a lot of projects in the Social Work field. Cristina TĂNĂSESCU is PhD Associate Professor, Faculty of Economics, "Lucian Blaga" University of Sibiu. Scientific activity and research: 14 books published (as author 3 only); 47 articles published in professional journals; participation in 27 research and development projects; Erasmus departmental coordinator; IP Director - summer school 2012, 2013, 2014 "The Knowledge-based Economy Green: Challenges, constraints and — VIII —

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opportunities"; member of the editorial board of the journal of economic and financial theory and practice "Economic Review" (CNCSIS B +), 2009present; member of the editorial board of the journal "Management of Sustainable Development", "Lucian Blaga" University of Sibiu. Florin CORNEANU is a Postdoctoral student at National Economic Institute from the Romanian Academy of Bucharest (Romania). Having obtained a doctor degree in Law, with a paper focusing on Civil action in criminal law, is now engaged in researching Economic Security. Determinant factor in national security and territorial integrity of Romania. Lawyer in Dolj Bar from 11.02.2011 to present, having participated at numerous conferences, work-shops, and moot competitions. Melinda DINCĂ- is Vice Dean on Scientific Research and Institutional Communication, the Faculty of Sociology and Psychology, and Senior Lecturer at the Department of Sociology, West University of Timisoara, Romania. The author has a PhD in Sociology at the University of Bucharest (2007), completed a research internship in the Analysis of Social Networks at the University of Trier, Germany (2012) and graduated a Master’s Degree in Social Economics at the West University of Timisoara (2012). The author has a 16 years background as a sociologist, researcher and evaluator in social sciences. Theofild-Andrei LAZAR, graduate of the West University of Timisoara, currently works as a Senior Lecturer at the West University of Timisoara (Romania). He received his PhD from the West University of Timisoara in 2010 with a thesis on rural community development. He has published mainly social sciences research papers in Romanian and international Journals and also published and co-edited books with various topics in the area of social work. His professional interests are focused on two areas: community development and vulnerable groups’ employment strategies. Roxana UNGUREANU is a PhD student in Sociology from the West University of Timişoara (Romania). She is a research assistant at the Social Work Department from West University of Timisoara. In 2011, Roxana graduated the master program Preventing violence against children in the family and society (also from the West University of Timişoara, Romania). — IX —

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She has participated at several national and international conferences and at research projects. Alin GAVRELIUC is psycho-sociologist, Professor at the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Sociology and Psychology, West University of Timisoara; Dean of Faculty from 2012. He teaches Social Psychology, CrossCultural Psychology and Dynamics of Modernization in Romania. He has obtained PhD in Social Psychology at the University of Bucharest and Habilitation in Psychology at the “Babes-Bolyai” University from ClujNapoca. He has coordinated 10 national and international grants of research and he has published more than 50 articles in representative scientific journals (the last of them as a co-author in Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology) and seven books as a single/first-author. He is a member of International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP). He is also Executive President of Romanian Society of Young Scholars (STUR). Dana GAVRELIUC is psychologist, Lecturer at the Department for Teacher Training, West University of Timisoara. She teaches Educational Psychology and Cross-Cultural Educational Psychology. She has obtained her PhD in Psychology at the “Babes-Bolyai” University from Cluj-Napoca with a thesis focused on social axioms and cultural dimensions in the Romanian educational environment. She has been involved in several national grants of research and she has published two books as a single/first author and 10 articles in international indexed revues. Victoria GONȚA is Head of the department of Sociology and Social Work at Free International University from Moldova (ULIM) since 2007. She has a Phd in Psychology at State Pedagogical University “I. Creanga”, since 2003 and associated profesor since 2008. As researcher, Ms Gonta participated in multiple national and international scientific forums and has published over 70 scientific papers. Scientific interests include the issue of violence and psychosocial models to recovery victims and aggressors, migration issues, self-image formation, organizational communication and working with staff, conflict mediation. Ms Gonta has participation in national and international scientific projects or thematic research in the institution (last 3 years. The most important scientific papers of Mrs Gonta —X—

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are: Formation of self-image in adolescents. – Ch., 2003. – 164 p.; Republic of Moldova - migration issues. / Valentina Postolachi, Olga Poalelungi [et al.]- Ch.: CRIO SA, 2007. – 382 p.; Psychological assistance in cases of domestic violence: Progr. diagnosis and rehabilitation of the victim and abuser. / Svetlana Rusnac, Victoria GonŃa, Svetlana Clivadă [et al.] – Ch.: ULIM, 2009. - 293 p. Tarabeih MAHDI is a PhD student in Social Psychology at the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Beer Sheva in Israel and Moldova. She is in charge of the dialysis unit and kidney transplants in children. After receiving a master's degree in medical science also from the University of Beer Shiva in Israel, she prepared two theses on the subject of the perception of pain to burn children victims in paediatric intensive care unit, and she is now researching the introduction of a OSCE test. Today she is engaged in teaching medical and nursing students the simulation tests in any period or semester of studies. Importantly, she has attended many conferences in the field, in the United States, Belgium, Moldova and Turkey. Anatolii OPREA is a PhD student in Social Psychology from the Free International University of Moldova (ULIM). Having obtained a Master’s Degree in Management and Counseling in Social Work (also from the Free International University of Moldova ULIM), with a paper focusing on implication of youth from Republic of Moldova in social and public activities. Is now engaged in researching and developing psycho social competences that may have an impact on interethnic tolerance level between youth population of Republic of Moldova. In the past attended several national and international conferences like ISIPAR, worked in United States in social development services as a clinical coordinator advocating for equality and respect of human right of persons with development disabilities is currently looking forward to gaining more experience as well as publishing more papers that focus on the researches of interethnic relationships between multicultural population of Republic of Moldova and main factors that can have an impact on them. Romanita JUMANCA is a member of the English Department at the University of the West, Timisoara. Her research interests reside in the EFL, English phonetics, contemporary English and discourse analysis; an — XI —

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important part of her research focuses on the impact and influence of Latin on the English language and, as well as on the legal English discourse. She has presented a number of papers in various national and international conferences and has published a number of articles in the field, some of which address the topic of English legal discourse. Maria-Adina JURJ is a PhD student in Geography from the Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca (Romania). Having obtained a Master’s Degree Geography (also from the Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, with a paper about Albac tourist resort, is now involved in researching the tourism as an alternative of sustainable development in Roșia MontanăAbrud mining area. In the past she has attended several national and international conferences, and is currently looking forward to gaining more experience as well as publishing more papers concerning the issue of tourism development in Roşia Montană-Abrud. Łukasz KOPERSKI is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sociology at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan. His research interests oscillate around issues of social policy, social contexts of disability, gerontology and counseling the media. Author m. Al. Articles: "E-aid for e-parents of children with disabilities", "Online counseling as an alternative to institutional care." He teaches courses: diagnose problems and strategic planning and deviance and social pathology. For one year he worked as Responsible Fundraising in AEGEE-Poznan. Loredana Denisa LASTUN is a PhD. candidate at University of Oradea, Romania. Her thesis, “The role of social media in Romanian students’ mobility” investigates the role of social media in the study mobility of Romanian students. Main interests are in social representations, study migration, European and national educational policies, social network analysis and social media. In the past has attended Essex Summer School courses for Social Network Analysis and several international and international conferences, last of them being International Conference on Interdisciplinary science Studies, London, 18- 20 May. Simon R. PARKER is a PhD. candidate at the University of Essex (UK) working on a thesis titled Adolescent Friendship Networks and Offending — XII —

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Behaviour. I obtained my Master’s degree at the Institute of Criminology at the University of Cambridge (UK); my dissertation compared the life-course of a young persistent offender to multiple developmental criminological theories. My current area of interest is in investigating the role that friends play in influencing young people to commit crime. I am interested primarily in adolescent criminology, social network analysis, and the uses of social network analysis in other disciplines. I have previously presented work on applying social network analysis to student migration patterns at an international conference. Elena Loreni BACIU is Lecturer at the West University of Timisoara (Romania), President of the Institute of Research for Social Development and Innovation since 2012. She has published mainly on topics related to employment and employment policies and also published and co-edited books with various topics in the area of social work. Among her areas of expertise: employment of vulnerable groups and public-private collaboration in the development of social services. Teodor Mircea ALEXIU is Associate Professor at the Social Work Department within the Faculty of Sociology and Psychology of West University of Timisoara. He has been member in the Government Commission against Poverty and Social Exclusion, expert in TEMIR (Transformation of Educational Management in Romania), expert in the Academic Consultant Group of the Direction for Social Reintegration (Ministry of Justice), and collaborator of the Ministry of Education and Research in Romania. He is, since 2009, associate editor to the Social Work Review, a prestigious Romanian academic journal. Among his areas of expertise we count: social policy, social work interventions with disadvantaged categories (specifically disabled and Roma), social research methods and methodologies. Andreea Georgiana BIRNEANU is Assistant Lecturer at the Social Work Department of the West University of Timisoara. Co-authored books and academic papers focusing the employment of vulnerable groups. Simona Ionela MIHAIU graduated the Faculty of Sociology and Social Assistance, University of Bucharest. In the year 2013 I have obtained the title — XIII —

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of doctor in Sociology, with the paper „Violent criminality in Romania. Evaluation, etiology and social prevention”. I am vicepresident of the Evolve Association and memeber of various national and international organizations working in the fields of sociology of deviance, criminology and psychology. Starting from June 2014, I am a post-PhD researcher at the Institute of Research of Life Quality, Romanian Academy, having as research theme the conjugal homicide. I attained numerous conferences organized in Romania and abroad, I coordonated research projects – intervention in the social deviation domain and I published in specialty magazines and colective volumes. Gabriela NEAGU is scientific researcher at the Institute for Research of the Quality of Life in 1998, a PhD in sociology in 2011. Author of numerous articles published in scientific journals (Quality of Life, Romanian Sociology, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, Formazione&InsegnamentoEuropean Journal of Research on Education and Teaching etc. ) mainly on access to education. Author of volumes ("Şanse de acces la educaŃie în societatea românească actuală" published by the Lumen Publishing, 2012) and co-author ("Constituirea clasei mijlocii în România", Maria Larionescu, Ioan Mărginean, Gabriela Neagu, Economic Publishing, 2007). Ioana Andreea STĂNESCU is a PhD student in Computer Science at the Romanian Academy, Information Science and Technology Department, Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence. She works as a project manager at Advanced Technology Systems, Romania and she is the Scientific Coordination of the Romanian Partnership Laboratory of the Advanced Distributed Learning USA. Her research is focused on decision support ecosystems, interoperability and standards, digital games, mobile and collaborative technologies. She is involved in the management of European and national IT projects and her research outcomes have been published in high profile conferences and journals. Ciprian OBRAD, PhD, is a senior lecturer at the Department of Sociology, West University of Timişoara. His teaching and research interests include Methods and Techniques of Sociological Research, Statistical Data Analysis, Social Corporate Responsibility. As researcher, Ciprian Obrad has over 15 years experience in socio-economic research at local, regional — XIV —

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context and was involved in research partnerships with administrative institutions, NGOs, local and multinational companies. Vasile GHERHEȘ, PhD, is a senior lecturer at the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Politehnica University of Timişoara. His teaching and research interests include culture and civilization, sociology, communication, fields in which he has published three books and more than 30 scientific articles. As researcher, Vasile Gheheș has competences in social research methodology and statistical data analysis and was involved in the development of local and regional studies whose purpose was to surprise socio-economic issues in the area investigated. Ioana PALAMAR is a PhD student in Fine Arts from the University of Arts George Enescu of Iasi (Romania). Having obtained a Master’s degree in Fine Arts (also from the University of Arts George Enescu of Iasi, Romania), with a paper focusing on the connection between self-portrait and the inner universe in painting, is now engaging in researching self-portrait in Romanian modern and contemporary painting and the psychological aspects which spread their influence on the artworks. In the past she has contributed to the preparation of materials such as Self-portrait and the inner universe (psychical emotions), has attended several national and international conferences in Iasi and Bucharest, and she is currently looking forward to gaining more experience as well and to publish more papers which focus on the connection between self-portrait in painting and the psychological aspects. Zoita-Nicoleta PANCIU is a PhD student, second year, at University of Visual of Art and Design George Enescu, Iaşi (Romania). Member of U.A.P (Union of Plastic Artists,Tulcea) branch, POSDRU scholarship within the Quality of Life Research of the Romanian Academy Bucharest .Licensed of arts -2003 George Enescu University of art Iaşi –specialization Pedagogy Art. Master’s-2008 University of Art and Design George Enescu IASI, Licensed in Theology- 2011, Unversity Alexandru Ioan Cuza IAŞI. She has published so far several papers and is interested in developing his research interests. Maria IORDACHE is a sociologist with BA in sociology at the University of Bucharest, Faculty of Sociology in 2002. Maria obtained a MA in Advertising and Publicity at the National School of Political Studies and — XV —

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Public Administration, Faculty of Communication and Public Relation ”David Ogilvy” with a paper “Using qualitative research in advertising campaigns. Focus group method.” In 2014, Maria joined the team of ICCV, Romanian Academy. Area of interest: vulnerable groups, social economy and social policies. Maria is (co) author of Sociology of Romanian: 1900 2010. A social history; Catalin Zamfir, Iancu Filipescu, Elena Zamfir, Simona Ilie, Simona Maria Stanescu, Maria Iordache; Coordinators: Catalin Zamfir and Iancu Filipescu, 2015. Adina MIHAILESCU is a PhD in Economics. Studied Cybernetics, Statistics and Economic Informatics at the Academy for Economic Studies, Bucharest. Senior Scientific Researcher at the Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy. More than 20 years of experience in socioeconomic scientific research, with focus on issues concerning the standard of living, the cost of living, the income and the minimum consumption basket of the population from Romania and other European countries. Mariana STANCIU, PhD in Marketing of Services. Studied Business Management at the Academy for Economic Studies, Bucharest. Senior Scientific Researcher and Coordinator of the Programme “Standard of Living and Consumption Patterns” at the Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy. 24+ years of experience in analyzing and diagnosing the socio-economic Romanian and European environment, in global context. Writing and publishing papers on various topics. Member of European research and academic projects. Simona Maria STĂNESCU is senior researcher within the Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy. Since 2012, she holds a PhD in sociology at Bucharest University, with a thesis on welfare state. Areas of interest: social policy, institutional and legislative frameworks in the social area, human rights, Roma and other vulnerable groups, and social economy. Simona coordinated 20 volumes among including: Romania’s accession to European Union: impact on the Romanian welfare state (ed., 2004, in Romanian); Encyclopaedia of social development (ed., 2007, in Romanian); Research Report on Social Economy in Romania from an compared European Compared perspective (ed., 2010), Welfare state between survival, reform and European Integration (2013, in Romanian); — XVI —

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Demand and supply of social economy – two development regions of Romania (ed. 2014), Public policies for Roma Assesment report of national programs financed by European Union for Roma inclusion (co-author, 2014). Tudor ȚICLĂU is a Lecturer at the Public Administration Department, College of Political Administrative and Communication Sciences, BabeșBolyai University. He holds a PhD in Sociology with a thesis on Transformational Leadership in the Public Sector. His main field of expertise is organizational theories, leadership and public marketing. He has won different research scholarships in the last 10 years, which gave him the opportunity to do research at several respected international universities – Universita degli Studi di Genova (2007), KU Leuven – Public Governance Institute (2011), Corvinus University Budapest (2015). He is a regular participant with paper presentations at international conferences in the field of public administration – NISPAcee (2010, 2012, 2013) EGPA(2011,2015), ASPA(2013). Main areas of research: public leadership, public marketing, organizational theories. Mihaela Alida TOMIȚĂ, has a Ph.D. in Sociology and currently works as an associate professor at the Department of Social Work, Faculty of Sociology and Psychology from West University of Timisoara (Romania). She graduated the Faculty of Law with specialization in Judicial Psychology. She also leads Timisoara Regional Office from National Antidrug Agency. Her professional, academic and scientific activity is closely related to the promotion of the alternative sanctions in the criminal justice system. Author and coauthor of several books and articles on the field, she coordinates and participates in research and intervention projects with budgetary and extrabudgetary funding. Nicoleta UNGUREANU is a PhD student in Sociology of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University from Iasi (Romania). In the past she has obtained a Master’s Degree in Social Management and Community Development (also of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University from Iasi). In present she is engaged in researching on social values in interfaith community space and she is looking forward to gaining more experience as well as publishing more papers that focus the issue of Romanian social values.

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José G. VARGAS-HERNÁNDEZ, M.B.A, PhD in Economics (Keele University, England), PhD in Public Administration (Columbia States University), Department of Administration, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara. He is a member of the National System of Researchers of Mexico. Research professor at University Center of Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara. Visiting Scholar IURD- UCBerkeley, Visiting professor at Universidad Autonoma de Durango Instituto Tecnologico de Colima, Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Colima, Escuela Superior de Comercio y Administracion del Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Universidad de Colima and Universidad de Occidente. Visiting research professor at School of Public Administration, Carleton University, Canada. Before, research professor at Centro Universitario del Sur de la Universidad de Guadajara and Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Sociales, the Facultad de Economia de la Universidad de Colima, and Instituto Tecnologico de Cd. Guzman and at UNIVER. Studies in Organisational Behaviour (Lancaster University). Master of Business Administration in Industrial Management (Pacific States University). Marketing Certificate (The British Institute of Marketing). Diploma in Philosophy (Universidad Panamericana). Bachelor in Commercial Relations, Instituto Politecnico Nacional. Dan IONESCU graduated the Physical Education and Sports Faculty of West University from Timisoara (1995), of Basketball Academy from Belgrade (2004) from 2008, doctor in the field of Management. Former basketball player, component at the National Basketball batch of all ages (juniors-seniors), subsequent coach of several divisional teams, president of C.S. Danzio Timisoara and member in the central college of basketball coaches from Romania. Now, he is the Director of Physical Education and Sport of Politehnica University from Timisoara. Mihaela-Giorgiana VARGA, in 1998, she graduated from the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports of the West University of Timisoara, specializing in handball. The swimming specialization was obtained in 2000. During 2001-2013, she was a tenured professor with the "Tibiscus" University of Timisoara, and as of 2013 she has been working as a professor with the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports of the West University of — XVIII —

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Timisoara. In 2009 she obtained her Ph.D. in Philology (West University of Timisoara) with the thesis "The Evolution of Sports Terminology” and later on the title of Ph.D. Assistant Professor. Also in 2012, she taught courses of Physical Education and Sports with the "Victor Babes" University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Timisoara as well. As of 2013, she is a member of the Association of Independent Inventors of Romania. She published various works with several National and International Conferences and Congresses. Her first book, "A Course in Handball”, was published in 2002, followed by "Aerobic Exercises” in 2003, "Handball-the Synergy of the Game” in 2007 (co-author), "Sport at the Office” and "Stretching, mobility and flexibility” in 2013 and "Sports Guide” and ”Physical Activity for Everyone” in 2014. Alina Cristina RUSU is a Lecturer at Technical Univerity of Cluj-Napoca (Romania), having obtained a PhD in Sociology at “Babes-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, with the paper focusing the socialization through sport. The thesis is called “Sport means of socialization through sport – a case study”. In the past I have participated in a Erasmus mobility project (teaching mobility) to Karabuk University, Turkey. Andreea-Iulia VLASE is a sports journalist at Sporttim.ro. She has a Graduate Degree in Journalism from the West University of Timişoara (Romania), along with a Master’s Degree in Journalism and Communication (also from the West University of Timişoara, Romania), with a paper about sexual minorities in the Romanian media, especially in sports. She currently engages in reporting various sports events and competitions, with a wide array of sports covered. Her knowledge of most of the sports allows her a relevant insider point of view regarding the world of sports. Irina VASTAG is a PhD student in Sociology from the West University of Timişoara (Romania). Having obtained a Master’s Degree in Clinical Psychology (also from the West University of Timişoara, Romania), with a paper focusing the psychological manifestations of the prison staff reported to the specific work programs with prisoners. She has attended several national and international conferences and is currently officer psychologist at the Emergency Situations Inspectorate „Banat” of Timiș County, Timişoara, Romania. — XIX —

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Social Research. Theory and Practice

Table of contents

Notes on contributors ......................................................................................................... V Table of contents .............................................................................................................. XXI List of Tables ................................................................................................................... XXV List of Figures ................................................................................................................. XXIX Introduction ................................................................................................................. XXXIII Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................... LI CHAPTER I - The Demographic Factors of Social Exclusion in Romania, Dan Apăteanu ......1 CHAPTER II - Youth’s Labour Market Characteristics in The Post-Crisis Period, Mariana Bălan ..................................................................................................................................30 CHAPTER III - Public Entrepreneurship. The Impact of Job Mobility and Individual Traits on Entrepreneurial Behavior in Public Organizations, Dan Balica ......................................43 CHAPTER IV - Psychoanalytic Approach of Leadership, Marian Aurelian Bârgău...............58 CHAPTER V - Characteristics of Youths Leaving the Probation System, Ioana Baumgarten ....69 CHAPTER VI - Students' Education in the Field of Drug Use Prevention, Viorica Bobic .....83 CHAPTER VII - A Plea in Favour of Didactic Rhetoric, Mircea Breaz .................................92 CHAPTER VIII - Predictive Factors for Drug use Among Young People, Silviu Bucur .......113 CHAPTER IX - Socio-Economic Factors Associated with Drug Use, Silviu Bucur ..............126 CHAPTER X - Cultural Identity and World Representation : the Male And Female Models in the Romanian Traditional Village, Camelia Burghele ........................................................136 CHAPTER XI - The Staging of Educational Children's Opera, Daniela Mihaela Ciocoiu ...150

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ce Table of contents CHAPTER XII - Between Justice and Solidarity in Providing Social Services, Sorina Corman, Cristina Tănăsescu ............................................................................................................160 CHAPTER XIII - Economic Bounds and Political Endowments in Rising Capitalist Economy in Compliance to the National Economic Security, Florin Corneanu .................171 CHAPTER XIV - Education, Family and Social Inclusion of Muslim Woman. Case Study: Turkish-Tatar Communities From Dobruja, Melinda Dincă ..............................................188 CHAPTER XV - Socio-Professional Inclusion of Roma Population. Romanian Employment Policies for Roma, Melinda Dincă, Theofild Lazăr, Roxana Ungureanu .......200 CHAPTER XVI - Autarchic Individualism – A Romanian Specificity of Hofstede’s Model Alin Gavreliuc, Dana Gavreliuc........................................................................................222 CHAPTER XVII - Consequences, and Psychological Health to Patients with Chronic Renal Disease and its Impact on the Quality of Life. Findings Enhancing Quality, Level and Quality of Life, Mahdi Tarabeih, Victoria GonŃa ...............................................................237 CHAPTER XVIII - The Impact of Social Changes on Ethnic Tolerance on Youth From Republic of Moldova, Victoria GonŃa, Anatolii Oprea ......................................................256 CHAPTER XIX - The Social Actors in the Context of Legal Discourse, Romanița Jumanca ......263 CHAPTER XX - Corporate Social Responsibility and its Role in Sustainable SocioEconomic Development of Mining Areas. Case Study: Roşia Montană-Abrud Auriferous Area, Maria-Adina Jurj ......................................................................................................274 CHAPTER XXI - Relations Between Fundraising and Solving Existing Social Problems, Lukasz Koperski ................................................................................................................289 CHAPTER XXII - International Romanian Students - An Insightful View Of A Phenomenon With Multiple Faces, Loredana Denisa Lastun, Simon R. Parker .................300 CHAPTER XXIII - Employment of Disabled Persons: The Romanian Challenge and the European Models. A Policy Analysis, Elena-Loreni Baciu, Teodor Mircea Alexiu, Andreea Georgiana Bîrneanu............................................................................................316 CHAPTER XXIV - Conjugal Homicide in Romania Socio-Demographic Characteristics of The Authors, Simona Ionela Mihaiu .................................................................................332 CHAPTER XXV - Higher Education Graduates’ Perception on the Process of Professional Integration, Gabriela Neagu, Ioana Andreea Stănescu .....................................................344

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Social Research. Theory and Practice CHAPTER XXVI - Analyzing Socio-Demographic Data for Profiling A Community. Case Study: Ticleni Town, Gorj County, Romania, Ciprian Ioan Obrad, Vasile Gherheş...........366 CHAPTER XXVII - (Self-)Portrait in Romanian Painting, Ioana Palamar.............................382 CHAPTER XXVIII - Educational Role of Decorative Art in the Visual Context with Folk Creation of Maramures County, ZoiŃa-Nicoleta Panciu .....................................................394 CHAPTER XXIX - Vulnerable Group of Children and Families with Children in Romania, Mariana Stanciu, Adina Mihăilescu, Maria Iordache ........................................................404 CHAPTER XXX - Institutional Design in the Field of Social Protection: Case Study of the Fifth Enlargement Wave of the European Union, Simona Maria Stănescu .........................414 CHAPTER XXXI - Transformational Leadership in the Public Sector. A Study on Local Authorities in the North-West Region, Tudor Cristian łiclău ............................................430 CHAPTER XXXII - European Protection of The Rights of Minors who have Committed Crimes, Mihaela Tomiță ....................................................................................................444 CHAPTER XXXIII - Social Values, Parental Values when the Family Model is Changing, Nicoleta Ungureanu .........................................................................................................457 CHAPTER XXXIV - Emotional Intelligence (E.Q.) in Sports, Dan Ionescu, Mihaela Varga .......467 CHAPTER XXXV - Use of Social Networks of Lab Genomma as Important Key to Growth. A View from the Theory of Resources and Capabilities, José G. Vargas-Hernández .............473 CHAPTER XXXVI - Socio-Professional Guidance Needs of Students from Serbia. Case Study, West University of Timisoara, Romania, Marius Vasiluță-Ștefănescu .....................488 CHAPTER XXXVII - The Importance of Intelligence in Sports Activities, Dan Ionescu, Alina Rusu ........................................................................................................................500 CHAPTER XXXVIII - Mass Media Influence on Homosexuality in Sport, Dan Ionescu, Andreea Vlase ..................................................................................................................507 CHAPTER XXXIX - Sport as a way of Socializing, Alina Rusu ...........................................520 CHAPTER XL - Documentary Regarding the Particularities of Organizational Culture at the Level of the Professional Emergency Service in the County of Timiș, Irina Vastag, Mihaela Tomiță ................................................................................................................525

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ce Table of contents CHAPTER XLI - Benefits and Risks of the Informational Society - A Sociological Approach, Marius Vasiluță-Ștefănescu .............................................................................539 CHAPTER XLII - Institutional Diagnosis and Educational Options for Students of Romanian Nationality Studying at Borislav Petrov Braca High School, Marius VasiluŃăŞtefănescu.........................................................................................................................550 CHAPTER XLIII - The Role of Physical Education Classes on the Practicing of Mass Sports Amongst the Youth Attending a Higher Education Institution – Wut Case Study, Mihaela-Giorgiana Varga..................................................................................................559

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Social Research. Theory and Practice

List of tables tables

CHAPTER I - The Demographic Factors of Social Exclusion in Romania, Dan Apăteanu Table 1. Social exclusion dimensions ..........................................................................13 Table 2. Social exclusion factors..................................................................................13 Table 3. The evolution of social exclusion in Romania ................................................14 Table 4. Factors for the lack of economic integration ..................................................25 Table 5. The factors* for the lack of integration in the social benefits system ...............26 Table 6. The factors* for the lack of interpersonal integration .....................................27 Table 7. The factors* for the lack of civic integration ...................................................28 CHAPTER III - Public Entrepreneurship. The impact of Job Mobility and Individual Traits on Entrepreneurial Behavior in Public Organizations, Dan Balica Table 1. Entrepreneurial behaviour ..............................................................................47 Table 2. descriptive statistics of dependent and independent variables........................49 Table 3. Testing hypothesis Model ..............................................................................50 CHAPTER V - Characteristics of Youths Leaving the Probation System, Ioana Baumgarten Table 1. Descriptive data for each way of leaving the PS .............................................75 Table 2. Descriptive characteristics of the sample according to the way of leaving PS (N=244) ..................................................................................................................76 Table 3. Log-rank test for survival functions equality for 2 events: failure or success at leaving PS ................................................................................................................79 CHAPTER VIII - Predictive Factors for Drug use Among Young People, Silviu Bucur .......113 Table 1. Family factors associated with drug abuse CHAPTER XIII - Economic Bounds and Political Endowments in Rising Capitalist Economy in Compliance to the National Economic Security, Florin Corneanu Table 1. Romania's economic goals which have an impact to the economic security175 CHAPTER XVI - Autarchic Individualism – A Romanian Specificity of Hofstede’s Model, Alin Gavreliuc, Dana Gavreliuc Table 1. Specific scores from Hofstede’s model dimensions (Gavreliuc, 2011) ..........223 Table 2. Reliability of the cultural dimensions from VSM94 – Romanian sample ......226 Table 3. Comparative results with other relevant research in Romania / Balkans cultural dimensions proposed by Geert Hofstede - conventional test scores on VSM94 ..228 Table 4. Cultural dimensions of the social axioms model ..........................................229

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ce List of tables Table 5. Personal autonomy of teachers ....................................................................230 Table 6. Intergenerational Comparison of attributional patterns and cultural dimensions (social axioms and Hofstede’s dimensions) (One-Way ANOVAs) ...........233 CHAPTER XVII - Psychosocial Implications for Patients with Renal Failure and its Impact on Quality of Life: Findings to Improve the Psychosocial Service Kidney Patient, Mahdi Tarabeih, Victoria GonŃa Table 1. Details of sample characteristics; patients and carers ...................................242 Table 2. Details of the percentage of patients representing the renal treatment trajectory ...................................................................................................................243 Table 3. World health organisation quality of Life assessment; domains of quality of life and the facets that correspond to them; world health organisation, 1997 [15]. ....243 CHAPTER XVIII - The Impact of Social Changes on Ethnic Tolerance on Youth From Republic of Moldova, Victoria GonŃa, Anatolii Oprea Table 1. The level of tolerance for a specific group ...................................................261 CHAPTER XXI - Relations Between Fundraising and Solving Existing Social Problems, Lukasz Koperski Table 1. Models of corporate social responsibility by. CC. Walton. ...........................293 CHAPTER XXII - International Romanian Students - An Insightful View of a Phenomenon with Multiple Faces, Loredana Denisa Lastun, Simon R. Parker Table 1. Groups classification in questionnaire .........................................................308 Table 2. Did you feel you were classified as local student? .......................................309 Table 3. Do you believe your time abroad will help you find employment upon your return to Romania? ............................................................................................312 CHAPTER XXIV - Conjugal Homicide in Romania. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Authors, Simona Ionela Mihaiu Table 1. The number of spousal homicides in Romania, during 2007-2013 ..............340 CHAPTER XXV - Higher Education Graduates’ Perception on the Process of Professional Integration, Gabriela Neagu, Ioana Andreea Stănescu Table 1. Time necessary to find employment ( %) .....................................................349 Table 2. The importance of studies in the professional activity (%) ............................353 Table 3. Source of appreciation by other (%) .............................................................355 Table 4. Values and their importance in life (%) ........................................................356 Table 5. Skills, habits, behaviour formed in school, required in the workplace* ........357 Table 6. Involvement in decisions at the workplace (%) ............................................358 Table 7. Evaluation of the school activities from a professional standpoint (%) ..........359 Table 8. Interaction between sociology graduates and their co-wrokers (%) ..............360 Table 9. Time spent with co-workers outside of work (%) .........................................360 Table 10. The education level required by the position held (%) ...............................362

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Social Research. Theory and Practice CHAPTER XXVI - Analyzing Socio-Demographic Data for Profiling a Community. Case Study: Ticleni Town, Gorj County, Romania, Ciprian Ioan Obrad, Vasile Gherheş Table 1. Population density between 2008 and 2012 (inhabitants / km2) ..................370 Table 2. Average household size between 2008 and 2012 (No. of persons) ..............372 Table 3. Crude birth rate between 2008 and 2012 ....................................................375 Table 4. Crude death rate between 2008 and 2012 ...................................................376 Table 5. Natural increase between 2008 and 2012 ...................................................377 Table 6. Natural growth rate between 2008 and 2012 ..............................................377 Table 7. Crude marriage rate between 2008 and 2012 ..............................................378 Table 8. Crude divorce rate between 2008 and 2012 ................................................379 CHAPTER XXX - Institutional Design iIn the Field of Social Protection: Case Study of the Fifth Enlargement Wave of the European Union, Simona Maria Stănescu Table 1. Overview of the social protection institutional design by EU accession (2000-2014)...............................................................................................................424 Table 2. Classification of countries from the fifth wave of EU-enlargement by the institutional changes of the social protection systems (2000-2014) ............................426 CHAPTER XXXI - Transformational Leadership in the Public Sector. A Study on Local Authorities in the North-West Region, Tudor Cristian łiclău Table 1. Respondent’s distribution among institutions ...............................................437 Table 2. Scientific standard for MLQ5X in Romania ..................................................438 Table 3. Results scales ...............................................................................................440 Table 4. Results on each type of institution ................................................................440 CHAPTER XXXII - European Protection of the Rights of Minors who have Committed Crimes, Mihaela Tomiță Tabel 1. European countries with comprehensive safeguards for child suspects/ offenders in 18 areas of child-friendly justice ............................................................445 CHAPTER XXXIV - Emotional Intelligence (E.Q.) in Sports, Dan Ionescu, Mihaela Varga Table 1. Affective maturity test – results for the U Cluj-Napoca team ........................469 Table 2. Affective maturity test – results for the BCM Danzio Timişoara team ...........469 CHAPTER XXXV - Use of Social Networks of Lab Genomma as Important Key to Growth. A view from the Theory of Resources and Capabilities, José G. Vargas-Hernández Table 1. Some important figures Genomma Lab. .......................................................480 CHAPTER XXXVII - The Importance of Intelligence in Sports Activities, Dan Ionescu, Alina Rusu Table 1. Raven I.Q. test results for the divisional team...............................................502 Table 2. Raven I.Q. test results for the university team...............................................503 Table 3. I.Q. (Raven) intelligence test - average results .............................................504

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ce List of tables CHAPTER XXXIX - Sport as a way of Socializing, Alina Rusu Table 1. The presence of idols among athletes during childhood, broken down by gender .......................................................................................................................523 CHAPTER XL - Documentary Regarding the Particularities of Organizational Culture at the Level of the Professional Emergency Service in the County of Timiș, Irina Vastag, Mihaela Tomiță Table 1. The correlations between the specific aspects of cultural orientations and the socio-demographic particularities (age group, level of education, seniority in Ministry of Internal Affairs) of the subjects .................................................................532 CHAPTER XLII - Institutional Diagnosis and Educational Options for Students of Romanian Nationality Studying at Borislav Petrov Braca High School, Marius VasiluŃă-Ştefănescu Table 1. Why did you choose to study at a high school teaching in Romanian? ........552

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Social Research. Theory and Practice

List of figures

CHAPTER II - Youth’s Labour Market Characteristics in the Post-Crisis Period, Mariana Bălan Figure 1. Evolution of youths’ employment rate and of the gap between the employment rate between men and women with ages between 15 and 24 years of age in european union countries .................................................................................33 Figure 2. unemployment rate for youths with ages between 15 and 24 years of age in EU-28 countries in the year 2014 ............................................................................34 Figure 3. Distribution of young unemployed depending on the unemployment period, in the year 2014 ..............................................................................................35 CHAPTER IX - Socio-Economic Factors Associated with Drug Use, Silviu Bucur Figure 1. Evolution of the number of persons convicted for drug offenses, in the period 2001 - 2012 ..................................................................................................... 131 CHAPTER XI - The Staging Of Educational Children's Opera, Daniela Mihaela Ciocoiu Figure 1. The goat and her three kids (the opera for children and grown-ups the goat and her three kids by Alexandru Zirra staged in Iaşi in 2015) ....................................152 Figure 2. The goat and her three kids (the opera for children and grown-ups the goat and her three kids by alexandru zirra staged in Iaşi in 2015) .....................................153 Figure 3. Peter Pan's Story (The Children's Opera Peter Pan's Story by LaurenŃiu Profeta) ......................................................................................................................156 Figure 4. Peter Pan's story ..........................................................................................158 CHAPTER XVI - Autarchic Individualism – A Romanian Specificity of Hofstede’s Model, Alin Gavreliuc, Dana Gavreliuc Figure 1. Map of Cultural Dimensions – Cross-Cultural Assessment (Gavreliuc, 2009, 2011A) ............................................................................................................224 CHAPTER XVIII - The Impact of Social Changes on Ethnic Tolerance on Youth From Republic of Moldova, Victoria GonŃa, Anatolii Oprea Figure 1. What do you think are the most important facts that keep united a nation .... 259 CHAPTER XX - Corporate Social Responsibility and its Role in Sustainable SocioEconomic Development of Mining Areas. Case study: Roşia Montană-Abrud Auriferous Area, Maria-Adina Jurj Figure 1. Departures from the domicile in Roşia Montană and the adjacent localities between 1992-2012 (Bălteanu, 2013) ......................................................................... 284

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List of figures Introduction CHAPTER XXI - Relations between Fundraising and Solving Existing Social Problems, Lukasz Koperski Figure 1. Levels of social responsibility in the Model Caroll ........................................ 292 Figure 2. Relationship between fundraising and philanthropy ..................................... 295 CHAPTER XXII - International Romanian Students - An Insightful View of a Phenomenon With Multiple Faces Loredana Denisa Lastun Simon R. Parker Figure 1. Students distribution based on home university ............................................ 305 Figure 2. Where do romanian students go abroad? ...................................................... 306 Figure 3. How long did romanian students studied abroad? ........................................ 307 CHAPTER XXIV - Conjugal Homicide In Romania. Socio-Demographic Characteristics Of The Authors, Simona Ionela Mihaiu Figure 1. Total homicides ............................................................................................ 339 Figure 2. Family homicide and spousal homicide ........................................................ 339 CHAPTER XXV - Higher Education Graduates’ Perception on the Process of Professional Integration, Gabriela Neagu, Ioana Andreea Stănescu Figure 1. Number of jobs for sociology graduates ( %) ................................................ 351 Figure 2. Level of satisfaction with the workplace ....................................................... 352 Figure 3. Time necessary for finding a job depending on school performance (%) ...... 362 CHAPTER XXVI - Analyzing Socio-Demographic Data for Profiling a Community. Case Study: Ticleni Town, Gorj County, Romania, Ciprian Ioan Obrad, Vasile Gherheş Figure. 1. The study area ............................................................................................. 367 Figure 2. Evolution of total stable population in Ticleni, Gorj county, 2008-2012 ....... 369 Figure 3. Proportion of households in Țicleni by number of persons ........................... 371 Figure 4. Age pyramid in łicleni ................................................................................. 373 Figure 5. Birth rate evolution inŃicleni, Gorj County .................................................... 374 Figure 6. Mortality rate evolution in łicleni, Gorj County ........................................... 376 CHAPTER XXVII - (Self-)Portrait in Romanian Painting, Ioana Palamar Figure 1. Ştefan Luchian (1868-1917), un zugrav (autoportret), oil on canvas ............. 389 Figure 2. Nicolae Tonitza (1886-1940), autoportret, oil on board, 41x36 cm, particular colection, 65 x 46 cm, 1907........................................................................ 389 Figure 3. Ştefan Luchian (1868-1917), Moş Nicolae cobzarul, 1905-1907 oil on cardboard, 39,5 x 38,5 cm, ......................................................................................... 390 Figure 4. Nicolae Tonitza (1886-1940), După război, oil on canvas, 43x42 cm, 1923 390 CHAPTER XXVIII - Educational Role of Decorative art in the Visual Context with Folk Creation of Maramures County, ZoiŃa-Nicoleta Panciu Figure 1. Maramures gate and ornamental motif (solar, rosette, diamond, rope) barsana village ............................................................................................................ 396 Figure 2. Decorative motifs (rosettes, rope, solar) museum of the romanian peasant woman from dragomiresti, maramures ........................................................................ 398

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Social Research. Theory and Practice Figure 3. Gate of Maramures and the rosette motif at the village museum from Sighetul MarmaŃiei ...................................................................................................... 399 Picture 4. Icons painted on at the museum of the Monestery Bârsana-Maramureş (holy trinity, mother of god and saviour, St. Nicholas) .......................................................... 400 CHAPTER XXIX - Vulnerable Group of Children and Families with Children in Romania, Mariana Stanciu, Adina Mihăilescu, Maria Iordache Figure 1. Evolution of the ratio between the average wage and children allowances to the decent minimum basket of consumption (DMBC) for urban single parent family with 1, 2 or 3 dependent children, during october 1989-2013 .................................... 409 Figure 2. The evolution of the ratio between minimum wage and children allowances to the decent minimum basket of consumption (DMBC) for urban single parent family with 1, 2 or 3 dependent children, during october 1989 to 2013 ................................ 410 Figure 3. The evolution of the ratio between the gmi for four people plus two children allowances to the decent minimum basket of consumption (DMBC) and subsistence basket (SB) for a family of four people in urban, during october 2004-2013 ... 411 Figure 4. The evolution of the ratio between two minimum wages and allowances for two children to the decent minimum basket of consumption (DMBC)and subsistence basket (SB) for a family of four persons, in urban, during october 1989-2013 ............. 412 CHAPTER XXXI - Transformational Leadership in the Public Sector. A Study on Local Authorities in the North-West Region, Tudor Cristian łiclău Figure 1. Dominant leadership behaviors .................................................................... 439 Figure 2. Differences between self evaluation and peer evaluation ............................. 439 CHAPTER XXXIV - Emotional Intelligence (E.Q.) In Sports, Dan Ionescu, Mihaela Varga Figure 1. Affective maturity test – results and differences ............................................. 470 CHAPTER XXXV - Use of Social Networks Of Lab Genomma as Important Key to Growth. A View from the Theory of Resources and Capabilities, José G. VargasHernández Figure 1: Sold medicines in Mexico............................................................................. 475 Figure 2. Sales in méxico in 2012(mdd)....................................................................... 476 Figure 3. Recovery case examples of successful brand. ............................................... 481 Figure 4: Comparison of the advertising intensity of genomma lab. ............................. 482 Figure 5 Reps by brand in a one-hour program for a week .......................................... 483 CHAPTER XXXVI - Socio-Professional Guidance Needs of Students from Serbia. Case study, West University of Timisoara, Romania, Marius VasiluŃă-Ştefănescu Figure 1. Do you appreciate the way of being informed about what is happening in universities and academic environment? ..................................................................... 492 Figure 2. What would you like to change about the subjects you study? ..................... 494 Figure 3. Which of the following facilities would help in the learning process? ........... 496 Figure 4. Where do you use to spend your free time? .................................................. 497

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Introduction List of figures CHAPTER XXXVII - The Importance of Intelligence in Sports Activities, Dan Ionescu, Alina Rusu Figure 1. Average results of the raven I.Q. Test ............................................................ 504 Figure 2. The guards’ I.Q. Level................................................................................... 505 CHAPTER XXXIX - Sport as a Way of Socializing, Alina Rusu Figure 1. The proportion of social factors in the decision of making sports in childhood .................................................................................................................... 522 CHAPTER XLII - Institutional Diagnosis and Educational Options for Students of Romanian Nationality Studying at Borislav Petrov Braca High School, Marius VasiluŃăŞtefănescu Figure 1. Why did you choose to study at a high school teaching in Romanian? ......... 552 Figure 2. What is your favorite subject? ....................................................................... 556 Figure 3. What activities you carry out with colleagues in your free time?................... 557

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Social Research. Theory and Practice

INTRODUCTION We hereinafter propose to answer the question, what does it mean, to “do sociology”, and to refer, in extension, to social sciences in general, trying to accumulate and put at hand significant studies, as well as a corpus of theoretical perspectives, doubled by rigorously underlain researches, as related to concept and methodology. By various topics of interest we hereby propose, we are trying to significantly contribute to the understanding of contemporary social structures and processes and to mark out the important role sociology has in understanding them. We chose such approach, theoretical and practical in the same time, as we often face issues related to sociological studies which offer a theoretical, explanatory perspective but disclose few hints related to practical consequences, without considering the background and dynamics of the current social institutions. Thus, Chapter I analyzes the social exclusion concept, specifying the conceptual dimensions and its causal determinants. The approach of social exclusion domain can be realized on several dimensions, namely: institutional, relational, dynamic and distributional. It presents important issues on the factors that increase the likelihood of poverty and social exclusion, at the individual level, such as education and family. In the second part, it presents the forms of social exclusion and social vulnerable groups and the situation of social exclusion in Romania. In the last part of the work, which includes quantitative analysis methodology, are analyzed the empirical determinants of social exclusion on the available data and I carried forth the results of analysis. Chapter II assumes that within the European Union, youths represent in accordance with the Eurostat statistics more than one fifth of total population. Unemployment among youths is very high being placed at about 22.2% in the year 2014. In this context, reaching the objective for the labour force employment of 75% for the population aged between 20 to 64 years of age, as provided in the strategy “Europe 2020” requires the improvement of transition measures/ways of the youths on the labour market. The issue of youths’ insertion on the labour market was a permanent presence on the political agendas, but only for the last two decades it gained a particular significance. For the period 2010-2018 the — XXXIII —

Introduction

European directions of action in the field of youths were reunited within the strategic document “EU Strategy for Youth – Investing and Empowering. A renewed open method of coordination to address youth challenges and opportunities” that aims to the policies related to youths in Europe with respect to education, labour force employment, social inclusion, civic participation, and entrepreneurship, etc. This paper presents a brief analysis of the situation of young people on the labour market in the EU-28 countries and the measures adopted to stimulate youth employment. Chapter III examines some dimensions of public sector entrepreneurship (defined as risk taking, innovativeness and proactiveness) who has gained momentum in recent years, both for academia and for practitioners. Most existing literature strives to explain why some groups and organizations are more entrepreneurial than other, but this tells us little about which individuals are more or less prone to be entrepreneurial and why. Descending to the individual level gives also room for important cross-fertilization between public management theories, organizational theories and psychology and behavioral theories. In particular, additional to `traditional` variables (autonomy, managerial support) this work considers two new variables for understanding entrepreneurial behavior at individual level: personality traits and former work experience. The findings, based on answers received from 97 American city managers, show that work environment matters more than job experience and personality in predicting entrepreneurial behavior. Chapter IV aims to provide insight about the way people behave in organizations and effective leaders meet the needs of their followers, pay careful attention to group processes, able to calm anxieties and arouse hopes and aspirations; and know how to liberate human energy and inspire people to positive action. In short, leadership involves harnessing and leveraging the different and complex forces and dynamics at play in organizational functioning. The psycho psychoanalytic approach to leadership study and development focuses on the dynamics of human behaviour which are often the most difficult to understand. It acknowledges that people are complex, unique and paradoxical beings with rich and myriad motivational drivers, and decision-making and interaction patterns. Applying psychoanalytic concepts to the ebb and flow of life in organizations contributes to our understanding of the vicissitudes of life and — XXXIV —

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leadership. Only through accepting and exploring the hidden undercurrents that affect human behaviour can we begin to understand organizational life in all its complexities. This chapter provides an overview of the psychoanalytic approach, including historical underminnings, its key concepts, and includes three case studies with which to apply the psychoanalytic approach as well as a short self-assessment. Chapter V analyzes the youths who entered Probation Service in Cluj county, Romania, between 2002 and 2013. The purpose of the study is to identify the individual characteristics of the probationers (as gender, age, ethnicity, criminal history), that can be seen as predictors to failure or success of probation system (PS). The study is descriptive and it based on a life-course approach using Kaplan-Meier estimates, in order to identify the possible relations between the analyzed variables. In conclusions, the failure of probation is most common for Rromani youths, and for youths who have ages between 14-16 years, while the success of probation is more probable for those who don't have criminal history. Chapter VI emphasizes how Drug prevention is an important component of immediate and concerted interventions carried out by all the structures of society: family, school, church, media, NGOs, public authorities, etc. Prevention is based on the practical elements, ethical, scientific and focuses on changing addictive behaviors and on modeling positive of the lifestyle of the individual, group or society. The work presents an educational program on preventing drug use and addressed to pupils in the context in that the age of onset in the use and abuse of alcohol, tobacco and drugs decreases significantly. Chapter VII try to emphasize how modern didactics can have significant consequences at all levels of the educational interventions, because the main purpose of the didactic rhetoric lies in the understanding of the didactic action on the general neo-rhetoric coordinates, as science of human interaction and art of ideas, intentions and reasons transfer. While other directions and perspectives belonging to this common ground have also successfully evolved as part of the educational theory in our country, the applications of the rhetorical instrument in the analysis of persuasive didactic action language did not benefit from comparable research and results.. In — XXXV —

Introduction

this respect, the work encompasses reflections on the rhetorical-discursive basic elements of persuasive didactic communication that were selected from a more comprehensive analysis. The research has two complementary parts: the first part analyses the general connection between rhetoric and didactic rhetoric and the second part refers to the specific rhetorical quality of the educational discourse in persuasive didactic communication. Chapter VIII indicates that some aspects of family structure such as large family size and low parental age are linked to adolescent drug use. There is also consistent evidence linking peer drug use and drug availability to adolescent drug use. There is extensive evidence on parental substance use, although some studies report no association while others indicate that the association is attenuated by strong family cohesion. Age is strongly associated with prevalence of drug use among young people reflecting a range of factors including drug availability, peer relationships and reduced parental monitoring. For young drug users in treatment, psychosocial risk predicts drug abuse at treatment entry but not follow up. In contrast, protective factors are of increased importance during recovery. The overall ratio of risk to protection may be more important than any individual factor. These results, although supported by a relatively small body of research, support the concept of resilience to drug use. According to this view resilience to drug use is enhanced by increasing social skills, social attachments and material resources despite constant exposure to known risk factors. Chapter IX highlights the high-risk behaviors among drug users suggest that the group needs rehabilitation programme. Moreover, non-sharing of income suggest that drug users are isolated from social network, therefore primary prevention activities with focus on improving socioeconomic conditions and social networking can reduce drug use through injections. Focused interventions on target districts would be helpful in reducing drug use. The morbidity and mortality associated with psychoactive drug use have been recognized worldwide. Nevertheless, the statistics regarding the extent and prevalence of drug use are difficult to obtain, as drug users are mostly under-sampled in surveys. Globally, drug use poses significant health risk. However, there is a general dearth of scientific literature, especially regarding modes and determinants of drug use, in developing countries. As injecting drug use is associated with number of morbidities, therefore, — XXXVI —

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exploring associated factors will help understand the nature of the problem and eventually address the hazards encountered by this high-risk group. Chapter X reviews some of the aspects of the spiritual life in the traditional community that show a structure according to the cultural genre. The dual structure of the traditional society, a lot more categorical than the modern society, puts into relationship the microcosmos to the macrocosmos, the natural to the supernatural, the social to the sacred, so that the participation to the social is complemented by the access to the states of the sacred. The anthropological studies conducted on scraps from the folkloric spirituality prove this participation in the daily life, the same as the relations to the supernatural is made on the principles of the communicating vessels: while the social life is the almost exclusive attribute of the masculine, the activism in the access to the sacred, especially through the religion and magic, put in front the feminine performance. Chapter XI captures the Children's operas that have always been very successful, both with children and with grown-ups who relive their childhood each time they see these beautiful shows for children. In an age when opera audiences is getting more and more diverse and demanding as far as the repertory of this vocal-theatrical genre is concerned, children's operas emerge naturally in the creation of composers from various musical centers. Education through art plays an important role in child development, both in the case of the children who receive it as part of the audience and of those who perform it, being endowed with artistic skills. Chapter XII also focuses on ethical dilemmas that professionals in the social services system are facing, aimed at highlighting the importance of access to information, supervision, and lifelong training. At the beginning there are several conceptual aspects, as well as theoretical outlooks on ethical dilemmas of social welfare, starting from a warning call transmitted by a social worker. A review of the typology in social dilemmas is also carried out in the first part of the article. When making the transition from general to specific issues, one shows the professional’s situation, found himself between justice and social solidarity while providing social services. To provide social services one needs both justice and solidarity, both perspectives being essential, although it is very difficult to take both of them — XXXVII —

Introduction

into account at the same time. The choice, however difficult it is to be made proves its doer’s professionalism and whether the values underlying the welfare act justifies and certifies this. Chapter XIII is a documented work on economic security as component of national security, manifested by legality, balance and development. The main segments of economic security, monitored and protected, are energy security, financial, banking and non-banking, security of strategic branches of the national economy, security of enterprises vital importance, maintaining, economic state reserves. In order to benefit from a solid economic security Romania must have effective governance characterized by professional and efficient public administration; democratic justice; the existence of effective measures and actions to fight corruption. Also, another important aspect it is represented by the necessity of increasing economic competitiveness. Bringing the Romanian market economy to EU economic standards, economic standards which have as principles free competition and social solidarity, is a priority. This aspect it is supported by modernizing institutions with responsibilities in national security, development of infrastructure and increase the safety of the transport infrastructure precautious management of natural resources. Chapter XIV aims to identify the path of Muslim women social integration in the Romanian Christian Orthodox society. The work describes the main social, cultural and religious dimensions shaping integration models for Muslim woman. By using in-depth interviews, life stories and observation in the Turks and Tatars communities from the southeastern part of Romania, the study investigates Muslim women’s efforts to pass on the main elements of their culture, traditions and ethnic identity to younger generations, by means of family and kinship networks. Chapter XV aims to identify successful models through literature and policy analysis, being focused on national actions and their compatibility with the European Union on the specific problematic of the Roma population socio-professional inclusion. The first part describes relevant research findings from both national and international studies on Roma population from Romania, addressing the main structural problems of the Roma ethnic communities, such as: poverty, lack of equal access to social — XXXVIII —

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resources, inefficiency in implementing social measures and actions for the increase of Roma social inclusions. The second part of the article follows the development of the employment policies affecting the Roma population, both at national and European level, presents the history of the postcommunist period policies and strategies on Roma population in Romania and describes the critical analysis results of the most recent National Strategy on Roma Inclusion and its convergence with the EU programmatic documents. The final section discusses social policies, funding programs for Roma and international and national mechanisms that have funded several research projects, interventions and measures in Romania. The conclusion aims to highlight their impact on the targeted population. Chapter XVI article resumed the main portraits in terms of cultural dimensions made in Romanian culture, using two well-known theoretical models provided by cross-cultural psychology: first of one created by G. Hofstede, and the second one generated by K. Leung and M. H. Bond (social axioms). Our researches have been done on representative sample (study 1, N=1058 subjects) and on educational sample (study 2, N=522 subjects) and have evidenced the specificity of main dimension of Hofstede’s model, described as autarchic individualism. This particular concept designates the stressing of individual resources in the process of self-achievement, in a social context characterized by a deficient communitarian solidarity, hence the qualification of “autarchic”, that refuses the idea of loyal competition between social actors, which look at one another with suspicion, mistrust and act with resentments and selfishness. In our article we have presented the dominant portraits of samples, characterized by high power-distance and uncertainty avoidance, and the high scores of social cynicism. We have made also several generational comparisons, illustrating the prevalence of these duplicitous patterns of thinking and acting especially for younger cohorts and we have discussed the social implications of them. In Chapter XVII we pay particular attention to a thematic analysis on psychosocial implications for patients with renal failure and its impact on quality of life. A needs assessment was conducted on renal patients registered to a leading hospital trust in Israel in order to explore their psychological, social, and spiritual needs. The aim of the needs assessment was to create an evidence base for the development of a comprehensive — XXXIX —

Introduction

health psychology service to run concurrently with a renal counseling support service within the department. This work utilized a series of semi structured face-to-face interviews and focus groups with renal patients and their careers, to explore how ESRD impacted quality of life. Seven emergent themes were identified that influenced the quality of life of people with EDRD: physiological impact, impact of treatment, impact on daily life, psychological impact, impact on relationships, social impact and coping responses. The needs assessment clearly identified that ESRD carries with it emotional, physical, psychological, social, and existential burdens. The data from this needs assessment study has created an evidence base upon which future health psychology services can be built within this leading Israel hospital. Chapter XVIII examines the level of impact the latest social changes had on stereotypes and ethical tolerance between youth from Republic of Moldova. Our research based on the studies of the related area information, which included theories, articles etc. and the questionnaire we applied recently on students of a couple of different universities from Republic of Moldova. We will try to be more objective and in an empirical study to try to answer what is ethnic tolerance, the attitude/ stereotypes and the impact they have on us. We put attitude and stereotypes near due I think even if they simultaneously are close and different as senses in this context they “compliment” each other forming a set of beliefs and behavioural orientations that often explains some sorts of behaviour. Chapter XIX directly addresses the issue of social actors in the context of legal discourse. The implications of a basic structure of speech or writing are the communication of ideas and this process is intimately related to the cognitive abilities of man. The process of communication always presupposes an audience – real or imagined – and listeners are social and psychological entities: they interpret, they assimilate, they respond, all in terms of their cognitive abilities, their past experience, their social histories. Changes in philosophy and in the social system, the evolution of science and technology contributed to the decline of traditional rhetoric and the tendency to change and improve the theory of rhetoric and discourse. One of the definitions of discourse is a form of language use that belongs to a specific genre. The analysis of a text is concerned with the properties of the — XL —

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text and its context. Going beyond the sentences, discourse studies focus on the influence of sentences by surrounding sentences, how these sentences are connected together and the overall structure of a text. Chapter XX- addresses a topic of great current social concern in Romania, corporate social responsibility (CSR) which concerns the companies which are active in the mining field, of great importance and actuality. Because modern mining is an intensive one, it often uses aggressive means of exploitation, such as toxic substances, in particular cyanide, especially in the case of auriferous mining. Besides using toxic substances, modern mining involves many other activities with potentially harmful outcomes for the local communities, such as: relocation of the population; mono-industrialization of the areas related to mining projects; drastic alteration of the landscape until complete destruction as a consequence of open-pit exploitation; alteration or destruction of valuable elements which belong to cultural heritage; construction of tailings ponds, often with a questionable degree of safety, in order to store toxic substances; creation of large areas covered with waste dumps; destruction of soil, vegetation and local fauna; use of explosives to dislodge rock masses etc. Consequently, we consider as being of critical importance the fact that Roșia Montană Gold Corporation (RMGC) should pay particular attention to the proper implementation of CSR, in order to contribute to the sustainable socio-economic development of the local community from Roșia MontanăAbrud auriferous area. Chapter XXI- discusses aspects of social economy in Poland. Fundraising as the art of building relationships between entities is now a specific, interesting model for creating a platform of mutual assistance. There are public fundraising (eg. Grants), private (e.g. Donors), in cash and kind, also known as in-kind - services, products, free of advertising, training, etc. There are several elements confirming this process. Fundraising is an excellent opportunity to meet the actual demand of non-governmental organizations, student organizations, volunteering, responsible for the organization of assistance. CSR organizations are based on the ideas of active citizenship, social sensitivity, and willingness to strengthen individual and social resources. Fundraising is also creating partnerships; based on understanding each other's needs, rational helping to achieve the desired effects. — XLI —

Introduction

Fundraising, especially crowdfunding, this tool publicize pressing issues on the Internet, public information, creating public collections. Finally, fundraising is one of the elements of networking activities, thus establishing satisfactory social contacts, exchange of services, building of community and responsibility. Fundraising is now both a form of philanthropic support, but primarily the work based on the principle of subsidiary. Fundraising as a process will not replace the old forms of assistance, but it is an excellent tool to rational argumentation, presenting mutual benefit and to decrease the pathology of extortion support instruments. Chapter XXII- presents Romanian international students perception regarding the utility of a period of study abroad. As far as the authors are aware of, this is the first paper in Romania that approaches student mobility in this way. The article clearly states the differences between internationalization and globalization, terms that are too often confounded. We have chosen to present the ascending tendency in the evolution of this phenomenon. Using the data we have collected we have built regression models that attempt to answer two questions: “Do you believe your time abroad will help you find employment upon your return to Romania?” and “Did you feel you were classified as local student?” We are also interested in the way that the perception of international study is influenced by social media use, or indeed, if social media can be a useful measure of underlying processes. This builds on previous work conducted by the authors on analysing educational migration from a social network perspective. We find that there are certain factors which appear to significantly affect the responses to these questions, and that in certain circumstances social media is a measure of international student behaviour. Chapter XXIII- reviews the documents on disability to provide a summary of factors associated to policy outcomes regarding the inclusion of people with disabilities, in order to identify risk factors that account for the high unemployment rates among this category. The review aims to examine on one hand the situation of disabled people in Romania, compared to other EU countries and on the other hand, four large factors associated with social inclusion of disabled persons: (1) employment, (2) educational participation, (3) living condition, and (4) discrimination on grounds of disability across representative studies/reports/policy documents at the EU level. Based on — XLII —

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these four dimensions, a series of reviews were performed to assess the policies and strategies across multiple studies/reports/policy documents on employment, discrimination, education, and living conditions for disabled people. Results showed that a large percentage of disabled persons are excluded from the labour market, in general have lower educational opportunities, and lower community participation compared with people without disabilities. Chapter XXIV- proposes a socio-demographic approach of conjugal homicide, based on the analysis of the statistical data recorded in Romania, 2007-2013. According to the information recorded by Prosecutor's Office High Court of Cassation and Justice, during this period, there were investigated 7.048 homicide acts, of which 786 of conjugal homicide. Most persons investigated for these offenses are males, aged between 21-55 years, residents in rural areas. More than half have only finished high school and 58.51% had no occupation. Once understood particularities of this type of crime, it can be initiated in Romania, special prevention strategies, focusing on the people involved, families, friends etc. Chapter XXV- intends to analyze how the population with a high level of education perceives the process of professional integration. Professional integration is analyzed by means of a series of objective indicators - the employment rate, unemployment rate, and unemployment duration - which, while very important, fail to capture the complexity of the process. This is also because professional integration is a complex process which involves decisions, multiple professional trajectories, socio-professional identity formation, etc. Also, an important part of the studies have dealt with the issue either to confirm or rule out the quality and efficiency of the educational system, or to assess a series of public policy measures. Chapter XXVI- describes the profile of a specific Romanian community. From consulting the literature it shows that developing a system of indicators for monitoring projects with impact on the community is a complex endeavour, creative and highly customized. Although the indicator is a simple tool, it must allow regular observation of a phenomenon developments and position in relation to the targets, which can cause difficulties in practice. It is therefore a measuring instrument constructed or — XLIII —

Introduction

selected from a plurality of tools. This article presents the results of a socioeconomic study that uses indicators as tools for analysis of statistical series. Chapter XXVII- is an essay on the theme of the portrait in Romanian painting, which also refers to the possible social implications. The development of portrait and self-portrait in Romanian painting depended on the evolutionary stages of the society, the modernization process meaning the mixture between the specific canons of the Byzantine painting and the reflections of the surrounding world, both genres being laicized. This fact of state reflects also artist’s personality, self-consciousness and moral values which started to change taking into account the fact that since the 14th century the first self-portrait appeared on the walls of Strei church. As a conclusion there must be pointed out that portrait but especially self-portrait could be a way of searching and healing one’s soul, due to their therapeutic role. Art can model one’s moral values, helping people to know themselves better, to have a moral beauty and a solution for all these aspects could be establishing art-therapy courses in the universities from Romania. Chapter XXVIII- highlights issues on the educational role of decorative art in the visual context with folk creation of Maramures County. Decorative art is analyzed in a context of a transdisciplinary aesthetic style in many respects by the folk creation which can be characterized by an educational role, for artistic, traditional, viable culture and carrying a traditional artistic repertoire. Folk art is an elaboration, a synthesis and a discussion of beauty in the artistic sphere in which the artist is forever young through art by an irreplaceable artistic originality and expressiveness. Decorative art is an art of originality and in the educational context it is an education art based on educational values knowledge of the treasury from Maramures. The syntax analysis is based throughout the educational process by knowing the traditions inherited with great devotion and artistic skill from one generation to another, by the craftsman who becomes a popular minstrel in connection with time. Chapter XXIX- addresses a sensitive topic in the area of social economy and social policies. Poverty is real in any society, types of human communities with lasting consequences in the sphere of human development. The various methods used to measure poverty start to define a — XLIV —

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demarcation line between the poor and the less poor. Individuals or families enjoying a standard of living below this line conventionally called poverty line are considered poor. Enhancing social support system or family allowances of support is absolutely necessary when families or a single person benefiting from this aid faces depreciation of their income in relation to market prices. It requires that from time to time social benefits to correlate with the price index for food goods, industrial goods and services. Chapter XXX- brings up the subject of social protection in the context of European integration. The research of the current stage of the social protection systems allows for highlighting the domestic capacity to face the social responsibility assumed as a member state of the European Union (EU). As methodology, secondary analyses were based on EU's Mutual Information System on Social Protection (MISSOC) and Training and Mutual Information System on Social Protection. Three categories of countries were identified: with stable social protection systems, moderated reforms, and indepth reforms. „Stable” social protection systems (Cyprus, Lithuania, and Slovenia) included social institutional actors permanently involved within the analysed period. Registered minor changes were noticed mainly due to conceptual clarifications. Institutional changes in countries with moderated reforms in social protection systems (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, and the Slovak Republic) were mainly due to mutual clarifications and share of responsibilities between stakeholders including newly involved. Social protection systems in Malta, Romania and Hungary faced in-depth structural reforms in search for suitable social policy solutions. Chapter XXXI- clarifies on an area of interest, transformational leadership in the public sector. Leadership is one of the topics that has had a steady attraction for social scientist be it today or 50 years ago. Although there is high diversity among research approaches, the number of studies on the topic is still increasing. Among all the theories, transformational leadership (Bass, 1985) seems to be one of the most popular. In this paper I explore the theoretical aspects of transformational leadership with the specific challenges of public sector. If the theoretical propositions hold true, transformational leadership could be the next big thing in leadership studies. The research is focused on leadership styles of public leaders in the local public administration of North West Region of Romania. Surprisingly, the — XLV —

Introduction

main leadership style is transformational, based on data collected and leaders are evaluated positively by their subordinates from a results perspective. Chapter XXXII- represents a short overview of European protection of the minors rights in general, and of those who committed crimes, in particular, and its implications in Romanian criminal law. In this paper, in the context of human rights universality, reference is made to the place and role of the juvenile rights. It is also stressed the need to establish minimum standards for the protection of human rights, in general, and the rights of minorities, in particular, as well as a common fundamental rights system that caused a significant European legal construction by guarantees provided by in this field. They focus on the social side, meaning the legal literature in the field uses a series of concepts approached from an interdisciplinary perspective. Defining to those shown, is the role that the European institutions and, by default, regulations have in relation to the protection of minors who have committed crimes. Chapter XXXIII- discusses social values and parenting in contemporary society changing. The work aims to show which are the social values developed in the family from the perspective of Romanians, how the socalled „family change” influences the dynamics of social values and which are the factors of impact for family change with influences on developing social values. For this, we will make cross-national and longitudinal comparisons by analyzing the values of Romanians in the context of European values as well as the evolution of them over time. Comparisons will be made by analyzing data provided by the European Values Survey and World Values Survey based on two waves of surveys, in which Romania was included ( 1999 si 2008), and also by using information provided by research conducted nationwide. Chapter XXXIV- highlights interdisciplinary between social sciences and sport, addressing the topic of emotional intelligence in sport. The emotional intelligence is shown in the ability to identify and comprehend the emotional states, their appropriate manifestation, and emotional self-control and to optimally harness the emotional energies in a positive or constructive way. The development of emotional intelligence in performance sports — XLVI —

Social Research. Theory and Practice

represents comprehension and management of emotions in order to harness the sportsman at a maximum in competitions. Chapter XXXV- examines data from a case study of the sociology of organizations regarding the use of social networks as the main resource growth. Mexican society is characterized by a tendency to self-medication when they get sick and be loyal to the brand that worked. Genomma Lab realized it and used its resources (including networks of social relations) to quickly positioned itself as the leader in the market with most of its brands in OTC medicines and products for health care. The article discusses how their beginning in publicity and the dynamism of their abilities makes him have a growth rate accelerated to the company. Chapter XXXVI- discusses the results of a research on socio-professional guidance needs of students from Serbia. This study is based on an exploratory type of research that aims traces the dimensions of identity profile of students from Serbia, studying at Western University of Timisoara. The questionnaire, containing questions open and closed, included the following dimensions: income sources of students, educational profile, performance indicators and satisfaction school, potentially conflict, organizational and institutional indicators on organizational change, indicators of quality of life, being applied of 123 students. Our research is important from two perspectives: one academic, because the information in this field within the Romanian and Serbian society is extremely limited, and the other, pragmatic, being the starting point for cooperation between educational institutions university foundation. Chapter XXXVII- adds consistency of the issue, moreover, in Chapter XXXIV, the importance of intelligence in sports activities. In order to practise basketball at a performance level along with the somatotype, the way of thinking plays a decisive role. For developing game actions with quick changing situations the player is required to adjust swift to the situations, to find the most effective technical and tactical ways of shooting or to prevent the opponent from scoring. Due to the fact that it offers a veritable show when it is played by intelligent players, basketball is rightfully considered a mind game. The Raven I.Q. test (unanimously agreed by the field’s specialists) emphasizes a series of qualities of the human intellect, such as: — XLVII —

Introduction

flexibility, profoundness, the systematic and logical nature, speed and thinking acumen. Chapter XXXVIII- addresses the topic of social concern, mass media influence on homosexuality in sport. In Romania, sexuality sells newspapers and makes high ratings, so the mass media looks to stories that stir curiosity. Therefore, these stories generate opinions both for and against the right to choose freely and the freedom to express said choice, as well as controversies regarding the demarcation line between the right to intimacy and the legitimate right of the press to investigate certain topics by invoking public interest. This paper tries to analyze the nature of the relationship between the Romanian mass media, sexual minorities and professional sports, when it was attempted to present some cases of lesbianism in Romanian women’s handball. Chapter XXXIX- addresses the topic sport as a way of socializing. Sport plays an important role in the process of socialization in several respects. First of all, it provides the opportunity of meeting other people and to communicate with them, to assume different roles, to acquire some social skills, to accept attitudes related to daily activities or to adapt to the team’s goals. Second of all, if we are talking about children, there is a learning process, a process of acknowledging the surrounding world, the acquisition of roles through the game, which helps him/her therefore, to become sociable. Thirdly, the practice of organized sport facilitates the association regarding the social contracts. Chapter XL- presents the results of a process of illustrating the authentic profile of the cultural identity of the professional emergency service in the county of Timiș. Secondly, the present study aims to identify the possible and probable differences between the existing organizational culture and that desired by the employees, as well as possible associations/correlations between these and the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants. The study has been carried out on a group of 650 subjects within ISU. Hypothesis testing was undertaken through statistical procedures, such as the matrix of correlations and significance tests. The results of the study confirm the hypotheses to a great extent and bring new and extremely useful information to the management process. — XLVIII —

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Chapter XLI- discusses the results of a research based on documentary research, which proposes the objective of identifying and redefining the dimension of the information society concept. Information society is, as authors like Alvin Toffler state, the third wave of social organization of modernity. It comes after consuming industrial and post-industrial society. Information society integrates the objectives of sustainable development based on social justice and equal opportunities, environmental protection, freedom, cultural diversity and innovative development, restructuring and business environment. Therefore, technological progress, along with demographic factors, value systems and ideology is a factor able to train or to produce social change accelerated development of new IT requires making timely and correct decision, coupled with a deep understanding of the risks and opportunities associated with IT phenomenon. Chapter XLII- discusses the results of an exploratory type of research that aims the trace of the dimensions of the educational profile of pupils of Romanian nationality, studying at Borislav Petrov Braca High School (town Vîrșeț) of the Republic of Serbia. The questionnaire, containing open and closed questions, included the following dimensions: institutional diagnosis of school, educational profile, performance indicators and school satisfaction, perception of professional performance of teachers, indicators on organizational change, indicators of quality of life, was applied to 120 students of the high school (grades XI and XII). Our research applied is important from the perspective of developing a culture of partnership based on a sense of civic solidarity on effective cooperation between public education with skills training and impact in professional orientation and can meet the need for information and coordination connected with labor mobility in border region. Chapter XLIII analyzes the difference between the necessity of movement imposed by the specific nature of a sedentary life within the contemporary society and the activity of physical education for two hours a week may be covered by an individual preoccupation to spend part of one’s free time doing motor, sports activities. Therefore, the professor of physical education must mould in their students, in addition to motor habits and skills, the wont of practicing them on an individual basis as well. The physical education classes in higher education institutions have the important task of developing in female students the motivation for motor — XLIX —

Introduction

activities of a sportive nature, to shape convictions and skills in practicing certain sports, on their free time, for purposes of recreation, entertainment, active rest. The purpose of our work is to highlight new developments in sociology and social sciences generally. In this regard, we follow theoretical and methodological contributions of authors, which are the dominant research areas, if they propose conceptual enrichment, which are interdisciplinary links which they invoke (sociology, economics, history, psychology, education sciences, anthropology, philosophy etc.). We also track the degree of institutionalization of sociology and social sciences in universities, research centers and international cooperation. Researchers that we selected, they pursue these goals with original questions and answers that they propose, through studies, arguments and conclusions they have come, highlighting the diversity in unity of the social sciences. Timişoara, 24.08.2015 Marius VASILUłĂ-ŞTEFĂNESCU

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Acknowledgement

This work was coordinated under the aegis of the Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy as a part of program co-funded by the European Union within the Operational Sectorial Program for Human Resources Development through the project for Pluri and interdisciplinary in doctoral and post-doctoral programs Project Code: POSDRU/159/ 1.5/S/ 141086. The studies which are included in this volume have not been previously published. My thanks are addressed to Adrian NegoiŃă for his help and encouragement and to the contributors for their part in the completion of this volume, for the original and documented character of the work, for which they assume full responsibility. I would also like to thank the Editor for the qualitative terms in which this volume appears, as well as our work have been taken to be incorporated in the international scientific circuit, by submitting the required copies to at least twelve libraries of institutions of higher education in other EU Member States or Member States of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, indexed in Karlsruhe Virtual catalogue. My thanks are addressed to Timiş County Council for the printing of this work within the programs, projects and cultural activities for 2014. I am grateful to our friends Carmen Tărniceru and Daniela Banciu for their diligent help and work to translate parts of the manuscript.

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Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

Chapter I THE DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION IN ROMANIA Dan AP2TEANU Abstract In the first part of the paper, I have deemed necessary to start with the determination of the theoretical framework of the social exclusion concept, specifying the conceptual dimensions and its causal determinants. The approach of social exclusion domain can be realized on several dimensions, namely: institutional, relational, dynamic and distributional. Next, I have presented the factors that increase the likelihood of poverty and social exclusion, at the individual level, such as education and family. In the second part, I introduced the forms of social exclusion and social vulnerable groups. Next, I put forward the overall picture of the situation of social exclusion in Romania. In the last part of the work, which includes quantitative analysis methodology, I analyzed the empirical determinants of social exclusion on the available data and I carried forth the results of analysis. Keywords: Social Exclusion, Conceptual Dimensions, Socio-Demographic Factors, Quantitative Analysis

Introduction The research is tackling an important problem for the society, because a significant part of it does not have the ncessary resources to ensure a decent standard of living; we are solidary with them by providing a minimum social protection (Teşliuc, 2001, Nicaise, 2003). In order that the social policies to be targeted and sized properly, we have to know what are the most affected social groups and what policies must exist to give a proper support on short or long term. To achieve this goal, it is useful to describe these phenomena, but it is more useful to find explanations – the causes of social exclusion occurrence. —1—

Dan Apteanu

The conceptual dimensions of social exclusion The first dimension, the institutional one, that tackles the exclusion concept, both as a process and as a failure of the integrating institutions, is rooted in the functionalist social theory of Durkheim. The neofunctionalist theory has as premises the understanding of ”social” as a multi-institutional domain that persist through independent and objective relations (Obrien, 2008). Tsaklogou (2003) underlines the role of institutions, and that the social exclusion goes beyond the limited responsability of the individual. The social exclusion concept states that the common social institutions have failed to fulfill their integrating potential. Even more, the exclusion can be generated by the institutions, because of their policies. The welfare state policies, even at their height, have neglected the poor, in several ways, consider Gough, Eisenschitz and McCulloch (2006). Exclusion can be generated by the institutions, through the policies which they adopted (Whelan, Maitre, 2010). Obrien (2008) deems that the evaluation of the European agenda of social integration policies implies that the normative bases of the research program and its generated potential policies are ultimately flawed. Approaching the issue from a different angle, from the perspective of the European institutions, to try a better settlement, in 2000 was established the Open Method of Coordination, which provides the coordination framework of national policies, without legal constraints. The next dimension is the relational one, which states that social exclusion refers at the incapacity to have a level of social participation that society considers normal (Levitas, 2006). It is a complex, multidimensional, multilayered and dynamic concept that EU defined as "a process by which some people are pushed to the margins of society and prevented from participating fully because of poverty or lack basic skills and lifelong learning opportunities, or as a result of discrimination. This removes them from work, income and education opportunities as well as social and community networks and activities. They have less access to power and decision-making institutions and thus often feel powerless and unable to take control over the decisions that affect their lives (Eurostat, 2010). An individual or a household is poor when they have a low standard of living and income, and these can only be accurately measured relative to the norms of society (Gordon and Townsend, 1998 as cited in Gordon, —2—

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

2000); Boosert (2007) states that exclusion can often be measured using an index of deprivation or consumer spending. Deprivation indices are more accurate because they are broader measures that reflect different aspects of standard of living, including personal and contextual characteristics (Gordon and Townsend, 1998 as cited in Gordon, 2000). A extensive approach is the one that considers the sense of belonging in society of a person as beeing formed from civic, interpersonal, social and economic integration. The economic integration refers to having a job, a valued economic function, to be able to support yourself. Social integration means that a person has family and friends, neighbours and social networks to provide care and emotional support when needed. The civic integration refers to the equality of citizens in a democratic system (Commins, 1993 apud Berghman, 1997). Balsa, Barreto and Caeiro (1999) conducted a meta-study which classifies the dynamic approach to poverty and exclusion in the following three categories: historical, structural / institutional and socio-anthropological. The first approach identifies as causes different contexts - social, economic, political; second, structural features of population and social system, and the third, important events in the life of the individual. In the first model, the causes of poverty and exclusion are not especially individual actions, but this is explained by the inability of the community to improve their socio-economic situation; poverty is the result of structural contexts defined by economic, social and political phenomena (eg, migration, urban development, employment, social policy, education), and poverty is seen as a reproductive process. In the second paradigm, the focus is on socio-demographic characteristics of individuals in explaining poverty dynamics. The characteristics such as age, gender, education, training, etc., are considered to be explanatory factors. Also, the risk of exclusion is influenced by the institutional system, such as for example education, employment, social protection policies. The third perspective, the socioanthropological one, tries to relate the causes of poverty by addressing the individual level, through the various important events in the life of the individual. Drug addiction, alcoholism, long-term unemployment, delinquency are identified both as causes and as effects of social exclusion. The system structure determines the unequal distribution of resources and wealth, based on the balance of powers, on the ability of different groups to exert corporate pressure and support their cause, the political —3—

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prioritization and targeting policies; thus economic growth can be a condition to combat social exclusion, but it is not enough (Estivil, 2003). Economic vulnerability levels fluctuate systematically in welfare regimes in accordance with the coverage and generosity of these regimes. Levels of vulnerability are increasing as we go from the social democratic to the corporate, liberal, Southern, ending with the post-communist, both corporate and liberal. Deprivation on consumption is the main differentiator (Whelan, Maitre, 2010).

The demographic factors of poverty and social exclusion growth Age The groups most affected are children and the elderly, which depends on the family to have secured living standards. In three quarters of the Member States, the proportion of children at risk of poverty exceeds the overall proportion (Atkinson and Marlier, 2010). Thus there is concern about the poverty of children and their social inclusion. Success in reducing poverty tends to be correlated with success in reducing income inequality, according to the study's conclusion conducted by Laparra (2011). In the social support for children, there is a certain imbalance. Children in institutions or in foster care were provided important resources; for children in families living in at high risk of extreme poverty or social disorganization process, financial support was lower. Some kindergartens have short program and do not meet the needs of parents. Vocational education segment fell the most, much of the young not having a viable profession when leaving school. On the other hand, activities for children / youth in the community are neglected. Various aspects of poverty are often intertwined and tend to perpetuate low income through a vicious circle. Together these issues tend to transmit poverty and deprivation from one generation to another. The birth increases the probability of exclusion from the labor market, strong before the first birth, with a strong rebound integration, but not full after the birth of the last child (Fouarge, 2010). Childhood living in poverty is the most important variable in explaining the life chances: not only correlates with low wages and subsequently higher risk of unemployment, but also the level of crime, deteriorated mental health, and for women, single parent situation. This is —4—

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

correlated with decreased cognitive abilities in some respects, suggesting negative impact of diet, physical and mental health, and the socialization of poor households. The more a family is poor, the more likely transmission of poverty to the next generation (Gough, Eisenschitz and McCulloch, 2006). Oşvat (2012) shows that for the teens enrolled in programs of Oradea Community Center, the school has become more important, being better integrated in school and making educational progress. The target group of this study consisted of vulnerable children who have no parental care. For the measures implemented to be effective, there must be collaboration between family and professional categories working in the area of child protection. Factors that can prevent dropout (Oşvat, 2012) shows that social support services are not enough, because children and young people need family support. The group of street children, although limited in number, is the social group with the highest degree of social exclusion on multiple dimensions. The profile of street children can be divided into three dimensions: the family of origin issues (child care in vulnerable families), ethnicity and identity documents issues (Zamfir, Preda and Dan, 2004, Arpinte, 2008). The other vulnerable age group, the elderly, are affected by social exclusion, albeit in a lesser extent compared to children. Scharf (2003) examined social exclusion among the elderly, this being multidimensional. Exclusion from material resources included measures of deprivation and poverty. Indicators of social isolation, loneliness (Tsaklogou, 2003) and nonparticipation in social activities reflected the usual forms of exclusion from social relations. The research suggests that a significant number of elderly people in deprived urban areas are affected by different dimensions of exclusion. Exclusion from social relations was the most common of the five types of exclusion, followed by those of material resources, utilities, residential and civic. Thus, a considerable proportion of the elderly is affected by at least one form of exclusion, resulting three categories. The first group of about a third of respondents, it is not excluded on any dimension. The second group, of similar size, has exclusion experience on one dimension. The latter group was prone to cumulative impacts of exclusion. The study Poverty and exclusion among elderly citizens in the EU (TNS QUAL +, 2011) presents specific issues that concern the socially excluded elders. They feel ignored by society, think their real life is not represented in mass media and believe that policy makers do not understand what life is —5—

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like for those facing social exclusion. Material problems of daily life are the most important, such as cost of living, employment, pensions and health care. Less tangible aspects are as relevant - self-respect and the desire to feel listened to and appreciated by the community. For their reintegration, Subaşu (2012) recommended the lifestyle formation for older people through lifelong learning. The elderly are the best advocate for their cause, consider Sorescu (2010). NGOs of older people play a major role in the expression of interests, needs and aspirations of older people.

Nationality The specific of social exclusion of the Roma population consists of specific source-related factors of exclusion. The factors mainly concerned the individual and to some extent cultural issues, being also about self exclusion. The factors of exclusion are: lack of identity documents (legal system), not attending school at all (social system), are not legally married (interpersonal system), does not have a job (economic system). The main sources of income of the population rely on occasional activities and children's allowances (Zamfir, and Dan Preda, 2004). On the other hand, Fleck (2009) provides the existence of general exclusion factors of the Roma communities. The operation logic of modern industrial societies integrates and individualise at the same time, so that the economic logic of social relations becomes a structural factor. Efficiency and productivity growth are the most important values; thus valuing individuals on other grounds, as is ethnicity, is excluded, being based only on meritocracy. Segmented or dual labor market economies theory states that the market organization is one that produce / reproduce the marginal condition of these groups. Primary segment is characterized by intensive human capital, labor relations formalized, relatively stable employment, advancement opportunity, and the secondary segment, by the opposite of these characteristics.

Education Poor school financial support has negatively affected the quality of the school and produced a deepening polarization of access to education. A significant proportion of pupils in the primary cycle, especially those in rural —6—

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

areas, have poor school performance. Their participation should be considered only as formal as the functional equivalent of a dropout. Participation in secondary school has dropped, and this is a source of social exclusion for those not included. A number of educational facilities are lacking in rural and Roma communities. A source of exclusion is the lack of kindergartens in many rural areas, teachers and lack of financial resources for them. Child education is poor in rural areas, where the share of unskilled personnel is much higher than in rural areas. School curricula continued to focus on training for industrial work, vocational training is underdeveloped in terms appropriate to the requirements of a professional market economy and efficient operation of the new generations in an active and cohesive society (Zamfir, and Dan Preda, 2004). The low-skilled, low educational qualifications, low levels of education and illiteracy, are factors of social exclusion (Tsaklogou, 2003 Arpinte, 2008). The study by Atkinson, Marlier (2010) which analyzes the benefits provided by public education in Europe shows that there is a significant reduction in poverty and inequality when these benefits are considered. Education can directly provide the knowledge and skills that are important for social participation and the labor market (Eurostat, 2010). There is a clear relationship between the duration of education and access to employment and the general trend is that education reduces labor market exclusion for young migrants in Norway (Fangen, 2010). On the other hand, Hatos (2007) states that the current model of the Romanian education system is a systematic generator of social exclusion and an engine of social polarization, the argument is on three areas: special education, organization and distribution of educational opportunities at the pre-tertiary level and the funding distribution inequity on school cycles.

Health Poor health (Tsaklogou, 2003), physical and good psychological condition (Barnes, 2005), poor health, disability, drug or alcohol dependence (Arpinte, 2008), are some of the individual factors of social exclusion. The study by Gough, Eisenschitz and McCulloch (2006), show that the poor spend more money than average on food, but their diets are inferior. High levels of stress and higher levels of smoking is injurious to health. —7—

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Those who work occasionally, have no health insurance and job security, which forces them to work if they are sick, which worsens the initial condition. Unemployed people tend to have a higher mortality rate than those who have a job. The incidence of many diseases increases as income decreases. Percent mortality is higher for the poor, regardless of age. Hence, such benefits are important provided with access to health services, as stated by Atkinson and Marlier (2010). The results show that there is a significant reduction in poverty and inequality when people receive health services. Social exclusion can occur due to poor health, where people who have physical or mental health problems cannot participate fully in society. Access to health services is restricted by factors such as financial and human resources, population coverage in the public health service system, patient participation in health care payment (Smith, 2009). Mardare (2005) believes that social support is the main external resource at which the individual can benefit to solve certain problems that can not solve alone, but also an important resource in preventing poor condition, illness being one of them. The lack of such benefits had as result, that a number of social groups are marginalized from access to health services: poor families, households with many children, Roma, rural isolation, unemployed and homeless. There were three main sources of limiting access to health services: direct economic costs or collateral, ambiguities in the application of legislation on health insurance system and system ambiguities and organization of healthcare. Increased drug use, while decreasing age at which young people are becoming consumers, are serious problems for the Romanian society (Zamfir, and Dan Preda, 2004).

Social exclusion in Romania In Romania, 40.4% of the population is considered to be at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and comparatively, in EU it is 24% of the population. This means that they are affected by at least one of three situations, measured by indicators of risk of poverty, severe material deprivation and people living in households with very low work intensity. For Romania percentages corresponding to the three categories in 2011 were 22.2%, about 30% and 6.7% (EUROSTAT, 2012). Next, I will present the forms of social exclusion. —8—

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

Forms of social exclusion Ilie (2003) describes the following forms of social exclusion: exclusion from education, occupational exclusion, exclusion from housing and exclusion from health services. Although, from the institutional point of view, education reform has developed a system adapted to European standards, education was affected by chronic underfunding and the effect of social phenomena of disorganization. Underfunding has led to poor equipment and the degradation of schools, the poor quality of the educational process and the low salaries of teachers. Coming from a family with many children or material difficulties is affecting the level of education of children. Secondary education has declined generated by the socio-economic transition and the lack of a labor market perspective. Labor market exclusion is affecting young people because they are not qualified. Instead, underground economy provides an important source of income for part of the active population. People who are close to retirement age have trouble staying on the labor market. The countryside offers little opportunity in this regard as a result of economic transformation after 1990; but this is masked by the statistical mode of unemployed people, through working the condition "at least one hour for remuneration in the form of wages, payment in kind or other benefits", specific to the day laborers. Romania allocate for health less than half the EU candidate countries. Access to healthcare for some categories of the population has decreased. Another problem is that prevention programs are chronically underfunded. Approximately one million people have no health insurance; other sectoral issues are the drugs crisis, the quality of facilities and number of health units. Romanian society is facing a crisis of infrastructure and public utilities and public services in rural areas. Within the housing exclusion, are specified the deficiencies of transport system, public utility services, especially in rural areas and in urban homelessness (Ilie, 2003).

Quantitative research methodology Survey data I have analyzed the data from the research study Quality of Life in Romania, during 1990 - 2006, conducted on representative samples (Rotariu, 2006) at national, stratified, probabilistic and multistage level, for —9—

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the adult population (ICCV, http: //www.iccv .com / node / 151). The stratification criteria were historical province, rural residential urban / rural, village size. The sample size was between 1,000 and 1,500 people. For 2010 I have used the database of the Eurobarometer 74.1 and for 2013 the Eurobarometer no. 80.1. The concepts used in the study were operationalized by questions from the survey questionnaires. Data from the research Diagnosis of life quality are of longitudinal trends type, meaning that even if they are not the same individuals interviewed are kept largely the same questions in the questionnaire. To study exclusion, longitudinal studies are needed to accommodate the passage of time, the existence of economic cycles, political and social changes. There are longitudinal databases such as ECHP - European Community Household Panel, with data at the individual or family level, but do not include Romania.

Operationalization The dependent variable, social exclusion, I have defined as multidimensional. The dependent variable has four dimensions. First, the lack of economic integration, meaning it has no job. Next, not integrated in the system of social benefits: earn less than 60% of median income and does not receive social benefits. The third is the lack of interpersonal integration: has a bad relation with family / friends / social network (a form of capital) and the last dimension is not being civic integrated: low civic participation (Table no. 4). Next, I have calculated the average disposable income per equivalent adult for logarithmic variable; I analyzed the data for median income, and the results are very similar. This I have calculated by adding the income of all members of the household; Then, I have calculated the number of adult equivalents household with weights (Rotariu, 2006) according to the scale CNC-USA modified (Pop, 2009). Finally, total household income is divided by the number of adult equivalents. After analyzing the literature I have identified several explanatory dimensions of social exclusion. One of these is the socio-demographic attributes of individuals with specified risk groups (Table no. 5). Below, I present the theoretical model of social exclusion factors.

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Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

The theoretical model of social exclusion factors In this paper, the proposed theoretical model considers both sociodemographic and contextual factors as major causes of the four dimensions of social exclusion. After 1989, some industrial economic sectors have been deeply affected by economic restructuring; the dismissal of labor, affected men more than women in this regard, thus lowering their economic integration. If a person becomes unemployed, household income is likely to fall much so that it becomes eligible for the guaranteed minimum income. Basically, between the two dimensions, there is a negative correlation social benefits system should support people who are unable to integrate economically; through analysis, it can be checked the extent to which social support system functions for these social categories. A low level of education can be more equated with a formal participation, especially in rural areas and for Roma, being a factor of exclusion, including the economic one. On the other hand, a high level of education develops a person cognitively, and improves the knowledge and skills. However, to the extent that curriculum content is not adapted to economic requirements, may decrease the positive impact; also, the level of education influences occupation of the individual. A better educated person will be more aware of the possibilities they have to participate in community life and thus be an active participant and will probably try to build and develop social networks as potential resources. A considerable part of the Roma does not have a job, doing rather occasional activities. There is also reluctance by companies to hire them, so their labor market context is quite unfavorable. Roma social networks are rather weak, as it emerged from my qualitative research. Also, because there are situations where they lack identity documents, they are considerably not civic participating. The dwelling in the countryside decreases the possibility of economic integration because there are fewer jobs available. But urban environment has specific problems such as overcrowded areas, home maintenance costs, quality of housing, pollution, which can worsen the different aspects of integration. Regarding civic integration, rural dwellers are more involved because the type of community is a small one where interpersonal relations are stronger, less dispersed and stronger social control is exercised; eg influencing factors such as the mayor, priest, teacher, meet directly with — 11 —

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those affected. Also, an important segment of the population is older, and it usually has a higher than average participation. Young people are less likely to be economically integrated because they have little professional experience, choose to continue their training or prefer to postpone their entry into the labor market to find a job that meets their requirements. The elderly tend to be socially isolated, being affected more by loneliness. Young people are not well integrated civic. A parent who raises alone his child, will spend more time with him and less for keeping or looking for a job. A divorced person is less interpersonal integrated, keeping fewer ties to the family. If the family has at least three children, the adults will have considerable difficulties to be integrated economically, because of the time required by family; also will have fewer ties with social networks. Poor health may hinder getting or keeping a job; on the other hand, social assistance can better facilitate their integration. Not integrating economic means also lack of benefits such as health insurance, which will lead to the deterioration of health. People with good health have a larger social network, and this will influence too civic involvement. Social capital can be a resource for overcoming obstacles for those who have difficult situations; also is a factor that will increase community involvement. Financial support for children living in families in poverty was a precarious one. If children and young families receive social benefits such as kindergarten with extended hours and costs subsidized or scholarships, it is more likely they will progress in terms of education, and thus will also have increased opportunities to obtain a job, even well paid and also will increase the likelihood of civic attitudes and community involvement. Limited material resources of the child's family adversely affect his chances in life, lowers the chances of obtaining a job and consequently, the quality of family relationships. Lack of material resources (low income, lack of housing, durable goods car) deprives people of resources that are required to participate in economic, social or community life. The possibility of obtaining a job, the working conditions, influenced by years of economic recession or legislative changes, satisfaction with the earnings, training (unqualified), are significant causes of economic exclusion. The high cost of justice will lead to increasing poverty and social inequality for underprivileged segments - conflicts between rich and poor, so that the possibility of affirmation in life that people will perceive will be much lower. — 12 —

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

To analyze the relationship between these variables, I have performed a logistic regression (Agresti, 1996); thus, I have determined the causes of social exclusion, the vulnerable social groups, for whom social protection policies must be addressed as a priority, and features that help reduce social exclusion. Table 1. Social exclusion dimensions No. Categories description 1. Lack of economic integration: Unemployed 2. Lack of integration in the social benefits system: Income less than 60% of national average logarithmated income and does not receive social benefits 3. Lack of interpersonal integration: Bad relations with social networks for example family, neighbours and friends 4. Lack of civic integration: Low civic participation (Source: Table by the author) Table 2. Social exclusion factors N Dimension Economic o. Variable description 1. Gender – women X 2. Occupation – low X 3. Education – low X 4. Nationality – roma X 5. Residence – rural X 6. Age – the young X 7. Marital status – divorced X 8. No. of children – ≥ 3 X 9. Health – Sick X 10 Medical care X 11. Work conditions X 12. Life chances – high X 13. Work opportunities X 14. Earnings satisfaction X 15. Sport/TV view– high 16. City/Society administr. 17. Mat. res. – lack of goods X (Source: Table by the author)

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Social

Interpersonal

Civic

X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X

X

X

X

X X

X X X

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Data analysis and results Descriptive analysis of social exclusion in Romania analyzed on the 4 dimensions, provide a clear picture on the magnitude of each of them (Table no. 6). The least problematic is the economic dimension, so that it can be said that people are generally integrated in this regard; even if wages were generally small or modest, their level was enough so that people are not excluded. Even at this low level fluctuations are observed, with peak levels in 1998 and 2013 and the minimum in 1990 and 2003, largely influenced by economic policy; 1994 is a special case, in that the significant increase in unemployment benefits provided, led to a much higher level of economic inclusion. Integration in social benefits system shows the influence of social policies to protect low-income population, independently of the economic factor. Years of economic crisis such as 1993, could theoretically lead to lower benefits, but the policy chosen was one of increasing social protection; correspondingly, the year 2006 is one of decreasing inclusion, even if it is against a backdrop of economic growth. Interpersonal dimension marks as turning years of growth 1991, 1998 and 2013 and decrease in 1999 and 2010. The civic dimension shows significant positive changes in 1993, 2003 and 2013 and negative in 1992, 1999 and 2010; obviously, they can be correlated with the level of satisfaction given by government. Table 3. The evolution of social exclusion in Romania Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2003

Economic 6,5 6,3 8,7 8,7 7,5 8,0 10,0 10,6 6,3

Dimension Social benefits Interpersonal 10,6 26,4 33,9 27,1 13,8 37,9 13,0 30,6 8,7 35,0 12,3 33,8 10,4 36,5 16,1 31,0 6,5 33,7 8,7 31,8

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Civic 86,7 88,9 95,4 63,0 56,3 59,9 55,2 60,8 60,2 66,8 58,4

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

2006 4,5 16,1 31,0 63,5 2010 9,7 41,8 16,4 76,4 2013 11,5 10,8 19,2 38,7 (Source: Calculations of author based on databases ICCV 1990–2006 and Eurobarometers 2010, 2013; data is in percentages)

Explanatory analysis of social exclusion was acomplished through logistic regression analysis (Agresti, 1996; Burns, 2008 that determines the simultaneous impact of multiple independent variables, to predict membership in one or more categories of the dependent variable. I have built a model in an attempt to capture the determinants of exclusion as much as possible, according to the principle of adequacy and simplicity. The logistic regression model can be generalized to allow inclusion of several explanatory variables. Predictors can be qualitative, quantitative, or both. I have analyzed the time period 1990 - 2013 for each year, compatively, because the data are of longitudinal trends type (Babbie, 2010); in other words, even studying each year different individuals, we compare the same phenomena / variables. The statistical program used was SPSS, a statistical package for social science data analysis. The social exclusion model is analyzed on four dimensions, and the independent variables are contextual and socio-demographic factors. In the next part, I will present the main findings of the social exclusion factors.

The determinant factors for the lack of economic integration Data were analyzed using binary logistic regression analysis because it offers the possibility of building an explanatory model, based on the variables from the database. I checked the unemployed subsample to be representative in proportion to the unemployment rate in the population, and where appropriate, I weighted it with their rate reported by the National Statistics Institute. In general, the indicators with a weight under 40% or over 60%, are indicating a significant influence, even if p is greater than 0.1, as in such cases the subsamples are too small. For categorical variables, I chose the first category as the reference (comparison). Hosmer-Lemeshow test results show that the models fit the data (Sig. is greater than 0.05); the model has a good explanatory power of dependent variable variation, R Nagelkerke being generally above 0.50. The coefficient Exp (B) is the chances ratio between — 15 —

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the reference category and the one presented in the table; if the value is greater than 1, then the chances of a result are higher, and they are below par, they fell. Logistic regression showed that the significant factors that appear most often, specifically in at least half of the years analyzed in the direction of increased economic integration are: gender - women, education - high, compared to education - low level, which is reference category, the possibility of obtaining a job (low, satisfactory or high vs. very low), the possibility of assertion in life – high, working conditions - good opinion, satisfaction with earnings – moderate, age - young compared with adults, marital status - whether married or divorced, compared to the unmarried, had car and home ownership, and in lowering economic integration, the number of children - 2 or more children, compared to households without children, education - average, families with one child have a mixed influence (Table no. 7). In 1990, the database contains only a person who answered did not work; in 1994 the average monthly unemployment benefit has risen compared to 1993 from 71% to 102%, as a percentage of the minimum wage, which greatly decreased the number of unemployed non-integrated economy, to 0.6%, basically the 9 people in the database, such that these results are not statistically significant. In this part, and the following, after the results, I offer possible explanations for the effects of independent variables. Since 1989, the industry was largely affected by economic change, some businesses have closed, and others have considerably diminished activity. This decreased the number of jobs that were occupied in a higher proportion by men. On the other hand, has developed service sector, where women in particular have been employed. Women, compared to men, when all other variables are controlled, have less chance of not being economically integrated, varying between 0.23 and 0.67. This inequality has fluctuated over the 24 years, knowing both growth and declining trends. Clearly, increasing the possibility of obtaining a job lowers the lack of economic integration. However, it is important to mention that this occurs even when there is only a low level of this possibility, not just one or satisfactorily high. So those who thought that the possibility of obtaining a job is very low, compared with those who felt low, were in 2006, twice as likely (1.96) not be economically integrated, and this ratio increases to 2.38, — 16 —

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

when comparing their situation with those who believe that their ability to obtain employment is high. Work related conditions are very important in avoiding exclusion and also the possibility that people are satisfied with their wage. Practically every analyzed year confirmed these trends. In 2013, people who felt they had good working conditions compared with those who rated as bad, were 0.21 chance of being economically integrated, and those who were satisfied with the win, compared to those who were not had only 0.07 chance of being economically integrated. Also, in general, the chances of affirmation in life plays a significant role; in 2010, those who believed in the possibility of life affirmation is low, compared with those who felt high, had a 3.22 greater chance of not being economically integrated. Education plays an important role in combating social exclusion, at high level - university; education develops a person cognitively, preparing it to face the challenges of the labor market. Comparing the first to the last year of study available, namely 1991 to 2010, we see that for those who have high levels of education compared to those who have a low level, the chances of not being economically integrated are only 0.18. But an average education - secondary education has an effect contrary to the expected integration. For example, in 1991, the chances of those with a medium level of education compared to those with a low one, were triple not to be economic integrated, and they fell in 2013, but only to a double value. Although rural residence theoretically could be a predictor of high social exclusion due to lower economic growth, still it does not appear as a constant factor, one reason being the failure to register the real number of unemployed; on the contrary in urban areas, due to endemic economic problems such as unemployment in small de-industrialized towns, we have a growing lack of economic integration. For example, those living in urban areas compared to those in rural areas, the chances of being economically entrants increase from 2.67 in 1999 to 3.27 in 2006. The adults are the age group that manages to cope with social difficulties, since most are able to work and able to get an income, which was validated for the entire period. The chances of being integrated in adults compared with young people varies between 0.12 in 1995 and 0.76 in 2010. Married people are less at risk of exclusion due to the existence of additional household income. If the family has a car this helps to reduce — 17 —

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economic exclusion because it can more easily reach an employer at a great distance from home. Also, owning a home is a good way to avoid economic exclusion, exemption from paying rent is important (but is possible that it will be no more investment for the rehabilitation of housing to achieve savings). A family who has a child seems unaffected by economic exclusion, but rather by factors such as economic development or specific policies; however, the birth of the second child significantly affect the ability to find a job, all statistically significant coefficients indicating this trend. Thus, families with two children have between 1.40 and 10.3 greater chance of economic nonintegration, compared to families without children; for those with three or more children, the influence is even greater, the magnitude being between 2.06 and 14 5, during the studied period. However, this inequality has a downward trend between 1991 and 2013.

The determinant factors for the lack of integration in social benefits system Important determinants of integration in the system of social benefits are: having at least one child, education (middle and high), age (elderly), marital status (divorced), relationships with family - good. The birth of a child and care for it requires considerable financial resources. Specific social benefits though not high, were a considerable source to avoid the possibility of drastic reduction of family income. Thus, a family with one child, compared with one who had no children, had in 2013, less chances, of 0.20, not to be socially integrated, and for one with two children the chances were of 0.42. On the other hand, a family with three or more children had more chances, 25.4 times of not being socially integrated. If for families with one or two children, social aid promoted social integration for the entire period 1990 – 2013, for families with three children, after 2010 it did not happen. Also, a significant resource is the pension, which provides a relatively comfortable level of income. Those who maintains good relations with family are probably in a larger family and its financial needs are greater, so it is important for people to benefit from specific social benefits, such as for example for children; in 2006, they had 0.39 chance of not being socially integrated in comparison to those who did not have a good relationship with the family. Generally, better educated people, manage to secure a job, so if they fall in unemployment, they receive unemployment benefits; those with — 18 —

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

high levels of education, had in 2013, 1.78 times more chances to avoid social non-integration. Other, less relevant factors in lowering social exclusion are occupation (student, unemployed), marital status (married), health (good) and healthcare (good). The unemployment / scholarships are partially sufficient components to significantly increase revenue. Although aid received for loss of employment should at least theoretically secure social inclusion, it seems that this was not true empirically. Frequent factors of non-integration are nationality (Roma), while those who exercised moderately action are occupation (student) (Table no. 8). It should be noted that the influence of these factors has varied over the period studied. Roma were a disadvantaged group over time; compared to Romanians, the chances that they are not socially integrated, ranged between 1.55 and 5.72. Although there is a downward trend from 1992 to 1996, after that it is being reversed. I assumed that people who have agricultural land and are affected by unemployment, will have a higher probability of non-integration into social benefits system as they prefer to work the land to secure the necessary resources; However, this assumption has been invalidated by the results. R Nagelkerke is generally around 0.40, so the model has considerable explanatory power of variance of the dependent variable.

The determinant factors for the lack of interpersonal integration Estimates show that indicators for main occupation, comparatively to the farmers (reference category), workers, technicians and intellectuals have a lower probability of not being integrated interpersonal. Compared to childless families, those with three or more children increase the chances to lack interpersonal integration. A medium or high level of education has a positive impact on the chances of integration. Also, adults and the elderly compared with young people are more affected by the low deficit inter-relational exchange. Roma seem to be a group that does not benefit from links with their group, family or acquaintances. Also, those who are satisfied with their daily life, the — 19 —

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relationships between people and had a good mood, have good health, are more likely to be integrated interpersonal. I assumed that an activity such as watching TV will lead to a greater likelihood of not integrating because the person will spend less time with fellows. But data do not support this hypothesis. It is possible that only persons who have allocated to this activity several hours a day, for example at least 4-5 hours, have poor relationships with people around them. On the other hand, sport is a much more social activity. Satisfaction with peer relationships is relevant to the person's integration into society, but at a fairly modest level. Other factors are less important: those satisfied with the care received, people who have a car. Also, women have a higher probability of not being integrated this dimension (Table no. 9). Caring for a child usually requires the allocation not only of money but also time, both for financial and emotional reasons, so that parents have less time to participate in other activities outside family. But if parents have a high level of education, it promotes interpersonal integration as open new areas of dialogue with peers, so it is possible to find common interests, and open new professional opportunities. For example, in 2013, people with an average level of education, compared with those who had a low level, had 0.65 chances of not being interpersonal integrated and these are even smaller, 0.44, for those who had a high level of education. Occupations such as worker or technician support interpersonal integration because they usually occur in groups, which require teamwork; increasing the professional level is correlated with decreased chances of not integrating. For example, in 2013, compared with farmers, technicians and officials have 0.32 and 0.19 chances of not being integrated. Also, health affects the availability of of a person to be participatory so that people in good health are more likely to engage in social activities. Both adults and the elderly are most likely to be more isolated, adults more due to the time allotted to family and the elderly because of health problems. Model suitability with socio-demographic attributes in this dimension of exclusion is moderate, R Nagelkerke ranging around 0.25. — 20 —

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

Conclusions The determinant factors for the lack of civic integration Roma and townsfolk have the highest probability of not being civic integrated. Similarly as in other dimensions, living in urban areas leads to nonintegration, in this case dissatisfaction with the administration. It is possible that living in a larger community, will hinder contact with government representatives. We can also take into account the fact that if in the countryside contact with top representatives of the administration, such as for example the mayor, it is easier, more directly, while in urban areas is hampered by the high number of applicants. Even if it might be said, that access to public information is easier thanks to the development of the media, however, the information can be subjective, if the organization is politically biased media. For example, in 2003 the townspeople, compared to villagers, had almost double chances - 1.91 - of not being civic integrated, but there is a downward trend, in 2013 this ratio was 1.33. Roma compared to Romanians, had double, triple or even larger chances, not to be civic integrated. Those who are most likely to be civic integrated are people with high education compared with those without education, good health and medical care, those who have a well-formed opinion regarding the administration of the community and those who believe that there is a better chance for affirmation in life; less integrated are the workers, those with average education, adults (Table no. 10). The level of education influence the extent to which people feel civic included. Although a considerable part of people say they are not satisfied with the administration's achievements, the more they are informed, the more they are aware they have the means to influence public decisions, such as voting, requests to the public institutions or a form of civic protest. However, the governance performance may decline this integration; thus, for example, if in 2006, people with a high level of education, compared with those who had low levels, were more likely to be civic integrated, the inverse ratio in 2006 was 1.81, in 2010 it was only 0.57. Also, if people perceive that there is a chance for affirmation in life, they are more likely to be more participatory citizens. This is very important and is confirmed for all years studied. — 21 —

Dan Apteanu

Age also plays a role on civic integration, adults have been better integrated in this regard; it is possible that because of their experience over the years, they have "elucidated" the government mechanisms, being able to solve a problem. Also, it may be that they have formed contacts that help them in this regard. In 2006, civic integration chances for adults, compared to youth, were higher, being 1.47. There is a positive correlation between increased satisfaction with the political life and civic integration; for example, in 1999, for those who were dissatisfied with politics, compared with those who were very dissatisfied, the odds ratio is 0.52, and it falls to 0.39 for those who were satisfied with politics.

REFERENCES Agresti, A. (1996). An introduction to categorical data analysis. New York: Wiley and Sons. Arpinte, D., Baboi, A., Cace, S., Tomescu, C.& Stănescu, I. (2008). Politici de incluziune socială. în Calitatea VieŃii, XIX, nr. 3 – 4, pp. 339 – 364. Atkinson, A. şi Marlier, E. (coord.) (2010). Income and living conditions in Europe. Luxemburg: Eurostat, European Commission. Babbie, E. 2010. Practica cercetării sociale. Iaşi: Editura Polirom. Balsa, C., Barreto, J.. & Caeiro, A. (1999). Literature review on dynamics, multidimensionality, spatiality and social policy aspects of social exclusion and poverty in Portugal. London Research Centre: London. Barnes, M. (2005). Social exclusion in Great Britain. An empirical investigation and comparison with EU. Aldershot: Avenbury. Berghman, J. (1997). The resurgence of poverty and the struggle against exclusion: A new challenge for social security? În International Social Security Review, Vol 50, 1/97. Estivil, J. (2003). Concepts and strategies for combating social exclusion. International Labour Office – STEP, Portugal. EUROSTAT. (2010). Combating poverty and social exclusion. A social portrait of the European Union 2010. EUROSTAT Statistical Books, Luxembourg: European Union. EUROSTAT. (2012). Europe 2020 targets: poverty and social exclusion active inclusion targets. bit.ly/1nHQMk0 Accesat la 14.05.2014. — 22 —

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

Fleck, G., Fosztó, L., Horváth, I., Kiss, T., Péter, L.. (2009). ComunităŃi fragmentate. Studii de caz asupra romilor din România. în Fleck, Gábor, Fosztó László şi Kiss Tamás (ed.) Studii de caz asupra romilor din România, Cluj Napoca: Editura pentru Studiul Problemelor MinorităŃilor NaŃionale. Gordon, D. (2000). Inequalities in income, wealth and standard of living in Britain. în Pantazis, Christina şi David Gordon (coord.) Tackling inequalities. Where are we now and what can be done? Bristol: Policy Press. Gough, J., Eisenschitz, A. & Mcculloch, A. (2006). Spaces of social exclusion. London: Routledge. Hatos, A., BălŃătescu, S., Săveanu, T. şi Săveanu, S. (2007). Excluziune şi integrare socială la adolescenŃi. Rezultatele unei anchete în liceele orădene. În Colocviul internaŃional de ştiinŃe sociale ACUM 2006. coord. Coman, C.I., Braşov: Editura UniversităŃii Transilvania. Ilie, S. (2003). Sărăcie şi excluziune socială. Incluziunea socială ca obiectiv al sistemului de protecŃie socială. În Calitatea VieŃii, XIV, nr. 3-4. Laparra, M. and Begona, P. (2011). The impact of the crisis on social cohesion or Spanish households surfing a ”liquid” model of integration. în Revista de AsistenŃă Socială, Anul X, Nr. 3, Bucureşti: Polirom. Levitas, R. (2006). The concept and measurement of social exclusion. În Pantazis, Christina, Gordon, David. şi Levitas, Ruth. (editori). Poverty and social exclusion in Britain: the Millenium Survey, Bristol: The Policy Press, pp.123 – 160. Nicaise, I., Groenez, S., Adelman, L., Roberts, S. & Middleton, S. (2003), Gaps, traps and springboards in European minimum income systems. Loughborough University, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Obrien, M. şi Sue P. (2008). Social exclusion in Europe: some conceptual issues în International Journal of Social Welfare, 17: 84 – 92. Oşvat, C. 2012. Children in need. Predisposing factors in preventing child abandonment and school dropout. în Revista de AsistenŃă Socială, anul XI, nr. 2, pp. 181-190. Rotariu, T. (coordonator), Bădescu, G., Culic, I., Mezei, E. și Mureşan, C. (2006). Metode statistice aplicate în ştiinŃele sociale. Editura Polirom, Iaşi. Scharf, T., Chris P., Allison S. & Kingston P. (2003). Older people in deprived neighbourhoods: social exclusion and quality of life in old age. Sheffield: Growing Older Programme, University of Sheffield. Sorescu, E., M. (2010). AsistenŃa socială a persoanelor vârstnice în Buzducea, Doru (coord.). AsistenŃa socială a grupurilor de risc. Iaşi: Editura Polirom. — 23 —

Dan Apteanu

Subaşu, D. (2012). ReinserŃia socială a vârstnicilor: o provocare pentru lumea contemporană. în Revista de AsistenŃă Socială, anul XI, nr. 1, pp. 101-111. Tesliuc, Pop & Tesliuc, (2001). Saracia si sistemul de protectie sociala. Bucuresti: Polirom. TNS Qual+. 2011. Sărăcia şi excluziunea în rândul cetăŃenilor vârstnici din UE. Bruxelles, Parlamentul European. Tsakloglou, P. şi Papadopoulos, F.. (2003). Aggregate level and determining factors of exclusion in twelve European countries. în Journal of European Social Policy, Vol 12(3): 211 – 225. Whelan, C. and Bertrand M.. (2010). Welfare regime and social class variation in poverty and economic vulnerability in Europe: an analysis of EU-SILC. în Journal of European Social Policy, 20: 316. Zamfir, E., Preda M. şi Dan A.. (2004), Surse ale excluziunii sociale, Revista de AsistenŃă Socială, 2004, nr.2-3, Bucureşti.

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Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania

Annex Table no. 4 Factors for the lack of economic integration Independent variable Gender – women Education – average Education – high Nationality – roma Residence – rural Age – adults Marital status – married Marital status – divorced No. of children – 1 No. of children – 2 No. of children – ≥ 3 Work conditions good Life chances – high Work opportunitie s - low Work opportunitie s – satisf. Work opportunitie s - high

The year studied 1991 1992 1993 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2003 2006 2010 2013 0,35 0,89 1,11 1,06 0,53 * * 2,82 3,11 0,77 1,14 1,15 * * 3,61 1,90 0,08 0,31 NS * * * * DN NS 1,67 0,88 0,91 * 0,80 1,05 1,16 1,63 1,52 * * * 0,39 0,19 0,63 0,12 0,54 * * * * * 0,91 0,77 0,11 0,33 0,30 * * *

0,35 0,53 0,76 * * 1,43 1,98 1,28 * 0,17 0,71 1,28 * 0,22 0,39 1,63 * * * 1,79 2,07 2,67 * * * 0,26 0,36 0,86 * * 0,50 1,86 0,47 * * *

1,32 0,28 0,20 0,66 0,48 1,62 7,81 1,86 * * * * * * *

0,30* 0,23 0,67 1,13 * * 4,93* 1,19 0,60 1,99 * * NS NS 0,18 1,34 * 0,25* 1,61 ND ND * 0,96 3,27 1,03 0,70 * * 0,28* 0,72 0,76 1,06 * 1,30 0,24* 2,28 0,69 * * NS

9,29 1,57 0,43 * * *

0,38 2,35 2,93 1,73 2,12 0,73 1,08 0,54 0,35* 0,79 0,69 1,12 * * * * * * * 0,84 10,3 5,32 2,29 2,33 1,23 1,61 0,96 1,40* 1,25 1,33 1,24 * * * * * 0,67 14,5 6,05 4,32 3,25 3,06 2,06 0,94 0,67* NS 0,78 NS * * * * * * 0,17 0,07 0,18 0,27 0,25 0,20 * * * * * *

NS

0,11 32,35 * *

NS

0,58 0,21 * *

2,77 1,50 0,47 0,80 0,86 0,18 0,46 0,64 0,40* 2,25 0,31 1,03 * * * * * * * 0,58 0,88 0,28 0,36 0,70 1,16 1,05 1,23 0,63 0,51 DN DN * * * * * 0,16 2,14 *

NS

0,15 *

NS

0,27 0,68 1,03 0,08* 0,64 * *

DN

1,43

0,39 0,47 0,14 0,25 * * * *

NS

0,95 1,48 2,64

DN

0,65 *

— 25 —

NS

0,42 *

Dan Apteanu Earnings 0,03 0,30 0,11 0,19 0,86 0,41 0,40 0,26 0,48* 0,07 DN satisfaction – * * * * * * * * mod. Car 1,49 1,49 0,63 0,42 1,13 1,25 1,23 0,96 0,18* 0,38 1,05 possesion * * * * * (yes) House 0,62 0,70 1,49 0,36 0,27 0,84 1,81 0,36 0,47 1,24 EN property * * * * * * (yes) Nagelkerke 0,68 0,81 0,42 0,60 0,51 0,51 0,65 0,54 0,52 0,33 0,21 R Square * Statistically significant for p≤0,1. The coefficients represent the odds ratio exp(B). NS = sample nonrepresentative statistic. DN= Data unavailable. Source: Table by the author, based on analysis of the databases from study Diagnose of Life Quality

DN

0,59 * 0,74

0,27

Table no. 5 The factors* for the lack of integration in the social benefits system The independent variable Gender – women Occupation – unemployed Education – medium Education – high Nationality – roma Residence – urban Age – adults Age – elderly Marital status – married Marital status – divorced No. of children – 1

The year studied 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2003 2006 2010 2013

1,16 0,86 1,31 * 1,09 0,91 0,36 * 0,69 0,81 0,98 * 0,34 0,67 0,57 * * * 5,72 4,61 3,42 * * * 0,79 1,01 1,09 0,73 * 0,26 * 0,25 * 0,27 * 0,34 *

1,45 1,48 * * 0,48 0,25 * 0,39 1,24 * NS 1,01 0,22 0,12 * *

0,81 0,84 1,06 0,89 1,07 0,62 * 0,96 0,64 0,83 0,92 2,68 0,23 * * 0,30 0,46 0,97 0,81 0,84 1,82 * * * 0,27 0,57 0,96 0,84 0,75 0,63 * * * 1,75 1,55 0,39 1,19 2,76 2,30 * * * * 0,38 0,41 1,05 1,07 0,50 1,02 * * * 0,82 0,86 1,69 0,59 1,47 1,42 * * * 0,83 0,32 1,00 0,06 0,29 0,14 * * * * 1,31 0,78 0,52 0,99 0,39 1,18 * * 0,94 1,96 0,06 0,36 0,86 1,26 * * * 1,24 0,89 0,08 0,16 0,09 0,18 * * * *

— 26 —

1,02 1,06 0,92 0,95 1,86 255* * 1,15 0,94 0,47 * 1,17 0,72 0,56 * * 3,51 ND ND * 1,68 0,90 0,83 * 0,66 1,30 0,95 * * 0,23 0,89 1,42 * 0,84 0,80 2,65 * 0,93 1,10 4,95 * 0,09 1,45 0,20 * * *

Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania No. of children – 2 No. of children – ≥ 3 Health – good

2,47 * 3,47 * 1,39 * 0,09 * 1,00

0,20 0,15 2,93 0,93 * * * 0,46 0,25 3,77 2,67 * * * * 0,52 0,99 0,81 0,57 * 0,52 0,67 0,65 0,59 * * * 0,77 0,96 1,25 0,80

0,08 0,14 0,07 0,08 * * * * 0,02 0,04 0,02 0,19 * * * * 0,97 1,22 0,81 2,01 * 0,28 1,19 0,20 1,20 * * 0,64 0,84 1,13 0,67 * 1,26 1,23 1,30 1,22 ND 0,68 0,16 0,55 0,66 * * * * 1,00 1,07 0,97 0,47 0,83 0,87 0,77 0,92 1,40 * 0,49 0,42 0,39 0,42 0,49 0,42 0,35 0,35 0,29

0,07 1,10 0,42 * * 0,04 1,44 25,4 * * * 0,84 0,75 ND * 0,39 0,81 ND * 0,64 1,34 ND * * 0,54 0,54 0,51 * * * 1,20 1,05 0,66

Relations in family – good Medical care – good Car possesion (yes) House property (yes) Nagelkerke R 0,45 0,17 0,41 Square * Statistically significant for p≤0,1. The coefficients represent the odds ratio exp(B). NS = sample nonrepresentative statistic. DN= Data unavailable. Source: Table by the author, based on analysis of the databases from study Diagnose of Life Quality

Table no. 6 The factors* for the lack of interpersonal integration The independent variable Occupation – worker Occupation – technician Occupation – clerk Education – medium Education – high Nationality – Roma Residence – urban Age – adults

The year studied 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2003 2006 2010 2013

0,72 0,62 1,46 0,83 0,80 0,81 1,13 * * 0,20 0,55 1,29 1,08 0,61 0,64 0,72 * * * * 1,25 0,83 1,32 1,00 0,93 0,59 0,54 * * 0,76 0,45 0,84 0,65 0,65 0,73 0,62 * * * * * * 1,53 0,22 1,99 0,46 0,72 0,77 0,99 * * * ND ND 1,37 0,72 6,08 2,15 1,16 * * 0,81 0,50 1,12 1,14 1,19 0,90 0,71 * * 1,41 1,39 1,88 1,52 1,59 2,40 1,42 * * * * *

— 27 —

1,63 0,74 0,92 0,59 * * * 1,58 0,44 1,00 0,24 * * * 1,26 0,70 3,55 0,74 * * 0,60 0,91 0,62 0,76 * * * 0,37 0,85 0,12 0,88 * * 1,57 1,91 1,42 3,38 1,32 * * * * * 1,07 1,48 0,81 1,14 1,03 * 1,11 2,10 0,95 3,22 1,72 * * * 0,55 * 0,68 * 0,31 * 0,66 * 0,80

0,80 0,38 * 0,35 0,32 * * 1,15 0,19 * 0,84 0,65 * 0,42 0,44 * * ND ND 0,84 1,51 * 1,33 1,51 *

Dan Apteanu Age – 2,10 1,87 4,04 2,09 2,49 3,00 1,87 1,72 4,00 1,09 5,58 3,22 0,49 2,68 elderly * * * * * * * * * * * * * Marital ND 1,01 1,78 3,28 0,51 1,54 0,58 1,34 2,00 5,20 1,17 1,20 2,63 1,97 status – * * * * * * * * divorced No. of 1,31 1,51 0,92 0,99 1,00 1,02 0,95 0,80 1,00 0,91 1,00 0,77 1,44 1,05 children – 1 * No. of 0,95 2,12 0,67 0,78 0,58 1,07 1,18 1,10 1,03 1,40 0,92 0,85 1,45 0,68 children – 2 * * * * * * * No. of 1,15 4,14 1,09 1,34 0,90 1,40 0,92 1,21 1,03 0,79 0,12 0,74 0,53 0,66 children – ≥ * * * * * * 3 Health – 0,93 0,49 0,54 0,57 0,53 0,75 0,56 0,71 0,64 0,57 0,68 0,47 0,20 ND good * * * * * * * * * * Medical 0,51 0,69 0,88 0,89 0,87 0,97 0,88 0,72 0,75 1,16 1,39 0,78 ND ND care – good * * * * * Life 0,25 0,41 0,66 0,92 0,56 0,95 0,45 0,26 0,49 0,35 0,87 0,30 0,07 ND satisfaction * * * * * * * * * – high Watch TV – 0,34 ND 0,36 0,25 0,49 0,36 0,31 0,59 0,38 0,59 0,27 0,39 ND ND frequently * * * * * * * * * * * Sport – 0,21 ND 0,41 0,61 0,27 0,37 0,36 0,32 0,26 0,35 0,11 0,86 ND ND frequently * * * * * * * * * * Mood – ND ND 0,36 0,40 0,51 0,38 0,26 0,40 0,75 0,51 0,51 0,44 0,08 ND good * * * * * * * * * * Car 1,71 0,46 1,00 0,88 0,93 0,75 0,84 0,82 1,16 0,55 0,69 0,67 0,51 0,86 possesion * * * * * * * (yes) Nagelkerke 0,22 0,28 0,79 0,27 0,25 0,23 0,25 0,31 0,28 0,25 0,35 0,35 0,39 0,12 R Square * Statistically significant for p≤0,1. The coefficients represent the odds ratio exp(B). NS = sample nonrepresentative statistic. DN= Data unavailable. Source: Table by the author, based on analysis of the databases from study Diagnose of Life Quality

Table no. 7 The factors* for the lack of civic integration The year studied The 19901991 1992 1993 19941995 1996 1997 19981999 2003 2006 20102013 independent variable Occupation – 0,89 0,71 0,62 0,98 1,09 1,28 1,38*0,72* 0,92 1,59* 1,19 0,69*0,49* 0,69 worker Occupation – 0,86 3,05* 0,85 1,24 0,81 1,06 1,10 0,66* 0,87 1,75* 1,27 0,82 0,41* 0,78 technician

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Chapter I — The demographic of social exclusion in Romania Occupation – 1,14 1,03 0,26*0,53* 1,06 1,55* 0,74 0,68* 0,76 0,95 1,54* 0,91 0,64* 0,81 intelectual Education – 0,66*0,50*0,33* 1,29 0,53 0,95 1,20*1,39* 1,29 0,99 0,86 1,07 1,32 1,22 medium Education – 0,75 0,72*0,38*2,17* 0,46 0,85 1,40* 0,84 0,84 1,11 0,55*0,64*1,74* 0,98 high Nationality – ND ND EN 2,11*0,14*3,29* 0,98 1,74*2,00*6,11* 101* 1,24 ND ND Roma Residence – 1,42*0,54*2,93* 0,92 1,66* 0,93 0,84 0,59*1,64*1,92*1,91* 0,86 0,81 1,33* urban Age – adults 1,28 0,44* 1,08 0,67* 1,08 0,78* 0,80 0,98 0,87 1,16 0,67*0,68* 0,87 1,08 Age – elderly 3,05* 0,92 0,34 0,42* 0,90 0,90 0,79 0,92 1,12 1,12 0,81 0,70* 0,72 2,00* Health – good 0,40*0,57*0,25* 1,05 0,92 1,34* 1,01 0,77* 1,20 0,71* 0,79 0,98 1,83* ND Medical care 0,65*0,85* EN 1,03 1,40 0,83 1,08 1,05 1,10 0,69*0,63*0,72* ND ND – good City 0,83 1,52 0,78* 0,45 0,73*0,69*0,66*0,57* 1,29 0,98 0,84 0,41* ND ND administration – bad City 0,53* 1,42 0,79*0,40* 0,85 0,65*0,58*0,33* 1,27 1,07 1,03 0,30* ND ND administration – good Society adm. 1,24 0,50 0,99 0,64*0,58* 0,86 1,00 0,74 0,96 0,71*0,58* 0,84 ND ND – bad Society adm. 0,67 0,68 1,54 0,33*0,55*0,42*0,73*0,61*0,74*0,75*0,39*0,36* ND ND – good Life 0,19*0,36*0,13*0,17*0,31*0,14*0,18*0,25*0,34*0,30*0,16*0,27* ND ND opportunities – high Pol. life satisf. 0,67*0,52*0,23*0,48*0,33* 0,93 0,35*0,39*0,44*0,52* 1,00 0,83 ND ND – low Pol. life satisf. 0,39*2,05*0,14*0,37*0,41* 0,87 0,30*0,45*0,22*0,39*0,69*0,58* ND ND – high TV possession 0,71* 1,41 1,64 0,87 1,10 0,99 1,12 1,26 0,77 0,91 1,28 0,74* 1,22 ND – yes Nagelkerke R 0,14 0,21 0,29 0,14 0,21 0,18 0,13 0,25 0,21 0,21 0,25 0,17 0,53 0,11 Square * Statistically significant for p≤0,1. The coefficients represent the odds ratio exp(B). NS = sample nonrepresentative statistic. DN= Data unavailable. Source: Table by the author, based on analysis of the databases from study Diagnose of Life Quality

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Mariana Blan

Chapter II YOUTH’S LABOUR MARKET CHARACTERISTICS IN THE POSTPOST-CRISIS PERIOD Mariana B2LAN Abstract Within the European Union, youths represent in accordance with the Eurostat statistics more than one fifth of total population. Unemployment among youths is very high being placed at about 22.2% in the year 2014. In this context, reaching the objective for the labour force employment of 75% for the population aged between 20 to 64 years of age, as provided in the strategy “Europe 2020” requires the improvement of transition measures/ways of the youths on the labour market. The issue of youths’ insertion on the labour market was a permanent presence on the political agendas, but only for the last two decades it gained a particular significance. For the period 2010-2018 the European directions of action in the field of youths were reunited within the strategic document “EU Strategy for Youth — Investing and Empowering. A renewed open method of coordination to address youth challenges and opportunities” that aims to the policies related to youths in Europe with respect to education, labour force employment, social inclusion, civic participation, and entrepreneurship, etc. This paper presents a brief analysis of the situation of young people on the labour market in the EU-28 countries and the measures adopted to stimulate youth employment. Keywords: Youths, Youths’ Employment Rate, Youths’ Unemployment Rate, Youths Labour Migration

Introduction In the context of an increasingly higher unemployment level, the youths find it more difficult to find a job, and many of them could decide to extend or to take up studying again. This could represent an investment for the future, provided that adequate competences are gained. Nevertheless, the — 30 —

post--crisis period Chapter II — Youth’s labour market characteristics in the post

reality is that many youths do not participate in the world of employment, not in the one of education. The diminishment of permanent jobs during the crisis affected in a disproportionate manner the youths, as they are overrepresented in the category of temporary contracts. Even though temporary contracts might represent a first step towards more stable employment forms, this fact can create segmented labour markets, the youths being trapped within the inferior segments of the latter, benefiting from less on-the-job training, having lower income levels and worse perspectives regarding long-term employment and career. The difficulties on the labour market have also a negative impact on the youths aged between 25 and 29 years of age and with higher-education because it is more difficult for them to find a job corresponding to their skills level. The issues faced by youths on labour market have significant consequences on their standard of living, on their families and on the national or international communities to which they are members. The most important effects of youths’ inactivity are: the poverty risk, the incapacity of playing an active role in the development of the society. The high level of unemployment among youths leads to decreasing chances of employment for the individuals, in general, but also to diminished opportunities of economic development, both at national and global level. For companies, the youths represent an advantage, because they meet both the quality of consumers, but also the one of innovators, a category that influences the public opinion and also has technological knowledge. As employees, the youths provide to the business world direct information about the preferences and tastes of their generation, promoting at the same time the products and services of the employers. In a knowledge-based economy, the ability to innovate permanently is the key to success in business. International statistics indicate that in innovative companies and with outstanding financial results are employed a very high number of youths. Also, the youths have knowledge about the new media instruments and virtual work environments, both indispensable instruments for the future labour market. The online video technology, blogs, podcasts, and software allowing for interaction are instruments supporting productivity when efficiently used. As result, the improvement of the education and vocational training capacity (EVT) turned into a necessity for answering in this manner to the changing requirements of the labour market. But, for integrating the — 31 —

Mariana Blan

requirements of the changing labour market in the EVT supply on long-term, it is also necessary to have better understanding of the emergent sectors and competences and of the changes that shall affect existing occupations.

Youths’ Condition on the EU and Romanian labour market The analyses performed by the International Labour Organization highlight the fact that the number of young unemployed shall not decrease, at least not until the year 2016. An additional pressure on the unemployment rate should be expected when those who extend their period of study, due to the limited perspectives of finding a job, shall enter finally on the labour market. In particular, worrying concerns are triggered by youths who are neither employed, nor pursuing any form of education or vocational training, and who are known under the acronym ‘NEET’ in many countries, the “disconnected youths” from the United States, and the “neither-nor” youths in Spanish speaking countries. The economic-financial crisis reflects a strong interdependence between the change in economic conditions and the development of unemployment among youths. Still, the differences in the unemployment level among youths and the intensity of unemployment in different countries cannot be regarded as being only the effects of the current economic recession. These statements are supported by the statistics on longer periods of time about the levels of unemployment among youths and on the relationship between unemployment among youths and the unemployment rate among adult individuals. Initially, in the analysis of unemployment among youths a particular emphasis was laid on the structural components (structural changes in industries, non-matching skills to market requirements, the specific characteristics of youths’ groups, etc.) (Kelly E., McGuinness S. & Philip J. O'Connell (2012)). At the beginning of this century, in the approaches regarding the unemployment rate were taken into account also the effects of the economic cycles and the institutional ones. The lacking length of service, the specifics of human capital within the company, the experience on the labour market of youths, the higher probability of working within the company for a determined period of time, and other employment forms under precarious conditions are but some of the factors that lead to increasing the numbers of unemployed among — 32 —

post--crisis period Chapter II — Youth’s labour market characteristics in the post

youths. In this type of circumstances, the transition from school to labour market tends to turn into a chain of temporary episodes of training, education, compulsory or voluntary military or civil service, and of other temporary activities very often within an institutional framework characterized by fixed dates of entry, outside the market and that doesn’t take into account the requirements of the labour force market. Under these instances, the youths accumulate less experience in seeking for a job, and cannot develop a clear image about the job and/or incomes that would satisfy them. To these is added also the fact that in some countries the youths have less resources than elderly workers, and in others, that they have stronger financial attachment to families, thus being less mobile in job-seeking. In the year 2014, the employment rate of youths with ages between 15-24 years of age at EU-28 level was of 32.5%, on decrease by 4.8 pp against the year 2008 (Eurostat Statistics). In the vast majority of member-states, the youths’ employment rate with ages between 15 and 24 years of age was higher for men, save for Denmark, the Netherlands, Cyprus, Malta, Finland and Sweden. Figure 1. Evolution of youths’ employment rate and of the gap between the employment rate between men and women with ages between 15 and 24 years of age in European Union countries

Source: Eurostat statistics, [lfsa_ergan],

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Mariana Blan

The unemployment rate for the age segment under 25 years of age was of 22.2% in the year 2014, on increase by 6.3 pp against the year 2008 (Figure 2). Figure 2. Unemployment rate for youths with ages between 15 and 24 years of age in EU-28 countries in the year 2014

Source: Eurostat statistics, [une_rt_a] Also in the year 2013, in most of the member-states, the long-term unemployment rate among youths continued to increase, the highest values being registered in Greece (30.5%), in Spain (21.9%), Italy (21%) and Slovakia (20.6%). In Romania, the long-term unemployment rate among youths was of 9.3% on decrease by -0.5 pp against the preceding year. The unemployment rate among youths also depends on their training level. By and large, the highest unemployment is recorded among youths with pre-school, primary and secondary education (ISCED levels 0-2). The exception is Greece, where the unemployment rate among youths with higher education (ISCED 5 and 6) was by approximately 6 pp higher than the one registered for youths with pre-school, primary and secondary education (levels 0-2), as well as Romania and Cyprus where the differences between the unemployment rate for youths with higher education and the youths with levels 0-2 or 3-4 education are significant. — 34 —

post--crisis period Chapter II — Youth’s labour market characteristics in the post

According to the data supplied by the National Institute of Statistics from Romania (TEMPO-Online time series), the unemployment rate in Romania for individuals with ages between 15 and 19 years of age, and between 20 and 24 years of age, for the third quarter 2014 reached 31.1%, respectively 20.3%. The evolution of the main macroeconomic indicators reflecting the situation of youths on the Romanian labour market during the transition period does not highlight positive developments for the individuals with ages between 15 and 24 years of age. The data supplied by the National Agency for Labour Force Employment (ANOFM-NALFE) (Statistics of the National Agency for Labour Force Employment) indicates that 78185 unemployed were under 25 years of age, and 39024 unemployed had ages between 25 and 29 years of age. With respect to long-term unemployment, by the end of December 2014, within the NALFE (10) records were registered 20226 youths under 25 years of age who were unemployed for over 6 months (which represents 25.87% from total unemployed under 25 years of age) (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Distribution of young unemployed depending on the unemployment period, in the year 2014

(persons)

Data source: Statistics of the National Agency for Labour Force Employment

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Mariana Blan

Unemployment and youth unemployment rate are linked strongly to their participation in the labour market. The transition from school to work, the average age at which youths enter on the labour market depend on the skills and national systems of general interest and/or on education and vocational training. The extension of education in a certain country has as consequence the increase in the average age of new entries on labour market in time. From the viewpoint of labour market participation, the amplitude and dynamics of unemployment among youths changed between the European countries during the last two decades. The outcomes of the statistical analyses performed at the level of the European Union indicate the presence of some measures passed at national level for diminishing the unemployment rate among youths, such as prolonging studies or returning within the educational system, inter-regional mobility, etc.

Measures for stimulating the employment of youths Even though in all member-states there are policies for youths’ employment and many of these countries have taken additional measures during the crisis – very often in close cooperation with social partners, many things remain still to be done. The measures for diminishing the high rate of unemployment among youths and of increasing the employment rate of youths during times of budgetary restrictions must be efficient on short-term and sustainable on long-term for approaching successfully the issue of demographic evolution. These should include in an integrated way the succession of stages that should be pursued by youths during transition from the educational system to the workplace and thereby to ensure protection systems for youths who have a higher risk of early school leaving or of abandoning their job. The existing EU legislation regarding the protection of youths at the workplace should be fully and adequately applied. The analyses performed by various enabled bodies in the field indicate that a strong coordination of policies at European level, in accordance with the joint principles of flexicurity could support youths in a concrete manner. In collaboration with the interested stakeholders, such as public employment services of labour force, the social partners and NGOs, specific — 36 —

post--crisis period Chapter II — Youth’s labour market characteristics in the post

European and national actions are necessary. These should be based on a series of priority actions for diminishing unemployment among youths and of improving the employment perspectives of youths. The priority actions should be perceived as a contribution towards the 75% employment objective for the labour force established within the Strategy “Europe 2020” (EUROPE 2020, A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive grouth). The lack of decent opportunities for youths’ employment represents a general challenge of the world economy. The increase of the youths’ employment rate in EU partner countries, mainly those in the proximity of the EU shall be advantageous not only for these countries, but shall also have a positive impact within the EU. Youths’ employment represents an issue more and more often discussed over during international policy debates about the crisis and recovery, which shows a convergence of political priorities, stimulating political changes. This fact was underpinned by the Global Jobs’ Pact of ILO, by the recommendations of the ministries of labour and labour force employment of G20, by the global strategy regarding the establishment of G20 and by the OECD Youths’ Forum. After graduating the secondary level, the youths should either obtain a job, or pursue an educational programme; to the contrary, they should receive adequate support by means of active employment measures or based on social measures, even if they are not entitled to social benefits. This fact is important, especially in the member-states with a low number of new jobs, so that the youths are not excluded already at an early stage. Also, the graduates of vocational training, and those of higher education require support for finding as soon as possible the first stable job. The labour force employment institutions, in particular public services of labour force employment have the necessary competences for informing the youths about the employment opportunities and for providing assistance in job-searching. But, these must adjust their support to the specific needs of youths, in particular based on partnerships with educational and vocational training institutions, social support and vocational guidance services, trade unions and employers that can also provide for this type of support as part of the social responsibility policy of the enterprises (ESR). Whenever they have to choose between an experienced worker and a beginner, employers very often prefer the more experienced worker. The wage agreements and non-wage costs of the labour force can provide an important incentive for employing workers at the beginning of their career — 37 —

Mariana Blan

but this should not contribute to precariousness. Just as well, collective bargaining can have a positive role in agreeing on differentiated levels of wages for new employees. Such measures should be supplemented with secondary benefits and access to training for assisting youths in keeping their jobs. Young workers are often employed based on temporary contracts that allow to the enterprises to test competitiveness and productivity of workers before providing for a job for an undetermined period of time. Yet, very often, temporary contracts represent a cheaper alternative than permanent contracts especially in countries where the difference is high between dismissal regulations regarding the two types of contracts (that is the payment of compensations, the pre-dismissal period, the possibility of suing). The consequence of this practice is a segmented labour force market, where many young workers shift successively between temporary employment, alternating with periods of unemployment, and their contributions to the pension funds are incomplete. The risk of being included in this segment is particularly high in the case of young women. The successive use of these contracts should be limited, because this practice damages economic growth, productivity and competitiveness: this practice has long-term negative effects on the accumulation of human capital and on profitability because temporary young workers are relatively less paid and benefit of less training. One of the solutions to this issue could be the implementation of fiscal incentives for enterprises making use of contracts for undetermined periods of time, or for changing temporary contracts into contracts for undetermined periods of time. In order to obtain more information in this context, the Commission published in 2010 a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing work employment of youths, and the risks of labour market segmentation that affect youths (Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions “Youth in movement” SEC(2010) 1047). The indicators about youths’ employment does not fully indicate that no less than 15% of the Europeans with ages between 20 and 24 years of age are not employed, not follow any education or training programme and thus risk to be permanently excluded from the labour force market and become dependent on social services. As a first priority, the approach of this issue is essential for providing adequate paths for these young individuals that would reinsert them into an educational or vocational training programme, — 38 —

post--crisis period Chapter II — Youth’s labour market characteristics in the post

as the case may be, or provide them with links to the labour market. Also, sustained efforts must be made for ensuring that an as large as possible number of youths with disabilities or health problems are employed, for minimizing the risk of inactivity or of social exclusion. Public labour force employment services are essential for strengthening and coordinating these efforts. An option would be the development of partnerships and agreements with employers who would benefit of particular support for recruiting youths’ at risk.

Challenges and opportunities for nowadays’ youth Because Europeans have an increasing life expectancy and take the decision to have children at later ages, there are few youths. It is estimated that by 2050 the population in the age group from 15 to 29 years of age shall represent 15.3% from Europe’s population, as compared with 19.3% in the present. These demographic changes have repercussions on families, intergenerational solidarity and on economic growth. Globalization, can favour growth and jobs, but as proven by the crisis it can favour, also, specific challenges to vulnerable workers, such as youths. Climatic changes and energy security issues impose certain changes in the behavior and lifestyle of future generations. For individuals, it is indispensable to gain key competences that are flexible enough for developing adequate skills during the entire lifespan, and early school leaving continues to remain a major issue. The youth attribute importance to friendship, tolerance and solidarity, and this generation is maybe the one which has the highest level of training, and most advanced from the technological viewpoint and the most mobile of all times. Nevertheless, just like the rest of the society, the youths are faced with individualism and competitive pressures on increase, and they do not necessarily benefit of the same opportunities. An ample consultation process throughout Europe has identified as top concerns of the youths the following specific challenges: education, taking a job, social inclusion and health. Europe’s youth must be endowed with all the means available in order to profit from opportunities such as civic participation, voluntary actions, creativeness, entrepreneurial spirit, sports and global commitment. — 39 —

Mariana Blan

Conclusions The difficulties faced by them in education, employment, inclusion and health, combined with the issues of financial nature, with respect to housing or transport hinder them in becoming independent and of benefitting from enough resources and opportunities to be able to manage their own lives, and to fully participate within society and to take decisions independently. The cooperation in the field of youths is a well-structured and developed policy field of the EU. EU applies the programmes aimed to youths as of the year 1988. The process of developing policies was elaborated based on the White Paper from 2006 and is based currently on three pillars: • active citizenship of the youths by means of the open method of coordination, with four priorities (participation, information, voluntary action and better knowledge about youths), joint objectives, reports of the member-states and structured dialogue with the youths; • the social and professional integration of the young individuals, by applying the Youths’ European Pact from the Lisbon Strategy with the three priorities (labour force employment/social inclusion, education/vocational training, reconciling the work-family life balance). The communication of the Commission entitled “Promoting the full participation of youths in the field of education, labour force employment and in society” went even further and suggested additional actions; • integration of youths in other policies (such as those about fighting discrimination, or health care initiatives).

Acknowledgments The work of Mariana BĂLAN is elaborated and published under the auspices of the Institute for the Research of the Quality of Life Romanian Academy, as part of the project co-financed by the European Union by the Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007‒ 2013, within the Project Pluri-and Inter-disciplinarity in Doctoral and PostDoctoral Programmes Project Code POSDRU/159/1.5/S/ 141086.

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post--crisis period Chapter II — Youth’s labour market characteristics in the post

REFERENCES Bell D. N.F. and Blanchflower D. G., (2010): “Youth Unemployment: Déjà Vu?” IZA DP No. 4705; Bell D. N.F. and Blanchflower D. G., (2011): “Young People and the Great Recession”. IZA discussion paper 5674; Caitlin Faas, Mark J. Benson & Christine E. Kaestle (2012): Parent resources during adolescence: effects on education and careers in young adulthood, Journal of Youth Studies, DOI: 10.1080/13676261. 2012.704989, To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org; David N.F. Bell, David G. Blanchflower, Youth Unemployment in Europe and the United States, IZA DP No. 5673, 2011, www. ftp.iza.org/dp5673.pdf; Kelly E., McGuinness S. & Philip J. O'Connell (2012): Transitions to long- term unemployment risk among young people: evidence from Ireland, Journal of Youth Studies, 15:6, 780-801, To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2012.678047; Johnson, M.K. and Benson, J., (2012), The implications of family context for the transition to adulthood. In: A. Booth, ed. Early Adulthood in a Family Context, National Symposium on Family Issues 2. Chicago: Springer, 87 103. 10.1007/978-1-4614-1436-0_6; M. Monti, O nouă strategie pentru piaŃa unică”, 9 mai 2010, p. 57, www. ec.europa.eu/bepa/pdf/monti_report_final_10_05_2010_ro.pdf; Robberecht M-A., Young people facing a dead end? More and better jobs in Europe!, 2010, www. etuc.org; Simms M., Young workers in crisis: social partner responses around the European Union, Paper presented to the Internatinal Labour Process Conference, 5-7 April 2011, Universty of Leeds, www. warwick.ac.uk; *** BilanŃ pentru viitor: 20 de ani de dezvoltare durabilă în Europa?, Eurostat, European Comission, Best days of their lives? http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu; *** Comunicarea Comisiei către Parlamentul European, Consiliu, Comitetul Economic şi Social European şi Comitetul Regiunilor „Tineretul în mişcare” SEC(2010) 1047, www. epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. *** Comunicarea Comisiei Analiza anuală a creşterii pe 2012, COM (2011)815 din 23 noiembrie 2011, www. eur-lex.europa.eu — 41 —

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*** Draft 2012 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field (EU Youth Strategy 2010-2018), www. epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu ***Employment and Social Developments in Europe 201”, The Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion (DG EMPL), Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012, http://ec.europa.eu ***EF1237EN, Eurofound, Best days of their lives?Youth in Europe, Foundation Focus, June 2012, issue 11; www. epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. *** Eurofound (2012), Report, Trends in job quality in Europe, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Authors: Francis Green and Tarek Mostafa, LLAKES Centre, Institute of Education, London, Eurofound project: Fifth European Working Conditions Survey, www. epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu *** EUROPA 2020, O strategie europeană pentru o creştere inteligentă, ecologică şi favorabilă incluziunii, Bruxelles, 3.3.2010, COM(2010) 2020 final, www. eur-lex.europa.eu; *** Monitoring e-Skills Demand and Supply in Europe, Current Situation, Scenarios, and Future Development Forecasts until 2015, Eurropean Commission and Enterprise and Industry, www.eskills-monitor.eu; *** Planul NaŃional de Dezvoltare 2007-2013, www.aippimm.ro/planulnational-de-dezvoltare-2007-2013.pdf; *** Inventory of Policy Responses to the Financial and Economic Crisis, instrument online al ILO/Banca Mondială; *** Sustainable development in the European Union, 2011 monitoring report of the EU sustainable development strategy, European Union, 2011, www. ec.europa.eu; Strategia NaŃională pentru Tineret 2014 – 2020, www.youthpolicy.org/.../ Romania_ 2014_2020_ Draft_Youth_Strategy.p...

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Chapter III — Public entrepreneurship

Chapter III III PUBLIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP. THE IMPACT OF JOB MOBILITY AND INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL TRAITS ON ENTREPRENEURIAL BEHAVIOR IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS Dan BALICA Abstract Public sector entrepreneurship (defined as risk taking, innovativeness and proactiveness) has gained momentum in recent years, both for academia and for practitioners. Despite this, we still lack a proper understanding of the phenomenon. Most existing literature strives to explain why some groups and organizations are more entrepreneurial than other, but this tells us little about which individuals are more or less prone to be entrepreneurial and why. Descending to the individual level gives also room for important cross-fertilization between public management theories, organizational theories and psychology and behavioral theories. In particular, additional to `traditional` variables (autonomy, managerial support) this paper considers two new variables for understanding entrepreneurial behavior at individual level: personality traits and former work experience. Our findings, based on answers received from 97 American city managers, show that work environment matters more than job experience and personality in predicting entrepreneurial behavior.

Keywords Entrepreneurship, Risk Taking, Proactiveness, Innovation, Job Mobility, Job History, Personality, Individual Traits.

Introduction Recent developments in science and technology put pressure on governments to keep up. Innovation, proactiveness and risk-taking are no longer attributes and expectations specific to the private sector and cannot be seen as such. Public administrations need to make use of the newly available tools in their pursuit of the public interest. As the rest of the society, public administrations have access to unprecedented amount of information, knowledge and expertise at extremely low costs. Entrepreneurial spirit – making use of opportunities – becomes a must under these circumstances. Failure to do so means not only that citizens will lose trust in — 43 —

Dan Balica

the government and be unsatisfied, but also that the government will simply fail to provide what its (increasing millennial) constituencies expect it to provide. But are public administrations entrepreneurial? Are the people working in the public sector ready to discover opportunities? Are they willing to do this? Practitioners and academia need to know if public sector employees have the attitudes needed to face the new society (innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking). They also need to know what encourages and what discourages such behaviours. If it’s a matter of management, resources and organization, they need to know what to change. If it’s a matter of individual traits, they need to know who to recruit, how to build them. Either way, existing public sector literature and practices fail to provide an answer to these. Using a comprehensive online survey, one of my objectives is to identify predictors of entrepreneurial capacity in professionalized local government (971 city managers in US). Key literature and its limitations `Present research tends to focus less on individual entrepreneurs and more on roles, organizational processes and environmental factors in order to explain public innovation` (Kearney et al. 2008, p. 300) Public sector entrepreneurship1 (defined as risk taking, innovativeness and proactiveness2) has gained momentum in recent years, both for academia and for practitioners, partially because of the economic crisis, but also because of the new opportunities offered by the technology century. Despite this, we still lack a proper understanding of the phenomenon (Klein et al. 2010). Existing studies (Smith 2012, Hinz and Ingerfurth 2013, Kim 2010, Meynhardt and Diefenbach 2012, Diefenbach 2011) focus on groups and organizations and try to identify determinants of entrepreneurship at this level. Although welcomed and beneficial, this tells us little about which 1

Alternative concepts define entrepreneurship: intrapreneurship, intrepreneuring, corporate entrepreneurship, internal corporate entrepreneurship, corporate venturing (Antoncic and Hisrich 2000, Kearney et al. 2008). 2 Miller 1983, Diefenbach 2011; Caruana, Ewing, and Ramaseshan, 2002, Kim 2010, Mirris and Jones 1999, Limkin and Dess 1996).

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Chapter III — Public entrepreneurship

individuals are more or less prone to be entrepreneurial and why. Descending to the individual level gives also room for important crossfertilization between public management theories, organizational theories and psychology and behavioural theories. Most contemporary psychologists embrace the interactionism approach, arguing that `behavior in a given setting is a function of both the more personological individual differences and the more social features of the situation.` (Shaver 2010, p. 369). This justified substantive research on the role of personality traits in entrepreneurial behaviour3 (Hochner and Ganrose, 1985, Cromie 2000, Frese et al. 2000). In a recent meta-analysis, Grossan and Apaydin (2010, p.1170) highlight the major individual level factors used in studies for analysing innovativeness. Hardly surprising, most are psychological in nature: tolerance of ambiguity, self-confidence, openness to experience, unconventionality, originality, rule governess, authoritarianism, independence, proactivity, intrinsic (versus extrinsic) attribution bias, determination to succeed, personal initiative, and managerial tolerance of change. They also point out that psychological theories are the most widely used in studies focused on the individual level. Accordingly, Schneider et al. (2011) argue that „In this light, social and cultural networks, social institutions, legitimacy, and the distribution of psychological characteristics supporting innovation are critically important in driving the conversion of potential entrepreneurial energies into actual entrepreneurship” (p. 73, emphasis added). This is a strong argument for considering personality traits in any endeavour to understand entrepreneurship at individual level. However, with some exceptions (partially Mack, Green and Vedlitz, 2008 and Schneider et al. 2011) the public sector literature failed to properly account for the individual’s general personality on job-specific behaviour and attitudes, despite arguments for this (Bindl and Parker 2006). This biases our understanding of the entrepreneurial phenomenon. The fact that, overwhelmingly, studies focused on managerial and organizational determinants and marginalized psychological traits is a major drawback that this study addresses. Similarly, the literature has greatly emphasized the impact of networking on innovativeness (Pittaway et al. 2004). For the public sector, there is enormous 3

Shaver (1995), among others, rejected the idea of a sui generis entrepreneurial personality, constant indifferent to the context. However, the entrepreneurial literature assumes the interactionist position, suggesting that entrepreneurial intentions are a product of situations and personality (Shaver 2010, p. 369).

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Dan Balica

literature on network governance and change (organizational, policy, institutional) (Goldsmith 2008, Dawes et al. 2009, Christensen and Lægreid 2007). Yet we don’t know how much job mobility, an alternative form of knowledge sharing, matters for the way the public sector operates. We know that job mobility is lower in the public sector as compared to other industries (DTI 2008, p. 4, European Job Mobility Bulletin 2011, SEC 2011), but does this affect how the public sector performs4? Despite recent publications (de Graaf and Van der Wal 2008, Su and Bozeman 2009, Bozeman and Ponomariov 2009), its impact is still insufficiently understood (Apfel 2011, Piatak 2013). We know that job history has an impact on job attitudes (Boardmand, Bozeman, Ponomariov 2010, Georgellis et al. 2011), former private sector employees being less satisfied with their work immediately after changing jobs; we also know why people shift between sectors (Light 1999). But does this impact the entrepreneurial capacity of public organizations? Private sector literature suggests that it does (Cooper, 2001), and a recent Swedish study partially confirms it (Smith 2012). Moreover, the impact of job mobility is gaining more and more attention in management and economics, and public sector literature should not ignore these trends. Recent studies revealed the impact of job mobility on economic development and regional knowledge (Lam et al. 2008 p. 18, Lobel 2013), while catchy concepts like tacit knowledge heavily rely on it (Lam et al. 2008, Hausmann et al. 2011). Regions, organizations and people profit from it. Should the public sector be inspired be these observations? Is job mobility a relevant trait for a strategy of building an entrepreneurial public organization? The current literature fails to answer these questions and ignores one of the simplest and most easily implementable HR policies public organizations could use to improve their results. Methodology The study proposes to answer the following research questions: •

What is the level of entrepreneurial stock/orientation in local governments

4

Willmore (2005) analyzed this, but his study was expert based and did not directly assess the level of sector switching and its impact on organizational performance.

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Chapter III — Public entrepreneurship

• •

What role individual traits play on public sector entrepreneurial stock, as compared to organizational variables? Does a history in the private sector impact entrepreneurial behaviour in government employees?

The data were collected via an online form between April and May 2014. Using the ICMA database, 960 city and county managers were contacted via e-mail and asked to participate in the study. To increase the response rate, a raffle was organized at the end of the collection period in which three respondents received a $100 Amazon gift card. Also, at choice, respondents received a personalized analysis of their profile. After two weeks, a reminder was send to the population. A third e-mail was send in the last week. At the end of the 4 weeks allocated to data collection we received 97 responses (aprox. 11% response rate). Entrepreneurship The survey relies on existing questions and tools for assessing entrepreneurial behavior (Table 1). On all items, respondents had to choose an answer from 1 to 6, 1 meaning full disagreement with the statement and 6 full agreement. Table 1. Entrepreneurial behaviour In my job, I… Work Innovativeness I try to introduce improved methods of doing things. I have ideas which would significantly improve the way the job is done. I suggest new working methods to the people I work with. I contribute to changes in the way the organization works. I am receptive to new ideas which I can use to improve things at work. Proactiveness …rarely behave hesitantly …respond to changes as they occur.

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Bunce (1995)

Diefenbach (2011) and

Dan Balica

...actively scan the environment to see if what Parker and is happening might affect my organization in Collins the future (2010) …approach external groups to initiate projects ...I often choose to implement promising, but Diefenbach Risk-taking risky projects. (2011) ...I also choose to implement projects with no direct effect on the performance indicators monitored by the superior ...I often choose to get involved, even if the outcome is initially uncertain ...I am especially careful in my course of action (source: Bounce 1995, Diefenbach 2011, Parker and Collins, 20110)

The entrepreneurial orientation index was built by averaging the means scores of the three dimensions of entrepreneurship. Independent variables For individual level variables, the study uses job history, in particular previous managerial positions in the private sector, personality traits (Locus of control, Rotter 1966) political beliefs (Damanpour and Schneider 2009), and ease of finding a job, arguing that managers who believe that they will easily find a new job, at least as good as their current one, in case they have to leave it, will be more willing to take risks. H1: managers that held managerial positions in the private sector are more entrepreneurial than the rest H2: managers with more internal locus of control are more entrepreneurial than the rest. H3: Liberal managers are more entrepreneurial than conservative managers. H4: Managers that believe that they will easily find a new job are more entreprenenurial than those that don’t. For organizational level variables, the study uses managerial autonomy (Meynhardt and Diefenbach 2012, Smith 2012, Verhoest et al 2004), and — 48 —

Chapter III — Public entrepreneurship

perceived superior support (Eisenberg et al. 2002), unionization (Damanpour and Schneider 2009, Teske et al. 2011), goal ambiguity, rewards and sanctions as independent variables. H5: Managers with more autonomy are more entrepreneurial than those with less discretion. H6: Managers that perceive more superior support are more entrepreneurial than those that fell less supported

Results Close to 85% of managers are men, with an average age of 55 and with a masters degree. O the 1 to 6 entrepreneurial scale, respondents self-report an average level of entrepreneurship (4,54), with higher scores on innovativeness (5.13), average on proactiveness (4,66) and lower on risk taking (3,83). Only 16% of them previously held managerial positions in the private sector, suggesting a lower level of intersctoral mobility on high level positions in local governments. Table 2: descriptive statistics of dependent and independent variables N 94 97 95 95

Mean/% 4,54 5,13 3,83 4,66

SD 0,55 0,61 0,74 0,66

Min 2,98 3,60 2,00 2,75

Max 5,83 6,00 5,50 6,00

96 96 94

4,63 4,36 5,12

0,86 2,00 1,19 1,00 0,70 2,00

6,00 6,00 6,00

Former private manager (Yes=1)

97

15,5%

Locus of control Perceived job competitiveness Conservative vs liberal

97 97 96

4,97 3,89 5,61

0,56 2,5 1,38 1,00 1,98 1,00

6,00 6,00 10,00

Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) Innovativeness Risk taking Proactiveness Organizational Superior support predictors Support for novel initiatives Mistake tolerance Job autonomy Individual predictors

Demographics

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Dan Balica Gender (Female = 1) 97 16,5% Age 96 54,43 7,97 33,00 69,00 Highest level of ed. 97 5,98 0,59 3,00 8,00 În general, a lower score, close to 1, means less/disagreement and a higher means more/agreement, except: conservative vs. liberal where a score close to 1 means fully liberal, and 10 means fully conservative. For education, 3=some college, 4=2 years of college degree, 5=4 years of college degree, 6=master’s degree, 7=doctoral degree and 8=prof. degree.

We tested our hypothesis using a regression model. First, we included only the individual prediction (Model 1), then the organizational variable (Model 2) and in the last stage, demographics (Model 3). The results are included in Table 3. Table3. Testing hypothesis Model

B

Model 1*** SE Beta

B

Model 2*** SE Beta

B

Model 3*** SE Beta

(Constant)

3,143 0,462

2,149 0,498

1,597 0,755

Locus of control

0,167 0,091 0,172

0,121 0,078

0,125

0,124 0,078

0,132

Former private manager Conservative vs. liberal Job competitiveness Sup. support of novel ideas Sup. tolerance for mistakes Job autonomy

-0,023 0,142 -0,015

-0,059 0,125

-0,038

-0,121 0,128

-0,078

-0,025 0,026 -0,089

-0,038 0,023

-0,135

-0,042 0,025

-0,150

0,182 0,036 0,465*** 0,160 0,032

0,411*** 0,143 0,032

0,375***

0,229 0,058

0,345*** 0,248 0,058

0,385***

-0,145 0,037

-0,319*** -0,122 0,038

-0,275**

0,189 0,064

0,242** 0,161 0,067

0,211*

Gender

-0,163 0,118

-0,111

Age Highest level of education

0,000 0,006 0,097 0,077

0,007 0,111

0,261 R2 4 Df *** Sig at 0.001, ** Sig at 0.01, * Sig at 0.05

— 50 —

0,515 7

0,524 10

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Model 1 clearly shows that while individual level variables do predict a 26% variation in entrepreneurial behavior in city managers, only the managers’ certainty that they will find a job as good the current one is statistically significant. Against our expectations, managers with former experience in the private for profit sector are not more entrepreneurial. The same is valid for managers with more inward focused locus of control and for political orientation. In other words, only H4 was confirmed by our regression analysis and this did not changed after adding organizational and demographic predictors. After adding organizational level explanatory variables, the predictive capacity of our regression model practically doubled to 51%. Managerial support for novel ideas and for mistakes, as well as more autonomy in doing their job positively impact the level of managerial entrepreneurial behavior. The impact remains even when controlling for age, gender and education, none of which exert any impact on entrepreneurship, all things being equal.

Implications First, despite considerable theoretical reasons to expect former managerial experience in the private sector to impact entrepreneurial behavior in the public sector, we noticed that this is not the case. Not even when we included former experience in the NGO sector (not shown) we did not observe any impact on entrepreneurial behavior. While this does not show that job mobility has no impact on innovative, risk taking and proactive behavior, it suggests that taking into consideration private sector experience is irrelevant. Second, locus of control has no impact pact on entrepreneurial behavior in the public sector. Managers that feel they are more in control of their lives and situations, in contradiction with previous studies, are not more entrepreneurial that those that feel less in control. While personality is much more than locus of control, and previous studies suggests that personality does matter for entrepreneurial intentions and success, it’s disputable weather this should be incorporated in recruitment procedures. Also, the fluidity of personality makes it even harder to use in managerial practices, especially in the public sector. Third, political orientation does not predict entrepreneurial behavior. More liberal managers that presumably are more open to change and — 51 —

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innovations (Moon and deLeon (2001), are not more entrepreneurial than more conservative managers. This contradicts previous research (Damanpour and Schneider 2009). Forth, most interestingly, managers that feel that they can easily find a job as good as their current one are more entrepreneurial. Not only that the impact is significant, but it’s the second largest out of all individual and organizational variables that we used in our models. One explanation for this is that competitiveness may be a manifestation for self-efficacy, repeatedly found to predict entrepreneurial behavior (Boyd and Vozikis, 1994). Alternatively, such managers are more willing to try new ways of doing things, take some risks because the cost for failing would be acceptable. At organizational level, as expected, both work autonomy and superior support are strong predictors of entrepreneurial behavior. Additional to the two variables describing superior support, the survey had two other questions about general superior support and expectation of innovative behavior. Low correlation coefficients with EO convinces us to drop them from our analysis and include only managerial support for innovative ideas and tolerance for mistakes. Low tolerance for mistakes (If I make a mistake, my superior often holds it against me) is negatively correlated to EU, while superior support for innovative solutions is, as expected positively correlated with EO. The results are in line with previous finding on the impact of psychological safety (safety to make errors, to vociferate – Cannon and Edmondson 2001) on work performance and learning and suggests that entrepreneurship needs a match between principals and agents. More job freedom seems to also impact EO. Manager that report having more job freedom also score high on EO scale. The findings are in line with previous research that suggests that freeing managers may be a good way to speed up innovation and development. Last, demographic control variables have no impact on managerial EO. Younger and more educated managers do not exhibit more EO. The same is valid for gender, contradicting previous research on EO (Cooper and Dunkelberg1987). This may be owed though to the limited diversity of our sample.

Limitations The low response rate and the low number of participants are the main limitation of the current study. Low response rate means that we cannot — 52 —

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safely extrapolate our observations to the general population and the low number of participants limited the analysis complexity. However, given the profile of the target population and the relevancy of the topic, the data moves forward the understanding of a key phenomenon both for public and private organizations.

Conclusions Public entrepreneurship is not just a buzzword for modern governments. It becomes a necessity, as the EC recently stated in its Powering European Public Sector Innovation report. Recent technological development and fast accumulated decentralized knowledge make old style governing obsolete, inefficient and dangerous. The public sector needs to embrace change and keep up with it. But public organizations are social entities that exist primarily through their members. Their willingness and reediness to take advantage of these opportunities is what matters. More so, this is valid for top level managers, which get to develop strategies and policies. Who are these people and what can we do to build these types of attitudes are just a few of the questions we need to address. This study answered some of them and opened the door to some others. It showed that while manager’s background maters, it’s not as important as how it interacts with their superior and how much freedom they have in doing their work. Work (psychological) safety seems to be a key point. Managers that are free to fail, either because they superiors tolerate this or because they have the feeling that they are competitive on the labor market score higher on the EO scale. This is critical because it tells us that what organizations need to primary focus on is to build the favorable environments for EO. Who they bring in is important, but not as critical as leadership and the way the organization works. These are not new discoveries. For a while now managerial literature recommends empowering employees, decentralizing decision making and creating a supportive and nurturing working environment. This may be a challenge though for public organizations, which are more political accountable and law bounded. The study highlight the need to develop public leadership and a more competitive labor market, if we want more entrepreneurial orientation in public organizations. Further studies on different managerial levels and — 53 —

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public organizations are needed for a better understanding of the phenomenon, that should take into consideration also environmental variables (like publicness or community diversity) and other organizational predictors, like resource sufficiency and clarity of objectives.

Acknowledgement This paper was realised with the support of POSDRU “Tineri cercetători de succes – dezvoltare profesională în context interdisciplinar şi internaţional”, 132400, project funded by the European Social Fund and Romanian Government. References Antoncic, B., & Hisrich, R. D. (2000). Intrapreneurship modeling in transition economies: a comparison of Slovenia and the United States. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 5(1), 21-40. Apfel, J. C. (2011). Understanding motivations of sector switchers: towards a holistic approach to public service motivation theory (Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-Graduate School-Newark). Boardman, C., Bozeman, B., & Ponomariov, B. (2010). Private sector imprinting: An examination of the impacts of private sector job experience on public manager's work attitudes. Public Administration Review, 70(1), 50-59. Bozeman, B., & Ponomariov, B. (2009). Sector Switching from a Business to a Government Job: Fast‐Track Career or Fast Track to Nowhere?. Public Administration Review, 69(1), 77-91. Cannon, M. D., & Edmondson, A. C. (2001). Confronting failure: Antecedents and consequences of shared beliefs about failure in organizational work groups. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(2), 161-177. Caruana, A., Ewing, M. T., & Ramaseshan. (2002). Effects of some environmental challenges and centralization on the entrepreneurial orientation and performance of public sector entities. Service Industries Journal, 22(2), 43-58. Christensen, T., & Lægreid, P. (2007). The Whole‐of‐Government Approach to Public Sector Reform. Public Administration Review, 67(6), 1059-1066. Cooper, D. P. (2001). Innovation and reciprocal externalities: information transmission via job mobility. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 45(4), 403-425. — 54 —

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Cromie, S. (2000). Assessing entrepreneurial inclinations: Some approaches and empirical evidence. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9(1), 7-30. Damanpour, F. (1991). Organizational innovation – a meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 555–90. Damanpour, F., & Schneider, M. (2009). Characteristics of innovation and innovation adoption in public organizations: Assessing the role of managers. Journal of public administration research and theory, 19(3), 495-522. Danish Technological Institute. Job Mobility in the European Union: Optimising its Social and Economic Benefits, 2008, available online at http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=514&langId=en Dawes, S. S., Cresswell, A. M., & Pardo, T. A. (2009). From “need to know” to “need to share”: Tangled problems, information boundaries, and the building of public sector knowledge networks. Public Administration Review, 69(3), 392-402. De Graaf, G., & van Der Wal, Z. (2008). On value differences experienced by sector switchers. Administration & Society, 40(1), 79-103. Diefenbach, F.E. (2011). Entrepreneurship in the public sector – When middle managers create public value. Dissertation University of St. Gallen: GWV. Fachverlage Gmbh. Eisenberger, R., Stinglhamber, F., Vandenberghe, C., Sucharski, I. L., & Rhoades, L. (2002). Perceived supervisor support: contributions to perceived organizational support and employee retention. Journal of Applied Psychology,87(3), 565. European Job Mobility Bulletin, Issue no.2/2011, March2011 available online http://www.newskillsnetwork.eu/doc/847?download=false Frese, M., Chell, E., & Klandt, H. (2000). Introduction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9(1), 3-6. Georgellis, Y., Iossa, E., & Tabvuma, V. (2011). Crowding out intrinsic motivation in the public sector. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(3), 473-493. Goldsmith, S. (2008). Governing by Network Producing Public Value with Private Actors, available online at http://www.innovations.harvard.edu /showdoc.html?id=85891, last accessed on December, 15th 2013. Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C., Bustos, S., Coscia, M., Chung, S., Jimenez, J., ... & Yildirim, M. (2011). The atlas of economic complexity. Boston. USA. — 55 —

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available online at http://atlas.media.mit.edu/ media/atlas/pdf/ HarvardMIT_ Atlas OfEconomicComplexity.pdf Hinz, V., & Ingerfurth, S. (2013). Does Ownership Matter Under Challenging Conditions? On the relationship between organizational entrepreneurship and performance in the healthcare sector. Public Management Review, (ahead-of-print), 1-23. Hochner, A., & Granrose, C. S. (1985). Sources of motivation to choose employee ownership as an alternative to job loss. Academy of Management Journal, 28(4), 860-875. Kim, Y. (2010). Stimulating Entrepreneurial Practices in the Public Sector The Roles of Organizational Characteristics. Administration & Society, 42(7), 780-814. Klein, P. G., Mahoney, J. T., McGahan, A. M., & Pitelis, C. N. (2010). Toward a theory of public entrepreneurship. European management review, 7(1), 1-15. Lam, A. & Lundvall, B-A. The Learning Organisation and National Systems of Competence Building and Innovation. MPRA Paper No. 12320, posted 23. December 2008. Available online http://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/12320/ Light, P. C. (1999). The new public service. Brookings Institution Press. Lobel, O. (a). (2013). Talent Wants to Be Free: Why We Should Learn to Love Leaks, Raids, and Free Riding. Yale University Press, Mack, W. R., Green, D., & Vedlitz, A. (2008). Innovation and implementation in the public sector: An examination of public entrepreneurship. Review of policy research, 25(3), 233-252. Meynhardt, T., & Diefenbach, F. E. (2012). What Drives Entrepreneurial Orientation in the Public Sector? Evidence from Germany’s Federal Labor Agency. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 22(4), 761-792. Miller, D. (1983). The correlates of entrepreneurship in three types of firms. Management Science, 29:770–91. Piatak, J.S. (2013). Sector Switching in Good Times and Bad: Are Public Sector Employees Less Likely to Change Sectors? Prepared for presentation at the Public Management Research Conference, June 20-22, 2013, Madison, Wisconsin. Cited with author’s approval. Pittaway, L., Robertson, M., Munir, K., Denyer, D., & Neely, A. (2004). Networking and innovation: a systematic review of the evidence. International Journal of Management Reviews, 5(3‐4), 137-168. — 56 —

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Schneider, M., & Teske, P. (1992). Toward a theory of the political entrepreneur: Evidence from local government. The American political science review, 737-747. Schneider, M., Teske, P., & Mintrom, M. (2011). Public entrepreneurs: Agents for change in American government. Princeton University Press. Shaver, K.G. (2010). `The Social Psychology of Entrepreneurial Behavior` in Ács, Z.J., and David B. Audretsch, (eds.) Handbook of entrepreneurship research: An interdisciplinary survey and introduction. Springer, 2010. pp. 359 – 386. Smith, E. (2012). Explaining Public Entrepreneurship in Local Government Organizations, State and Local Government Review, vol. 44 no. 3, 171-184 Willmore, L. `Unlocking the Human Potential for Public Sector Performance. World Public Sector Report`. Public Sector Performance, Prestige and Promotion. UNDESA 2005. Available online at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan021631.pd f, last accessed on December 18th 2013. Boyd, Nancy G., and George S. Vozikis. "The influence of self-efficacy on the development of entrepreneurial intentions and actions." Entrepreneurship theory and practice 18 (1994): 63-63.

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Chapter IV IV PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH OF LEADERSHIP Marian Aurelian BÂRG2U Abstract Leadership is about human behaviour - what we do, how we do it and why we do it. Leadership is about the way people behave in organizations and effective leaders are those who meet the needs of their followers; pay careful attention to group processes; able to calm anxieties and arouse hopes and aspirations; and know how to liberate human energy and inspire people to positive action. In short, leadership involves harnessing and leveraging the different and complex forces and dynamics at play in organizational functioning. The psycho psychoanalytic approach to leadership study and development focuses on the dynamics of human behaviour which are often the most difficult to understand. It acknowledges that people are complex, unique and paradoxical beings with rich and myriad motivational drivers, and decision-making and interaction patterns. Applying psychoanalytic concepts to the ebb and flow of life in organizations contributes to our understanding of the vicissitudes of life and leadership. Only through accepting and exploring the hidden undercurrents that affect human behaviour can we begin to understand organizational life in all its complexities. This chapter provides an overview of the psychoanalytic approach, including historical underminnings, its key concepts, and includes three case studies with which to apply the psychoanalytic approach as well as a short self-assessment. Keywords: Psychoanalytic Theory, Leader, Followers, Narcissism, Human Behaviour

Introduction Increasingly more managers and entrepreneurs are interested in the psychological self-knowledge. Certainly, psychoanalytic theory can respond to important needs them, and here I would mention in particular: need to understand the complex realities faced each day (personal and professional) and their impact on self; need to find their place in a changing world; the need to define a business / personal business through which to express themselves creatively; the need for emotional purification; need to understand — 58 —

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his complex relational experiences, to overcome their difficulties to relate to others, to make repairs in relationships with others. The essence of leadership is about human behavior and effective leadership is rooted in the underlying motives that govern such behavior. Contrary to the writings of various management theorists who attribute leadership effectiveness to environmental constraints, psychodynamic processes between leaders and followers have a great influence and need to be taken into consideration. That is not to minimize the context in which leaders operate. But a company can have all the “environmental” advantages in the world - strong financial resources, enviable market position, and state-ofthe-art technology - and still fail in the absence of leadership. The leadership can be analyzed through the psychoanalytic theory. The distinguishing feature of psychoanalytic approaches is the assumption of an unconscious dimension to social and individual life. The unconscious is the mental territory where dangerous and painful ideas and desires are consigned through repression and other defensive mechanisms, and also the source of resistances to specific ideas and emotions which present threats to mental functioning. As the territory from which fantasies spring, the unconscious may also be a source of imagination and creativity, in most spheres, scientific, artistic, economic and political.

The Unconscious into leadership Psychoanalysis primarily talks about the concept of unconscious. It was Sigmund Freud who investigated and explicated the importance of the human unconscious. Freud then established psychoanalysis ―as a specialist science, a branch of psychology – a depth-psychology or psychology of the unconscious‖ (Freud, 1993, p. 193). The unconscious elements possessed by all members of a group, even those of widely differing intelligence or education, are feelings, passions and aversions, and form the common property of the psychological crowd. The power of this common basis of feeling results in the overruling of restraint so that the psychological crowd can be heroic or just as easily criminal in its behaviour (Le Bon, 1896: 14). Crowds are also highly suggestible so that ideas are passed by contagion among all the individual minds in contact. As an idea enters the brain, it transforms itself into an action which could be, for example, arson or self-sacrifice. While suggestibility can be a — 59 —

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characteristic of an individual, it is more acute in a crowd, which will be “perpetually hovering on the borderland of the unconscious” (Le Bon, 1896, p. 22). There is an important assumption in psychoanalysis that the human unconscious has a determining and motivating influence on our conscious thoughts, on our emotions, and on our actions. At times, we are unaware of what we are doing. What we are consciously aware of is merely the tip of an iceberg: many of our feelings and thoughts are hidden and inaccessible (Gabriel, 1999). The unconscious is often manufactured by painful or even traumatic experiences as well as forbidden repressed desires. Human unconscious is also the product of the individual‘s fantasies; hence, it can become the foundation of an individual‘s creative works, artistic pursuits, and ambitious visions Psychoanalysis also emphasizes the interplay between the past and the present. The development of the human psyche is significantly influenced by our early (and later) relations with significant others, such as parents, friends, teachers. These relations make a strong imprint on our - inner world- ; therefore, they will affect our present and future relationship with others. Another psychoanalyst, Carl Jung, believed that the personal unconscious, as proposed by Freud and which Jung accepted, was underlain by a deeper level of the collective unconscious, or phylogenetic substratum. “Just as the human body is a museum, so to speak, of its phylogenic history, so too is the psyche” (Jung, 1959, p. 287). The collective unconscious provides a second psychic stream, “... a system of a collective, universal, and impersonal nature which is identical in all individuals” (Jung, 1959, p. 43). The unconscious has three levels: that which can be produced voluntarily, that which can be produced involuntarily, and that which can never be produced (Jung, 1959, p.110). The unconscious stores repressed material, it compensates or counterbalances the conscious, and it can create symbols. Jung saw the mechanisms of compensation and symbol-creation at work at the collective level in the decline of the Roman Empire and the French Revolution. The collective unconscious also shapes Weltanschauung. Though he does not use the specific term collective neurosis, Jung does refer to a state of lunacy among a people and went on to state, “There is no lunacy people under the domination of an archetype will not fall prey to” (Jung, 1959, p.7). — 60 —

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Leaders and Narcissism Narcissism has been extensively utilized in psychoanalytic approaches to leadership, particularly in relation to leaders‘ identity and behaviour in organizations. Narcissism is a term coined by Freud to describe a person’s self-love; narcissism can be a healthy and normal psychological phenomenon that enables most of us to feel worthy and important as human beings, able to attract the respect of others and of ourselves. Narcissism is the love that we feel towards ourselves, or, more accurately, towards an image of ourselves we seek to attain. This is why narcissism can drive us towards achievement and success. A champion athlete, an artist, an entrepreneur, a creative writer can be driven by their narcissism to great accomplishments. Few things are as good for our narcissism as the acclaim of an enthusiastic audience. But excessive narcissism can also cause our downfall. This is the narcissism which focuses not on achievement but on celebrity and image for their own sake. It is the narcissism that says “Admire me for who I am” rather than “Admire me for my achievements”. Achievement narcissism can easily degenerate into image narcissism when an individual, a leader or an organization decide to rest on their laurels, seeking acclaim for their past achievements and disregarding their present failings (Gabriel, 1999). Narcissistic personalities are often driven by intense needs for power and prestige to assume positions of authority and leadership, individuals with such characteristics are found rather frequently in top leadership positions. (Kernberg, 1979, p. 33). Psychoanalytic approaches to leadership have also shown us that leaders often exhibit excessive and unhealthy forms of narcissism. Such cases apply when narcissism is not a source for the achievement of high aims, but rather when it feeds on leaders‘ fantasy of admiration and image. Pullen and Rhodes describe these leaders as a type of person who has a ― gaping abyss between the loved image of the self as beautiful and potent, and the collapse of this image in the eyes of other people. (Pullen and Rhodes,2008, p. 6). This primary narcissism originates in early psychological life when the mother represents the whole world of the child’s experience, and where the child has not yet developed a sense of individuality or identity apart from that of the mother (Schwartz, 2004). At this stage, the child sees itself as the centre of the world, not knowing the difference between self and other. — 61 —

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In business settings - the narcissistic leader strives for personal success won through fierce independence, high visibility, upward mobility and the defeat of rivals. In a situation of ‘antagonistic cooperation’, the narcissistic leader engages in a form of organizational jungle warfare where the struggle for survival and domination reign as the most important personal values. For the narcissist ‘excellence is achieved at the expense of others’ (Lasch, 1979, p. 118) and success becomes the social value par excellence in its own right. In modern organizations this means that ‘ambitious young men [have] to compete with their peers for the attention and approval of their superiors’ (Lasch, 1979, p. 57). This is an organizationally inflated version of sibling rivalry where each person constantly seeks approval as a means to achieve wealth, fame and/or power while all the time caring little about the substance of their achievements or its affect on those they lead. Narcissism in organizations can be identified by the way it manifests in particular behaviours that seek to fuel and justify the narcissist’s self obsession. Brown (1997) identifies six major sets of ‘traits’ that characterize narcissism, which can be located at individual, group and organization levels: 1. Denial: the denial of facts about oneself, the realities of the constraints around one’s work, and about the details of past occurrences in order for their ego ideal not to be challenged; 2. Rationalization: the development of plausible justifications for explaining behaviour that does not support the belief in the ego ideal. This can come in the form of rationalizing failures, and justifying self-serving policies and decisions as if they were done in the interest of the group; 3.Self-aggrandizement: engaging in behaviour that serves to convince both oneself and others of one’s fantasy of power, control and greatness. This includes over-stating one’s virtues, merits and achievements; 4. Attributional egoism: attributing positive organizational outcomes to one’s own efforts, and unfavourable outcomes to external factors or other people, regardless of one’s own role. Such false attributions seek to defend the ego ideal of the narcissist; 5. Sense of entitlement: a feeling that one is entitled to organizational privileges such as success, power and admirations, while at the same time lacking empathy for others and exploiting people in the pursuit of self-interest; — 62 —

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6.Anxiety: the experience of an ongoing difficulty in maintaining selfesteem accompanied by hyper-sensitivity to criticism, and persistent feelings of insecurity. As Brown explains, these traits are used in combination in order to enable the narcissist to defend his or her own ego ideal such that the inflated fantasy of the narcissist’s sense of self is not shattered by the reality of his or her lived experience Narcissism seen constructively in leadership can leader which can have been fortunate enough to have caretakers who provided a supportive environment that led to basic trust and to a sense of control over one’s actions. In leadership roles, constructive narcissists tend to be relatively well balanced, have vitality and sense of self-esteem, capacity for introspection, and empathy. They inspire others not only to be better at what they do, but also to entirely change what they do. Reactive, or excessive narcissistic leaders, on the other hand, were not as fortunate in childhood. Instead, they were the recipients of over- or under-stimulation, or inconsistent stimulation. Typically, such leaders are fixated on issues of power, status, prestige, and superiority. They are often driven toward achievement and attainment by the need to get even for perceived slights experienced in childhood. Unwilling to tolerate disagreement and criticism, such leaders rarely consult with others. The result is that reactive narcissists operate in their own reality, and without any measures of control or reality testing, can cause wreak havoc in the organization.

Leaders as managers of emotion Leaders who accurately perceive their emotions and can determine their causes can determine when emotions are linked to opportunities, problems, or proposed courses of action, and use those emotions as information in the process of making decisions (Schwarz, 1990). By knowing their emotions and their roots, leaders can effectively use emotional input in decision making. Additionally, when a leader identifies an experienced emotion as irrelevant to a decision, they can take steps to discount and manage the emotion so that it will not be a source of error in decision making. Emotional intelligence, therefore, enables leaders to both effectively use emotions in decision making and manage emotions which — 63 —

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interfere with effective decision making. When leaders know and manage their emotions, they may be better able to flexibly approach problems, consider alternative scenarios, and avoid rigidity effects in decision making. Intuitively, and through meta-mood regulation, they may realize that different moods and emotions cause them to view issues differently and consider different types of options or alternatives. As mentioned earlier, the generation of multiple points of view and options can be aided by changes in moods and emotions (Mayer, 1986). When leaders are experiencing positive moods and emotions, their cognitive processes and considered alternatives will be different than when they are experiencing negative moods and emotions. Psychoanalytic-informed studies about subordinates have made some notable contributions to understanding individuals‘ complex emotional attachments to their leaders. In doing so, these studies have explored and comprehended the form of emotional desires subordinates look for from their leaders and how they enact that within a particular context. Some scholars investigated the influence of individual‘s early experiences with caregivers on their patterns of relationship with a leader in their dyadic. Other scholars highlight the intricacies and contradictions of leader-subordinate relationships in small groups. A few other scholars explored the interaction between certain features and functions of bureaucratic organizations and individuals‘ emotional reactions to and utilization of these. The management of emotions is a dangerous part of the leader’s work. It can easily backfire. Words and actions regularly come back to haunt leaders. Once a genie is out of the bottle, it becomes impossible to put it back in. A word or an action that undermines the followers’ trust in the leader will be difficult to reverse. What is especially damaging in this context is a visible discrepancy between what leaders say and what they do. This can easily give rise to cynicism and unleash strong negative emotions towards the leader or the organization as a whole.

Followership Leadership frequently focuses upon a single person because this allows greater identification and heightened idealization. However, the ambivalent nature of these processes produces a curious result: group members’ investment in the group pushes the leader further apart from the group and this encourages group members to submit even more dogmatically to group — 64 —

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rules. There is, therefore, equality in the nature of inequality within the interdependent relationship between leaders and followers. The leader and the follower are not understood in ordinary language to mean the same thing. The distinction between the two terms has considerable usefulness. It obviously means something. Scholars and educators in leadership studies who wish to obscure the distinction between leader and follower will have chosen to go against common usage, which means the burden is upon them to justify the change. (Harter et al., 2006, p. 275) Harter et al.’s account as a representative of contemporary leadership theory that accepts the distinction between leaders and followers as a social fact. We have seen how this is represented in a psychological inequality between the two categories. Leaders are taken to be individuals while followers are placed in a group. We have seen that many contemporary leadership and management techniques also rely on a sharp distinction between individuals by negating any social influences that may act upon autonomous and measurable individual psychologies. We have claimed that both discourses rely on a separation of individual and social psychologies. The psychoanalytic approaches emphasize the relation between leaders and followers, a relation described by Burns as entailing ‘mutual stimulation and elevation’ (Burns, 1978, p. 4). Psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut (1971; 1976) has argued that some leaders are experienced by their followers as reincarnations of the primal mother, caring, giving and loving. Others are experienced as embodiments of the primal father, omnipotent, omniscient but also strict and terrifying. Kohut referred to the former as charismatic and to the latter as messianic. In the presence of charismatic leaders, followers are liable to feel inspired and elated, whereas in the presence of messianic leaders, they are liable to feel submissive and overawed. Charismatic are perceived as uniquely kind, smart and talented. Everything that they do or say appears to be fascinating, inspired and magnificent. They seem to have an aura around them, a field of energy that all those who enter experience as hugely invigorating. In their presence, their followers feel smarter and more talented, inspired and appreciated. Caring is an especially important quality of these leaders, since they are seen as setting great store by each and every one of their followers. Christ, in his capacity as good shepherd, is the archetype of such an all-caring, all-loving leader. Messianic leaders are very demanding, critical and confrontational. They place little store in maintaining a happy atmosphere and are blind to the — 65 —

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sensitivities of their followers. And yet, precisely because they can make each person forget their narrow self-interests, they are capable of stirring them into great achievements. Followers of messianic leaders feel meek and sometimes even paralysed in the presence of their leaders. Such leaders inspire fear and awe, making their followers feel worthless and insignificant. Even so, such leaders can generate tremendous commitment, unleashing qualities of dedication, sacrifice and heroism in their followers. Their grip on their followers rests on an unshakeable conviction that, in spite of sacrifices and hardships, they can get them to the promised land and deliver them from their troubles. Leaders may discover that their own actions have limited ability to modify the way their followers imagine them to be by projecting such powerful fantasies onto them. Leadership fantasies surface regularly in the mass media where high-profile leaders in politics, business and sport are easily portrayed as having demonic qualities, good and bad, thereby fuelling powerful public emotions towards such figures. Gabriel points out that psychoanalytic approach also offers: a model of as well as a vocabulary for the mental personality, fragmented, at odds with itself and with the world at large, wicked and yet profoundly moral, savage, and yet irreversibly civilized, which is uniquely attuned to the paradoxes of organizational life and especially the contradictions of leader-follower relations. (Gabriel,1999, p. 318)

Conclusion Without imagination, no leadership. And imagination means being able to envisage new possibilities, new products, new ideas, new methods, new alliances, new ways of using words and language and even new needs and desires. Leaders then are dreamers, drawing on their unconscious wishes to conjure up what to others may seem, unrealistic, impossible or absurd possibilities. But leaders are not just dreamers. Many people have powers of imagination, creative artists and scientists, for example. While dreaming is an essential part of leading, it is not enough. In order to lead, a man or a woman must also have a strong will, a burning desire to see the dream become reality, the vision become fact. Willing means that the dream is not an ‘idle’ fantasy but becomes a strong motivator towards action. Imagining and willing together are essential for leadership. But again, they are not enough. — 66 —

Chapter IV — Psychoanalytic approach of leadership

A leader will drive others by emotionally engaging with them, being able to communicate, elaborate and share a vision, inspiring them and winning them over, but also occasionally by cajoling and exhorting them. Engaging with others is a feature of all aspects of leading, including imagining. Leaders do not just sit and dream waiting for a vision to arrive. Still less do visions arise from vision statements carefully prepared by hired consultants. Instead visions emerge from active engagement with others, understanding of collective aspirations and wishes and flights of imagination that push the bounds of possibility. Psychoanalytic approaches acknowledge the relational aspect of leadership, but in the last resort insist on the asymmetrical relation between followers and leaders, a relation that can never escape from the template of someone being set apart from the others, someone taking charge and responsibility for others, and someone who, ultimately, through words and actions, is capable of providing the basis on which the others identify with each other as followers. Acknowledgments This work was supported by the project “Excellence academic routes in doctoral and postdoctoral research - READ” co-funded from the European Social Fund through the Development of Human Resources Operational Programme 2007-2013, contract no. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.” References 1. Kohut, Heinz. (1971). The Analysis of the Self. New York: International Universities Press. 2. Kohut, Heinz. (1976). Creativity, Charisma and Group Psychology. In J. E. Gedo, & G. H. Pollock (Eds.), Freud: The Fusion of Science and Humanism. New York: International Universities Press. 3. Burns, James McGregor (1978).. Leadership. New York: Harper and Row. 4. Schwarz, N., (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E.T. Higgins and R.M. Sorrentino (Eds), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, Vol. 2. New York: Guilford Press, 5. Mayer, J.D. (1986). How mood influences cognition. In N.E. Sharkey (Ed.), Advances in cognitive science, Vol. 1. Chichester: Ellis Horwood, — 67 —

Marian Aurelian Bârgu

6. Pullen, A., & Rhodes, C. (2008). It's all about me!: Gendered narcissism and leaders' identity work. Leadership, 7. Kernberg, O. F. (1979). Regression in organizational leadership. Psychiatry 8. Lasch, C. (1979) The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. London: W. W. Norton 9. Brown, A. D. (1997). ‘Narcissism, Identity and Legitimacy’, Academy of Management Review 22(3): 643–86. 10. Gabriel, Y. (1999). Organizations in depth: The psychoanalysis of organizations. London: Sage. 11. Jung, C. G., (1959). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. (17 Volumes). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 12. Le Bon, G., (1960). (First Published 1896). The Mind of the Crowd. New York: Viking. 13. Freud, S. (1933). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis (Vol. 2). Harmondsworth: Penguin.

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Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

Chapter V CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUTHS LEAVING THE PROBATION SYSTEM Ioana BAUMGARTEN

Abstract The study analyzes the youths who entered Probation Service in Cluj county, between 2002 and 2013, (n=244). The purpose of the study is to identify the individual characteristics of the probationers (as gender, age, ethnicity, criminal history), that can be seen as predictors to failure or success of probation system (PS). The study is descriptive and it based on a life-course approach using Kaplan-Meier estimates, in order to identify the possible relations between the analyzed variables. In conclusions, the failure of probation is most common for Rromani youths, and for youths who have ages between 14-16 years, while the success of probation is more probable for those who don't have criminal history. Keywords: Youths, Probation, Failure, Kaplan-Meier Estimates

Introduction As the present study is founded on the theoretical-explanatory approach of the life course, some considerations are in order. This approach allows us to understand the human behavior in relation to the temporal dimension, in the context of the specific age phases of the individual, associated with the implicit transitions that mark the life course and provide the information on the quality of the individual’s development process during the development stages. The theoretical-explanatory perspective of the life course regards the delinquency as a trajectory with variations happening across the time and which is under the influence of social and historical changes that individuals go through (Chung et al. 2002; Sampson and Laub, 2003; Ayers et al. 1999). The minor/young adult, in the presence of the various contexts in which he/she lives (separated families, family criminality, violence in school, peer delinquents, poverty), is prone to develop a delinquent behavior, the effects of which are differently experienced, depending on the pressure exercised by the afore-mentioned factors (age, gender, family structure, etc.). — 69 —

Ioana Baumgarten

The central concept in the present study is the life event, described by Settersen (2003) as “a significant event that implies a sudden change in the individual’s life, with the possibility of severe lasting outcomes” (p. 235). The life event presented in this study is the exiting of probationers from Probation System (PS). I have looked to identify the most frequent exit procedure (the exit is operationalized through success or failure/relapse) and the favorable factors for an unsuccessful exit from PS or, respectively, for the concurrent event. As it is stated in Law 252/2013, art. no. 48, par. 1), “the supervising process encompasses all activities and interventions run directly by the probation system (…) with the purpose of socially rehabilitating the probationer, of repairing the prejudice brought to the community and increasing the degree of safety in the community”. Thus, the supervision seeks to reduce the risk of relapse, on one hand (through specific programs developed in the probation system, and also in the community). On the other hand, it seeks to ensure community safety that is rigorously controlled by, firstly, the probation service (seeing if the obligations and the measures imposed by court are observed and notifying any breach, and also, by other institutions that are in charge of ensuring community safety. In the same time, during the supervision period, the delinquent’s access to treatment is facilitated (after the evaluation made by the probation officer), also to community resources, thus encouraging their pro-social involvement in community activities. As for community safety, the studies show that the non-custodial measures are more desirable than the custodial measures, the first ones being safer for the community at large (Stemen, 2007; Byrne and Roberts, 2007). Probationers are not prone to the contamination (Goffman, 2007), as it happens for incarcerated people. No doubt, the probation is a desirable measure for minors/teenagers, precisely because they are a vulnerable category of beneficiaries. I consider that their institutionalization in detention centres, even the specialized ones, if not imperative, can’t lead to positive results for neither community safety, nor the individual’s own welfare. If the punishments that deprive that individual of freedom affect the minor/teenager’s social ties with the social institutions, ties that have a significant role in his psychosocial development and that irreversibly affect the minor’s life course, the probation institution seeks to remake or consolidate the individual’s social ties with the social institutions (MacKenzie and Li, 2004). — 70 —

Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

As it is stated in “Beijing Rules” (see Resolution 40/33, November 22, 1985), the probation institution does not deprive the individuals of maintaining social ties with family, school, even work (for young adults); contrary, it becomes a compensatory frame for supervised persons, thus contributing to establishing a balance for social ties, a balance whose purpose is the success of the supervising process without the revocation based on various reasons (a disregard for measures and obligations imposed by court, committing new offenses, etc.); in this last case the phenomenon of relapse took place. To this balance, there contributes, firstly, the individuals’ motivation for change, but also the responsibility with which they assume their new life style that imposes regard for certain obligations and measures. Entering probation is a critical life event with an impact on the future adult’s life course.

Previous researches The success of the probation supervision (i.e. the probation) is relative and debatable. The researches indicate various probation failure rates (relapse), the percentage being different and depending on the probation tradition in each country, but also on the existing programs within the probation system (see Gill, 2010). Less recent studies show that 14%- 16% of the persons that enter probation are arrested again during the supervision period as a result of disregarding the measures and obligations imposed by court, or of committing a new crime in this interval (Morgan, 1994). Thus, the high rates of probation failure draw attention to the need to explore and further understand the factors that lead to this phenomenon and also, to the factors that lead to the minimization of this risk and, implicitly, to the outline of a positive model of the supervision process, a successful model. We cannot talk about the numerous studies that analyze the relation between other factors than the demographic ones, and which are related to the probation outcomes: the probation failure or success (Olson and Lurigio, 2000; Morgan, 1994). Most studies that focus on the probation outcomes (Glaze and Bonczar, 2008), either report the failure rate of the probationers, or analyze the relation between the probation outcomes and the demographic characteristics associated with the criminal behavior (Olson and Lurigio, 2000). As for the characteristics of the probationers, the studies conducted in America show that the majority of the population in probation is predominantly male (76%), the female population being relatively low; — 71 —

Ioana Baumgarten

regarding the race, most of them are Caucasians (56%), followed by AfricanAmericans (29%), Hispanics and Latinos (13%), (Taxman, 2009). Trulson et al. (2005) found as significant predictors for probation outcomes the gender and age of probationers, gang membership, prior conviction and mental health problems. Also, Cottle, Lee and Heilbrun (2001) found that criminal history, family dimension, peers, mental health are variables related with probation outcomes among juveniles. If we relate to the criminal history of those that enter probation, based on an ample study conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), 48% had a previous conviction, and as for the age, 26% were between 18 and 24 years of age (Taxman, 2009). Therefore, a predictor of the probation failure is the criminal record. Bonczar (2008) shows that the situation regarding the failure or success of probation has significantly changed during the last years. A significant percentage (73%) of those entering probation, successful ends the supervision term, and 82% accomplish all the required conditions, while a notably low percentage (18%) of the probationers never make it to the end of the surveillance term. The factors engaged in a negative relation with the end of probation are also linked to the alcohol and drug abuse and to mental health problems. The lack of family support is one of the strongest indicators of individuals failing the probation (McLellan et al., 2000) In spite of the fact that studies reveal the socio-demographic characteristics of the probationers (like gender, race, age, criminal record, etc.), it is not enough for a complex analysis regarding the way the supervision process ends, and in order to see the collateral characteristics of the studied ones, with effects on the exits from the probation system’s records at the end of the supervision term. There is not enough data regarding the probationers that unsuccessfully leave the probation system, except the failure type: revocation (due to violation of the measures and obligations imposed by court), re-arrest, incarceration. Thus, for 41% of the probationers that left unsuccessfully probation, the revocation happens due to the incarceration for disregarding the established rules, while for 29% of them the revocation happens due to the conviction for new crimes; the presence of criminal record is also a strong indicator for unsuccessful ending probation (approximately 50%) (Glaze and Bonczar, 2008). This article follows the methodology used in the studies that followed people with non-custodial punishments, within the programs and the — 72 —

Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

individual and contextual factors engaged in the supervision process and its finality. The gathered data starts from the analysis of databases within the probation system, of different connected organizations (Glaze and Bonczar, 2008) or, of databases belonging to other agencies that offer specific social services (treatment, recovery, etc.).

The aim of the study The present study seeks to analyze the situation of minors/young people (probationers) that left the Probation System (PS) in the period 2002-2013, from Cluj County. For this purpose, I analyzed the demographic characteristics of the probationers (“gender”, “age”, “ethnicity”, “criminal records”) in order to see which of these characteristics can be considered predictors for leaving of the PS. I focused on both exit ways, i.e. success and failure of probation (relapse); both events are concurrent and mutually exclusive. The reason I chose the simultaneous presentation of the two exit ways is due to the fact that events are concurrent and the chances that a phenomenon happens, exclude the concurrent event. From this perspective, it is very important to present the effects of different factors on the risks that these events happen among those I studied, because each individual is exposed to risk during probation supervision, until one of the studied events happen.

Methodology In this study are presented only the effects of the individual factors. Research methodology is based on a selective research on the population of probationers that entered PS records; according to art. no. 69, par. b) in law 252/2013, PS “coordinates the process of supervising the regard for the noncustodial educative measures and the execution of obligations imposed by court to the minors for whom the execution of punishment under supervision was suspended”. The quantitative research implied data collection, acquired as a result of studying the probationers' records from the PS’ in order to assemble the database used in the present study. — 73 —

Ioana Baumgarten

Dependent Variable The life event analyzed in this study is the exit of youths from Probation System (PS), which can be achieved by two different ways: 1. failure (relapse), which means the probationers leave PS before completing the supervision term, or 2. success (achievement), which means the probationers leave PS at the end of the supervision term, being thus considered rehabilitated. In this study, the failure was operationalized in all the forms that led to the probationers unsuccessful leaving PS: revocation due to violation the measures and obligations imposed by court; re-arrest; incarceration. The dependent variable is of the type “time” or “duration” and was calculated as a number of months from the moment the probationers entered PS, up to the moment they left. Independent Variables I chose to present the individual characteristics in order to see if the unsuccessful exit from PS varies according to gender, age (measured in years since the beginning of probation), ethnicity and criminal record. All these variables were correlated with failure ending probation (e.g. MacKenzie and Li, 2004; Olson and Lurigio, 2000; Morgan, 1994; Petersilia et. al, 2009). Individual characteristics The individual characteristics include control variables: “gender”, dichotomous variable with value 1 (masculine) and 2 (feminine); “date of birth”, numeric variable that records the probationers date of birth (participants born between 1982 and 1996); “ethnicity”, categorical variable comprising 3 categories: Romanian (1), Rromani (2), others (Hungarian) (3); and “criminal records”, dichotomous variable with values 0 and 1, depending on their absence or presence. Data Analysis The data analysis process consisted of both univariate and bivariate analysis. In this article I presented the sample according to the characteristics established in the subpopulations, depending on the way the probationers leave the PS. Therefore, I analyzed how many of them left — 74 —

Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

unsuccessfully PS, and how many did so successfully, according to the analyzed characteristics: gender, age, ethnicity and criminal record. The dependent variable is of the type “time” or “duration” and it is calculated as number of months from the moment of probationers entry to PS, up to the moment they left. I focused on “average and median” indicators that describe the distribution of the period they spent in probation. Kaplan-Meier Bivariate Analysis Regarding the bivariate analysis, this was necessary in order to identify the possible relations between the analyzed variables. In this sense, we used the Kaplan-Meier descriptive analysis, also “known as the method of product limit that can estimate the survival function and its derivations continuously” (Muresan, 2010, p. 51). The method of average and median survival periods can be calculated for different subpopulations (according to gender, age, ethnicity, etc.) in order to study the effect of afore-mentioned factors on the ways of leaving the PS. As for the log-rank hi-square test results, these allowed us, to calculate the level of statistical significance in relation to which I can state that the survival functions, differ among groups according to the way of leaving the system. The version 18 SPSS program allowed us to analyze the data and to create the graphics used in this study. Research results The descriptive information regarding the two ways of leaving the PS is exposed in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive data for each way of leaving the PS The way of N % Average Standard leaving the PS (months) Error 69 28.3 33.790 1.288 Failure 175 71.7 51.083 1.990 Success 244 100 Total (Note: averages and medians are Kaplan-Meier Created by the author)

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Median Standard (months) Error 34.000 1.407 65.000 . estimations; Source:

Ioana Baumgarten

The entrance cohort consisted of a sample of 244 cases (5 cases were excluded due to data unavailability) among which 28.3% of the probationers left unsuccessfully PS (n=69), and a significant percentage (71.7%) did so successfully (n=175), the last one being the most frequent way of leaving PS for the studied interval (2002-2013). I noticed that most of the probationers managed to finish the supervision term without revocation. Table2. Descriptive characteristics of the sample according to the way of leaving PS (N=244) The probationers characteristics

Sample

Successful exit

Unsuccessful exit

N

%

N

%

N

%

244

100,0

175

71,7

69

28,3

Male

226

92,6

163

72,1

63

27,9

Female

18

7,4

12

66,7

6

33,3

14-16 years old

97

39,8

70

72,2

27

27,8

17 years old

56

23,0

43

76,8

13

23,2

18-21 years old

91

37,3

62

68,1

29

31,9

Romanian

161

66,0

120

74,5

41

25,5

Rromani

77

31,6

50

64,9

27

35,1

Others

6

2,5

5

83,3

1

16,7

No record

205

84,0

150

73,2

55

26,8

With record

39

16,0

25

64,1

14

35,9

TOTAL GENDER

THE AGE of Entry PS

ETHNICITY

CRIMINAL RECORD

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Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

Gender The sample consisted mostly of male probationers (92.6%; n=226) and only 7.4% (n=18) female. Among the female population (7.4%), 66.7% ended successfully the supervision term (n=12), while 33.3% (n=6) did so unsuccessfully before the end of term, either because they haven’t complied the rules and obligations imposed by court or, because during this term they committed other crimes, for which the pending sanction was revoked. On the other hand, among the male population (92.6%), 163 probationers (72.1%) managed to end the supervision term and left successfully the PS, while only 63 (27.9%) left unsuccessfully, before the end of the term. Age Regarding the probationers’ age when they entered the PS, the majority had, at the moment of the interview, ages between 14 and 16 years old (39.8%; n=97). A significant percentage of the young people in this age category (72.2%; n=70) left the PS at the end of term (successfully), while 27 probationers left before the end of term (27.8%), (unsuccessfully). The probationers within 18-21 years old represent 37.3% (n=91) of the sample, where I noticed again a high percentage of successful exits (68.1%; n=62) and only 31.9% (n=29) failures. In the same manner, it can be noticed that in the case of participants that are 17 years old (23%; n=56), the successful exits from the system have a significantly higher percentage (76.8%; n=43), than the unsuccessful exits that are only 23.2% (n=13). Therefore, it can be seen that the majority of the probationers that entered PS are 14-16 years of age, which indicates a maximum delinquent activity period; after this period, the incidence is reduced (Moffit, 2006)

Ethnicity It can be noticed, that in the case of ethnicity, more than 50% were Romanian (66.0%; n=161), followed by Rromani (31.6%; n=77) and other ethnicities (2.5%). It can be seen that the number of Romanians is almost double than of Rromani, Romanians being more prone to probation

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Ioana Baumgarten

supervision than Rromani; the simple explanation of this fact can reside in the nature of the deed and its gravity. Criminal records Regarding the criminal records it can be noticed that in the case of 204 participants (84%), these are absent, having only 16% percent of the total, meaning 39 participants. Among the participants that do have criminal records, they are more likely to end unsuccessfully the probation (35.9%, n=14), as opposed to those who do not have records. Having a previous conviction is significantly affecting the final process of the supervision (Taxman, 2009). There were neither significant differences between male and female probationers regarding the success (72.15 versus 66.7%), nor were there any major differences regarding the failure (27.9% versus 33.3%). Both genders leave PS without significant fluctuations. The same thing can be said about age, the differences between subpopulations are insignificant, both for success and failure. As for ethnicity, it can be noticed that the Romanians have higher chances of successful leaving PS than Rromani (74.5%; n=120 versus 64.9%; n=50). Thus, it can be seen that the Rromani are more prone to unsuccessful leaving PS (in the first 25-30 months) than Romanians (25.5% versus 35.1%), in the first 40-50 months. Kaplan-Meier Bivariate Analysis In order to see if the factors and the chosen variables have a significant effect on the duration of probation, I studied to see if the survival functions differ significantly in the subpopulations mentioned above. As for the graphic's curves, these indicate the average duration of the studied event (unsuccessful or successful leaving PS). The graphics point out that the two phenomena (unsuccessful or successful leaving PS) are distinct and have different durations. Leaving PS takes place in different durations, according to the way of leaving it. In the case of those leave unsuccessfully PS, there is a smaller average value for the months the participants spent in probation (average 33.79 months) in comparison to those that do so successfully (average 51.08 months). Therefore, it can be seen that the event starts earlier for the former than the concurrent phenomenon. — 78 —

Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

Thus, the failure phenomenon starts earlier and the majority leaves PS before ending the supervision term, in the first 30-40 months, while the successful exits happen after a longer period, approximately 70 months, the supervision term exceeding 6 months. Table 3. Log-rank test for survival functions equality for 2 events: failure or success at leaving PS Characteristics

Failure

Success

hi-square χ2 p

hi-square χ2

p

Gender

0,143

0,705 0,121

0,728

Age of probationers at the entry PS

2,665

0,264 11,105

0,004

Ethnicity

5,237

0,073 2,802

0,246

Criminal record

1,590

0,207 0,198

0,656

The log-rank test results can be used (see Table 3) in order to see the degree in which the survival curves are significantly different for the studied subpopulations in the ways of exiting PS. The differences between the curves of the variables’ subpopulations, “gender”, “ethnicity”, “criminal record” related to the success at leaving PS are insignificant. These do not produce remarkable effects on this way of leaving PS. The results are also supported by the log-rank hi-square χ2 test results where we obtained p>0.005, which indicated that the differences are, again, statistically insignificant. It can be noticed also in figure 1 that there are differences between participants that are 17 years old and those that are 18-21 years old, related to those that are 14-16 years old, where the latter had smaller chances of dealing with the event (successfully). The difference between the two curves is significant because we have a log-rank hi-square χ2=11.105 coefficient that is significant at a p=0.004 level. As for the probation failure, figure 3 points out the differences between the curves pertaining to the different subpopulations of “gender”, “age”, ”ethnicity” and “criminal records” variables in relation to the failure. The log-rank test contradicts this fact and the significance level obtained for each variable is p>0.005, which indicated — 79 —

Ioana Baumgarten

that the differences between the mentioned variables’ subpopulations are not significant in relation to the failure at leaving PS. In conclusion, it can be noticed that, for the successful way of leaving PS, the only statistical significant values are obtained only for “age” variable’s subpopulations.

Discussions The article presented the situation of minors and young people that entered the Probation System in Cluj County for a period of eleven-years and aimed to determine the factors with significant effects on the two ways of leaving PS: success or failure. I presented only these two events (success and failure) because the available data didn’t allow me to extend the analysis to other segments of the participants’ life (i.e. re-entering school, parents’ divorce/death, expelling, etc.). In order to be statistic operable, the data regarding the event’s history analysis must be complete and coherent so that there would be no incongruences regarding their content during the investigation (Blossfeld et al., 2007). As for the age, success at leaving PS is more probable for teenagers that are 17 and 18-21 years old, which can be explained by the slow transition to early maturity and assuming new roles. The teenagers become more emotionally involved, they get married, find a job, all these providing both an emotional and a professional stability, so that the risk of failure is lower, so is the risk of relapse over time (Byrne and Pattavina, 2006).

Limits It is necessary to point out some of the limits of the present study. Firstly, this analysis is limited to the presentation of individual characteristics, which can’t offer an overview on complex contexts of the probationers. For such a coherent overview on factors that contribute to the ways of ending probation, we must take into consideration what Brofenbrenner (1986) called “the ecological perspective”, the child being in the center of systems and subsystems (Samerof, 2000). Not only the family’s effects must be analyzed in relation to the studied events, but so must be the entire context of factors that is directly or indirectly connected to the minor/teenager’s life — 80 —

Chapter V — Characteristic of youths leaving the probation system

and, implicitly, to the studied event (i.e. social environment, peers, school, relation with the probation institution, etc.), aspects I will take into consideration in a future study. Secondly, this study assumed only a description of the sample in which was used only bivariate analysis without using the multivariate one, meaning the Cox regression of hazard rates; the latter would have allowed us to see if the effects of the studied factors do not change and if they remain significant after we’ve analyzed other factors. The multivariate analysis will be presented in a future study.

REFERENCES Blossfeld, H. P, Golsch, K., Rohwer, G. (2007). Event history analysis with STATA. Lawrence Erlbaum, London. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development. Research perspective. Developmental Psychology, 22, 6, 723742. Byrne, B. (2006). White Lives: The interplay of “Race”, class and gender in everyday life'. London. Routledge Cottle, C. C., Lee, R. J., Heilbrun, K. (2001). The prediction of criminal recidivism in juveniles. A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 367-394 Herrenkohl, T.I., K.G. Hill, I. Chung, J. Guo, R. Abott and J.D. Hawkins. (2003). Protective factors against serious violent behavior in adolescence: A prospective study of aggressive children. Social Work, 27(3), 179−191. Gill, C. E. (2010). The effects of sanction intensity on criminal conduct: A randomized low-intensity probation experiment. Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations, Paper 121. Available at: http://repository.upenn.edu/ edissertations/121 Goffman, E. (1961/2007). Asylum. Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. New Jersey, Transaction Publishers Glaze, L., and T. Bonczar, (2008).Probation and Parole in United States, 2007 Statistical Tables. Washington DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). Laub, J. H., Sampson, R. J. (2001). Understanding desistance from crime. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice, 28, 1–69. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. — 81 —

Ioana Baumgarten

McCarthy, B., McCarthy, B., Leone, M. (2001). Community-Based Corrections. Belmont, CA, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning Morgan, K. D. (1994). Factors associated with probation outcome. Journal of Criminal Justice, 22, 341-353. McLellan, A. T., Lewis, D. C., O'Brien, C. P., Kleber, H. D. (2000). Drug Dependence, a Chronic Medicinal Illness: Implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation, JAMA 284 (13), 1689-1695 Moffit, T. (2006). A review of research on the taxonomy of the lifecourse persistent versus adolescence-limited antisocial behavior. In Taking stock (Eds. Cullen, F. T., Wright, J. P., Blevins, K. R.): The status of criminological theory, 277-312. New York, Transaction Publishers. Muresan, C. (2012). The changes of family behavior in Romania. A life course perspective approach. Cluj University Press. Olson, D. E., Lurigio, A. J. (2000). Predicting probation outcomes: Factors associated with probation re-arrests, revocations and technical violations during supervision. Justice Research and Policy, 1, 73-86. Petersilla, J., Lin, G., Beckman, M. (2009). Parole violations and revocations in California: analysis and suggestions for action. Federal Probation, July, 2-13 Setteresten, R. A. (2006). Aging and the life course. In R. H. Binstock and L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social science (6th ed., pp. 3-19), Amsterdam, Elsevier. Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Developmental systems and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 297-312. Stemen, D. (2007). Reconsidering Incarceration: New Directions for Reducing Crime. New York: Vera Institute of Justice. Taxman, F. S. (2008). No illusions: Offender and organizational change in Maryland’s proactive community supervision efforts. Criminology and Public Policy, 7, 275-302. Taxman, F. S. (2009). Effective community punishment in the United States: probation. Criminal Justice Matters, 75, 42-44. Trulson, C. R., Marquart, J. W., Mullings, J. L., Caeti, T. J. (2005). In between adolescence and adulthood. Recidivism outcomes of a cohort of state delinquents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 355-387. Resolution 40/33, November 22, 1985. Available at www.worldlii.org . Law no. 252 of July 19, 2013 regarding the organization and functioning of the probation service. Available at www.just.ro. — 82 —

Chapter VI — Students’ education in the field of drug use prevention

Chapter VI STUDENTS' EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF DRUG USE PREVENTION Viorica BOBIC

Abstract Drug prevention is an important component of immediate and concerted interventions carried out by all the structures of society: family, school, church, media, NGOs, public authorities, etc. Prevention is based on the practical elements, ethical, scientific and focuses on changing addictive behaviors and on modeling positive of the lifestyle of the individual, group or society. The article presents an educational program on preventing drug use and addressed to pupils in the context in that the age of onset in the use and abuse of alcohol, tobacco and drugs decreases significantly. Keywords: Education, Prevention Program, Drug Abuse

Introduction The adoption of appropriate attitudes and behaviors of a healthy lifestyle is a necessary goal for all people, regardless of age and social context in which they must endure pressures or temptations such as drugs. Today it is recognized upward trend of drug phenomenon, worldwide and in our country and justify the scientific interest in prevention, especially when the victims are children, teenagers and young people. The theoretical framework includes many theories and approaches necessary for practitioners in developing and implementing prevention strategies and educational programs particularly aimed at students and aimed at developing and assumption of responsibility by students when making choices of lifetime. — 83 —

Viorica Bobic

Educational program in field of prevention; requirements and evaluation The antidrug education of the students focuses on formation and internalization of attitudes and behaviors, appropriate and necessary, to eliminate the onset of drug use or the transition to regular drug consumption. A drug use prevention program have to meet certain requirements or quality standards (Springer 2004, Peters 2009, Paglia 1999, Tully 2007): • The program is based on scientific theories or theoretical models; • Objectives of program are realistic, distinct, measurable and answering to the identified needs and characteristics of the target group; • The variables are clear, concise and can change through prevention activities; • The identify and assess needs of prevention of drug use in the school environment are needed to determine correct the correlation between priorities, purpose, target group and resources; • The prevention program should be planned and implemented in compliance with the characteristics of target group; • The methods and means utilized are appropriate with the objectives set, the planned activities and the characteristics of target group; • The program has an evaluation system which analyzes coherence between objectives, the theoretical model used, indicators, resources and results. For elaboration an education program in the school environment should take into account the following aspects: Suitability of program to the school context in which it is applied; Connection of the program to other types of preventive intervention on risk factors; Consistency of program what resulting from the relationship between content and finalities; Relevance and transparency of program in relation to educational objectives from the field of prevention; Adequate articulation of program from processual perspective: design, implementation and evaluation; — 84 —

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Adequate articulation of program from structural perspective, based on pentagonal model: finalities, contents, time for training, instructional strategies, assessment strategies. Design of prevention program in school In our research we propose to design an educational program of preventing drug abuse among adolescents, which can be included in the universals programs category and this program can be applied at all levels of high school. The prevention program suggested by us has as starting point the model proposed by Stead and Angus (2004) and is based on experts' opinions from angle- saxon space, which say that the effectiveness of a program is generated by its contents: • Social influences exerted by individuals who promote drug use; • Resistance skills, habits and normative attitudes from social influences model. (Bühringer 1998, Botvin 2001, Fearnow-Kenney et al. 2002, Dusenbury et al. 2003, Canning et al. 2004, McGrath et al. 2006, Bayley and Betsy 2007, Faggiano et al. 2008). A dimension of the program is to train leaders for discussions from among the members of the target group. Tobler and Stratton (1997), Dishion et al. (1999), Cuijpers (2002) and others point out that the education model of peer to peer from the structure a prevention program addresses teenagers, especially those who are in situations of risk. The main purpose is to prevent the development of deviant behaviors related to the drug use. These leaders, trained through an group approach, will educate people in peer group and will be ready to exert the positive influences in their families. Also it represents a resource that can be used in the second dimension of the program, in which the approach is behavioral, that to form personal and social skills at adolescent, so to be capable to resist against drugs and be capable develop positive attitudes for a healthy lifestyle. The educational program is structured in a modular form, after the conception of D "Hainaut (1981) according to which must satisfy four fundamental requirements: define a set of learning situations, target welldefined objectives, to propose to verification samples for the student / for — 85 —

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the teacher to achieve for a feedback; to be able to integrate various learning contexts. Through the achievement of the objectives and the completion of contents of the proposed program, it is possible that students to be able to achieve correct judgments about the dangers of drug use and adopt responsible behaviors that reject diverse and multiple pressures, exercised by those involved in production, marketing and consumption of drugs. The quality of the educational program in the field of drug prevention; opinions and perceptions of teachers In the empirical validation of the proposed program was used triangulation method that includes: analysis of specialized studies that provide theoretical background, focus group and survey-based questionnaire where participants are school managers and teachers with various degrees of academic education. The following are opinions and perceptions teachers as potential applicants of program, about the program's effectiveness in providing content and learning framework for teenagers. The survey data are analyzed in two dimensions: preventive actions / programs implemented in schools and the quality of a program to prevent of drug use among teenagers. Preventive education programs are important and justified, but their application is more or less known, depending on their professional experience. Teachers often say that the programs are implemented by an external partner, the beneficiaries are students and their families but do not know if the results have been assessed; About the effects of preventive actions in the school environment are diffuse and subjective opinions and differ depending on their specialization . Teachers specializing in sciences (chemistry, physics, mathematics) claim that educational programs on the abuse prevention of alcohol and tobacco have positive results. At the opposite pole are teachers specializing in physical education and sports or those who teach subjects in the curriculum area 'Arts', which showed a certain indifference demonstrated by the frequency of negative responses. So the question arises: the teacher, because of specific discipline, show a certain indifference/ tolerance in front of the students that use drug or even a lack of involvement in preventive actions ?. — 86 —

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The involvement of teachers in prevention programs in school is more pronounced compared with the professional experience gained and work seniority. Respondents consider that students and their families must be attracted and involved in preventive actions, by which to form and to develop behaviors consistent with social requirements . For students who have a history of consumer and parental consent, the chance to discontinue drug use decreases greatly. Also, smoking and consumption of alcoholic beverages by parents are factors that favor the development of the drug consumption behavior in children and adolescents Most opinions of teachers are moving towards a modular form of the prevention program compared to providing educational program by an external partner. Participants statements of regarding dosing to educational program are dispersed and contradictory, but option "throughout the school year" is supported with greater frequency. About the contents of the program, teachers believe that there must be elements of interdisciplinarity because drug use and abuse has many faces. Teachers find it necessary to use interactive methods depending on the type of high school and gender differences in addictive behaviors. The evaluation activities to be cumulative because it gives the opportunity to identify students capacity following completion of learning units. Teachers focuses on the function of moderator of program when bringing into question the formative evaluation. It is necessary to identify the needs of adolescents and to correct the educational program according to these and the socio-cultural environment in which they live and learn.

The quality of the educational program in the field of drug prevention; results of the preventive intervention In validation of program proposed we applied a sequence of program and namely the formation of potential leaders among adolescents. With the teachers and the school psychologist we established the students group, have been conducted the activities with the students and were evaluated the results. The intervention consisted of five training sessions held in school (high school and vocational school, in which it was previously conducted — 87 —

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the survey on the representations of adolescents about drugs and their negative consequences, throughout the first semester of the school year. The main hypothesis tested is: if the teenager participates in a prevention program then he can improve its skills needed in developing of interpersonal relationships and in solving of different problematic situations with whom they will face throughout life. Evaluation of results of the intervention was centered on the following units of analysis: abilities for adoption of the behaviors of rejection to drug, communication, decision-making skills, assertive behavior. Interest of adolescents on information about drugs remains constant after preventive intervention. About sources of information, adolescents retains the options for discussions with the parents, but the interest for discussions with friends decreases by 49,8% after prevention intervention, for those in the age group 17-18 years, It is noted modification of the attitudes to high school students who had positive responses to pressures of friends related of the drug use. These responses decreased from 61.1% to 29, 6%. Communication skills with parents were significantly improved after preventive intervention. Also it is noted the improvement in decisionmaking skills, especially those related to drug consumption to adolescents aged 15 to 16 years and preservation/ strengthening of these skills for high school students aged between 17 and 18 years. Assertive behavior in adolescents may cause the reduction or delay of drug use and is proven from the answers the proposed program beneficiaries through the average decrease of the influences from peers in the group, for all ages and regardless of the profile of the school. The statements of the students that they have the capacity to take decisions and communicate force us to realize new research, in line with the general idea expressed by professionals and the need for metaevaluation of prevention programs, in particular.

Conclusions This prevention program can be the component of an educational prevention strategy applied in the school or the community. The following questions arise: The program has successful to the level secondary or high school?; — 88 —

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May be treated general themes in field of prevention to level of many disciplines? Training of opinion leaders from amongst adolescents is a significant component of the program because teens are easier influenced by their peers. The quality of program, based on school curriculum, is determined by the degree of satisfaction of the beneficiaries, expressed in terms of skills. Students tend to keep the interest for behaviors which transgresses social norms and rules, but however through training and developing skills occur opportunities for to reduce deviant behaviors and to form a healthy lifestyle. REFERENCES Botvin, G. J. and Griffin, K. (2001). LifeSkills Training: Theory, Methods and Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Prevention Approach. In Innovations in adolescent substance abuse interventions, (eds) Eric F. Wagner, Holly B. Waldron, Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd Bühringer, G., Jutta, K. (1998). Evaluating preventive intervention in Europe. in Nilson, Margareta, Gregor Burkhart, Christoph Kröger and Heike Winter, Evaluating Drug Prevention in the European Union, EMCDDA Scientific Monograph Series No.2, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities Cuijpers P., (2002a). Effective ingredients of school-based drug prevention programs. A systematic review. In Addict Behavior, vol.27, nr.6 Chelcea, S. (1996). Cunoaşterea vieŃii sociale. Chestionarul şi interviul în ancheta sociologică. Bucureşti: Editura INI Canning, U., Millward, L., Raj, T. and Warm, D. (2004). Drug use prevention among young people: a review of reviews. 1st Edition, London: Health Development Agency, Department of Health, www.hda.nhs.uk/evidence Conger, J.J., (1991). Adolescence and Youth. Psyhological Development in a Changing World. Fourth Edition, New York:Harper Collins Publisher Inc D`Hainaut, L., (coord.), (1981). Programe de învăŃământ şi educaŃie permanentă. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică Dishion, T., J., McCord, J., Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. In American Psychologist, vol. 54, nr. 9 Dusenbury, L., Brannigan, R., Falco, M., Hansen, W. B. (2003). A review of research on fidelity of implementation: implications for drug abuse — 89 —

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prevention in school settings. In Health Education Research. Theory & Practice, vol.18, nr.2, Oxford University Press Faggiano, F., Vigna-Taglianti, F. D., Versino, E., Zambon, A., Borraccino, A. and Lemma, P. (2008). School-based prevention for illicit drugs use: A systematic review. In Preventive Medicine vol.46 Fearnow-Kenney, M., Hansen, W. B. and McNeal, R. B. Jr. (2002). Comparison of Psychosocial Influences on Substance Use in Adolescents: Implications for Prevention Programming. In Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, vol.11, nr.4 Jessor, R., and Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press Kandel, D. B., and Logan, J. A. (1984). Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood: I. Periods of risk for initiation, continued use, and discontinuation. In American Journal of Public Health, vol.74, nr.7 Manolescu, M. (2005). Evaluarea şcolară. Metode, tehnici, instrumente. Bucureşti: Editura Meteor Mărginean, I. (2006). Proiectarea cercetării sociologice. Iaşi, Editura Polirom McGrath, Y., Sumnall, H., McVeigh, J. and Bellis, M. (2006) Drug use prevention among young people: a review of reviews., National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, www.publichealth.nice.org.uk Paglia, A., and Room, R.. (1999). Preventing substance use problems among youth: A literature review and recommendations.In Journal of Primary Prevention, vol.20 Peters, Louk W.H., Kok, Gerjo, Ten Dam, Geert T.M., Buijs, Goof J., and Paulussen, Theo G.W.M., (2009). Effective elements of school health promotion across behavioral domains: a systematic review of reviews. BMC Public Health. 9: 182., doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-9182.,PMCID:PMC2702385, Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R. and Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. in Psychological Bulletin, vol. 117, nr. 1 Potolea, D. şi Toma, S. (2010). Conceptualizarea competenŃei; implicaŃii pentru construcŃia şi evaluarea programelor de formare. În vol. „10 ani de dezvoltarea europeană în educaŃia adulŃilor. Realizări şi provocări în atingerea obiectivelor Lisabona 2010”, Timişoara: Editura UniversităŃii de Vest — 90 —

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Potolea, D. (2008). Asigurarea calităŃii programelor de formare continuă a cadrelor didactice- concepŃie şi practici. În Profesionalizarea carierei didactice din perspectiva educaŃiei permanente, (coord.), Dan Potolea şi Doina Carp, Bucureşti: Editura UniversităŃii Rădulescu, Sorin, M. şi Dâmboeanu, Cristina, (2006). Sociologia consumului şi abuzului de droguri. Bucureşti: Editura Lumina Lex; Springer, F. J., Sale, E., Hermann, J., Sambrano, S., Kasim, R. and Nistler, M. (2004). Characteristics of Effective Substance Abuse Prevention Programs for High-Risk Youth.I in The Journal of Primary Prevention, vol. 25, nr. 2 Stead, M. and Angus, K. (2004). Literature Review into the Effectiveness of School Drug Education, Glasgow: The Scottish Government, Scottish Government Publications, Scottish Government Titles, http://www.scotland. gov.uk/Publications. Tobler, N. S., and Stratton, H. H. (1997). Effectiveness of School-Based Drug Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis of the Research. in The Journal of Primary Prevention, vol.18, nr.1 Tully, L. (2007). Literature review. Early intervention strategies for children and young people 8 to 14 years. Ashfield: Centre for Parenting & Research, NSW Department of Community Services United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Vienna, (2004). SCHOOLS school-based education for drug abuse prevention. New York: United Nations Publication Velea, L.-S. (coord.), Toderaş, N. Ionescu, M., (2006). Participarea elevilor în şcoală şi în comunitate. Ghid pentru profesori şi elevi. Botoşani: Editura Agata. White, D., and Pitts, M. (1998). Educating young people about drugs: a systematic review. in Addiction, vol.93, nr.10

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Chapter VII VII A PLEA IN FAVOUR OF DIDACTIC RHETORIC Mircea BREAZ

Abstract Modern didactics can, undoubtedly, use several fields of rhetoric and this approach would have significant consequences at all levels of the educational interventions, because the main purpose of the didactic rhetoric lies in the understanding of the didactic action on the general neo-rhetoric coordinates, as science of human interaction and art of ideas, intentions and reasons transfer. While other directions and perspectives belonging to this common ground have also successfully evolved as part of the educational theory in our country, the applications of the rhetorical instrument in the analysis of persuasive didactic action language did not benefit from comparable research and results. For that reason, the research in this field can be regarded as a particularized contribution to the conceptualization, in terms of the linguistics of enunciation, of the shift from discursive-textual semantics in general, to a specific approach to expressiverhetorical component of the didactic competence in particular. In this respect, the paper encompasses reflections on the rhetorical-discursive basic elements of persuasive didactic communication that were selected from a more comprehensive analysis. The research has two complementary parts: the first part analyses the general connection between rhetoric and didactic rhetoric and the second part refers to the specific rhetorical quality of the educational discourse in persuasive didactic communication. Keywords: Rhetoric, Didactic Rhetoric, Persuasive Didactic Communication, Persuasive Action Language, Educational Discourse

Introduction. A Plea in Favour of Didactic Rhetoric The premises of any discussion on the rhetorical fundamentals of didactic communication usually used to consist in defining didactic rhetoric and outlining the main linguistic and educational reasons behind the emergence of this field of persuasive communication. The role of the didactic rhetoric is consubstantial to the gnoseological role of the rhetoric — 92 —

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itself and invariable with its own purpose, both as “episteme theoretike” (theoretical knowledge or “art”), and as “techne praktike” (practical or productive science). Through the rehabilitation of the rhetoric in its Aristotle’s sense, the didactic rhetoric can at its turn be understood in its genetic meaning of cognitive and affective approach of the intelligibles, from the interdisciplinary perspective implied by the effects between the sciences of the education and the sciences of the language, at all the levels of the knowledge and of the educability (Winterowd 1968: 171-172). From the perspective of the linguistic integralism, Coseriu (1996: 34) noticed the existence ever since antiquity, of the distinction made between the three disciplines of the language – the linguistics of the language, the linguistics of speech in general and the linguistics of the speech or text – as descriptive normative disciplines to teach the use of language, that is the grammar, which corresponds to the plan of the languages, the rhetoric which corresponds to the plan of the speech, and the dialectic, which corresponds to the plan of the speech in general and to its coherence. This determined the establishing of the three levels of the linguistic science, respectively the “saber idiomatico” that is “the knowledge of a language” (of languages) or “the knowledge of a language at the historical level of the language” the “saber elocutional“ that is “the knowledge of speech” in general and the “saber expresivo” or the “expressive knowledge”, that is the ability to organize texts, speeches, in a given situation (Coseriu 1996: 34). In Coseriu’s terms, the place of the rhetorical-didactic speech creation may be established at the intersection of the field of the linguistics, of the speech in general, of the coherence within speech, and the linguistics of the speech or text. Consequently, if, broadly speaking, the didactic rhetoric can be situated in the common ground of the sciences of education, on the one hand, and of the sciences of languages, on the other hand, in the limited sense of the different educational interventions or of the various concrete didactic actions, the rhetorical – didactic speech practice is structured in operational patterns and schemes which come out both from the dialectic configurations specific to the syntagmatics of “the elocutional knowledge”, and from the functional-persuasive schemes of the rhetorical structures specific to “the expressive knowledge” (Coseriu 1996: 34). Thus, we assumed the basic dissociation among the three distinct conceptual frameworks of linguistics (idiomatic plan, elocutionary plan and discursive-textual plan) and we initiated our study at the discursive-textual level, more precisely in its — 93 —

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specific field as a rhetorical discourse, having in view the use of the rhetorical instrument in the analysis of persuasive didactic action language. The rhetorical-didactic redefining and exploitation of the concept of speech, as a vector or tool of “the expressive knowledge”, makes the connection between the educational language, in general, and the rhetorical-didactic speech in particular, adjustable in terms of a conditioning relation referring to the interactional construction of the educational events, understood in the rhetorical-didactic action, as communicative figures of the persuasive “return towards the audience” (Plett 1983: 162-164, 284-286). The effectiveness of the rhetorical-didactic approaches based on the exploitation of these speech-related figures assumes a complex process of convincing the “thinking through thinking” (Kripke 2001: 34-35, 54-55, 8283, 88 passim), which not only redefines the “abstraction reflecting” quality of these persuasive figures (Piaget 1972: 202; 1988; 1988a, 1991), but also situates them among those universal rhetoric well-known as “general names of the designation category”, establishing them as figures of “the speechrelated thinking of the thinking” (Kripke 2001: 33). The rhetorical-didactic figures of the return towards the audience, especially the figures of the thinking from the tautological family of positive or necessary redundancy (Breaz 2008a: 213-234), are speech-related aggregations of a radical rhetorical-didactic conceptualism, which, validating to an absolute extent the speech-related relevance of the explanatory statements, brings about reflections on the possibilities of signification themselves, and consequently, on the nature of the signification itself. We have already dwelt upon the general need for didactic rhetoric in a series of previous articles, where, through repeated reconfigurations of the exploration of the distance and the relationship between rhetoric and didactic rhetoric, we restated the educational reasons for which the application of the rhetoric-discursive instrument, with the purpose of reinstating the language of educational practices, in general, and that of didactic communication in particular, can provide and consolidate new perspectives in the initial and continuous formation of teachers. Hence, the meaning and raison d’être of this new exposition, this time structured as a series of reflections on the reconsideration of the rhetoric-didactic basis of persuasive communication, mainly through the reassessment of a number of theoretical proposals of systematization of the most significant conceptual fundamentals of the field. This new plea for the reconsideration of the — 94 —

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rhetoric-didactic instrument within the practice of intentional discourses in effective expression is aimed at the discursive practice, mostly demonstrative or deliberative in nature, of all educational actors that, especially in the case of interactions within the academic milieu, act both as educators (within and through language, as object of knowledge) and mentors for educators (on the educational meta-language level), that is, through persuasive didactic communication, they systematically aim at winning the audience, in order to influence and change opinions, mold behaviours and redirect its interests and motivations for the didactic career. Didactic rhetoric can thus be considered a neo-rhetoric defining, within the intentional practice of communicative interactions in the educational environment, various theoretical and practical ensembles of didactic ways and means of purposeful influencing of the opinions, convictions or behaviours of the audience, both by external persuasive actions and by selfpersuasion (Steinmann 1967: 16-32; Burke 1967: 59-76; Stevenson 1967: 215, 220-221, 223, 224, passim). The reassessment of the basis of persuasive communication, from the perspective of didactic rhetoric, comes, in the current educational context, as a reaction to the different challenges posed by the modern educational field, springing either from the various manifestations of the current relative motivational crisis in what concerns the choosing of a didactic career, a consequence of the tendency towards the gradual diminishing of the strength of the monopoly on education held by the traditional actors of the system, or from the various effects of the crisis of advanced education, understood - at the end of the previous century - in terms of a paradoxical incapacity for systematization or as excessive conditioning, and hence the gradual transformation of some disciplines into simple rhetorical exercises. As we noticed in some of our most relevant previous discussions of the subject (Breaz 2008: 34-50; 2009: 31-37; 2010: 357-367), the field of didactic rhetoric can be defined both in a broad sense, as the place of convergence of education sciences and language sciences, from the point of view of the complementarity between general rhetoric and integral linguistics, and in a narrow sense, as place of the interference between the plane of dialectics (elocutionary knowledge) and the plane of rhetoric (expressive knowledge), at the intersection between the operational schemes of coherent speech in general (on the plane of a non-intentional syntagmatics) and the functional-persuasive schemes of speech in specific — 95 —

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situations (Coseriu 1996: 34, 134), otherwise said, on the acting-pragmatic plane of any deliberate or intentional discursive design. Generated by the intentional capacity of structuring utterances in situations framed by a deliberate discursive design, the functional-persuasive schemes of expressive communication are syntagmatically enacted in the rhetoric-discursive moment of educational language’s turning into personalized didactic discourse, as a consequence of the confirmation of those educational agents that assert themselves as individual and legitimate locutionary agents. Consequently, in the register of the didactic activity, which may be assimilated to a rhetoric of a representational type (as a “realistic”, relatively impersonal and autotelic speech), the didactic speeches are, still constitutively, fundamentally persuasive, also constantly claiming the receiver’s adhesion. The audience’s accepting the premise of the common speaking territory on which the speech producer counts by flattering or by revealing the authorized is usually the result of a complex manipulation, of a presuppositional nature, of the interactional structures. In this regard, the direct style of the didactic verbalization implies, in the most obvious way, the act of reception and of the immediate validation of the common speech universe, which evinces a mutual approach where the speech actors mutually ratify some presuppositions based on a previous consensus, which is generally tacit, however always active. As “a rhetoric of the identification” (Burke 1967: 62-63), extended to an interdisciplinary level on a gnoseological basis, the didactic rhetoric is a neo-rhetoric defining, in the practice of communicative interactions, a theoretical and practical series of ways and methods of deliberately influencing the opinion of the audience, not only through external persuasive actions, but also through self-persuasion, combining an art of constructing discourses with an integrative and generalizing theory of these discourses, at all the levels of the didactic demarches and procedures. For that reason, didactic rhetoric, as “rhetoric of identification”, opens up to a special type of co-operative competition. Within this environment, through dialectic development, the sum of the audiences’ beliefs causes beliefs that transcend the limits of each one of them, and, mostly due to the applied selfpersuasive effect, acts and persists even after the ceasing or cancellation of the external persuasive action, either as a sum of individual acts, either as a conjointly manifestation of the external rhetorical field factors. — 96 —

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Discourse on Method. Aristotle’s principles and modern foundations of the didactic rhetoric Although he started by noticing the renewal of the rhetorical studies in the middle of the fifth decade of the last century, Booth (1967: 2,7,9,10, passim) claimed however that, in a (an only apparently) paradoxical way, in spite of witnessing the crossing of “the most rhetorical age of all times”, the second half of the 20th century was a rhetorical epoch obviously without an appropriate rhetorical theory, inclusive of the field of the didactic rhetoric, as a peculiar domain of the modern neo-rhetoric. On the other hand, through “the subjectivity of the reference”, the standards of the rhetorical effectiveness, notes Booth, pervaded the public and intellectual life of the 20th century, and its most significant and obvious action was, according to his opinion, “the transformation of intellectual subjects into simple rhetorical uses”. It is true indeed, in the well-known rhetorician’s opinion, that sciences and arts are, nowadays, “less rhetorical” than in the past (Booth, 1967: 4-5, 6, passim), as well as there are other numerous exceptions in every subject, without which those subjects would simply disappear. Through “a new rhetoric”, Burke (1967: 59-76) meant, as well, first of all, a rhetoric that was restored and extended to a multi-disciplinary level, and secondly, “a rhetoric of the identification”, in a triple sense: (1) as a “deliberate device” (the external rhetorical action of an educational agent that, in performing the didactic action, counts on producing certain deliberate effects on an audience whose opinion “only pretends to identify”, in the practice of the deliberate persuasive action); (2) as an “act of unequivocal adhesion” (as a “sincere desire of identification” with the needs, expectations and interests of the audience); (3) respectively, as an “act of self-identification and self persuasion” (Burke 1967: 62-63). At his turn, Mounin (1990: 13-14) notices that the idea of a resurrection of the rhetoric intensely spread, reflecting an inter- and trans- disciplinary extension of the field, a “neo-rhetoric” was often mentioned, without really representing a new rhetoric except in the extent in which it rediscovered the causes why it had always represented one of the most systematic fields of study of the language resources, including all the aspects of the speech and making the shift from the traditional rhetoric to the modern neo-rhetoric obvious on the interdisciplinary level. — 97 —

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Most of the modern approaches of the issue of rhetorical-speech-related functions start from Aristotle’s principles and are founded on well-known conceptual, methodological (procedural) and terminological delimitations made in the field of the speech-related genres and of the rhetorical styles, on their functional attributes, deriving from the form of the rhetorical discourse and from its rhetoric functions and figures, respectively from the speechrelated adequacy to the typological needs, and to the constitutive (or genetic) and evolving (or historical) rhetorical conventions. As any other semiotic function, the rhetorical function, acting as a function of the linguistic sign, is both an external function at the level of the expression and an internal function at the level of the content, levels where the semiotic function aims at and sees, in its turn, the solidarity between a certain form and a certain substance. Being able to be defined as intersection points of the relations set up between the level of the properties of the objects (the rules of combining the objects of the reality that has to be expressed under the form of notes of that notion, of the concepts) and their reflection at the level of the semantic-syntactic properties that are specific to the entities of the language as meaningful expression units (namely ‘endowed with a meaning’), the functions represent, alongside with the relations and the terms thereof, some fundamental components also for the rhetoricaldidactical descriptions, seeing the present linguistic points of view. We therefore use the rhetorical speech-related functions expression when we want to refer also to those entities of the rhetorical-didactical metalanguage, which means the extent to which the very properties of the cognitive objects exert a certain role in the gearing of the language (at the level of the rules for combining and differentiating the rhetorical speechrelated entities), which impose them too certain combinatory restrictions (in the syntagmatic field), meaning restrictions in selecting or differentiating certain rhetorical speech-related units in the paradigmatic field. In conclusion, the rhetorical-didactical functions are some virtual factors, which are archived – as principles, parameters or springs that may be contextually activated – at over-arranged levels of the rhetorical speechrelated system (constitutive, institutive, typological, taxonomical etc. didactic conventions) and which, once contextually activated, are responsible for the actual organization and for the proper rhetorical speechrelated functioning of that respective system. The rhetorical functions can always be recognized as key factors with values that lay out the specific — 98 —

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contexts of a certain act, approach or field of the didactic activity, which explains their general applicability, productivity, relevance, as well as their persuasive or argumentative lawfulness. They are not however some inherent, intrinsic, a priori and inalienable properties for any of the rhetorical figures of the didactical taxonomies, so that they are not offered as a result of an over-declarative immanent necessity, in case of the didactic activity either. Nevertheless, the rhetorical functions generally reflect both a certain position that is reserved to them in the rhetorical system and a certain variety, which is specific to the uses offered to them in the system of the specific commitments by means of which a rhetorical speech-related instance manifests, with the help of the didactic activity, an (abstract, principle-related, rational) argumentative or persuasive (in the sense of the subjective and a-perceptive, respectively) intentionality (Doron-Parot 1999: 78-79), by virtue of some gnoseological establishments or of some axiological implications and under the auspices of a teleological order. What postulates the didactic rhetoric in reference to the over-sensitive (aperceptive) sub-layer of the totality of its specific approaches is – within the persuasive action – a principle that, even though subjective, is not – in the aperceptive order – only personal, but shared by all the potential speechproducers (it is obvious that without this subjective translation of the objects of thinking under a rhetorical speech-related regime, that any declarative instance spontaneously operates, the very communication could not possibly work). In an extended study of the rhetoric-discursive functions of didactic practice (Breaz 2008: 34-50) we emphasized that, in the Aristotelian acceptance of the term, the fundamental condition of rhetorical discourse is that of its inevitable limitation, inherently marked by the actual circumstances of the utterance. That is why, as we pointed out, in the case of didactic discourse also, as tautological discourse, the fundamental rhetoric-discursive principle will be that of the limit, hence its delimitating or peratologic function. In the case of the regularity of the didactic discourse, as in the situations characterizing any deliberate educational design and that imply intentional schemes organized into operational series of consecutive stages, one can distinguish all the constraints and consequences of the syntagmatics of the transition from one rhetoric-discursive state to another. Thus, we considered that among the general rhetoric-discursive features of the didactic style, as style of ideas – intellective or conceptual – with — 99 —

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persuasive qualities, the following should be included: persuasive eloquence, as a constitutive intentional element of the meaning-generating didactic action, clarity, to which discursive adequation and propriety, conciseness, ease and simplicity add up. Therefore, we reckoned that the main general rhetorical functions, discursively grounded in the Aristotelian virtues of the rhetoric-didactic style, an intellective style according to the aforementioned features, are concurrent with the main functions of rhetoric itself (Aristotle 2004: 301-305, 312-314, 343, 355, passim). The structure of the persuasive function, for instance, has thus been constantly defined from the rhetorical perspective of the joint effect generated by the complementarity of the relationship between the logic and semantic values of signification and those of intentional suggestion. This has led, as a result of the concurrence of the mutual functional relations of the respective values on the level of rhetoric-discursive congruency, to a separation of the two members of this dialectical pair (the notional sense, differential or demonstrative, on the one hand, and the expressive value, non-differential or persuasive, on the other hand) from both the false logic and semantic objectivity and the false intentional subjectivity or relativity. Between the two components of this relationship (the conceptual meaning and its expressive value), there’s no opposition, nor subordination, but a relationship of congruence and adornment, adaptation and ambivalence, responding to the correspondence of the mutual functional reports of the respective values in the rhetorical speech-related plan. The purposeful contamination of the objective and subjective persuasive action counts on rhetorical effects (on the convictions) such as the ones obtained from the persuasive definitions. In fact, any didactic definition is also a “persuasive definition”, in the sense conferred by Stevenson (1967: 215, 220, 224, passim) to the alliance between “a conceptual meaning” always new, with every repetition (objectivity) and a relatively stable “emotional meaning” (subjectivity). The persuasive function has, in these conditions, a double target, implying, on the one hand, the harmonizing of the contrastive elements of the didactic action, and, on the other hand, creating an effect of homogeneity and of congruence with the terminology specific to the educational intervention, able to outrun the stereotypical didactic representations. Although both expressing and selecting the persuasive definitions, as inter- speech-related didactic insertions, correspond, in — 100 —

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general, to the educational ideologemes of the respective times, their didactic exploitation as inter-texts goes beyond the sphere of a simple terminological usage or of a simple inter-speech-related, direct or indirect (quotational) combination. Besides the persuasive function, a series of other categories of functions – instrumental, technical and extra-technical, or epistemological, in a broad sense, and constitutive as well, in a narrow sense, are, in their turn, distinguishable, at the emergence level of those same rhetoric-discursive conventions framing the ideal of persuasive effectiveness, through elements such as clarity, conciseness, adequateness, propriety or simplicity. Realizing the importance of outlining and applying a general plan, relatively methodized, when it comes to the delivery of discourse, Aristotle and other great rhetoricians have codified the stages of a discourse, both in what concerns the process of elaboration and the dialectic of the productive use of its persuasive resources (the English paragraphs we used from the Aristotle’s Rhetoric (2004) – respectively: II, 26, 1403 b, p. 295; III, 1, 1404 a, pp.297, 299 – were quoted from George A. Kennedy’s translation upon the Aristotle’s Rhetoric: Aristotle (2007). On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy (pp. 192, 194, 194-195, 195-196). Oxford: Oxford University Press): “«All people are persuaded either because as judges they themselves are affected in some way or because they suppose the speakers have certain qualities or because something has been logically demonstrated (…). The next subject to discuss is lexis [style]: for it is not enough to have a supply of things to say but it is also necessary to say it in the right way, and this contributes much toward the speech seeming to have a certain quality. (...) The first thing to be examined was naturally that which came first by nature, the facts from which a speech has persuasive effect, second is how to compose this in language [lexis], and third is something that has the greatest force but has not yet been taken in hand, the matter of the delivery»” (Aristotle. On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy, III, 1, 1404a, in idem 2007: 194-195). — 101 —

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These rules and prescriptions for arranging the various parts of discourse developed into a plan of the discourse, laid out by orators in Antiquity. Thus, as Ross (1998: 262-263) notes, the end of the second book in Aristotle’s Rhetoric and the beginning of the third point to an entirely new configuration – for its time – of the content of the art of rhetoric, represented by the famous triad: means of persuasion, style and arrangement of discourse: “«Since there are in fact three things that should be systematically worked out in discussion of speech, let us regard what has been said as enough (…) about the [discursive] thought (…). It remains to go through an account of style [lexis] and arrangement [taxis]»” (Aristotle. On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy, II, 26, 1403b, in idem 2007: 192), and: “«Since there are three matters that need to be treated in discussion of speech - first, what will be the sources of the pisteis [arguments], second concerning the lexis [style], and third how the parts of the speech ought to be arranged».” (Aristotle. On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy, III, 1, 1404a, in idem 2007: 194). Tackling – in chapters 13-19 of the Third Book of the Rhetoric – the issue of the arrangement of discourse, Aristotle polemicize with the previous arrangements, treating with contempt the practiced division of discourse into parts or chapters, some of which are actually specific only to certain types of discourse, and, particularly, denouncing the practical necessity for style as “representation” essentially suited to the – generally – corrupted audience. Aristotle deems the issue of delivery as secondary and vulgar, not only from the historical point of view or from the perspective of the actual discursive consistency, but also in what regards its intrinsic rhetorical value, which springs not from internal discursive reasons, genuinely argumentative (demonstrative) and persuasive (convincing), but from mainly external causes, correlated with and adapted to the relatively inferior quality of the audience: — 102 —

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“«An art concerned with [the delivery of oratory] has not yet been composed, since even consideration of lexis [style] was late in developing; and delivery seems a vulgar matter when rightly understood. But since the whole business of rhetoric is with opinion, one should pay attention to delivery, not because it is right but because it is necessary, since true justice seeks nothing more in a speech than neither to offend nor to entertain; for to contend by means of the facts themselves is just, with the result that everything except demonstration is incidental; but, nevertheless, [delivery] has great power, as has been said, because of the corruption of the audience. The subject of lexis [style], however, has some small necessary place in all teaching; for to speak in one way rather than another does make some difference in regard to clarity, though not a great difference; but all these things are forms of outward show and are intended to affect the audience.»” (Aristotle. On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy, III, 1, 1404a, in idem, Aristotle. On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. 2007: 195-196). Proclaiming rhetorical effectiveness (the real effect on the audience) as an essential element for the success of communicative interactions in effective expression (in the terms of persuasive effectiveness), Aristotle brought the quality of the audience (of the public) to – what will become – the rhetorical hexagon of the ideal communicative situation, next to means, actors (or agents), context (or circumstances), effects and aims of communication. All the subsequent dissociations between the aim of communication (as the envisaged or anticipated effect) and the real effect on the audience will find an extremely valuable point of reference in the identification of the relatively modest quality of the mass of any audience as the very origin of the need for rhetoric. When considering, from the point of view of the audience, the necessity of correlating, of adapting the rhetoric-discursive design to the relatively inferior quality of the bulk of any type of audience, Aristotle (Retorica, II, 23, 1397a, in Idem 2004: 267) had also in mind, from the complementary perspective of rhetorical action proper, some of the dilemmas of the persuasive syntagmatics of the structuring of convincing cognitive and — 103 —

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affective systems: “But if it is indeed possible to tell persuasive lies, capable of persuading mortals, one must also acknowledge the opposite, namely that several unconvincing truths occur to mortals.” Hence, some of the major dichotomies of traditional and modern rhetoric, which, having in view the relative antithesis between the content of communication, on the one hand, and its form, as style of expression, on the other hand, that is the so-called conflict between the “what” and the “how” of communication, have constantly opposed the theories of ornate form to the theory of style as meaning in action, which, in its turn, makes an early appearance in Aristotle’s writings, from the perspective of that same effective persuasiveness aforementioned. And then, indeed, why deliver to the audience “persuasive lies” or “unconvincing truths” in the course of didactic interaction and communication? The first of these two metaphors of a fundamental “methodological behaviorism” (Doron-Parot 1999: 109-110) mirrors, from the point of view of the action of educational agents, both the degree of control over the pragmatic-didactic parameters of communicative interaction (the intermediary cognitive and affective variables), aiming at producing the real effect on the audience, and the speaker’s ability to adapt either the communication (discourse) to the context, audience or purpose, or the communication (discourse), context or audience to the envisaged purpose. From the standpoint of the audience’s reaction, that same metaphor outlines the mechanisms through which the audience “learns to produce answers” (Doron-Parot 1999: 109-110) that allow it, by means of self-persuasion, to adapt to the educational environment. The second metaphor, manifestation of the same aforementioned “methodological behaviorism”, discloses, in the absence of authentic communication and mutual knowledge, the loss of teleological consensus among the main actors which are involved in the educational process, following the gradual transformation of disciplines into simple exercises of excessive conditioning, either by the authoritarian appropriation of disciplines, making a taboo or a fetish of their contents, or by exhibiting the infallibility fallacy of value judgments. Setting up the values of mutual and co-responsible knowledge, of authentic communication and the recovering of the teleological and axiological consensus on the mission of education, didactic rhetoric portends a liberty difficult to subscribe to, since, in the terms of Francis Ponge, establishing a rhetoric means rather to teach everyone in part the art — 104 —

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of establishing their own rhetoric, understanding, expertise and, of course, motivation. As we previously noted, from the point of view of the discussion on the relativity of the conflict between argumentation and content (what we communicate), on the one hand, and expression or form, as style of expression (how we communicate), on the other hand, the theory of ornate form dissociates content from style, as a result of emphasizing the domain of eloquence, whereas the theory of style as meaning in action does not operate this distinction – it does not clearly dissociate between the substance of the content and the form of the expression, focusing on promoting other aspects of rhetoric such as invention, disposition, memory, and particularly action. Whereas the rhetorical theory of ornate form is, as a rule, aesthetically defined as an art of styles as repertoires of the different possible choices between synonymic phrases, as syntagmatic varieties of figures of speech, the theory of style as meaning in action is rather acknowledged as a science of expressive language, with the focus on the intentional strength of discourse in an effective form, emerging as a result of the various possible paradigmatic choices between non-synonymic phrases, as figures of thought, centered not on the envisaged or anticipated persuasive effect, as it is the case with figures of speech, but on the actually generated or real persuasive effect of the figures of thought (Steinmann 1967: 16-32). Consequently, while the rhetoric-discursive effect of figures of speech is discernible through differences in style on the implicit level, the rhetorical effect of figures of thought can be perceived on the explicit level of the errors of style. Thus, whereas in the first case we can talk of oppositions of the type adequate style vs. inadequate style, convenient style vs. inconvenient style, appropriate style vs. inappropriate style etc., in the second case it is pertinent to refer to oppositions of the type correct or incorrect style, good or bad, congruent or incongruent, compatible or incompatible etc. So, from the perspective of the consubstantiality between style and meaning, according to which, as Beardsley (1967: 194, 196, 202, 210-211) remarks, style is “inseparable”, “non-detachable” or “nondiscernible” from meaning, if “good” or correct style is determined by the compatibility between explicit meanings (denotative, open or referential) and implicit meanings (connotative, closed or non-differential), by the congruency between the meanings of the corresponding significations respectively, “bad” or incorrect style does not imply a deviation of words – — 105 —

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or expression – from meaning, but “a deviation of meaning from meaning” (Beardsley 1967: 194, 202, passim). As we concluded in a previous exposition on the subject of style as meaning in action (Breaz 2010: 357367), on the interplay between the implicit suggestion and the rest of discourse depends not only the correctness of style, but also the degree of persuasiveness itself (the degree of intensity of the persuasive effect – the rhetoric-stylistic counterpart to the so-called illocutionary force), which can be seen as an outgrowth of the two aforementioned factors, that is the degree of congruency between the explicit and implicit meanings, and the level on which the relative super-determination of explicit meanings by the implicit, intentional or expressive meanings manifests itself. This outlook has been endorsed by Beardsley from the standpoint of his neo-rhetorical doctrine of “style as meaning” (Beardsley 1967: 211). Beardsley’s main theoretical contribution is inspired by the neo- rhetorical thesis of “ambivalence” (or “ambivalent” thesis), which, postulating the inseparability of “form” (as expression or “style”) and “content”, asserts that (1) style is detail of implicit meaning and that (2) “good” style (adequate, appropriate) is the result of the compatibility (harmony, congruence or logical congruity) between explicit and implicit meanings. (Beardsley 1967: 191, 196, 201, 210). So, far for allotting a special place in the theoretical framework of the rhetoric-stylistic system for the concept of choosing between synonymic phrases, Beardsley invalidates it from the perspective of the philosophy of rhetoric discourse, deeming it not relevant (and unilateral), since it neither deals with nor eludes the issue of the essential consonance between content – that is the substance of content – and form (expression or “style” as ornate form). If one agrees, in Beardsley’s terms, that the discourses of language develop as forms (content form and expression form) structured between two substances, one relating to content and the other one to expression, then one must also acknowledge that any consideration on any type of function enacted at the discursive level as a manifestation of any significant rhetoric-stylistic variation should take into account the inextricable relationship between content and expression/form in language, without this necessarily meaning that there is always a one-to-one correspondence between the expression and the content elements of certain rhetoric-discursive units. As we have already illustrated (Breaz 2010: 357-367), a point relevant to our discussion, Beardsley does not consider style a separate entity – aspect, — 106 —

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unit or part – of discourse, distinct from what we usually define as the content of communication, both as form and substance of the latter. That is why we believe, in our turn, that, in this neo-rhetorical acceptance of the term, style is inseparable from meaning, and as such it cannot be defined in terms of the mechanical opposition between the “how” and the “what” of communication (as if it could be considered separately from meaning and handled by itself), unless by ignoring the fact that “style is nothing more than meaning”, which, according to Beardsley (1967: 196), would support “the utterly preposterous idea that there is both a positive and a negative way of expressing the same thought”. Beardsley’s conclusions are also relevant to the rhetoric-didactic field of persuasive communication, where, essentially, a difference in style is also a difference in meaning. Turning away from the uses and manifestations of the various historical revivals of the theory of “ornate form”, the didactic applications of the neorhetorical doctrine of “style as meaning” entail the necessity to manipulate the rhetoric-discursive interventions aimed at the audience in the course of didactic interactions. Consequently, in order to achieve persuasive effectiveness, in terms of the real communicative effects on the audience, these rhetoric-didactic applications of the theory of style as meaning in action materialize not according to the objective (demonstrative) course of the rationale of argumentative organization, that is enacted following the path of external reason, by means of central route logic-discursive mechanisms, but according to the persuasive course of the organization of the persuasive rhetoric-discursive action, which reaches to expression following the path of internal reason, that is by means of intentional or peripheral route mechanisms at all times adapted to the heterogeneous by definition audience of the educational environment. To conclude, regarding the answer to the Aristotelian issue of the valid rhetorical options when it comes to the “persuasive lies” vs. “unconvincing truths” dilemma, we reckon that the option to this alternative is more often than not inclining towards the so-called persuasive lies. It is a choice that supports the understanding of this rhetorical metaphor in the terms of the style as meaning in action theory, and according to that imperative of persuasive style representing one of the prime reasons of rhetoric itself. At the same time, this steering of the discussion in the direction running opposite to the arbitrary separation of form (style or expression) and content is also meant to round up the outlook on rhetorical action, based on the — 107 —

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long-standing privileging of eloquence, by those acting-pragmatic elements – essential for a total persuasive effect – that a reconsideration of rhetorical invention and disposition is apt to determine.

Conclusions. On the Educational Reasons of the Didactic Rhetoric The integrative borders that didactic rhetoric has opened to the mandatory reconsideration of communication in educational frame of reference, respectively to the particular linguistic manifestations of its various educational actors in the context of sociolinguistic diversity, have always been in charge to contribute to the creation of that certain interdisciplinary dialogue, through which the considerations upon the educational politics in didactic conditions would lead to crossing the borders of the divided approaches to this problem. Therefore, simultaneously with the most significant pedagogical manifestations of the periodical revivals of its main areas, all traditional and modern foundations of didactic rhetoric have constantly revealed, not only the reasons for reconsidering the didactic action as intercultural and inter-linguistic educational intervention, but also the pragmatic didactic ways and means of engaging towards this desideratum, from the perspective of creating its interdisciplinary borders at the confluence between the educational sciences and the language sciences, in a broader plan of a common language to all types of discourses. The configuration of a didactic rhetoric at the end of the 20th century has been developed particularly into a form of renewal as a comprehensive theory of persuasion and opinion argumentation, subordinated to the theories of didactic knowledge and communication. Besides, the rhetoric revival itself from the end of the past century has emerged mainly from the ambition to offer both integrative models at all levels of knowledge and educability, as well as the necessary means for systematic discovery of the prime and ultimate reason of the rhetoric discursive actions, in general (Booth 1967: 1-15, 1988; Winterowd 1968: 171-172). Strictly speaking, the resurrection of rhetoric as didactic rhetoric should have been understood more like a remodeling of it according to the desiderata of the contemporary epoch, respectively through the rehabilitation of the rhetoric as a general theory of the intentional educational discourse. The importance of applying the rhetoric instrument to the study of the discursive enactment of educational language in general and the language of — 108 —

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didactic action in particular can be outlined, in our opinion, following at least three main directions of study: (1) tracing the role played by rhetoricdiscursive mechanisms in the intellective process of engendering didactic conceptualization; (2) investigating the rhetoric-didactic ways and means of the purposeful influencing of the audience in the course of the interactions within the educational environment; (3) analyzing the development of an area of didactic stylistics, where the analysis of the style of ideas, of the intellective or conceptual didactic style, should be privileged. The three aforementioned directions can lead to important re-systematizations of the main functional semantic traits of persuasive communication (among which, of course, persuasive eloquence), as well as of the less known rhetoric-didactic functions and specific varieties of didactic stylistics. These varieties of the didactic style of ideas, intellective or conceptual, include, for instance, the style of the persuasive definitions imparting comprehension, as a style of tautological explanation (Breaz 2008a: 213-234), the same way as the generic rhetoric-didactic functions include a series of epistemological functions as functions of the intellective functioning state, such as the conceptualizing function, the transformative accomplishment function, the reflective function, the meta-cognitive function and so on. In order to facilitate the perception of didactic rhetoric as a neo-rhetoric which is epistemologically substantiated, gnoseologically grounded and axiologically sustained and subordinated to the general rhetoric – as a science focused on global human interaction and on the transfer of ideas, intentions and motivations within a general frame of knowledge and communication (Sasu 1976: 290) – the research in this field follows the directions traced by some of the most important general objectives of the discipline, among which, the delimitation of some theoretical perspectives concerning the place of the didactic rhetoric in the system of the general (neo) rhetoric, the identification of the main rhetorical-discourse-related functions of the didactic action at the level of the educational discourse practice, respectively the carrying out of some applications of the discourse-related mechanisms of the general neo-rhetoric at analyzing the didactic languages and the educational ones in general. Returning to the outlining of the importance of the application of the rhetorical instrument to the study of the discursive enactment of the language of education, in general, and of the language of didactic action, in particular, we emphasize that the very outlining of the main educational reasons for didactic rhetoric equals with the tracing of just as many fundamental elements of persuasive communication, as a prevailing area of — 109 —

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expressive knowledge performance. Thus, one of the most important justifications for didactic rhetoric comes from its contribution the (re)instatement of the persuasive dimension of didactic discourses, from the point of view of a general pattern of intentional language, common to all educational discourses. Therefore, it can be said that didactic rhetoric offers not only comprehensive models for all levels of knowledge and educability, namely pragmatic-didactic models at all levels of didactic persuasion, but also the means for discovering the ultimate principles that, by governing the changes in the opinion and modifications in the behaviour of the audience, lead to the winning of their adhesion, through the intentional practice of didactic discourses in effective expression. At the same time, as a “common denominator for all disciplines” (Florescu 1973: 37), didactic rhetoric generates apparent inter- and cross-disciplinary openings, while expanding intercultural and inter-linguistic horizons for all areas of knowledge and educability, from the viewpoint of the overlapping of education sciences and language sciences, inevitably entailing a conceptual, terminological and methodological transfer. In conclusion, this leads to didactic rhetoric being at the same time an educational meta-subject, as it facilitates both the study of the different areas of knowledge and educability and their systemization, and an educational meta-language, since it combines, in its turn, an art and a science of constructing didactic discourse with a comprehensive and generalizing theory on their persuasive effectiveness in all areas of educational practice (Winterowd 1968: vii, 171-172; Mounin 1990: 10-14; Roussin 1996: 110, 118). In other words, even the universal applicability of the rhetoric, the fact that it has always been capable of renewing the integrative models provided at all the levels of the human interaction, from the perspective of a general plan of the language, common to all discourses, turned it into a meta-language allowing both the approach of the various areas of the experience and knowledge and their codification and arrangement, from the interdisciplinary perspective implied by the effects of the incidents between linguistic and psycho-pedagogic areas of expertise.

REFERENCES Aristotel (2004). Retorica. Bucureşti: Editura IRI. Aristotle (2007). On Rhetoric. A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. — 110 —

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Beardsley, M. C. (1967). Style and Good Style. In: Steinmann Jr. M. (ed.). New Rhetorics (pp. 191-213). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Booth, W. C. (1967). The Revival of Rhetoric. In: Steinmann Jr. M. (ed.). New Rhetorics (pp. 1-15). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Booth, W. C. (1988). The Vocation of a Teacher. Rhetorical Occasions. 1967-1988. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Breaz, M. (2008). From Rhetoric to the Didactic Rhetoric. Didactic Figures and Functions of the Persuasive Return to the Audience. In: The Proceedings of the International Conference Edu-World with the main theme “Education Facing Contemporary World Issues”, Piteşti, June 05th- 08th, 2008 (pp. 34-50). University of Piteşti Press. Breaz, M. (2008a). Redondance „positive”, redondance „négative”. Sur quelques figures de la redondance par adjonction répétitive. Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai. Psychologia-Paedagogia. LIII, 2, 213-234. Breaz, M. (2009). The Place and the Role of the Didactic Rhetoric in the System of the In-service Teachers Training. In: Iucu, R.; Potolea, D.; Carp, D. (coord.), The Proceedings of the ENTEP European Conference “Quality Assurance in Teachers Continuing Professional Development – Priorities and Perspectives”, Bucharest, May 29th, 2009 (pp. 31-37). European Network for Teacher Education Policies-ENTEP, MECI – CNFP: Bucharest University Press. Breaz, M. (2010). “Unconvincing Truths” or “Persuasive Lies? Once Again on the Rhetoric-Discursive Fundamentals of Didactic Persuasion. In: The Proceedings of the International Conference “Real & Virtual in Learner’s Development”, Cluj-Napoca, March 05th-06th, 2010 (pp. 357-367). ClujNapoca: Editura Risoprint. Burke, K. (1967). Rhetoric – Old and New. In: Steinmann Jr. M. (ed.): New Rhetorics (pp. 59-76). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Coseriu, E. (1996). Lingvistica integrală. Bucureşti: Editura FundaŃiei Culturale Române. Doron, R. – Parot, Fr. (coord.) (1999). DicŃionar de psihologie. Bucureşti: Humanitas. Florescu, V. (1973). Retorica şi neoretorica. Geneză, evoluŃie, perspective. Bucureşti: Editura Academiei R.S.R. Iliescu, A.-P. (1989). Filosofia limbajului şi limbajul filosofic. Bucureşti: Editura ştiinŃifică şi enciclopedică. Kripke, S. A. (2001). Numire şi necesitate. Bucureşti: Editura ALL EDUCATIONAL. — 111 —

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Mounin, G. (1990). La Rhétorique. In: Encyclopaedia universalis (pp. 10 – 14). Encyclopaedia Universalis France S.A., Corpus 20, Éditeur à Paris. Piaget, J. (1972). Dimensiuni interdisciplinare ale psihologiei. Bucureşti: Editura didactică şi pedagogică. Piaget, J. (1988). Psihogeneza cunoştinŃelor şi semnificaŃia sa epistemologică. In: Teorii ale limbajului. Teorii ale învăŃării. Dezbaterea dintre Jean Piaget şi Noam Chomsky (pp. 99-114). Bucureşti: Editura politică. Piaget, J. (1988a). Limbajul în cadrul cunoaşterii. Schemele de acŃiune şi învăŃarea limbajului. In: Teorii ale limbajului. Teorii ale învăŃării. Dezbaterea dintre Jean Piaget şi Noam Chomsky (pp. 304 – 310). Bucureşti: Editura politică. Piaget, J. (1991). Tratat de logică operatorie. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. Plett, H. (1983). ŞtiinŃa textului şi analiza de text. Bucureşti: Editura Univers. Ross, D. (1998). Aristotel. Bucureşti: Humanitas. Roussin, Ph. (1996). Retorica. In: Noul dicŃionar enciclopedic al ştiinŃelor limbajului (pp. 110-118). Bucureşti: Editura Babel. Sasu, A. (1976). Retorica literară românească. Bucureşti: Editura Minerva. Steinmann, M. Jr. (1967). Rhetorical Research. In: Steinmann Jr. M. (ed.). New Rhetorics (pp. 16-32). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Stevenson, Ch. L. (1967). Persuasive Definitions (Parts I-II). In: Steinmann Jr. M. (ed.): New Rhetorics (pp. 214-225). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. [1] Winterowd, W. R. (1968). Rhetoric – A Synthesis. Holt, New York: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

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Chapter VIII — Predictive factors for drug use among young people

Chapter VIII VIII PREDICTIVE FACTORS FOR DRUG USE AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE Silviu BUCUR

Abstract The key predictors of drug use are parental discipline, family cohesion and parental monitoring. Some aspects of family structure such as large family size and low parental age are linked to adolescent drug use. There is also consistent evidence linking peer drug use and drug availability to adolescent drug use. There is extensive evidence on parental substance use, although some studies report no association while others indicate that the association is attenuated by strong family cohesion. Age is strongly associated with prevalence of drug use among young people reflecting a range of factors including drug availability, peer relationships and reduced parental monitoring. There is limited evidence suggesting that genetic factors account for a significant proportion of the variance in liability to use cannabis, however this interpretation has been criticized by other writers. There is a similar level of evidence linking self-esteem and hedonism to drug use. The available evidence indicates that higher levels of drug use are strongly associated with young people’s reasons for using drugs after controlling for risk factors. For young drug users in treatment, psychosocial risk predicts drug abuse at treatment entry but not follow up. In contrast, protective factors are of increased importance during recovery. The overall ratio of risk to protection may be more important than any individual factor. These results, although supported by a relatively small body of research, support the concept of resilience to drug use. According to this view resilience to drug use is enhanced by increasing social skills, social attachments and material resources despite constant exposure to known risk factors. Keywords: Drug Use, Young People, Economic Factors, Family Factors, Physiological Factors

Introduction Drug use is a major challenge facing the Romanian contemporary society, a phenomenon dignified of consideration in social policies in Romania. Is unanimously accepted that substance abuse is the result of the influence of social media on the individual: family, school, group of friends, — 113 —

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neighborhood and society. Analysis of social determinants in the acquisition and expansion of addictive behavior among young people requires a detailed analysis of all aspects that characterize adolescence, focusing on education and socialization processes. Most often, the deviant behavior of young people is a product of the behavioral and motivational orientations acquired during socialization process within the family, school and group of friends. Before discussing these and other influences on substance use among young people, it may be useful to introduce a few of the concepts that guide academic research on this issue. First, it is important to distinguish between lifetime use of drugs (essentially an indicator of experimentation), use over the past year (a proxy for recent use), and use over the past month (an indicator of current use). Given the relatively high rates of experimentation with different substances – both legal and illegal – found in studies of young people, it is necessary to examine the differences that exist between those who have tried cigarettes, alcohol, cannabis or other drugs, on the one hand, and those who use them more regularly. Dryfoos (1990) argues that “experimentation with substances must be viewed as one of the developmental tasks of early adolescents” (p. 45), pointing out that only a small number experience problems associated with their use (cf. Brinkley et al., 1999; Howard, 1997). Gutierres et al. (1994) report that infrequent or experimental users actually share more similarities with abstainers than with frequent substance users. The longitudinal studies show that those who experiment with cigarette smoking during early adolescence are three times more likely to be smoking a packet every day during the final years of secondary school (Griffin et al., 1999). According to Kandel (2002), young people who use cigarettes and alcohol are more likely to experiment with cannabis, and those who use cannabis are more likely to progress to the use of depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens and narcotic drugs (Griffin et al., 2003). However, it is also clear that most young people who try cannabis do not “progress” to either heavier use of this drug or to other illegal substances. Moreover, the temporal ordering of a “hierarchy” of substance use does not necessarily imply a direct causal relationship between the substances themselves. Recent research has sought to identify why certain individuals do move on to using other substances – a complex task, as there is no evidence of specific pharmacological or physiological mechanisms that might explain this, and it is exceedingly difficult to control for the full range of potential confounding variables and “spurious” associations. Many — 114 —

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plausible social and cultural hypotheses have been advanced: “The ‘gateway’ theory suggests that cannabis users may also use other drugs due to predisposing risk factors or experience. The gateway hypothesis acknowledges cannabis primes the user into taking other substances but that the mediating influences are not direct and also that more than one pathway may be involved. The gateway theory also acknowledges the role of legal substances (alcohol and tobacco) predisposing adolescents to using cannabis in the first place … One elaboration of the gateway hypothesis is that social disadvantage and low levels of parental attachment are associated with early cannabis use and that these factors are themselves influential in progression to other drugs (Rigter & van Laar, 2002). There are indications that this may be part of the story but not the complete picture.” (Collins, 2004, p. 61)

Contextual Determinants of Drug Use Risk Behavior Individuals and groups exist within a social context: the values and structure of their society. For example, shifts in cultural norms, in the legal definitions of certain behaviors, and in economic factors have been shown to be associated with changes in drug-using behaviors and in the prevalence of drug abuse. The following risk factors (1 through 4 below) exist in the broad social context.

Laws and norms favorable toward behavior Recent research on the effects of laws on alcohol consumption has focused on three interventions by law: (a) taxation, (b) laws stating to whom alcohol may be sold, and (c) laws regarding how alcoholism to be sold. Alcohol consumption is affected by price, specifically the amount of tax placed on alcohol at purchase (Levy & Sheflin,01985). Cook and Tauchen (1982) found that increases in taxes on alcohol led to immediate and sharp decreases in liquor consumption and cirrhosis mortality. Studies examining the relationship of minimum drinking age and adolescent drinking and driving have generally shown that lowering the drinking age increases teen drinking and driving and teen traffic fatalities and raising it decreases teen driving while intoxicated citations (DWIs) and deaths (Cook & Tauchen, 1984; Joksch, 1988). Studies of restriction on how — 115 —

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alcohol is sold have shown that allowing patrons to purchase distilled spirits by the drink increased the consumption of distilled spirits and the frequency of alcohol-related car accidents (Holder & Blose, 1987). However, there was no increase in accidents involving males under the legal drinking age of 21 (Blose & Holder, 1987). A permissive legislation and favorable economic interests that maintain various businesses related to drugs and high social tolerance of any substances are key contextual factors favor different use and abuse of psychoactive substances. Availability The availability of drugs is dependent in part on the laws and norms of society. Nevertheless, availability is a separable factor. Whether or not particular substances are legal, their availability may vary and is associated with use. Research has shown that when alcohol is more available, the prevalence of drinking, the amount of alcohol consumed, and the heavy use of alcohol all increase. With regard to illegal drugs, Maddahian, Newcomb, and Bentler (1988) found in an adolescent sample that two measures of drug availability were significantly related to the use of cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and other illegal drugs, even after controlling for the amount of money available to the subjects. Dembo, Farrow, Schmeidler, and Burgos (1979) reported that the availability of drugs affected substance use indirectly among junior high school youths. Gottfredson (1988) found that drug availability varied in different schools and that drug availability influenced the use of drugs beyond the influence of individual characteristics of subjects. The degree of availability (the number of sales outlets and availability, effectiveness of promotion and distribution mechanisms etc.), both for the licit and illicit to constitute an independent risk factor. Extreme economic deprivation Indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage, such as poverty, overcrowding, and poor housing, have been shown to be associated with an increased risk of childhood conduct problems and delinquency (Bursik & Webb, 1982; Farrington et al., 1990). However, research on social class and drug use has not always confirmed popular stereotypes. — 116 —

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A slight positive correlation between parental education and high school seniors' marijuana use has been reported. R. A. Zucker and Harford (1983) found that parental occupational prestige and education were positively related to teenage drinking. Mother's occupation was positively correlated with monthly alcohol use, heavy alcohol use, and marijuana use among seventh-grade students. The 1988 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse revealed significantly higher lifetime prevalence rates for marijuana use among those with some college education as compared with those who had less than a high school education (Adams et al., 1990). In contrast, Robins and Ratcliff (1979) found that extreme poverty, though not lower-class status per se, was one of three factors that increased the risk of adult antisocial behavior, including alcoholism and illegal drug use, among children who were highly antisocial in childhood. In summary, whereas there appears to be a negative relationship between socioeconomic status and delinquency, a similar relationship has not been found for the use of drugs by adolescents. Only when poverty is extreme and occurs in conjunction with childhood behavior problems has it been shown to increase risk for later alcoholism and drug problems. Social deprivation - poverty, agglomerations and bad living conditions, etc. Social deprivation can be considered a risk factor for drug abuse, longterm contact, the extreme poverty in which associates and other personal and family problems.

Neighborhood disorganization. Neighborhoods with high population density, lack of natural surveillance of public places (C. A. Murray, 1983), high residential mobility, physical deterioration, low levels of attachment to neighborhood , and high rates of adult crime also have high rates of juvenile crime and illegal drug trafficking. Simcha-Fagan and Schwartz (1986) assessed the contextual effects of neighborhood on delinquency and found that community economic level and community disorder- criminal subculture were significantly related to officially recorded delinquency. When neighborhoods undergo rapid population changes, victimization rates increase, even after accounting for race and age differences. Neighborhood disorganization has been hypothesized to contribute to a — 117 —

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deterioration in the ability of families to transmit prosocial values to children (W McCord & McCord, 1959). Although few studies of neighborhood disorganization have explicitly examined its relationship with drug abuse, a deterioration in parental socialization and supervision associated with neighborhood disorganization could also be expected to produce high rates of drug involvement. More research is required to determine the effectsof neighborhood disorganization on adolescent drug abuse.

Individual and Interpersonal Factors Physiological factors The knowledge genetic risk factors are still limited, even if it has evidence from studies (animal or twins) on hereditary predisposition to psychoactive substance abuse (eg. Alcohol). Sensation seeking and low harm avoidance predict early-onset alcoholism (Cloninger et al., 1988). Poor impulse control in childhood predicts frequent marijuana use at age 18. Zuckerman (1987) has suggested that sensation seeking is linked biochemically to platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity, which has also been found to be associated with early-onset alcoholism. Researchers have also studied differences in genetically mediated biological responses to alcohol among children of alcoholics and nonalcoholics. Pollock, Volavka, and Goodwin (1983) reported more slowwave activity on the electroencephalogram (EEG) for children of alcoholics compared with children of nonalcoholics. Schuckit, Parker, and Rossman (1983) found differences in children of alcoholics and children of nonalcoholics in serum prolactin response to administration of alcohol.

Family factors associated with drug abuse The relationship between the young person and his or her parents is critical in developmental terms (Youniss, 1983). Family structure is, in itself, an important variable, and several studies have shown that young people from “disrupted” families use substances more heavily and more frequently — 118 —

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than others (Needle, Su, & Doherty, 1990). As far as parental monitoring and discipline are concerned, it has been reported that “authoritative” parenting is linked with improved outcomes in both school performance and individual development (Steinberg et al., 1989). “Authoritarian” parenting, by contrast, tends to have a negative outcome upon school performance and other behaviours (Steinberg et al., 1994). Table 1. Family factors associated with drug abuse Family history of behaviour problem, including: - parental or sibling role modelling of antisocial values and drug-taking behaviours - favourable attitudes about drug taking - parental criminality, psychopathology and antisocial personality disorder and drug abuse Poor socialisation practices, including: - failure to promote positive moral development - neglect in teaching life, social and academic skills to the child or providing opportunities to learn these competencies - failure to transmit prosocial values and to disapprove of youth.s use of drugs Ineffective supervision of the child, including: - failure to monitor the child.s activities - neglect - latchkey conditions - sibling supervision - too few adults to care for the number of children Ineffective discipline skills, including: - lax, inconsistent or excessively harsh discipline - parental behavioural under-control or psychological over-control of the child - expectations that are unrealistic for the developmental level of the child, creating a failure syndrome - excessive, unrealistic demands or harsh physical punishment Poor parent/child relationships, including: - lack of parental bonding and early insecure attachment - repeated loss of caretakers - negativity and rejection of the child by the parents, including:

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o cold and unsupportive maternal behaviour o lack of involvement and time together, resulting in rejection of the parents by the child - maladaptive parent/child interactions Excessive family conflict and marital discord with verbal, physical or sexual abuse Family disorganisation, chaos and stress - often because of poor family management skills, life skills or poverty Poor parental mental health, including depression and irritability - which cause negative views of the child.s behaviours, parental hostility to child, and harsh discipline Family isolation - lack of supportive extended family networks - family social insularity - lack of community support resources Differential family acculturation - role reversal - loss of parental control over adolescents by parents who are less acculturated than their children Source: Kumpfer, KL, Olds DL, Alexander JF, 1998, pp. 42.

Assuming all parents want the best for their children, what factors support or hinder parents in providing the supervision and care that is needed? There is some concern about social trends (for example, increasing rates of parents in the workforce, sole parents, longer working hours) placing strain on the ability of parents to provide supervision and care. While children might be understanding of their parents working and enjoy the material rewards, the fact remains that employment strains parents, in terms of time constraints and stress levels. The impacts of parental employment and childcare experiences are dependent on a number of factors, such as the nature of the working hours and the quality of childcare. For example, Shonkoff and colleagues discussed the impacts of maternal employment on early child development: we have learned that maternal employment is too complex a phenomenon for simple comparison between young children with and without working mothers to reveal consistent differences. Rather, it is the circumstances of work, such as the income it generates, the proportion of the day the infant is spending in the presence of a security - giving, trusted caregiver, and related effects on family — 120 —

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functioning that lie at the heart of how maternal employment affects young children. In particular, there is now evidence that non - standard working hours which now make up a major share of jobs for poor working women pose a risks for children; and that going to work for long hours during the childˋs first year poses a risk to child development perhaps especially when trade-offs are involved from time in sensitive and stable parental care at home to time in poorer quality alternative care, as they often are.

Early and persistent problem behaviors A longitudinal study of 5-year-olds followed into adulthood (Lerner & Vicary, 1984) found that a difficult temperament, including frequent negative mood states and withdrawal, contributes to drug problems. Children characterized by withdrawal responses to new stimuli, biological irregularity, slow adaptability to change, frequent negative mood expressions, and high intensity of positive and negative expressions of affect more often became regular users of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana in adulthood than "easy" children, who evidenced greater adaptability and positive affect early in life. The frequent marijuana users at age 18 were characterized in childhood by emotional distress. Boys who are aggressive have a higher risk of substance abuse and juvenile delinquency. This increased risk also applies to aggressive behavior combined with hyperactivity or attention deficit disorder. This factor includes persistent antisocial behavior in early adolescence, like misbehaving in school, skipping school, and getting into fights with other children. Young people who feel they are not part of society, not bound by rules, and don’t believe in trying to be successful or responsible, or who take an active rebellious stance toward society are at higher risk of drug abuse, delinquency, and school dropout. Children who were irritable,easily distractible, had temper tantrums, fought often with siblings, and engaged in predelinquent behavior were more likely to use drugs in adolescence. Aggressive behavior in boys appears to signal another path toward later antisocial behavior. Aggressiveness in boys as earlyas ages 5-7 has been found to predict later antisocial behavior including frequent drug use in adolescence , drug problems in adulthood, and delinquency in adolescence. However, early aggressiveness is not invariably followed by serious antisocial behavior. — 121 —

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The earlier young people drop out of school, use drugs, commit crimes, and become sexually active, the greater the likelihood that they will have chronic problems with these behaviors later (Elliott et al., 1985).

Academic failure What is not clear from the existing research is when, developmentally, poor school achievement becomes a stable predictor of drug abuse. The available evidence suggests that social adjustment is more important than academic performance in the early elementary grades in predicting later drug abuse. Early antisocial behavior in school may predict both academic failure in later grades (Feldhusen, Thurston, & Benning, 1973) and later drug abuse. Academic failure in late elementary grades may exacerbate the effects of early antisocial behavior or contribute independently to drug abuse.

Association with drug-using peers Drug use by peer group is one of the factors associated with the greatest consistency for individual consumption. There is recent evidence that shows that the relationship between group membership and drug use is one relationship (individuals willing to join in with the same affinity groups) and, obviously, entry into groups without rules occurs before initiating drug . The peer group consistently and repeatedly represents a key risk factor throughout all of the models. It is therefore important to point out that, in this study, peers are only assessed in terms of their substance-use behavior. By definition, this implies that peers can only be conceived to have negative influences. Since the evaluation of positive peer effects, expressed via participation in sports, music, drama and similar activities, is not studied, we must merely restate that relationships with peers can simultaneously encode a range of risk and protective factors. Peer use of substances has consistently been found to be among the strongest predictors of substance use among youth (Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985). Studies among specific ethnic groups confirm this relationship. The influence of peers on adolescent drug use was stronger than that of parents for Whites, African Americans, Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans. — 122 —

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Conclusion Several general conclusions regarding risks for drug abuse can be drawn, which have implications for prevention. The risk factors reviewed above have been shown to be stable over time in spite of changing norms. Studies conducted in different times and places have shown these factors to predict adolescent drug abuse relatively consistently. This suggests the risk factors' stability as predictors and their viability as targets for preventive work. The risk factors from several domains predict drug abuse. Some factors are characteristics of the individual; others are characteristics of families and their interactions, schools and classroom experiences, peer groups, and broader community, legal, economic, and cultural factors. Acknowledgments This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 - Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence, Competitiveness and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied Scientific Research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!

REFERENCES Adams, E. H., Blanken, A. J., Ferguson, L. EX, & Kopstein, A. (1990). Overview of selected drug trends. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Levy, D., & Sheflin, N. (1985). The demand for alcoholic beverages: An aggregate time-series analysis. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 4, 47-54. Cook, P. J., & Tauchen, G. (1982). The effect of liquor taxes on heavy drinking. Bell Journal of Economics, 13, 379-390. Cook, P. J., & Tauchen, G. (1984). The effect of minimum drinking age legislation on youthful auto fatalities, 1970-1977. Journal of Legal Studies, 13,169-190. Joksch, H. C. (1988). The impact of severe penalties on drinking and driving. Washington, DC: AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. — 123 —

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Holder, H. D., & Blose, J. O. (1987). Impact of changes in distilled spirits availability on apparent consumption: A time series analysis of liquor-bythe-drink. British Journal of Addiction, 82, 623-631. Feldhusen, J. F, Thurston, J. R., & Benning, J. J. (1973). A longitudinal study of delinquency and other aspects of children's behaviour. International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 341-351. Blose, J. O., & Holder, H. D. (1987). Liquor-by-the-drink and alcoholrelated traffic crashes: A natural experiment using time-series analysis. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 48, 52-60. Dembo, R., Farrow, D., Schmeidler, J., & Burgos, W (1979). Testing a causal model of environmental influences on early drug involvement of inner city junior high school youths. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 6, 313-336. Maddahian, E., Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Adolescent drug use and intention to use drugs: Concurrent and longitudinal analyses of four ethnic groups. Addictive Behaviors, 13,191-195. McCord, J. (1979). Some child-rearing antecedents of criminal behavior in adult men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1477-1486. McCord, W, & McCord, J. (1959). Origins of crime. Montclair. NJ:Columbia University Press. McCord, J. (1981). Alcoholism and criminality. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 42, 739-748. Simcha-Fagan, O., Gersten, J. C., & Langner, T. (1986). Early precursors and concurrent correlates of illicit drug use in adolescents. Journal of Drug Issues, 16, 7-28. Simcha-Fagan, Q, & Schwartz, J. E. (1986). Neighborhood and delinquency: An assessment of contextual effects. Criminology, 24, 667-703. Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D, & Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquencyand drug use, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Gottfredson, G. D. (1988). Issues in adolescent drug use. Unpublished final report to the U.S. Department of Justice, Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools, Baltimore. Bursik, R. J., Jr. (in press). The use of contextual analysis in models of criminal behavior. In J. D. Hawkins (Ed.), Some current theories of delinquency and crime. New York: Springer-Verlag. Bursik, R. J., Jr., & Webb, J. (1982). Community change and patterns of delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 24-42. — 124 —

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Farrington, D. P., & Hawkins, J. D. (1991). Predicting participation, early onset, and later persistence in officially recorded offending. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 1,1-33. Farrington, D. P., Loeber, R., Elliott, D. S., Hawkins, J. D., Kandel, D. B., Klein, M. W, McCord, J., Rowe, D. C., & Tremblay, R. E. (1990). Advancing knowledge about the onset of delinquency and crime. In B. B. Lahey & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 283-342). New York: Plenum Press. Kumpfer KL, Olds DL, Alexander JF, Zucker RA, Gary LE. Family etiology of youth problems. In: Ashery R, Robertson E, Kumpfer K, editors. Drug abuse prevention through family interventions (NIDA Research Monograph 177). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1998. Youniss, J. (1983) ‘Social construction of adolescence by adolescents and parents’, in H. Grotevant & C. Cooper (Eds.), New directions for child development: Vol. 22. Adolescent development in the family. London: Jossey Bass, pp. 93-109. Needle, R., Su, S., & Doherty, W. (1990) ‘Divorce, remarriage, and adolescent drug involvement: A longitudinal study’, Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52(1), pp. 157-169. Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. & Mounts, N. (1989) ‘Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity and academic successes among adolescents’, Child Development, 60, pp. 1424-1436. Steinberg, [1] L., Lamborn, S., Darling, N., Mounts, N. & Dornbusch, S. (1994) ‘Over-time changes in adjustments and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families’, Child Development, 65(3), pp. 754-770.

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Chapter IX IX SOCIOSOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH DRUG USE Silviu BUCUR

Abstract The high-risk behaviors among drug users suggest that the group needs rehabilitation programme. Moreover, non-sharing of income suggest that drug users are isolated from social network, therefore primary prevention activities with focus on improving socioeconomic conditions and social networking can reduce drug use through injections. Focused interventions on target districts would be helpful in reducing drug use. The morbidity and mortality associated with psychoactive drug use have been recognized worldwide. Nevertheless, the statistics regarding the extent and prevalence of drug use are difficult to obtain, as drug users are mostly under-sampled in surveys. Globally, drug use poses significant health risk. The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) has indicated an increasing prevalence of IDUs in developing countries during the past decade. Studies have shown socio-economic and demographic factors, such as inadequate education, homelessness, depression, and low income, associated with injecting drug use in the developed world. However, there is a general dearth of scientific literature, especially regarding modes and determinants of drug use, in developing countries. As injecting drug use is associated with number of morbidities, therefore, exploring associated factors will help understand the nature of the problem and eventually address the hazards encountered by this high-risk group. Keywords: Drug Use, Socio-Economic Factors, High Risk Behavior

Introduction Socio-economic factors can interact or accumulate but the effects of each can be difficult to isolate, particularly as the mechanisms by which socio-economic factors influence drug use behaviors and outcomes can be common to multiple socio-economic factors. The eight socio-economic factors discussed, the mechanisms through which they may affect drug use. The global prevalence of psychoactive substance use is increasing. Drug abuse and dependence threaten political, economic, and social values, in — 126 —

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addition to contributing to increases in medical costs and hospitalization, traffic accidents, urban violence, and premature deaths. Socio-economic factors have an association with the etiology of drug use and exacerbation of problems among drug users. Studies of people in drugtreatment facilities highlight the extent of this relationship, with low levels of education and high levels of unemployment and homelessness being typical. Various intrapersonal, micro-environmental, and macro-environmental elements create vulnerabilities to the use of illicit drugs, while the employment opportunities and profits arising from illicit drug production and trading act as incentives to supply. There are thus broader socioeconomic issues which impact on engagement with illicit drug economies. Socio-economic position or status describes a personˋs position in society using criteria such as income, level of education, occupation, value of property owned and so on. (Corburn J., 2004 and Vlahov D, Galea S., 2002)

Economic factors associated with drug use Income Income is necessary to support recreational or problematic drug use. One might be led to believe that people who use drugs get their money for drugs by selling drugs; however, this presumption is not entirely true since many different types of people with many different types of jobs and incomes demand illicit drugs. Drug abuse and poverty are often linked in multiple ways. Drug abuse may occur to relieve the stress associated with poverty, chronic social strain and other difficult events. In poorer neighbourhoods, there is often less access to support systems, health care and community organizations. Additionally, the relationship between drugs and poverty can also work in the inverse direction: drug abuse can deplete users’ income, leading to a lack of care for family and loved ones and other responsibilities. Many of the individuals who use drugs are adolescents between the ages of twelve and seventeen.This group might not have a full time job, nor is there an expectation of them to hold a full time job, since they often are in school. Consequently, understanding where they get their money from is important to understanding adolescents’ demand. Teenagers’ primary income comes from allowances, wages from part time employment, and gifts. — 127 —

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Higher drug-abuse rates are observed in lower income groups. Adolescents from low socioeconomic background are more likely to become smokers than the middle-class counterparts. This difference in smoking pattern may reflect divergent beliefs about tobacco use based on socio-economic status. (Bjartveit K, 1990) Many studies have found a positive relationship between drug use and income in younger people. However, Markowitz and Tauras (2006) investigate how budget constraints affect this group and they find that earned income (income from a part-time job) is positively related to the probability of use and frequency of use. Higher allowances also cause a positive effect with drug use but they do not predict the frequency of drug use. Finally, parental income might be important in relation to drug demand for youth. Markowitz and Tauras find that illicit drug demand does not necessarily decrease with an increase in family income, but higher family income does decrease the frequency of illicit drug use. Bushmueller and Zuvekas (1998) perform an interesting study that determines that income positively affects moderate drug use but negatively affects daily use. One important aspect of Bushm- ueller and Zuvekas’ work is that they differentiate between young adults and what they defined as “prime age” adults (30-45 year olds). When controlling for age, the relationship between drug use and income is not monotonic for younger people. They find that income positively affects drug use for young workers. But income negatively affects heavy drug use and those with lower incomes use drugs more often than those with higher income levels. Also when controlling for age, prime age men display a negative relationship to problematic drug use and employment but younger men do not. It might be argued against Bushmueller and Zuvekas that drug use affects income attainment. In another comparable study, Gill and Michaels (1991) conclude that drug use actually increases wages a little for all ages of people, and thus peo- ple earning an income demand more illicit substances.

Employment The drug abuse can reduce a person's employment prospects, both by reducing productivity and by decreasing the chance of getting a job in the first place. Those who are unemployed or otherwise out of the labor force may face financial hardship or simply have more unstructured time, either of which can result in a higher propensity to consume these substances, — 128 —

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everything else held constant. If so, it would only be natural to think that a national increase in unemployment - such as during the Great Recession— could lead to increased drug abuse and persistent drug addiction issues. One issue that arises when considering drug policy is how drug use might affect productivity and in turn wages. Gill and Michaels find that drug use is associated with a reduced probability of employment. According to their demand side findings, lower productivity and increased absenteeism from work may indicate drug use. Supply side findings indicated that drug use seems to be a leisure activity. However, if use is a leisure activity then their results remain unclear because use of hard drugs has less negative effect than use of simple drugs (1992). In a previous but comparable study, Gill and Michaels (1991) suggest that a strong association exists be- tween occupational categories and drug use. Van Ours (2006) investigates employment and productivity effects of the use of cocaine and cannabis. He finds that the job attainment rate decreases with cannabis use. In fact, as soon as someone starts using illicit drugs their likelihood of finding a job goes down. Much of this decrease can be attributed to required on-the-job drug testing. When an individual finally holds a full time job, three different outcomes are possible for the individual according to Van Ours. First there can be past cannabis use and no current cannabis use, second there can be past and current cannabis use, and finally there can be no past cannabis use and no current cannabis use. The unemployment rate increases as past demand increases for cannabis, while the unemployment rate decreases as past cocaine use increases. Large­scale population surveys indicate that drug and alcohol dependence is more prevalent among the unemployed, least educated, and lowest wage­ earners. A study completed for the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, in which 38,501 respondents over the years of 1994 through 1996 were surveyed, found that unemployed respondents were the most likely to report lifetime, past­year, and past­ month illicit drug use. Unemployed respondents also consumed larger quantities ofalcohol than those employed full­time Social Factors associated with drug use Education The relationship between drug use and dropping out of high school has attracted the attention of researchers. There is little question that these — 129 —

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issues are interrelated. Initially students become frustrated with school and then become less involved. These students are more likely to acquire deviant behavior and are consequently less likely to complete school. The impact of prior drug use on dropping out of school may be spurious because it plays so much on other school and family factors. Some theorists believe that dropping out of school reduces the level of frustration students feel and reduces involvement in drug use. Social control theorists, on the other hand, view dropping out of school as disengaging from society and thus increasing the rate of drug use (Krohn et al., 1995). Drug abuse is an important problem that affects school-age youth at earlier ages than in the past. Young people frequently begin to experiment with alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs during the middle school years, with a smaller number starting during elementary school. By the time students are in high school, rates of substance use are remarkably high. Krohn, Thornberry, Collins-Hall, and Lizotte (1995) use several variables related to school and family dimensions, as well as dropout status, drug use and serious delinquent behavior to esti- mate a model. They ask two questions: (1) what are the effects of prior delinquency and drug use (2) what is the effect of dropping out of school on subsequent delinquency and drug use? They find that it is not clear how these three forms of problematic behavior may precede dropping out of school, but these things may all also be caused by the same predictor values. Chatterji (2006) also estimates a model to determine the association between illicit drug use during high school and the number of years of high school completed. He finds that marijuana and cocaine demand while in high school reduces the number of years of high school actually completed.

Prior Incarceration Alcohol and illicit drugs are involved in many violent crimes and other serious offenses. For example, at least half of the adults arrested for major crimes, such as homicide, theft and assault, and more than eight in ten arrested for drug offenses, tested positive for drugs at the time of their arrest (Schneider Institute, 2001).” Approximately half of state prisons’ inmates and forty percent of federal prisoners arrested for committing violent crimes admit to being under the influence of drugs or alcohol at the time of their arrest. — 130 —

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A former drug addict himself, Charles Terry, studies the relationship between drug addiction and imprisonment. Escalating numbers of incarcerated individuals have committed a drug offense or several drug offenses. Their demand continually increases through their lifetime. The Bureau of Justice Statistics finds that 82 percent of people on parole are returned to prison because of drug and alcohol use. Further, the number of people in prison for drug use has increased seven- fold from 1978 to 1996 (Terry, 2003). Terry finds that the regular drug users in his study had similar characteristics. They all came from mostly lower socioeconomic environments in which violence, prison time and the use of illegal drugs were nor- mal. As children the subjects were exposed to all of these factors and thus found themselves in the same situation later in life (Terry, 2003). Illicit drug use is frequently associated with behavioral problems, which, depending on the substance and the amounts used, may include or result in aggression or violence. That said, drug users may have been affected by conduct disorders and anti-social personality disorders prior to their drug use, which makes them susceptible to involvement in crime and drug abuse. Figure 1. Evolution of the number of persons convicted for drug offenses, in the period 2001 - 2012

Source: Romania Superior Council of Magistracy

Demographic factors associated with drug use Geographic Location It is believed that preferences towards drugs may differ over geographic areas. Many studies use geographic location in some way as an independent control variable. Some use geographic location to mean the difference between urban and rural areas. DeSimone and Farrelly (2003) caution — 131 —

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against interpreting results when geographic fixed effects are not included because studies have showed that the magnitude of price responsiveness is overestimated when fixed effects are not included. Few studies have compared the socio-demographic factors associated with drug use among people in urban, rural, and metropolitan areas. To examine whether residence in these areas modifies the relationship between socio-demographic factors and substance use disorders, researchers employed a nationally representative survey of 8098 adults in the United States aged 15–54 years. African Americans were significantly protected against substance use disorders in rural (odds ratios, OR, from 0.2 to 0.3) and urban (ORs from 0.2 to 0.3), but not metropolitan, areas. Workers in services (ORs from 2.2 to 4.4) and craft (ORs from 2.3 to 3.7) occupations, compared with those not in the labor force, were significantly more likely to have a substance use disorder in most geographic areas (borderline significant increased odds of drug abuse and dependence for rural service workers). Metropolitan residents in all occupations (compared with those not in the labor force) and people with no health insurance in all geographic areas (compared with those with private insurance) were also significantly more likely to have a substance use disorder. In poor neighbourhoods where young people suffer exclusion from formal opportunities in terms of education and the job market, drugs and crime can offer an alternative means by which to demonstrate status and achievement. Where low level drug dealing is concerned, this can involve significant monetary gains .Quite apart from monetary gains, success within such local networks is a means to claim respect, demonstrate authority and credibility, and sustain a meaningful lifestyle and identify. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, 1998, p. 40)

Age Adolescence is a time when enormous changes take place in the process of normal development. In many cultures it is, according to one observer, "a time for developing a person's sense of selfidentity, a process that involves separating from parental attachments and values and establishing new social ties, values and ideals. In separating from parents, youth need to form other meaningful relationships. Sometimes the peers with whom the growing youth associates influence him or her to adopt drugs as part of their social — 132 —

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behaviour. However, the effect of drugs may not be to enhance social relationships and selfidentity. Rather, the drugs may cause the growing girl or boy to become apathetic and emotionally detached and, consequently, to face problems of establishing social bonds, with the result that the youth becomes increasingly isolated emotionally and socially" (K. E. Thomas, p. 1470). According to Sickles and Taubman (1991) age is of marginal significance when considering who uses illegal drugs. However, Caulkins, Reuter, Iguschi, and Chiesa (2005) believe that age does not matter and new drug users often are in their teens or young adult years. This research team investigates cocaine addiction, and since cocaine is such a highly addictive drug constant use quickly leads to heavy addiction at a young age. In fact, 17% of those that are heavy cocaine users started using cocaine at an early age. Niskanen (1992) also finds addictive behavior is more likely to occur in those that are younger.

Gender Several studies have incorporated gender in some way. Van Ours (2006) studies the relationship between gender and employment on drug use. He finds that being female has no negative effects on employment when using drugs, and finds that being male has a negative effect on employment when using drugs. Most other studies already mentioned used gender as a control variable in some way.

Race/Ethnicity Wallace and Bachman (2003) determine differences in high school seniors’ drug use dependent on family background and lifestyle behaviors and experiences. Drinking has been found to be more prevalent among white Americans than among people of other races. Re- search indicates that drug use is generally lower than average among black and Asian youth. For Native Americans, drug use is generally higher. In another study, alcohol and drug consumption results indicate that black males and females have higher abstention rates than white counterparts. Black and white females — 133 —

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have similar rates of heavy drinking, but black males have a higher rate of heavy drinking compared with white males.

Conclusions Socio-economic factors at multiple levels have an association with the aetiology of drug use and exacerbation of problems among drug users. Studies of people in drug-treatment facilities highlight the extent of this relationship, with low levels of education and high levels of unemployment and homelessness being typical. Drug-dependent people suffer the double stigma and marginalisation of low socio-economic status and drug dependency. Although the relationships are complex and inconsistent, it is fair to say that socio-economic status can impact upon drug-use behaviours and problems of individuals, families and communities. However, these relationships willvary with the measure of drug use, the measure of socioeconomic status, the group characteristics and the context. These findings have implications for program and policy targeting, as well as adding weight to the need to address the widening socio-economic disadvantage in our country. Whether income inequality is an issue for the drugs field in Romania is a matter for consideration, debate and research. In the meantime, there are clearly inequities in druguse patterns and problems. Low socio-economic status-individuals and groups are disproportionately affected by drug-related problems. The evidence is sufficient for justifying the need to address these inequities (for example, ensuring accessibility of effective treatments for lowincome people), and working to address socio-economic disadvantage, particularly where it is concentrated . geographically and socially.

Acknowledgment This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 - Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence, Competitiveness and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied Scientific Research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-financed by — 134 —

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European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!

REFERENCES Buchmueller, Thomas, and Zuvekas, Samuel H., (1998) “Drug use, Drug Abuse, and Labour Market Outcomes.” Health Economics , 7 (3), pp. 229-245. Gill, A., Michaels, R., (1991) “The Determinants of Illegal Drug Use.” Contemporary Policy Issues, 4 (Issue miss- ing), pp. 93-105. Chatterji, P., (2006) “Illicit Drug use and Educational Attainment.” Health Economics, 15(5), pp. 489-511. K. E. Thomas, "Drugs and human development", in The International Encyclopedia of education Research and Studies, vol. 3, T. Husen and T. Postlethwaite, eds. (Oxford, Pergarnon Press). Gill, A., Michaels, R., (1992) “Does Drug Use Lower Wages?” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 45 (3), pp. 419-433. Van Ours, J., (2006) “Cannabis, Cocaine and Jobs.” Journal of Applied Econometrics, 21 (7), pp. 897-917. Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. Drug misuse and the environment. London: The Stationery Office, 1998. Krohn, M., Thronberry, T., Collins- Hall, L., Lizotte, A. ( 1995) “School Dropout, Delinquent Behavior and Drug Use: An Examination of the Causes and Consequences of Dropping out of School.” In Drugs, Crime and Other Deviant Ad- aptations H.B. Kaplan (Ed.). New York: Plenum, Markowitz, S., and Tauras, J., (2006) “Even for Teenagers, Money Does Not Grown on Trees: Teenage Substance Use and Bud- get Constraints.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 12300, Bjartveit K., (1990) Fifteen Years of Comprehensive Legislation: Results and Conclusions, Proceedings of 7th World Congress on Tobacco and Health. Perth Australia, Corburn J., (2004) Confronting the challenges in reconnecting urban planning and public health. American Journal of Public Health; 94(4):541-546. Vlahov D, Galea S., (2002) Urbanization, urbanicity, and health. 79(4 (Suppl 1)):S1- S12.

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Chapter X CULTURAL IDENTITY AND WORLD REPRESENTATION : THE MALE AND FEMALE MODELS IN THE ROMANIAN TRADITIONAL VILLAGE Camelia BURGHELE

Abstract In this study, I have tried to review only some of the aspects of the spiritual life in the traditional community that show a structure according to the cultural genre. The dual structure of the traditional society, a lot more categorical than the modern society, puts into relationship the microcosmos to the macrocosmos, the natural to the supernatural, the social to the sacred, so that the participation to the social is complemented by the access to the states of the sacred. The anthropological studies conducted on scraps from the folkloric spirituality prove this participation in the daily life, the same as the relations to the supernatural is made on the principles of the communicating vessels: while the social life is the almost exclusive attribute of the masculine, the activism in the access to the sacred, especially through the religion and magic, put in front the feminine performance. Keywords: Masculine, Feminine, Cultural Genre, Sacred, Religion, Magic, Traditional Community

Introduction For the traditional Romanian village environment, the polarization generated by sex and gender is traceable in many social sections, starting from the establishment of relatives line and the property inheritance, up to the appointment of some special relationships to spirituality, and, even more, to the sacred, open to the human kind through magic and religion. Many of these matters generated processes whose effects can be also seen in the modern urban type community, which maintaining a certain social model, made by the gender reference, produces even now the difference between the masculine and the feminine status, be it in a more subtle measure. The problem is a quasi-general one and is related to the building of a cultural pattern of European folkloric communities and which generated a certain role of the woman in the traditional community. Actually, most of — 136 —

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the studies regarding the role theory or the cultural genre theory start from the development of the presence, or, better said, of the absence of the woman in the traditional community (Panea 2001). It starts from a definite ideology excessively androcentrist, according to which the social woman’s activism in the traditional society was poor. The woman’s status is generated by a continuous stream of dependences: to the father; to the husband, and often, even to the eldest son. With a totally different dynamics the masculine segment of the community, marked by a massive social activity, noticeable especially at the decision level. Not only the wife selection belongs to the masculine circle, but also all the other decisions with impact in the own household statute or the community control are reserved to the men (buying or selling goods, economic decisions regarding the household, problems related to the community life and even activities of social settlement kind during some special moments, during the winter holidays, when is present, exclusively, the plough boy group, or on Sundays, when all the plough boys are the ones who engage the musicians and organize the dance). Structurally speaking, the traditional community is masculine oriented, like a pragmatic consequence of the father line and of the patriarchal organization type. For such an organization, women are valued and respected just when in relation to their husbands or the men from their families. This can be also seen from the arrangement (parallel to the official one) developed by personal denominations from the rural community, where the girl, as well as the wife, is strictly related to the carrying husband.

Being a woman and being a man in the traditional Romanian village Methodology / theoretical landmarks and the memory of the Salaj County villagers Going through certain titles in the European ethnology (especially Pierre Bourdieu, Marc Augé, Jeanne Favret Saada) but also the achievement of a few field research sessions in Salaj County villages where we interviewed elder people concerning everyday life during their youth have allowed to outline a way of life specific to the traditional Romanian village. Two identity features have been detected specific to the two cultural genres. These are not divergent but complementary to one another. — 137 —

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Methodologically speaking, the participative observation technique has been employed. Field data has been obtained after research campaigns during which open and half open questionnaires have been applied. Also, several interviews have been carried out regarding the topic and these proved to be real life stories and led to a better comparative analysis of the two life styles - male and female. Through creative excellence, with a relentless fantasy and with exceeding possibilities of idea configuration, the women look like being naturally destined to some activities which exploit the sensitive perception. In this way, the women build, through the gathering of productions during the time, a certain role in the intercourse with sacred and this thing can be foreseen especially in the huge involvement of the women in the erotic and therapeutic magic. As an ingredient of the cultural pattern, generations of women provided excellent performers in domestic magic, with therapeutically and psychotherapeutically ending. A remarkable contribution, as a proof of the feminine magical activism, Nicoleta Coatu’s study regarding woman’s role and conduct in the scenario offered by the therapeutically and psychotherapeutically incantation practice (Coatu 2008). The status as role is being built in the relation of communication context that arise between the therapist practitioner (whose role is a consequence of the pressure of a cultural instituted model) and the human receptor to whom the performance of the magical act (the ill person) is destined and who becomes, in this way, the beneficiary.

Discussion and results The therapeutically incantation practice may be still encountered in many villages from Salaj county; many of the interviewed women were, at least once, with their children, to be charmed away (especially of evil eye or of frightened), or even themselves performed such therapeutically sceneries, learned from their mothers or grand-mothers. To a very well determined feminine role in terms of therapeutically and erotic magic is opposed a very well shaped masculine role, which claims the ecclesiastic hierarchy sphere. The women also actively take part to the religious life of the community; they are excelled through a full of fervently experience of the religious feeling, the one which ensures the background of — 138 —

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the plenary and perpetual evolution of the experienced religion. We only have to think of the great number of women attending the Sunday service, their presence at evening or morning services, during week time, on fasting days they, the making of the communion bread or the pilgrimages; beyond this experience within the borders of a devotional attitude, that was often brought to light by frames typical to the great or even the magic, the church hierarchy are given by men, the ones that claim the accomplishment of a status with a specific role. Concerning the family and household, the man and woman have interpersonal relationships grounded on kinship or those that feature, traditionally the family. However, aside the household, in the public space, that is on the political stage of the society, men and women act as agents of their cultural genre, with no one of their family status, and the typology of a well defined male of female behaviors is developed mainly in the interactions between men and women that do not know each other and do not have previous relationships. Therefore, firstly, in their basic structure, this kind of relationships are grounded on the concept of power and its sharing; the two biological sexes that correspond on the cultural side to the two genres, are related to each other according to they way they have access and they succeed to manage aspects of prestige, resources and options at all the levels, that is of power. The traditional village asserts a distribution of the feminine and masculine roles, with an impact on the household economy, correlated not only with the biological type but with spatiality. Thus, the woman is allotted the household jobs, that do not exceed significantly the spatial limits of it, while the man is dedicated mainly to the field or forest work. However, beyond these criteria, the distribution of the roles in the household, agricultural or seasonal jobs is a matter related to the additional needs and possibilities of the structure of family and household, on the one hand, and to the village community and its life style on the other hand. The entire literature on the field associate the feminine figure to a rich spiritual activity, well represented in the ritual area, materialized in approaches to keep the balance between family and home, on the one hand and nature, space and universe, on the other hand. It is remarkable that most of the ritual therapeutical, fertilizing and erotic approaches set up by women have their natural origin in the household jobs, from where the actors of the magical or magical-religious script can take the fit-up, the ingredients and even the mental schemes (magic by similitude). The involvement of the — 139 —

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women in such an activity through which the daily and the immediate real are outrun in favor of an opening to a world of supernatural, and it is fueled mainly by the fact that in her care there are all the time the children, the family, the home and the animals. Another remarkable matter for the woman is that most of the times, the day begins with an simply though highly symbolical gesture, the one of starting the fire. The housekeeper lights the fire in the stove, either to warm up the room, or to prepare the food. Emblematically, the woman is the one that is responsible for fire and water, the two fundamental elements for the household well-being, but also for the protection of the family members against the evil forces. The woman is the one that lights the fire, and brings water from the well. It is not only about instrumental things for the family food, but also the main ingredients needed for the therapeutical incantation, used by the mother in order to break the evil relations. They say that „witchcraft is mainly a feminine job” (Olteanu 1999), the women being the main actors of the magical-ritual processes, and the main recipients, but also the most significant representatives of the symbolism. Witchcraft in particular, to the extent it is proven in the Romanian land, associates the feminine with the daemonic, especially as a physical, bodily relationship, with evident sexual implications of the two (Olteanu 1999). The case is the same in the erotic magic field: „The witchcraft was practiced mainly by girls, then their mothers, when they were not invited to dance, they were avoided by young men, they were told on, and so on. Some of the witchcrafts were practiced by the girls themselves, only guided by old women, other times they used to practice them in their presence. For the youngsters, the mothers used to go secretly to the women that practiced witchcraft, usually the ones that practiced incantations for diseases as well" (Butură 1968). Therefore, „the witchcraft was performed by the girls or the older women that knew their secrets" (Butură 1968). The research focused on the impact of magic on the structuring of the cultural genres, start from the thought that the force of man is a physical one, while the one of women is developed mainly by the power of the magicalritual approaches. The recurrent observation that is always present in such studies, is the feminine ritual force that develops dually, by defensive magic approaches, or on the contrary, by offensive magic: „le pouvoir masculin va toujours dans le même sens bénéfique, tandis que celui de la femme est á double tranchant, maléfique ou bénéfique, selon les époques ou selon les circonstances" (Segalen 1980). — 140 —

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For Martine Segalen, the fact that the woman is basically in all the traditional cultures the one that provides the well-being, the order and the progress of a home, is certainly originated in two types of activities that the woman assumes: on the one hand the functions that are related to cooking, cleaning, washing, children raising, that are promoted for a better life environment for all the family members, and on the other hand, the magicalritual functions that she performs also for the protection of the home, for its defense of outer evil forces (Segalen 1980). The midwife and the godmother represent feminine traditional representatives with powers close to the divine. They are the only persons that, beyond the care for the body of the newly-born baby, have the power to watch over the authorized entrance of the newly-born baby in the white world, or, on the contrary, they prepare his entrance in the world of the saints, saving thus the soul of the baby of the sin of not being baptized: On the other hand, the feminine imaginary is inhabited by some of the most complex beings, responsible for many deeds. Irina Nemeti features a multifaceted picture, the one of an omnipresent feminine, not only in the Romanian mythical tradition, but also in the world culture: the fairies, those special feminine characters, of an unspoken beauty, who, as in a very special labor division, are specialized, being structured on the logics of folklore type either to the customs and faiths in the holidays during the year, or the ones that sets out the life of the individual (Nemeti 2002). A significant issue for these mental images is that such images cover the entire range of representations, from favorable to evil: the Romanian folklore preserves such a dual nature of the feminine imaginary representations: the fairies, of various „specializations", as the quoted author said, are also celestial occurrences, clean, rescuer, but to the same extent Hell spirits, evil spirits. Their names are varied, because the Romanian tradition is unclear regarding the assignation of the feminine representations with magical powers and often the patrons of some workmanships, old agricultural deities or archaic mythological representations, that are taken from fairies, and so is their range of action: Ielele, Ursitele, Rusaliile, Fetele Pădurii, Strigoaicele, JoimăriŃa, MarŃolea bring people benefits, preordaining about good or healing their illnesses, but they can also cast illnesses by magic or they can carry in bad places the ones that see them on the face; and so they can five or take fertility or health. Their spatial setting is always opposed to the human space, and that is why when such evil presences are exorcised, as in — 141 —

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the therapeutical incantations, they are sent far away in areas unfit for people, but proper for this kind of feminine supernatural beings. In the same way, certain agricultural fertility rituals are performed, by women, as a probable fertility similitude and the transfer from the women to the field: "during long draughts, in Ileanda there is a custom to ask for rain. This request is done as follows: some girls, usually gypsy, are dressed with willow branches, so that no part of their bodies is left uncovered. After this, they walk over the village, crying out loud: God, please give water. Hearing the prayers, the women from the village come out to the gate with bucketful of water and they water the suite. It happens many times that within 2-3 days to pour out the rain, and this strengthens the people’s belief. This custom is spread in many villages and it is repeated many times a year. The gypsies receive for their endeavors flour, fat and smoked meat" (Kiss 1995). The therapeutical magic, similarly to the magic one, is yet another territory held mainly by women, as the Romanian literature and the field research illustrate. As I have already asserted on other occasions, the field research bring to light a significant interest in the beneficial magic practice, as it is the wide range use of customs researches. The magical medicine and the naturist drugs have been the main access path to therapeutics for the traditional community. However, all the three sectors of popular therapeutics and psychotherapeutics – magic, religion and medicine – greatly covered by feminine characters that share their knowledge and attitude from one generation to the other. As I have determined in the several field research conducted by me, in the villages from Sălaj, most of the mothers or grandmothers were instructed to perform illness incantations, which means they can use the fit-up correctly, they know the magic ingredients and they are able to speak the words of the incantation or at least they remember it partly, taking into account the realities of the moment, which is that there is no more broad scale incantation as there used to be a century or two ago. The social and the magical activism seem to work in the traditional society on the principle of communicating vessels, the increasing of one, being followed by the decreasing of the other. From another perspective, the one of genre, there are times when the girls perform greatly and times when the men’s action passes on the foreground. This role interconnection seems as productive as possible in order to approach the way it was perceived in a certain time for the two types, the feminine and the masculine. — 142 —

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An ethnological radiography of the winter holiday time claim another perspective of approach, and this is from the cultural genre theory. A contrastive study confirms that the love magic is contextualized by a magic activism taken to full extent by the feminine part of the community during the winter holidays, when the girls stage performances that aim a marriage, having so a particular status. We consider that this extreme focusing of the erotic magic practices in this time of the year balances a more present social representation of the girls in this period, when the youngsters band hold all the social functions. Nonetheless this balancing of roles translates the social relations to a symbolic level, and the interceder of this transgression is the erotic magic-ritual performance initiated by single girls. The focusing of the magical activism on the feminine through the erotic magic approaches start with the Saint Andrew celebration, named in the popular calendar, Indreiul fetelor, which was preserved also in several villages of Sălaj. Most of the practices enacted by the single girls are related to finding the one (the fate) and to guessing the name of the one that is supposed to get married with. Another holiday that is truly penetrated by the magic inclinations of the women is The Epiphany. As we said, the magic activism of the girls has as march, in the context of the winter holidays, a powerful involvement of the men in the social ground. It is about the activity done by the young people of the village while they went carol-singing, although the information on the field show that this used to work on other occasions during the year. Beyond the erotic magic-ritual of the feminine and of the implications of the men, we have to notice the significant presence of the feminine in all the range of household jobs that are performed prior to winter holidays. „In the Christmas week, the women used to arrange the homes, in spite of all the cold, they take everything out of the house in order to paint, to clean and wash the windows, the pots and all the things in the house, to blow the dust off the clothes" and "one or two days before Christmas, women prepared the holiday food, saying that it is a sin to work during the holidays. Women cook sponge cakes, pretzels for children and the cake of the young men that is bigger than bread and it is beautifully interwoven with many sheets of dough" (Toșa 2000). Another sector of the popular calendar, the one of the spring holidays is set out by sings of fertility and fecundity, especially as an overlapping of the mental pattern on the natural reality: the revival of the nature motivates and — 143 —

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defines scenarios of similar revival and in the time sequence of the human life, marked in the community life of the traditional village by performances with ritual features or at least with reminiscences of a ritual type mind. Saint George holiday (Sângiorz) starts, in the popular tradition with a fight between poltergeists. The momentum is essential for the ritual activity of the feminine, seen from a dual point of view: firstly, „at Sângiorz the poltergeists fight to share the crop and the cow milk"5. Other times the shepoltergeists– evil women and dangerous witches – make a lot of evils in the night before Sângiorz; other she-poltergeist are wandering to take the cow milk from the household in the village. In a magical similitude process, the she-poltergeists can go naked on the field, gathering the dewdrops, but in fact they take the cow milk. In such an evil tension, everything has to be watched: the house, the cow shed, the sheep, the people, so that „for Saint George there is no waste of absinth, celandine, lovage, garlic..." but also green branches (Nicolau 1998), that are used by the young men to get dressed and to express the revival of the season. We can see now how the magic fantastic of the feminine is joined to the masculine practices of fight against evil and life continuance. The magical practices of the shepherds are structured following a consistent standards that aim especially at protection of the sheep against diseases that threat frequently the herds, but more importantly, standards that should be a cross in the path of anti-therapeutical evil practices, that could affect the health and the fertility of the herd. In this structure of magic protection we can fit also the ones that are intended to be used for the protection of the milk, the main product of the sheep, whose consistence, quality and organoleptic features are closely watched by the shepherds by magic approaches. All these aim the sheep both when they are on the fields and while they are in the households. Some practices are done by the feminine representatives, but they have to display clear norms of physical and ritual purity. They are the forgiven and clean women, that belong to the family. There is a set of requirements for the women that performed ritual acts with inclination to the fertility of the sheep; the women had to be forgiven and clean, as with the women that made the bubonic plague shirt of the ones that made the communion bread in the church, but in this case, it is necessary not only a body and soul purity 5

Nastasia Oltean, Rus – Sălaj.

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but a possible maculation through the touch of the sheep. An impure woman, that is during menstruation can infest the milk and this would loose its qualities and it cannot be turn into cheese. Moreover, the woman has to be from the family, from the household or at least kinship. It is another way to protect by magical resorts the property. In its studies on magic and witchcraft in Bocage, Jeanne Faavret Saada had proved that the systematical theft of milk and generally, the emergence of mildew is almost exclusively the result of a human feeling: envy; feeling that creates enemies between families (Favret Saada 1977). A woman that is alien to the family, could turn therefore, due to envy, from a benefic person in an evil one, and instead of protecting the cow milk, she could be tempted to take it for the sheep in her family. The pragmatics of the ritual acts in the traditional communities solved this issue by the keeping of certain ritual stories within the borders of a single property, in the limits of the same family. Additionally, our field research show this trend, of assigning the loss of the products of animals and even people to the feeling of envy turned into a evil act by a woman alien to the respective family. It is interesting the case when this feeling is exacerbated, in spite of (or even for that?) the witch and the victim come from kindred families, and the envy is even more enjoyed by the evil individual. The masculine side of grazing is understandable on a twofold level: both as a job that, by its hardship, specific and location belongs to the masculine, but also as a sequence of magic ritual performances with fertilizing and regenerating features. On the same mental structure there are other shepherd related practices of magical origin, as the lighting of the live fire. The live fire is lit in the first day the herd goes up to the sheepfold and from this fire all the future fires of the fold would be lit, during the grazing. The fire is lit by two young men, usually brothers, cousins or at least friends, and it has to fulfill very strict rules of moral and physical purity („it has to be lit by two cousins, first degree cousins, two cousins from brothers, two twin brothers, young shepherds") (Moraru 1937), being so a feature of the masculine. For Gail Kligman, sheep milking is a good example of archetypal cultural logic, structured as a result of an ambivalence of the hierarchical relationships between masculine and feminine; the women can milk the cows, but they cannot milk the sheep, because they are regarded as sacred animals (as a result of Christianity, where the lamb is a sacred animal): „it cannot risk pollution by sex and blood (...); most of the people assign the — 145 —

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taboo of menstruation. So, the menstruating women are forbidden to get close to the sheepfold. It is thought that their blood would spoil the sheep milk. Women and sheep are in contrast: menstruation, woman, impure, versus lactation, sheep, purity. Men are in the middle" (Kligman 1998). I. A. Goia makes the same remark: „the individual milking from măsuriş (milk measuring) was done exclusively by men, or by men and women, but the last ones had to be clean" (Goia 1982). Moreover, women must not stay near sheep, also due to the fact that, according to the mental magical stories they can steal the sheep milk. Either she-poltergeists, or witches, the oral history shows evil actions initiated by women that steal the products and the milk of animals or it spoils it, or they leave the animals unfertile. The practiced counter-ritual is the one of incantation to bring the manna, done as many incantations to bring manna to sheep, cows and goats that were gathered in previous field campaigns in the villages from Sălaj and they were made almost exclusively by old, so clean women. The interdictions imposed to the women regarding their stay on the sheepfold or near it are according to the requests of purity and cleanness required in order to maintain the milk quality. It is known that tradition requires that the shepherds wash their hands before milking, avoiding so the immediate impurity, resulting from a forbidden manipulation of the milk. The villages from Sălaj maintain also clear interdictions regarding the physical purity. In Treznea, Agrij, Brebi, RăstolŃu Mare, the shepherd’s wife was not allowed to go to the sheepfold, and after a sexual intercourse done in the village, the shepherd had to wash and change his clothes. In Sârbi, Preoteasa, Sâg, where the sheepfold was settled for several months next to the shepherd’s house, he was not allowed to touch his wife during menstruation. In case this happened, „the milk would not curdle" (Goia 1982). I. A. Goia writes that the interdiction of presence for the woman in general, but especially of the impure woman to the sheepfold, was a general rule in the are, people believing that the presence of the menstruating woman at the sheepfold can spoil the sheep or can take the milk and turn their milk to blood. There is also information that assume the shepherd felt compelled to ask any woman that showed at the sheepfold if she is pure, although many villages in the area used to forbid the access of even pure women, especially during the milking time. „In Stârciu and Şeredeiu, the — 146 —

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pure woman coming to the sheepfold “must not make any seaming or knotting", because they „disturb the sequence for sheep milking". In other areas, the young women had to avoid not only the sheepfold, but also the herd encountered in the fields, however the old women, that „are not troubled” could enter the sheepfold" (Goia 1982). On the other part of the holidays, the girls were more involved in the Midsummer Day. Now was a proper time for the health care and beauty: „the single young women washed with dewdrops from the bedstraw, to be beauty as the bedstraw and they used to put bedstraw around their waists, so that they will never have problems with the waist"6, but also now there was the time when they could perform love charms, where the basil was replaced by yellow bedstraw flowers: „the single young women made all sorts of love incantations with bedstraws or they used to put them under the cushion"7. We relate the bedstraw crown twisting and crown twisting at the harvest, as an extension of the ritual activity, where the main actors are feminine. The crown twisting is one of the final moments of the harvest and it is enacted right on the place where the harvest is finished, in the field, from the most beautiful wheat ears, specially selected for the crown. „The twisting is similar to the braid of the girls and it is made mainly by young and beautiful girls, but also, sometimes by old women, provided that they are pure and skilled" (Bot 1982). After twisting, the crown is worn through the village, towards the home. On the way, the crown is worn by the ritually pure girls (one or two girls that took part to the twisting) or by a girl and a young man (sometimes they can be a young married couple). No matter if it is about a young couple or a young and pure girl – and the associations to the fertility and fecundity or, in general for the achievement and final accomplishment, they are much more visible – the crown is worn on the head by a girl that takes a lead, and she is surrounded, in a feminine group solidarity, by the other fellow harvesters. On the road, in the village, the girl and the crown are watered, especially by the young man, but also by the householders that the group goes by. According to the information, the wet crown was a lucky bearer, and that is why it was held in the household for the entire year, and the act of watering the crown develops fertilizing meanings, that were materialized in a 6 7

Aurica Gui, Valcău de Jos - Sălaj Aurica Gui, Valcău de Jos - Sălaj

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favorable time (with rains on time) and in the amount of the harvested wheat. There is also a similitude between the young girls and the fields; the girls that were wet will be like the fields: fertile, productive, rich, beautiful and plentiful. To the dual fertility fields / woman it is associated the crown dance at the end of the harvest. Another remarkable aspect is the information that the girl that wears the crown and it is invited to dance, wearing the crown, in some of the villages it is named bride or the bride of the wheat and she is dressed in white cloths, and in the places the crown is worn by couples it is also simulated a wedding ceremony. As a matter of fact it is said that the girl that wears the harvest crown will get married in that year (Bot 1982).

Conclusions I have tried to review only some of the aspects of the spiritual life in the traditional community that show a structure according to the cultural genre. The dual structure of the traditional society, a lot more categorical than the modern society, puts into relationship the microcosmos to the macrocosmos, the natural to the supernatural, the social to the sacred, so that the participation to the social is complemented by the access to the states of the sacred. The anthropological studies conducted on scraps from the folkloric spirituality prove this participation in the daily life, the same as the relations to the supernatural is made on the principles of the communicating vessels: while the social life is the almost exclusive attribute of the masculine, the activism in the access to the sacred, especially through the religion and magic, put in front the feminine performance. REFERENCES Bot, N. (1982). Şezătoare în zona Năsăudului, în Anuarul Muzeului de Etnografie al Transilvaniei, Cluj Napoca, p. 9, p. 13 Butură, V. (1992). Cultura spirituală românească, Ed. Minerva, Bucureşti, p. 68, 73 Coatu, N. (2008). Structuri magice tradiționale, Ed. Bic All, București Favret Saada, J. (1977). Les mots, la mort et les sorts. La sorcellerie dans la Bocage, Ed. PUF, Paris, 1977 — 148 —

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Goia, I. A. (1982). Zona etnografică Meseş, Ed. Sport Turism, Bucureşti, p. 65, p. 67, p. 68 Kiss, F. (1995). CredinŃe populare din Sălaj culese de Josef Kadar până în anul 1892, in Acta Musei Porolissensis, XIX, Zalau, p. 529 Kligman, G. (1998). Nunta mortului. Ritual, poetică şi cultură tradiŃională în Transilvania, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, p. 54 Moraru, T. (1937). ContribuŃiuni la aprinderea focului viu în Ardeal, Maramureş şi Bucovina în Anuarul Arhivei de Folclor, nr. IV, Cluj Napoca, p. 235 Nemeti, I. (2002). Zânele în mitologia românilor în Revista BistriŃei, XVI, Bistrița Năsăud Nicolau, I. (1998). Ghidul sărbătorilor româneşti, Bucureşti, p. 46 - 47 Olteanu, A. (1999). Şcoala de solomonie. DivinaŃie şi vrăjitorie în context comparat, Ed. Paideia, Bucureşti, p. 9 Panea, N. (2001). Zeii de asfalt. Antropologie a urbanului. Ed. Cartea Românească, Bucureşti Segalen, M. (1980). Mari et femme dans la société paysanne, Ed. PUF, Paris, p. 127, 133 Toşa, I. (2000). Crăciunul în lumea satului românesc de la sfârşitul secolului al XIX-lea, Ed. Dacia, Cluj Napoca, p. 31

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Daniela Mihaela Ciocoiu

Chapter XI XI THE STAGING OF EDUCATIONAL CHILDREN'S OPERA Daniela Mihaela CIOCOIU

Abstract: Children's operas have always been very successful, both with children and with grown-ups who relive their childhood each time they see these beautiful shows for children. In an age when opera audiences is getting more and more diverse and demanding as far as the repertory of this vocal-theatrical genre is concerned, children's operas emerge naturally in the creation of composers from various musical centres. Education through art plays an important role in child development, both in the case of the children who receive it as part of the audience and of those who perform it, being endowed with artistic skills. Keywords: Opera, Children, Education, Artistic skills

Introduction The staging of children's operas has always been accompanied by success, both with children and with grown-ups who relive their childhood each time they see these beautiful shows for children. In an age when opera audiences is getting more and more diverse and demanding as far as the repertory of this vocal-theatrical genre is concerned, children's operas emerge naturally in the creation of composers from various musical centres. The performance of children's opera shows is meant to teach the children to behave till the end of the show and to familiarize them with classical music, contributing to the development of their imagination and taste for beauty. This kind of education starts at an early age, and consistency is always needed in the cultural projects that address the children. In the past year, I staged and singed in two children's operas. Not only did I aim to produce high-quality shows but also to educate the children the future audience of the performances offered by the Opera House and the — 150 —

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Philharmonic Orchestra and, why not, our future artists. I designed my directing so as to be enticing and dynamic, trying to capture the children's interest and to make them behave till the intermission. The costumes were lively coloured, the make-up was as close as possible to reality, the scenery was adapted to the story as realistically as possible. At the beginning of the opera, a character from the story went out on stage and explained to the children how they should behave in a performance hall. He promised that if they behaved they would get a surprise at the end. Moreover, the parents and carers present in the hall were asked to supervise them and to keep them silent during the entire show. The operas were very successful, both with children and grown-ups; we were invited to perform at the Iaşi Romanian Music Festival and at the Christmas concert held by the “Moldova” Philharmonic orchestra, where we were accompanied by the Iaşi orchestra. I believe that the staging of these children's operas helped me achieve all the goals, especially the educational one: the children were very understanding and disciplined during all the shows.

The Opera for children and grown-ups The first Romanian opera composed especially for children is “the opera for children and grown-ups" The Goat and her Three Kids, by Alexandru Zirra, written in 1938 in Iaşi. It opened under Jean Bobescu's musical guidance at the Romanian Opera House in Bucharest, on 23 December 1941. It was also staged in Cluj and Iaşi during the 1959-1960 season. After a long period during which it was no longer performed, I staged it on the 1st of March 2015, when it received a very warm welcome from the audience. Charmed by the beauty and appeal of Creangă's stories and tales, the composer Alexandru Zirra chose the moralizing story of the goat and her three kids as the topic of the work which would make him well-known in the genre of children's operas. The idea to illustrate with music the stories of the Moldova-born writer had come to Zirra's mind fifteen years before (1925), when he wrote the symphonic poem Păcală și Tândală. However, as it was a musical genre too complex to be enjoyed by children, Alexandru Zirra understood that in order to get into the world of children he needed a synthetic genre to illustrate his new project: the opera for children and grown-ups The Goat and her Three Kids. — 151 —

Daniela Mihaela Ciocoiu Figure 1 The Goat and her Three Kids (The Opera for children and grown-ups The Goat and her Three Kids by Alexandru Zirra staged in Iaşi in 2015)

(source: own research) With a simple yet dynamic story, the opera encompassed original and accessible tunes, which ensured its popularity and success and made it a work of reference within the genre of Romanian children's opera. Unlike other works by contemporary composers, his opera uses a musical language that is both complex and mature. The accessibility of his music is given by the originality with which the composer introduces musical themes from Romanian traditional music and then develops them in scores of great artistry. Known as a good orchestrator, Zirra highlights various sound effects based on the different voice colours of instruments, making the discourse tense or loose, according to the development of the story. The three acts are relatively equal in length, and each act delimits distinct moments from the story. Thus, Act I tells how the goat left her house and how the wolf came, found the hidden kids, and took two of her three of them away; Act II presents the dialogue between the goat, the vixen and the fox, and their plans for revenge; Act III depicts the party thrown by the goat for her pal, the wolf, and the latter's punishment. Because these three moments are so well connected, the composer chooses to create three — 152 —

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unitary acts, which are not divided by sections that mark the traditional overture, airs, duets, trios, ensembles, or choirs. In other words, musical moments proceed with no interruption until the curtain drops to let the preparations for the next act begin. The characters are introduced into the stage with the help of specific musical motifs, making it easier for children to understand music. This example of musical construction under the form of a leitmotif is also to be seen in the motto which illustrates the goat's song, which produces a simple and happy tune that emerges, in various shapes, throughout the entire opera, giving it its unity. The orchestration is ample and it superimposes to the group of strings (violins I, violins II, violas, cellos and double basses) the group of woodwinds and brass (two flutes and a piccolo, two oboes, an English horn, three B-flat clarinets, two bassoons and a contrabassoon, four F-horns, three B-flat trumpets, three trombones, a tuba), the harp and the percussion. So the orchestral apparatus is quite ample, but this extended dimension is needed to support the rich writing advanced by the composer. Figure 2 The Goat and her Three Kids (The Opera for children and grown-ups The Goat and her Three Kids by Alexandru Zirra staged in Iaşi in 2015)

(source: own research)

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As far as the vocal cast is concerned, the action focuses on the main characters (the goat, the three kids and the wolf) while the other characters play secondary parts. The goat's part should go to a contralto because a lowpitched voice confers more maturity to the mother's part. The difference in age and personality of the three kids forced the composer to use differently pitched voices: the eldest kid's part should be sung by a soprano, the middle kid by an alto, and the youngest kid should be a sopranino, as the highpitched register allotted to this character renders the innocence and vitality specific to its age. The youngest kid is one of the characters who spends most of the time on stage and we may even see it as a key-character in this little story, in which it is involved as either a witness or an active participant. Thus, the opera follows its development as a character who also becomes the beneficiary of the moral gist in Creangă's story. At the opposite end from this character is the wolf, whose part goes to a bass. The bear is another male character, and he also fulfils the role of the story-teller. The difference between the two characters is also emphasized by different pitches: the wolf is mean so he has a low-pitched tessitura, while the bear is a neutral character whose part is played by a baritone. The group of soloists is supplemented by the fox (tenor) and the vixen (light soprano); both of their voices are high-pitched because they play a positive part in the development of the story, as they support and help the goat in her attempt to punish the bad wolf. So as to make the syncretic genre use all its resources in the creation of this opera, Zirra also introduced into the equation an animal choir made up of equal voices. The stage is rendered complete by a small ballet ensemble who gives more dynamism to orchestral moments. As the acts have no architectural delimitations we cannot talk about classic forms; it is difficult to organize the material so as to reveal the structural patterns that make up each moment. Although children's operas make no concession as far as quality is concerned - and some of them are really hard to understand for children -, dynamic directing, lively coloured costumes, scenery adapted for children and movement on stage manage to make them behave till intermission or till the end of the show. Another opera endeared by children is Peter Pan's Story, composed by LaurenŃiu Profeta in 1980. The composer wrote many other works for children, proving that he was always interested in their world and that he tried to embellish the beauty of childhood through music; his works are also — 154 —

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an efficient means to form the children's musical skills and sensitivity. The composer himself confessed: "in the world of children I found everything that was dear to me: sincerity, harmony, balance, fantasy, humour”. Thus, he composed the Symphonic Suite Zile de vacanță [Holiday Days] (1956), a work for a story-teller and orchestra, Brăduțul singuratic [The Lonely Little Fir Tree] (1960), which addresses the children as an audience, the suite Cântece de tabără [Camp Songs] (1957) for soloists, a children choir, and orchestra, the oratory Întâmplarea în grădină [The Happening in the Garden] (1958), the suite Șase piese humoristice [Six humorous pieces] (1966) for soloists, a children choir and a small orchestra, and Poemul pădurii [The Wood's Poem](1960) for a children choir, piano and magnetic tape. The works which address the children make no concessions as far as musical quality is concerned, "the merit of Laurențiu Profeta's works – among which, the frontrunners are, in our opinion, The Oratory and the suite Six Humorous Pieces – lies in the use, especially in the oratory, of several traditional means with a personal added note but also in the exquisite nature of the musical material, as far as both the melody and the harmony are concerned”(Zeno no year: 356). In his works, the composer used simple and accessible tunes and a graceful orchestration, which made his scores be loved and last in time. The comic children's opera Peter Pan's Story and the ballet The Prince and the Pauper are the composer's most representative creations. In his work, "musical theatre for children and young people plays a central part, due to the multiple channels through which it captures attention and engages the receptivity of the audience towards the understanding of its specific universe; music emerges in a favourable context and thus it can be better assimilated. Our creation within this genre is not as rich as we would like it to be, so any enterprise in this respect is beneficial” (Codreanu no year: 71) The most representative title in the repertory of children's operas is Peter Pan's Story in three acts, on a libretto by Eugen Rotaru, who adapted James Matthew Barrie's8 story. The music, created and felt from within the world of childhood, underlines and brings the action to life in a crafty way, making the people who left childhood behind meditate and look back nostalgically, 8

James Matthew Barrie (1860-1937) – Scottish writer and playwright, became famous for the creation of Peter Pan, the main character in the children's novels: Peter Pan (1904), Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens (1906), Peter and Wendy (1911).

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and rendering happy and joyous those who, being at the age of innocence, know how to cherish the play between dream and reality. Figure 3 Peter Pan's Story (The children's opera Peter Pan's Story by Laurenţiu Profeta)

(source: own research) Written in 1980, it opened at the Romanian Opera from Bucharest in 1984, and it benefited from the contribution of some remarkable artists – Alexandru Tocilescu - director, Laurețiu Profeta - musical director, and Claudiu Negulescu - master of the choir Voces primavera. The soloists included Marcel Roșca, Elvira Cârje, Nicolae Constantinescu, Lucia Cicoară Drăgan, Cristian Mihăilescu, Anca Sigartău - and the show was also recorded by Electrecord (1985). The work was devoted to the children choir Voces Primaverae: „I dedicate this work to the Voces Primaverae children's choir. Whenever I listen to them, I feel like music is the eighth wonder of the world (...). I owe the return to an initial, pure state, to a child's experiencing of music, to the contact with these wonderful „spring voices”. We always need the lesson in sincerity taught by children's art; it shelters us from barren artifice, cold speculation, from anything that might set us apart from the emotional hearth of music” (Quote from the first page of the score. Dedication to the children choir, Voces Primavera. By Profeta, Laurentiu)., Not long after its opening in Bucharest, the comic children's opera was also staged at the Iaşi Opera House, during the 1984-1985 season, with

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Gheorghe Victor Dumănescu as the musical director, Anton Bișoc as the choirmaster, and Marina Emandi-Tiron as the artistic director. Twenty-eight years after its opening night, in 2012, the opera was staged once more at the Romanian Athaeneum in Bucharest by Professor Claudia Codreanu from the Bucharest University of the Arts; the cast included students from her bel canto class and students from the music pedagogy class. The show was also staged under the aegis of the Association Classic is fantastic9 in 2013, but with no prose, minimal scenery and improvised costumes. Nevertheless, the show was successful and children loved it. On 1 June 2014, this children's opera was staged once more in Iaşi, in the concert hall of the Octav Băncilă National Arts College; the performance met all the requirements of the opera, with the exception of the orchestra, due to the lack of room, as the hall did not fit an opera show. Whenever it was staged, the opera enjoyed a real success, both with young and grown-up audiences. Thus, Peter Pan's Story proves to be a valuable creation, which conveys artistic truths and is able to fascinate the audience. Its engaging yet accessible music is easily endeared by children. An important factor in this respect is the libretto. The text written by Eugen Rotaru is not "a translation nor an adaptation of James Matthew Barrie's Peter Pan - published in 1904 (...) - but a new take on it, which takes over the idea 'of the boy who wouldn't grow up' (in order to keep his ingenuity, his love of life, his faith in good, his capability of understanding reality in a manner which is fundamentally and always human) and thus manages to convey the thrill and the winged fervour specific to the character to whom the English people have devoted a statue in Kensington Park” (Codreanu, P., 1984 p.71.) The opera Peter Pan's Story starts in the room of the Darling children where the scenes in the first and third acts take place - a lively coloured room, full of toys, story books, coloured pencils - as most children's rooms are. The choir is integrated into the scene's scenery with the help of ageappropriate costumes and suggestive make-up. At the end of The Prologue, the characters are introduced by the storyteller, and the three children enter the scene, introducing themselves through joyful declamations, each in their own way: John with a sailor's salute, Michael, doing the same but 9

Classic is fantastic – a project initiated by the George Enescu Philharmonic Orchestra, the Association Classic is fantastic and the Odeon Theatre from București, whose goal is to produce educational shows within the series „How to understand music”.

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syllabifying, and Wendy with a reverence, followed by the choir's joyful cheers which mark the beginning of the story. Soon after, Nana the dog walks to the foreground, dressed and face-painted as realistically as possible, reproducing the movements and the attitude of a dog, carefully studied beforehand and rendered on stage by happy and expressive barks, which show her love for the children. The owners love their pet, singing and imitating her movements, which vary from a verse to the next. The scene is humorous, full of colour and dynamism. The characters may also be transvestite, with the mention that the performers should nevertheless render faithfully the characters' pitches, attitudes, and behaviour. Peter Pan, the boy who would not grow up, is the only child performer who should display theatrical as well as vocal qualities: to keep the purity of vowels as a result of correct emission, to acquire roundness and artistic colour. For this role, the composer created simple melodies, but on a scaffolding which is rather high-pitched for children, highlighting the performer's crystal-clear, melodious voice. Figure 4 Peter Pan's Story

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Peter Pan's Story is an opera with easily memorable music; quite often, the children hum the songs they have just heard when they leave the hall, as both the tunes and the lyrics are easy to remember. Conclusions I strongly believe that such shows should be staged in all opera and philharmonic orchestra houses, because education starts at an early stage, by taking part in as many shows as possible; thus, the children learn how to behave in a performance hall but also the musical stories that contribute to their harmonious development.

Acknowledgement This paper was written and published under the auspices of the Research Institute for Quality of Life, the Romanian Academy, as part of the project co-financed by the European Union through the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resource Development 2007-2013 Multi and interdisciplinarity in doctoral and post-doctoral programmes - Project Code POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086

REFERENCES Codreanu P. (1984), Cronica Operei Naționale Române Bucureşti, Revista Teatrul, Nr. 12 (year XXIX), December. Constantinescu, G., Caraman-Fotea D., Sava, I.(1971). Ghid de operă, Editura Muzicală a Uniunii Compozitorilor, Bucureşti. Popovici D. (1974), Introducere în opera contemporană, Editura Facla, Timişoara. Sava, I. and Vartolomei L. (1979). Dicționar de muzică, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, Bucureşti. Sbârcea G. (1979). Povestiri din lumea operei, Editura Ion Creangă, Bucureşti. Vancea, Z.(no year). Creația muzicală românească – sec. XIX-XX, vol. II, Editura Muzicală, Bucureşti. p. 356 — 159 —

Sorina Corman • Cristina Tnnescu

Chapter XII BETWEEN JUSTICE AND SOLIDARITY IN PROVIDING SOCIAL SERVICES Sorina CORMAN Cristina T2N2SESCU

Abstract The article presents ethical dilemmas that professionals in the social services system are facing, aimed at highlighting the importance of access to information, supervision, and lifelong training. At the beginning there are several conceptual aspects, as well as theoretical outlooks on ethical dilemmas of social welfare, starting from a warning call transmitted by a social worker. A review of the typology in social dilemmas is also carried out in the first part of the article. When making the transition from general to specific issues, one shows the professional’s situation, found himself between justice and social solidarity while providing social services. To provide social services one needs both justice and solidarity, both perspectives being essential, although it is very difficult to take both of them into account at the same time. The choice, however difficult it is to be made proves its doer’s professionalism and whether the values underlying the welfare act justifies and certifies this. Keywords: Social services, Dilemma, Justice, Social Solidarity

Introduction “I found myself many times in situations of having to choose and I did not know what to do. I was stressed, I questioned, I asked for help, but I did not get it. I made decisions that ultimately have been challenged either by some (assisted/ beneficiaries/ clients) or by others (bosses). I felt that whatever I did was wrong from a certain point of view. I felt I had failed, both as a person, and as a specialist”, declares a social worker. In this article we intend to present a different approach on ethical dilemmas that social workers, and not only them, face in practice, namely the forms and manifestations of objectivity and value distortion. We have used this chapter to highlight the fact that whatever the viewpoint — 160 —

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(beneficiaries, practitioners, institution/ organisation, community, profession, society) values are addressed, we can refer to and deal with their distortion, since there are different or contradictory situations in human nature, life matters, ways of addressing these matters, system and its functionality. The choice made proves its doer’s professionalism, and whether the values underlying the welfare act justifies and certifies this. Ethical problems in professional practice appear when conflicts arise on such matters as problem identification, goal setting, prioritisation, decisions on the means used, strategies to follow, desired results from customer, practitioner, agency, community, profession, or society perspective (Corey, Schneider Corey, Callanan, 2010: 76-111). Regarding the ethical issues of social work, different views have been grouped into two categories: 1. those advocating moral indifference (Fishkin, 1982), who (taking over Sigmund Freud’s approach on professional practice) believe that the social worker only needs a high level of professional skill and understanding because most of his deeds do not involve any moral issue, but are the result of his/her free choices between different alternatives to chose and 2. those who believe that social workers not only face problems they automatically solve, but rather they face problems involving moral judgments (Loewenberg, Dolgoff, & Harrington, 2000:8). Rick Houser, Felicia L. Wilczenski and MaryAnna Ham, in their work Culturally Relevant Ethical Decision-Making in Counseling, identify as potential causes of ethical dilemmas: competing loyalties, different cultures, races, sexual orientation, traditions, religious or spiritual beliefs etc. (2006: 146-148).

Literature review: ethical dilemmas in providing social services Social work practitioners often find themselves in the situation to decide the compliance with standards regulations in the social protection system, even if this limits their effectiveness to provide quality services (Bernstein & Hartsell, 2000; Congress, 1998; Jayaratne, Croxton, & Mattison, 1997; Loewenberg, Dolgoff, & Harrington, 2001; Reamer, 1998, 2001; StromGottfried, 1999). Social worker’s interventions in various cases of difficulty, vulnerability, risk often imply dimensions involving choosing between two desirable or undesirable alternatives, these facing one or more dilemmas. We are talking — 161 —

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about an ethical dilemma, when a person faces a choice between two conflicting moral principles and it is not clear what the right choice is (Australian Association of Social Workers - AASW). Ethical problems arise when moral dilemmas raise questions that cannot be answered by what we simple and clear call a rule, thus requiring a certain authority (Beauchamp, Childress, 1994: 4). Beauchamp and Childrens (1994) proposed four principles which may guide staff conduct when facing dilemmas in their professional activity: principle of nonmaleficence (Beauchamp and Childrens 1994: 189), principle of autonomy (Beauchamp and Childrens 1994: 121), principle of beneficence (Beauchamp and Childrens 1994: 259) and principle of justice (Beauchamp and Childrens 1994: 327). Social care practitioners are in danger of losing sight of broader social objectives. They should not turn into mere managers acting in an impersonal bureaucratic manner, who do not us their abilities and skills to improve the quality of people’s lives. There is a long lasting concern in finding a rational justification for the principles able to enable people to act morally. Since Epicurus, one talks about man absorbed by the struggle for his personal fulfilment. If D. Hume, Marx or Nietzsche wondered to what extent it was worth identifying some rational principles to guide human action, many modern philosophers have proposed various standards and principles able to play this guiding role (Reamer, 1999: 63-64). By moving from meta-ethics to normative ethics, we try to approach dilemmas faced by a social worker in practice, from the perspective of normative theories of ethics. The literature highlights the existence of two categories of ethical theories: deontological ethical theories and teleological ethical theories (Kagan, 1998:192-240; Rawls, 1999:19-29; Rawls, Maffelltone, Santi, 2002: 35-36; Donnelly, 2003: 40-42; Hawley, 2007:85-91). The first category is focused on obligations, duties, and social worker’s professional roles arising from this status. The actions are either right or wrong in themselves, rather than their effects, ends, or consequences, compared to teleological ethical theories. Human’s main quality is his dignity (Kagan, 1998: 240-311; Pojman, Fieser 2007: 14-63). For deontologists, rules, rights and principles are sacred and inviolable (Reamer 1999: 65). Their realm defines the purposes behind direct actions. The moral value of actions arises from universal and necessary principles underlying them and not from their purpose. Supporters of deontological ethical theories consider — 162 —

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that it possible for an action or rule underlying an action to be right or compulsory, even if it does not have positive effects on society or the universe. Therefore, they can take any view on what is good or wrong, regardless of whether its consequences are correct or incorrect (Frankena, 1973: 23-52). Topics such as justice, care, responsibility and recognition are addressed in the theories of moral and political philosophy on one hand, and social protection and solidarity, on the other hand. A first category of moral philosophy specific theories are represented by those focused on fairness and justice. John Rawls in his work, A Theory of Justice, exposes his thesis of justice as fairness. Using the veil of ignorance metaphor, he describes a situation where people are not aware of their natural gifts/ talents, their moral values guiding their actions and their particular preferences. Facing this situation, he claims, people will adopt the following two principles of justice: 1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all; 2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both: attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity and to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle (1999: 52-77). Another supporter of the theories of fairness and justice is Martha Nassbaum who, starting from Aristotle’s theory of social justice, seeks to clarify the role of satisfying human needs within that category of theories. She, together with Amartya Sen in the work The Quality of Life considers that the idea of „quality life” is essential to economic and social development, based on public order, social legislation and especially community programs (Nussbaum, Kumar-Sen, 1993:95-132, 165-177; Nussbaum 2011:14-20; 46-100). Criticism of these theories was brought by Robert Nozick in his work Anarhie, stat şi utopie (“Anarchy, State and Utopia”), and by Michael Walzer’s work The Spheres of Justice, who reject state intervention in the distribution of goods to individuals (Nozick, 1997; Walzer, 1983). A second category of political philosophy theories is built on theories based on human cooperation, which stresses the importance of mutual support for proper functioning of the community. Among their supporters, Michel Walzer offers a philosophical framework of understanding criticism and social practice based on involving each individual together with others, — 163 —

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to ensure social functionality (Walzer, 1983: 33-66). Criticism of these theories supporting modernity focuses on criticising modern moral discourses and practices as lacking substance (MacIntyre, 1981: 22-34). According to these critics, modern identity actually means social isolation (Taylor, 1989: 285-304). Another category of theories are the theories based on compassion, underlying Schopenhauer’s traditional ideas (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 29). In this category fall those theories starting from Judith Butler's ideas on human precariousness. Her work, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence, was written by Butler as a protest against US policies, which enact violence in such situations as the war in Iraq, the treatment of Palestinians, or Guantanamo prisoners etc. (Butler, 2006: 128-152). Theories conceptualising communication as a way of identifying socially accepted rules and norms are also important. Communicative action is an indispensable aspect of society, in Jürgen Habermas’s opinion (2000:105-214). Philosophers such as Honneth, Ricoeur, and Fraser consider morality as a starting point in establishing rules and social norms. Honneth, for example, believes that we depend, on one hand, on our moral relationships with our peers and, on the other hand, on the ethical life, and has conceptualised it as critical and normative standard. Along with Fraser, in an attempt to combine the idea of recognition, with the requests for egalitarian reallocation of resources (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, StaubBernasconi, 2010: 29) concluded that justice is a concept which may be operationalised on three dimensions: resource distribution, contribution recognition and linguistic representation (Fraser and Honneth, 2003). The ethics of care is, in its fundamental lines, an applied ethics chapter. It is placed in the philosophical tradition of moral research and, at the same time, is practical in nature, being at the intersection of philosophy and political theory (Tronto, 1993: 100-149). Basically, since 1980 one can speak of the emergence of support and assistance theories (Tronto, 1993; Noddigs 2002; Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010). The link between ethics and social work was approached from two perspectives: a perspective considering social work deeply rooted in JudeoChristian culture (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 65) and in the philanthropic work of religious communities, and a second perspective, which argues that social work has been emancipated from its — 164 —

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religious legacy, since as a profession, it is based on science and secular rights, which had to be established against Christian tradition, in line with the idea: “not alms, but rights; not charity but professionalism” (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 65). The literature shows a wide and diverse range of ethical dilemmas in social work. Frederic Reamer in his work Social Work Values and Ethics includes these dilemmas into two categories: ethical dilemmas entailed in direct work with beneficiaries (at individual, group, family, community, societal levels) and ethical dilemmas entailed in indirect work for the beneficiaries, such as (politically, socially, culturally) organising the community, planning, managing, research and evaluation. In the first group, the major topics for ethical confrontation are: confidentiality and privacy; self-determination and paternalism; „divided loyalties”, professional boundaries and conflicting interests; the relationship between professional and personal values (1999: 93). The second case includes indirect ethical dilemmas related to practice. The topics for confrontation may be related to: insufficient financial resources, public and private sector responsibility for social welfare, compliance to legal regulations, disputes regarding labour management, research and evaluation, „the use of deception in social work” and what Reamer calls „whistle - blowing” – notification of peers’ deviations (1999:130). Of course there are other classifications of dilemmas. If we consider human rights, for example, as social identity element, one may speak of universalism and relativism dilemmas of human rights (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 9-24). If instead, the benchmark is the theories of political philosophy, the literature in ethical social work identifies dilemmas on justice and social solidarity (2010: 26-30). When referring to the way and extent of customers’ involvement, we may encounter dilemmas regarding participation and paternalism in social workers’ intervention.

Discussion: the social worker between justice and social solidarity The principle of social solidarity, one of the eight principles underpinning the social welfare system, according to law 47/2006, to ensure equal access to rights under the laws in force (Law 47/ 2006, article 4, paragraph. 1, letter c), originated in the imperative of helping each other, — 165 —

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which acquired specificity in the “generosity of the ancient world" and “compassion of the medieval world” (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, StaubBernasconi, 2010: 25). In the modern age, the social welfare system is different from the support system of antiquity and Middle Ages. If in the past, the process of helping for people in a situation of need was provided by the relational system – family, neighbourhood, and the religious community – currently, it is coordinated by state institutions or international organisations, operating on the basis of national or international legislation. Although social workers often have altruistic reasons for entering this field of intervention, helping in modern societies is not an act of personal altruism, but a profession. According to the characteristics of a democratic state, social assistance should provide support to those in need (social worker’s clients) so as not to affect their status as citizens (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 26). The need to develop social work has resulted from the need to reduce social exclusion (Ostheimer, 2009:63), this being a global problem in modern societies. Along with the objective of the welfare state to promote social inclusion, Zavirsec, Rommelspacher and Staub-Bernasconi, in their work Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work, expose a series of competitive factors in the development and modernisation of social work: the interest of the state in controlling and preventing political deviance; citizens’ desire to live in a just community which safeguards their personal property, social workers’ interest in offering quality services and participating in power; and the interest of the poor in getting (2010:27). Given the social characteristics and historical development of social work, its relationship with ethics can only be complex, based on generally altruistic reasons. Thus, from the perspective of social assistance, „Ethical reasoning isn’t just a commitment to some moral values, but it is designed on the special characteristics of social work as a profession, customised by political and moral pluralism” (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 28). In this situation, social workers’ professionalism lies in their ability to harmonise the particularities of every human being, personal rights and general values promoted in the legal system, the declarations of human rights and social inclusion objectives. This means that, in addition to scientific knowledge and specific intervention methods, ethical decisions play a particularly important role, influenced by the specifics of moral philosophy (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 28). — 166 —

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Social workers’ discussions on ethical topics are focused on such questions as: How can we manage to provide an even-handed treatment for all clients? Do empowerment and caring go together? How can social workers achieve fair treatment for their clients in the context of bureaucratic agencies? How can a person be respected as a citizen (holding the same position in the public sphere as the social worker himself/herself) and, at the same time, being in the position of needing help? Is the state able to provide welfare to its citizens, without closing its borders? Is it possible to define standards of social care, which can be adhered to globally? And what is required to establish social welfare and justice? (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 28-29).

Conclusions The dilemmas of social work practice may also arise because “there seems to be a tension between theorising issues of justice and issues that concern human needs, close relationships and the obligation of caring for each other.” (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 30). The findings of the analysis on these dilemmas show that human societies need both justice and solidarity, both perspectives being essential, although it is very difficult to take both of them into consideration at the same time. In this situation, social workers’ intervention can follow two directions: a deep situational analysis from two perspectives: of justice and equality and of asymmetry of caring, proposed by supporters of feminism (Hermann 1999; Hageman White, 2004), or an intervention based on recognition (Honneth 1996: 31-91, 141-178; Fraser 1997:11-48, 173-206). This approach implies “the recognition that human beings possess both characteristics: they are equal citizens and vulnerable, which is the consequence of natural bodily constitution. Equality and difference are general attributes of humanity (Zavirsec, Rommelspacher, Staub-Bernasconi, 2010: 33). Contradictory aspects on human (human nature), life issues, social protection system and its functioning, priorities, strategies and outcomes engender distortion in values and arise ethical dilemmas in social services. The access to information, supervision and lifelong training may justify the choices made by social services professionals when facing practical dilemmas as forms and manifestations of objectivity and distortion in values. — 167 —

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By showing the situations when social workers face ethical dilemmas, there has been substantiated the idea that they not only undertake mechanical actions which do not involve moral judgments, but their actions are the result of free moral choices. Social services specialists are not managers acting in a bureaucratic, impersonal manner. Starting from classic dilemmas definitions, a number of principles have been reviewed, such as the principle of autonomy, justice or charity which support solving dilemmas raised by both direct and indirect work with beneficiaries. Social workers’ professionalism facing situations when they have to choose between such principles as social solidarity and social justice is proved by such skills as harmonising human characteristics, personal rights, fundamental freedoms and general principles promoted by the legal system with the objectives of social inclusion.

REFERENCES Butler, A. C. (1990). A Reevaluation of Social Work Students’ Career Interests. In Journal of Social Work Education 26 (1). Beauchamp, T.L. and Childress. J. F. (1994). Principles of biomedical ethics. (4thed). New York: Oxford University Press. Bernstein, B. E. and Hartsell, T. L. (2000). The portable ethicist for mental health professionals. J. Wiley & Sons. Congress, E. (1999). Social Work Values and Ethics: Identifying and Resolving Professional Dilemmas. Chicago: Nelson Hall. Corey, G., Schneider Corey, M, and Callanan, P. (2010), Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions. Cengage Learning; Donnelly, J. (2003). Universal human rights in theory and practice. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Fishkin, J., (1982). The Limits of Obligation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Frankena, W. K. (1973). Ethics, Englewood Cliffs (New Jersey): PrenticeHall. Fraser, Nancy şi Axel Honneth. 2003. Redistribution or Recognition?:A Political-Philosophical Exchange. London: Verso. Habermas, J. (2000). On the Pragmatics of Communication. MIT Press. — 168 —

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Hagemann-White, Carol. (2004). Working Together to Combat Domestic Violence. Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. Hawley, G. (2007). Ethics in Clinical Practice: An Interprofessional Approach. Harlow [u.a.]: Pearson Education. Herrmann, M. (1999). Geschlechterethik und Selbstkonzept. Moralphilosophische Folgerungen aus der Kohlberg/Gilligan-Kontroverse. Dausien B. et al. (Eds.), Erkenntnisprojekt Geschlecht. Opladen: Leske & Budrich. Honneth, Axel. (1996). The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts. MIT Press. Houser, R., Wilczenski F L. and Ham. M. A. (2006). Culturally Relevant Ethical Decision-Making in Counseling. Calif: Editura Thousand Oaks. Jayaratne, S., Chess, W.A. and Kunkel, D.A. (1986). Burnout: It’s Impact on Child Welfare Workers and their Spouses. Social Work, 31, 53-59 Kagan, S. (1998). Normative Ethics. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Loewenberg, F.M., Dolgoff, R. and Harrington, D. (2001). Ethical Decisions for Social Work Practice. Itasca: F.E. Peacock Publishers. MacIntyre, Alasdair C. 1981. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Duckworth. Nozick, R. (1997). Socratic puzzles. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Univ. Press Nussbaum, M. and Kumar, A. (1993). The Quality of Life. World Institute for Development Economics Research. Oxford University Press. Nussbaum, M. (2011). Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Pojman, L.P. and Fieser J. (2007). Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong. Belmon, California: Wadsworth. Rawls, J. (1999). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Rawls, J., Maffettone, S. and Santin, U. (2002). Una teoria della giustizia. Milano: Feltrinelli Reamer, F. G. (1998). The Evolution of Social Work Ethics. Social Work. 43 (6). Reamer, F. (1999). Social Work Values and Ethics. New York: Columbia University Press. — 169 —

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Reamer, F.G. (2001). Tangled Relationships: Managing Boundary Issues in the Human Services. New York: Columbia University Press. Strom-Gottfried, K. (1999). Social Work Practice: Cases, Activities and Exercises. Calif: Editura Thousand Oaks. Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the Self: the Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Tronto, J. C. (1993). Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care. New York, Routledge. Walzer, M. (1983). Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality. Oxford: Basic Books. Zaviršek, D., Rommelspacher, B. and Staub-Bernasconi S.(2010). Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work. Ljubljana : University of Ljubljana.

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Chapter XIII XIII ECONOMIC BOUNDS AND POLITICAL ENDOWMENTS IN RISING CAPITALIST ECONOMY IN COMPLIANCE TO THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC SECURITY Florin CORNEANU

Abstract Economic security is a component of national security and resides in a state of the economy, manifested by legality, balance and development. The main segments of economic security, monitored and protected, are energy security, financial, banking and non-banking, security of strategic branches of the national economy, security of enterprises vital importance, maintaining, economic state reserves. In order to benefit from a solid economic security Romania must have effective governance characterized by professional and efficient public administration; democratic justice; the existence of effective measures and actions to fight corruption. Also, another important aspect it is represented by the necessity of increasing economic competitiveness. Bringing the Romanian market economy to EU economic standards, economic standards which have as principles free competition and social solidarity, is a priority. This aspect it is supported by modernizing institutions with responsibilities in national security, development of infrastructure and increase the safety of the transport infrastructure precautious management of natural resources. Keywords: Measures, Transition, Economic Security, Romania, Standards, Competiveness.

Introduction After year 1989, year which represents a turning point in the history of the Romanian society, year which made radical changes in the perception and the development in the Romanian society, the Romanian society begins to have a new image, a country which faced with new threats and had new challenges, such as "market economy". The transition (Florea, 2009: 45) from a socialist (Ionescu, 2009: 82) system to a capitalist one can be regarded as a series of processes, the order — 171 —

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in which they are carried out, fulfilling an important role in defining both the direction and the effort of Romanian society to reach a certain state stability, economic security and border integrity. The existence of internal political conflicts which had become constant in the period after the revolution in 1989, the failure to adapt to the capitalist system by the lack of competent state structures which should have put in to value the communist industrial heritage, natural resources and human resources of which our country benefited of, created the situation that led to the existence of a state of crisis on Romanian society. Another aspect that has had a negative impact on national security and the economy was linked to the fact that, agricultural production has not been given the necessary attention and, especially, because of the way reforms have been implemented, the economy entered into a pronounced economic decline until 2001. Considering the fact that the Romanian economy was treated as a genuine economic experiment, being this way the subject of some economic and financial policies that have not produced the expected results, national production has seen a considerable decrease in the first years after the Romanian Revolution. As effect, the achieved financial balance between 1993 and 1996 did not last and the economy continued to regress alarming until 2000. Another essential factor in the creation of the economic decline and thus the existence of a precarious economic security, was the existence of the phenomenon of corruption, a phenomenon which installed in all branches of state administration, a phenomenon that has hindered development and had the effect of Romanian economy collapse, economy which in many cases was sold for scrap or vanished without a trace. I give of example only some of the main results of economic evolution which had a significant impact on the economic security of Romania in the period after 1989 Revolution: the lack of an economic reform plan that will allow the economy to be flexible in a modern market economy, the impossibility to adapt to new trends on the supply and demand of goods, services etc., in accordance with and the lack of a strong political support, led to the existence of a development below expectations created a delicate situation on the economic security of the Romanian state; the lack of specialized control bodies and also the existence of the phenomenon of corruption has led to the creation of the underground economy, a phenomenon that slowed and still slows the economic development and the — 172 —

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attraction of new investments in our country; the transformation without the existence of policies and procedures consistent agencies national economic system, a system that was characterized by centralization and excessive bureaucracy in a capitalist system, led to significant financial losses; Privatization achieved without a well-established and implementing economic policies were failing due to: a. Poor quality of products; b. Stockaccumulation of inefficient products which was a consequence of blocking resources; c. Lack of capital or insufficient capital, increased ageing of the industrial technical equipment in plants etc. often led to decreased productivity and poor quality of the products. Considering the fact that machinery and equipment could not be obtained under these conditions, as a consequence there were created additional costs of labour costs per unit of product; d. Lower national production and the loss of jobs in the economic sector; e. Constant involvement in political economy by politicians, involvement which constrain in appointment of directors/managers whose sole purpose was to collect huge salaries and profit as much as possible from the companies/plants they led, leadership which had catastrophic results most of the times; f. The Lack of a elaborated plan in attracting foreign investments and increased production led to increased consumption of imports and reduced production by excessive buying of goods produced abroad at the expense of products in Romania; g. Destruction of agricultural associations by destroying both literally and figuratively buildings, stables and agricultural installations; h. Giving property on lands without a wellestablished plan and often based on the interest of some specific groups, with the help of Law 18/1999, Law which led to the creation of social conflicts and weakening of the state and the economic security. Therefore, unprofessional management of the transition had a negative impact on all sectors of the economy, leading to significant economic losses. After a decade and a half after the fall of communism in Romanian state, wealth was stolen literally and figuratively from the Romanian state, it was managed to stabilize the economic situation in relation to the alarming situation which was recorded after the revolution from 1989. The integration (Fuerea, 2004: 15) in the European Union in 2007 but also the North Atlantic Treaty Organization integration, organisms that require certain criteria imposed and functioning of the Romanian state, criteria based on strong economic fundaments, fundaments which hat the objective to lead to stability and progress in achieving economic stability. Another important — 173 —

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element of the economic development was the IT and services possible due to the existence of well trained human resources. Another important element was given the possibility of accessing European funds, funds (Culda, 1995: 63) that have led to investment in various fields, but also the accession to the European single market which made possible for Romanian companies to open much easier their good to the single market of the European Union. Although it is in development, but with a very slow speed, the development of the national transportation system greatly hampers economic development and thus keeps away (Mureșan, 2006: 28) investments from the Romanian economy. At present, our country occupies the last place in the European Union, regarding the number of kilometers of existing highway. Lack of a highway between Arad and Sibiu in 2008 resulted in the loss of an important investment by opening a car factory by the giant carmaker Mercedes, an investment that was made in neighbouring country Hungary, country which had a much better transportation system. Also, the lack of a highway (Hanganu, 2005: 38) in the present between Craiova and Pitesti linking the cites of Bucharest-Constanta-Craiova through a fast transport system which can facilitate the transport vehicles produced at Ford's Craiova city, had the result of decreased production and a much smaller development in relation to development opportunities, generating huge losses in relation to the possibilities of production for the state budget. Another important aspect in relation with the Romania's economic security is given by Romania’s industrializing issue, issue which is one generous problem, even in the context in which the Romanian state owns a small number of industrial assets. As a result, the aid offered by the state is limited, European Union has commercial policy competence, monetary policy is restrictive, currency policy appears to be in the service of monetary policy and fiscal policy and budgetary constraints is by agreement with the IMF. Moreover, the global economic crisis created the situation for Romania to cross a deep economic crisis of system and development model. Even though Romania managed to pass in 2009 a current account deficit crisis by adjusting brutal imports and increasing public debt, from 2010 to present moment, Romania is facing a crisis of public finance (budget deficit and debt). But precisely in this context, industrial policy regains importance and scale. A new episode of Romanian economic growth cannot occur — 174 —

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replicating past decade's development model, model which was based on debt - financed consumption. Table 1. Romania's economic goals which have an impact to the economic security Short term Objectives International Monetery Found indicators

Medium term Objectives Economic growth indicators

Long-term Objectives

Europe 2020 strategy indicators - Smart growth (increase research spending growth in GDP, increased - Reducing the budget spending on education, deficit - GDP growth reducing drop-out); - Control arrears - The decrease in - Sustainable economic - Continue disinflation unemployment growth (reducing carbon process - Sustainable growth dioxide emissions, - Benchmarks of increasing energy structures labor productivity efficiency, increasing the - New legislation on - Reducing tax evasion share of renewable energy wages, in total energy pensions, tax reform consumption); - Inclusive growth (increasing the employment rate, poverty reduction) (source: own research data)

One aspect which must be taken into consideration is that although the International Monetary Fund arrangements supported the state budget and avoided situations which could have leaded to the accumulation of much higher debts to the state budget, if the necessary loans would have been achieved under conditions of disadvantageous interest from other creditors, the conditions set by the International Monetary Fund are often an obstacle to economic development which often caused massive layoffs among employees in the budget sector. — 175 —

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Given the evolution of global phenomenon, it should be mentioned that the economy has now become a battleground, which seen from a certain angle, the economy is the main field which makes it possible to achieve national security objectives related to the Romanian state objectives. As a future course of action in the economic development plan of the national economy, it must be considered that a sustainable development plan must be constant revaluated in accordance with the events of great importance that take place at national or world level, especially as the small dimensions of our state in comparison with the big players in the world, backed by the lack of rich variety of underground resources which are destined to ensure independence and economic security, the fact that Romania is situated in a geographic area where territorial conflicts broke out again, represents a threat to economic security, danger that can be countered only by the existence of competent decision factors which are in accordance with the requirements of our country partnership.

Another important aspect for economies in transition is that the state must have very precise plans for sustainable development Sustainable development in terms of economic development is a defining element in the security strategy of Romania. Sustainable development strategies are constantly being developed to develop and adopt effective solutions in the context of the evolution of society, geopolitical (Ionescu, 2009:25) climate changes, spheres of influence, availability of human resources, etc. One general approach, we can define sustainable development as the element which is to satisfy the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Another definition that could be given to the sustainable development is as an idea of constant evolution of society in its ensemble, evolution which has as continuity point the efficient use of resources. Considering the fact that our country is a member state of the European Union, Romanian sustainable development strategy must adopt sustainable development policy that is in line with sustainable development policies of the European Union. This comes from the fact that, with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1997, sustainable development became a political objective and in 2002 European Council from Gothenburg, adopted the — 176 —

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Sustainable Development Strategy of the European Union, strategy which was added an external dimension in Barcelona. As the main common areas of sustainable development that Romania has along the European Union, we can give as an example the existence of strategies need to bring European standards of basic infrastructure and means of transport by reducing environmental impact, promoting intermodal transport, improved safety trafficking and the protection of critical infrastructure; improvement and more efficient use of human capital in promoting social inclusion and strengthening administrative capacity to develop a modern and flexible labour markets, enhance the relevance of education and training for employment, stimulating entrepreneurial culture. Between Romania’s sustainable development and national security strategy, there is a very close relationship. This is due to the fact that the constant development of both the neighbouring countries, allies or other countries worldwide, countries with which our country is in a continuous competition to attract investment and win new markets for manufactured products from Romania, or prevent leaving from Romania foreign investments in order not to migrate to countries that provide more advantages. All these aspects are part of the national strategy for sustainable development, strategy which is closely related to the National Strategy of defence which has the role of maintaining internal stability on areas such as politic, social, economic, etc. In order for Romania to be able to prevent (Dumitru, 2007: 44) any threat to the national security, it must support and develop an economy to be as less dependent on the economies of other countries. We can illustrate this point as the need to develop the energy industry by finding new resources or effective use of existing resources so that Romania will not be liable to significant imports that affect the national economy and thus the security of Romania. A good example is the dependence at a rate not very high compared to other countries, the situation on gas imports from Russia, imports which in the context of political games and also in recent events in Ukraine crisis (Donosa, 2013: 46), make vulnerable the national security economy as there will be a lack of the required amount of gas for the operation of industrial giants such as the petrochemical industry and metallurgy industry. Lack of necessary quantities of gas for household consumption or for the operation of the economy can generate on short or medium term, can create important imbalances to the social system or can generate loss to the economic sector. — 177 —

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The economic security of Romania is achieved by adopting efficient and competitive policies in various areas of society. Among these areas, the most representative are given by: creating an open and democratic society; information and active involvement of citizens in the decision system; the involvement of the business and social partners system; policy coherence and quality of governance at local, regional, national and global levels; integration of economic policies, social and environmental policies with impact assessments and consultation with stakeholders; use knowledge to ensure economic efficiency and investment; applying the precautionary principle where scientific uncertainty; constant investment in human resources; the existence of a predictable legal justice (Dănișor, 2006: 643). In order for the economic security and national security of Romania not to have to suffer, the sustainable development of Romania must not be affected by the disruption caused by internal or external factors. Some of these contingencies can be foreseen, but their impact is difficult to assess, quantify or place in time. The possibility to prevent long-term risk (Buzan, 2000: 217) factors is potentially, dynamic development depends to some extent on the availability of resources and circumstances. To prevent and to manage specific crises (Udor, 2007: 84), Romania must take specific measures to create certain specialized structures, structures which must be able to take quick and effective measures for possible risk situations created on economic security. In this situation, we recommend preparing plans under current (Peter, 2011: 76) dangers, plans designed to anticipate system vulnerabilities and potential effects in crisis situations, containing portfolio of solutions. As an obstacle to sustainable development, we find a number of risk (Mureșan & Văduva, 2007: 207) factors, factors that would not only prevent the development of Romania, but would also lead to significant economic losses. Among the main risk factors to economies in transition we can enumerate: adjustment of economic policies as a result of political instability and/or not respecting the requirement of principles of the sustainable development (Frunzeti, 2009: 154), depending on the configuration of the parliamentary majority or the doctrines of political parties in power; the delay of implementation of a improved taking decision system and increased accountability of public institutions in relation to policies pursued results, — 178 —

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impact analysis and use systematic and active monitoring techniques; the continuation of negative demographic (Kaldor, 2010: 203) trends, increased population decline and production of structural imbalances with profound implications for economic and social nature; deepening mistrust due to the impartiality and lack of transparency of justice (Mostoflei & Popa, 2008: 89); formal cooperation and inefficient public institutions with the private sector, professional associations and social partners in developing and implementing public policies and measures for increasing competitiveness through improved resource and productivity of labour and export promotion and provision of balance macroeconomic; selecting due to areas of interest the allocation of financial public funds in the detriment of projects with major social and economic impact and positive effects on the environment, based on the evaluation of competence of financial effort, medium and long term; the delay of decentralization (Hlihor, 2006: 146) and measures to substantially increase the administrative capacity to generate projects eligible for funding from the point of view of economic efficiency, social and environmental projects, and also to execute such projects within deadlines, feasibility studies. The delay of such measures can reduce the degree of access to European Union funds and possibilities of covering the current account deficit; limited effectiveness of policies aimed at continuing the process of disinflation, which can have a severe negative effect on macroeconomic balance and sustainable economic growth; limited capacity to predict the occurrence of extreme weather events due to climate change (long periods of drought, floods, epidemics), and make efforts to limit their potential effects on health and wellbeing of the population, agriculture and agro prices –food; continued growth trends of exaggerated consumer loans for current consumption and imports; income growth without coherence between productivity growth as a result of populist policy decisions in pre-election tensions and labour market dissensions, in the conditions facing lack of experienced labour force pour; delaying the implementation of policies to reduce energy intensity and measures for ensuring the necessary energy, sustainable conditions for economic and household consumption; ineffective use of public funds (Mostoflei & Popa, 2008: 53) designated for human resources and stimulation of research – development – innovation, areas of research which important to sustainable development; enhanced beyond sustainable limits of external migration phenomenon as a result of — 179 —

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the adoption by some more developed countries of some immigration policies which have not only have a economic dimension related to labour shortages in certain sectors, but also have a demographic dimension to correct effects of a low birth rate and aging population; enhancing growth (Băhnăreanu, 2006: 47) trends in prices of oil, natural gas and uranium, which can generate serious effects on inflation and energy security; uncertainties about the attitudes of foreign investors to emerging markets, which could be caused mainly by rising external deficit and lack of predictability of fiscal policy, with negative effects on the volume and quality of investments in the productive sector of the economy and the coverage of this source of current account deficit; increased costs of external financing due to the global financial turmoil and the possible decrease the rating of the country, which may induce unwanted influences on the course of the national currency and the inflation rate. Also, sustainable development requires gradual modernization of the macroeconomic economy in order to meet requirements social and environmental requirements. The development of research, consulting, expertise, IT, financial services and management training will directly contribute to increased productivity of resource use in the economy, given the fact that the service sector ratio of gross value added and intermediate consumption is much higher than agriculture, industry and construction. Sectorial (Frunzeti & Buse, 2010: 36) structural adjustment will occur, in particular, by stimulating priority development substructures which produce high value added with a lower consumption of resources, focusing on the use of renewable or recycled resources. The industry sector, will focus on the acquisition of medium and high complexity technologies and also it will focus on the development and introduction of the own products with such important impact on greenhouse technology that can have a substantial contribution to increasing the volume and efficiency of exports. Eco - efficiency and the use of best available technologies will become a growing extent, the essential criteria in investment decisions, not only in public procurement but also in other spheres of economic activity. The most profound changes will occur in rural areas. The changes will be represented by the replacement of archaic structures, practices and agricultural production traditions, while maintaining local identity and specific culture. The development of organic agro - industry, the engagement of local communities in conservation ecology and natural — 180 —

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environment, their direct incentives to protect monuments and sites with historical or cultural heritage, access to basic social services and utilities, reduction and elimination of poverty, improving communications and market relations will contribute to the gradual blurring of discrepancies regarding the quality of life between village and city. Another important area of sustainable economic development is given by the need to increase labour productivity (Gardels, 1998: 35) and improve the employment rate. Labour productivity throughout the economy as well as at sectorial or company level in Romania is still much lower than the EU average. The relatively low wages in Romania, especially small ones, can be explained in part by this productivity gap that is reflected in approximately the same ratio between the quality of jobs and amount of disposable income. Slow renewal of the technological base, poor quality of infrastructure, chronic underfunding, weak contribution of own development-research-innovation, low performance of products and services on the market, insufficient capacity to adapt to global market requirements, were the main causes that negatively influenced labour productivity, as well as efficiency of resource use. Since resource productivity and labour productivity are key determinants of efficiency and competitiveness and thus the sustainability of economic and social development, significant efforts are required in investment and management, in order to remedy the situation and alignment with current standards of the European Union. Another critical issue for the benefit of sustainable development efficiency is given by the need to improve micro and macro-economic management. We support this aspect, as Romanian economy requires a considerable increase in quality management on all levels, from national to regional level, to business, farms, in order to have a complete and efficient use of capital resources which are available and to attract additional funding sources for investment both in modern technology, and in the workforce training and development, scientific research, technological development and innovation. Since sustainable (Mureșan, 2009: 95) GDP growth is driven by the evolution of added value created by individual businesses, managerial performance is crucial in all key links, each unit producing goods or services: administrative and technical, technological, financial, logistic, commercial and human resources management. To achieve the proposed objectives, it is appropriate to set specific performance for managers in the public sector and encourage the — 181 —

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application of standards in the private sector by engaging the responsibility of shareholders and boards of directors in monitoring managerial performance which has to respect some minimum set of standards to increase value added, competitiveness and profit. Also it is necessary to revise the depreciation of tangible policies in conjunction with the evolution of technological progress in each area (Klare, 2005: 60) to prevent obsolescence of equipment that generate increased consumption of energy, materials and labour and which will have direct negative effects on competitiveness. Implementation of the current activity of the multi-annual budgeting firms, at least on medium term, is necessary both for the long-term vision perspective on development, as well as to substantiate some effective policies in the investment area and also to adjust the volume and structure of production of goods and services. It is important to know exact the main factors which are affecting economic security in order to prevent risks.

Main factors which are affecting economic security Internal Risk factors affecting economic security Among the most important internal risk factors affecting the economy of our state there are: destruction of national economic units; underground economy; economic substance more or less disguised by ethnic disputes; mafia networks which affect economic interests; lack of jobs; unemployment; terrorism; organized economic crime; money laundering; inconsistent legislation governing the disparity between different property or regulations; corruption of government officials and others; outstanding issues regarding the implementation and the granting possession of property titles; calamities and natural disasters. The most common hazards and economic threat to the rule of law refers to: upheaval national economy and increasing social insecurity (B. Buzan, 2000: 49); massive migration of labor force to countries in Western Europe, with all the ensuing consequences; high turnover of goods, people and services; underground economy proliferation; high crime rate in the economic and financial sector; insecurity and social insecurity. — 182 —

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Also, economic risk factors of internal nature are underground economy proliferation; degradation, inefficiency, or undermining sharp drop in production branches of the national economy; injury strategically important sectors (defense industry); insecurity of property; devaluation of the national currency; weakening of the banking system; increasing public debt; excessive indebtedness of the population in the long term (over the real power of credit consumer in order to be able to repay banking credits); public distrust in the banking system; unrealistic and inappropriate economic policies circumstances, timing requirements.

External risk factors on economic security External factors threats (Buse D., Frunzeti T. ,2010: 85) for the economic security of Romania are perhaps the most dangerous factors from all risk factors categories to the economic security. External risk factors are also the factors which are responsible of maintaing or supporting internal economic risk factors. As with internal risk factors, risks and threats to economic security are represented internationally by numerous risk factors. All these dangers seriously affect not only the economy but also the national economic security of a stat. Of these, the most common and most serious factors, there are those factors which are developing economies or sectors of the economy capable of ensuring the production and upgrading of weapons of mass destruction; proliferation of those tensions and economic hazards resulting from global warming (Lavinia Florea, 2009), drought, weather phenomena, cosmic phenomena; poverty and malnutrition; lack of drinking water; resource scarcity; economic effects of the proliferation of destructive diseases (AIDS, cancer, etc.); terrorism; economy, drug trafficking; economic effects of cross-border crime and their manifestation economic security. The dangers and threats can be regionally specific, including: desertification of large areas; natural disasters; economic component of ethnic differences; regional economic effects of terrorism; border economic problems; poverty and malnutrition; economic gigantism produced by the economic policy of dictatorial regimes; economic cost of civil wars, guerrilla wars, ethnic and / or religious tensions. Challenges, tensions, dangers and even threats that ignore the economic entities, political and social state are strategic corridors for traffickers, mafia networks, money laundering, organized crime generates — 183 —

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part of the underground economy and cross-border economic crime. Of these, the most important would be: illegal migration; violent mafia networks, organized economic crime, money laundering etc.; border economic terrorism, especially that of networks or counterfeit dangerous materials; local networks of traffickers; local distribution networks for drugs at our border; border networks of prostitution; border networks of underground economy and economic and financial crime. Also, external economic risk (Sava N., 2005: 102),factors include: blocking foreign loans; creating insolvency; blocking access to scarce sources of raw materials in order to be able to supply national economy; blocking access to modern technology; diminishing access to markets; economic globalization incapable of adapting a national fund; unorganized regionalization; appropriate inadequacy of the economy (economic units, enterprises) to European requirements and market requirements; smuggling, illegal trafficking in goods, cross-border economic crime etc.. The main sources of these challenges/ dangers/ threats / economic risks are reflected in the fact that the economy is not able to harmonize all its components. Methodology The paper proposes systematic research from the perspective of interdisciplinary study of the representation. For a thorough analysis of the topics discussed were focused on the following objectives: • history of economic security in Romania; • Analysis of economic security; • studying the trends on economic security; • risk analysis on economic security; • Analysis of institutional discredit, with a thorough study of the educational system, the media and supreme representative of the state authorities; • Research study economic risks. As part of the research, in order to achieve objectives "Economic Bounds and Political Endowments in Rising Capitalist Economy in Compliance to the National Economic Security", I will use certain methods and techniques of research, contributing to the program that I have proposed. The methods I — 184 —

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have proposed for research regarding my article are: historical method, logical method, comparative method and analytical method.

Conclusions The neccesity of having plans that have the objectiv to detect specific threats to the Romanian economy, to benefit from detailed informations that are capable to make us understand all kind of problems that can ocure, is a must for the protection of the romanian economy. As a result, in order to be able to face any kind of risks and threats that could affect the economic security of our state, is required to be implemented a politico-economic strategy, which has to adapt to the rapid changes to which modern world is facing.

Acknowledgement This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 - Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence, Competitiveness and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied Scientific Research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!

REFERENCES: Băhnăreanu, C. (2006). Resursele energetice și modul de securitate la începutul secolului XXI, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. Buzan, B. (2000). Popoarele, statele și teama, Chișinău: Editura Cartier. Buse D., Frunzeti T. (2010), Politici si institutii de securitate, Bucharest: Editura Universitătii Nationale de Apărare „Carol I”. Culda, L. (1995). România în Situații Limită, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare. — 185 —

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Dănișor, D. C. (2006). Tratat de Drept Constituțional și Instituții Politice. Volulmul I. Teoria Generala, Craiova: Editura Sitech. Donosa, L. C. (2013). Conceptul multidimensional al extinderii politicilor corporatise asupara securității naționale; Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. Dumitru, M. (2007). Componenta Economică a Securității, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare. Florea, L. (2009). Globalizare și securitate economică, Iaşi: Editura Lumen. Frunzeti, T. (2009). Geostrategie, Bucharest: Editura CTEA. Frunzeti, T., Bușe, D. (2010). Politici și instituții de securitate, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. Fuerea, A. (2004). Manualul Uniunii Europene, Bucharest: Editura Univers Juridic. Gardels, N. (2008). Schimbarea ordinii globale, Bucharest: Editura Antet. Hanganu, M. (coord.) (2005). Provocări la adresa securității și strategiei la începutul secolului XXI, secțiunea Istorie, geopolitică si geostrategie Bucharest: Editura Universitătii Nationale de Apărare „Carol I”. Hlihor, C. (2006). Geopolitică și geostrategie în analiza Relațiilor internaționale contemporane, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. Ionescu, M. E. (2009). Regiunea Extinsă a Mării Negre. Delimitări Teoretice și Practice ale Unui Areal Geopolitic în Plină Redefinire, Bucharest: Editura Militara. Kaldor, M. (2010). Securitatea umană, Cluj-Napoca: Editura Publishing. Klare, M. (2005). Resources War, London: University tipografy. Mostoflei, C., Popa,V. (2008). Rolul UE în asigurarea securității globale, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. Mureșan, D. (2006). Dimensiunea economică a securității în epoca parteneriatelor, Bucharest: Editura Amanda Edit. Mureșan, M. (2006). Securitatea Eurpeana la Inceputul Mileniului Trei; Bucharest: Editura Universitatii Natinale de Aparare. Mureșan, M., Văduva, G. (2007). Criza, conflictul și războiul, vol. I, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. Niculeanu, C. (2003). Curs de Drept Penal, Partea Generală, IIIrd Edition, Craiova: Editura SITECH. Peter, C. (2011). Activități teroriste probabile asupra activităților economico-financiare, Bucharest: Editura Universității Naționale de Apărare „Carol I”. — 186 —

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Popescu, D. I. (2006). Sistemul Integrat pentru Securitatea Frontierei, Bucharest: Editura Univers Stiintific. Sava N. (2005), Studii de securitate, Bucharest: Editura Centrul Român de Studii Regionale. Udor, A. (2007). Securitatea Națională și Managementul situațiilor de urgență generate de insecuritatea obiectivelor economice importante, Bucharest: Editura Stadiform. Weaver, O., Buzan, B., Kelstrup, H., Lemaitire, P. (1993). Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe, New York: St. Martin’s Press.

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Chapter XIV XIV EDUCATION, FAMILY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION OF MUSLIM WOMAN. CASE STUDY: TURKISH-TATAR COMMUNITIES FROM DOBRUJA Melinda DINCĂ

Abstract Our work aims to identify the path of Muslim women social integration in the Romanian Christian Orthodox society. The work describes the main social, cultural and religious dimensions shaping integration models for Muslim woman. By using in-depth interviews, life stories and observation in the Turks and Tatars communities from the southeastern part of Romania, the study investigates Muslim women’s efforts to pass on the main elements of their culture, traditions and ethnic identity to younger generations, by means of family and kinship networks Keywords: Muslim woman, social integration, religion and cultural heritage

Introduction: research methodology The purpose of the present research is to identify the actions Turkish and Tatar communities have taken in order to preserve their ethnic and religious specificity. The investigation conducted within this study is mainly qualitative and based on the interpretive social sciences theories (Blaikie, 2010; Halbwachs, 1992; Manson, 2005). Data collection was performed using direct non-participant observation, semi-structured indepth individual interviews. Written documents, such as local monographs, journal publications, and data from official social statistic reports, were also used. The respondents selected to participate in the study were selected using the snowball technique, on the recommendation of other respondents, based on the criterion of ethnicity and on their willingness to share their knowledge and life stories, as Turks and Tatars who lived in the multicultural area of Dobruja. Not surprisingly, most of the respondents (approx. 60%) are women and are aged 40 years and over. Among our respondents young people aged between 18 and 25 represent 25% of those interviewed. For the present study we used 50 individual interviews. — 188 —

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The Dobruja historical region was selected due to its multicultural specificity and for representing the Romanian region with the biggest density of Turkish-Tatar population. As far as ethnicity is concerned, the population is made up of Romanians, Aromanians, Bulgarians, Turks, Tatars, Roma, Jews, Greeks, Russians, Lipovans, Ukrainians, Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Serbs, etc The results of the 2011 Population and Housing Census in Romania show that: - about 90% of the ethnic Turks at the national level were recorded in Dobruja. - most of the ethnic Tatars are concentrated in Dobruja, about 97% (19.6 thousand people). - 86% of the ethnic Turks used to speak Turkish in the family, in childhood, while the rest declared Romanian as their mother tongue.

Findings Cultural heritage of children - the primary socialisation agents The present study aims at identifying the cultural heritage and the identity characteristics of Turks and Tatars, which are passed on and reinforced intergenerationally by the women in their family, during early childhood. As a primary social institution, the family is the only social context where a child begins to learn the mother tongue, the social practices, and the role prescriptions, which will guide his life. Throughout early education and during the first six years of childhood, the family passes on and develops the use of language, a system of rules customs and habits -, roles within the family and community, behaviour, health and nutrition-related habits, and represents the main model for relating to the world and to life. Due to their status of 'national minorities' in relation to the members of the dominant culture, Turks and Tatars have limited institutional strategies and practices for the transmission of their cultural heritage. For example, for half a century there has been no state education in the mother tongues of these minorities in Romania, which has had a major impact in terms of — 189 —

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limiting the ways in which cultural elements belonging to the ethnic Turks and Tatars in Romania can be preserved. If some of the other ethnic groups in Romania have the benefit of school instruction in their mother tongue at the level of basic education10, for Turks and Tatars in Dobruja no such institutional framework exists. Nevertheless, Turkish language, elements of Turkish culture and civilization and Islamic religion are optional subjects in the curriculum of the state schools attended by ethnic Turkish and Tatar children. On the other hand, in the case of the Tatar, language and the transmission of elements of the Tatar cultural heritage, no such opportunity exists. Language is learned within the family as a mother tongue and is thus passed on by the parents and by the grandparents who care for the child. Throughout their recent history, family and kinship relationship networks have primarily been responsible for preserving and cultivating minority mother tongues, passing on customs, traditions and socio-cultural practices, and instilling traditional systems of rules and values in the younger generations. In the case of Turkish and Tatar children, the elements of the cultural heritage, the language and the Muslim prescriptions are passed on mainly through oral culture and through the family. Mother or grandmother has a dominant or decision-making role in what concerns the children's education. The person to whom the child is most attached and who cares for the child, and who in Turkish and Tatar families is generally the Even today, when mother-tongue public education no longer exists, some of the respondents state that when they started going to school they were fluent only in their mother tongue and had poor knowledge of conversational Romanian due to the fact that at home they used to socialize only within their own culture and in their mother tongue. Regardless of age, gender or level of education, all our respondents stated that they learned the traditions and customs related to food, hygiene, the importance of religious prescriptions, and how to relate to family and community members, during their childhood, within their family. Concerning hygiene and nutrition rules, Turkish and Tatar families in Dobruja strictly observe the customs and traditions related to the culture of their ethnic group and Islamic prescriptions. Girls learn household rules very 10

kindergartens and schools with instruction in German, Hungarian, Serbian, etc.

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early, they know how to cook traditional dishes and ritual food for religious celebrations and ceremonies. Hygiene rules are learned during early childhood, around the ages of 8-9. The ”abdest” – the washing of the hands, face, forehead, nose, ears, and limbs before ”Namaz” and the ritual washing of the entire body in certain specific situations such as childbirth, menses, sex, postpartum period and death – is a current practice learned by children from their mothers. All ritual objects used for prayer can actually be found in the homes of Turks and Tatars, and children mainly learn religious morality from their mothers. “My Turkish grandmother taught me the prayers. I used to go to the mosque too, during the fasting period. I used to go there and keep the fast.” (Female, member of a family of mixed Turkish-Tatar ethnicity, 37 years old, Lumina, October 2013) The Muslim ceremony of “Sünnet”11, the revalidation of the respect for the elderly through kinship-strengthening visits that take place during the two main religious holidays of the year – “Kurban Bayram” and “Ramazam Bayram” –, religious ceremonies in which the ancestors are honoured, burial and mourning processions according to Muslim rites are all manifestations of the main Islamic precepts. During childhood, Islamic values and firm attitudes are established, ensuring that they will govern the social and religious life of the individual throughout his or her entire life. All the respondents mentioned as a salient attribute of their social identity the fact that they belong to the Islamic faith: “We are Muslims”. By providing examples and detailed descriptions of activities, they show a high level of knowledge concerning religious prescriptions and an active social participation, in compliance with the rules and values of the Muslim community in Dobruja. 11

Some of the respondents use the Christian term of "baptism" referring to elements of the Sunnet ceremony, such as the circumcision of boys and receiving the Muslim name within the religious ceremony performed by the Imam. In many reports, interlocutors refer to Muslim rites or practices using the Christian correspondents or elements of the Romanian culture, wishing to make themselves understood by the Romanian interviewers. Similarly, in their discussions with Romanian people, they often use such phrases, explaining them in relation to the dominant culture, the Romanian culture. Major Muslim celebrations like Ramazan Bayram and Kurban Bayram (the feast of sacrifice) are sometimes called our Christmas and our Easter. Another example is Zakat - one of the five pillars of faith in the Islamic tradition, which involves providing food and sharing the wether by well-off people during the celebration taking place at the end of the holy month of Ramadan, and which is sometimes presented using the Christian-Orthodox term of pomana (memorial meal).

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In a Christian society12 and with Romanian as an official language, prescriptions regarding values and behaviours are acquired by the new generations of Turkish and Tatar Muslims mainly by means of the institution of the family. In the case of Romanian children, it is mainly the task of educational institutions to instil in them the system of rules and values; language, literature, art and culture-related knowledge are acquired, simultaneously, through the family and through school, through the art clubs, media, and cultural institutions that are present in every community. For the respondents, the use of the mother tongue – along with all the traditions, customs, religious feasts, symbols, the identification with ethnic heroes, customs and social values – is one of the central elements of ethnic identity. As such, it invests the individual with all of the characteristics deriving from his/her inclusion in their ethnic community. In the case of the Turks and Tatars in Dobruja, their mother tongue is learned since early childhood, within the family. Once they enter the public education system where teaching takes place in Romanian, children use their mother tongue less frequently. Families understand that academic success and performance depend on how well they master Romanian language and literature, and in order to make learning easier, homework and school preparation are all conducted in Romanian. However, the mother tongue is still used, mainly within the extended kinship network, at community events, during religious feasts or on other occasions when the members of the ethnic community get together. Although at present the family is still the primary agent in the acquisition of the mother tongue, in the last decade the ethnic organizations of the Turkish-Tatar communities have been intensely concerned with facilitating children’s access to Turkish and Tatar language courses. Teachers have been brought in to work within these organizations and language courses are organized in their branch offices in Dobruja. “There are Tatar language speakers and they speak it very well. I'm a speaker also. I used to hear the language in my family all the time and I can say I speak it quite well.” (Teacher at the Romanian-Turkish Kindergarten No. 58 in Constanța, ethnic Tatar, September 2013) “I learned Tatar from my father. He was a teacher and he was very…, he insisted on us learning Tatar and we used to speak in Tatar with the adults.” 12

86.5% of the Romanian population is Christian Orthodox, according to the Romanian Population Census of 2011.

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(Turkish language and Islamic religion teacher, 43 years old, ethnic Tatar, Ovidiu, September 2013) “For instance, when I was little, I didn't speak Romanian until I went to kindergarten, I didn't know any Romanian word. If you asked me something in Romanian, I didn't understand.” (Female, 37 years old, ethnic Turk, Lumina, October 2013)

Gender roles in Turkish-Tatar communities In the Turkish-Tatar community in Dobruja, the opinion on mixed marriages is somewhat reserved. Of the two communities we have studied, the Tatar community is less open to mixed marriages, even within the same religious community, which includes Turks and Turkish-Roma. The analysis of the data in the social statistics provided by town halls13 confirms the small number of mixed marriages. Respondents perceive mixed marriages with members of the Christian communities as becoming problematic only after children are born, when the family must decide on Sunnet according to one religious tradition or the other. Later on in life, if one spouse does not convert to the other's religion, there is the issue of burying the couple according to different ceremonies, which requires burial in different cemeteries. A Christian spouse converting to Islam is considered to be an exceptional practice, and there are few reports on mixed families where successful conversions took place. Some of the respondents reported cases where spouses converted to Islam for the purpose of marriage, but, after divorce or their partner's death, they stopped participating in the life of the Muslim community and ceased to educate their children according to the Muslim tradition. Mixed marriages issues: Christian spouse converting to Islam is considered to be an exceptional practices; deciding the sünnet or baptism of the new-borns – Muslim or Christian? -; burying the couple according to different ceremonies, which requires burial in different cemeteries In mixed religion families, the order, the set of rules and values governing the relations between husband and wife and parents and children 13

An analysis of the demographic indicators of marriage and cohabitation relationships, conducted with employees of the Welfare Department of Cobadin Town Hall in April 2014 and with the Register Office of Independența Town Hall in July 2013.

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change in content (Fox, 1967). The Muslim wife enters an egalitarian relationship with her Orthodox-Christian husband regarding such matters as providing for the family, managing their household budget, and taking decisions related to children's education. Similarly, Muslim ritual practices related to the food and hygiene of household members are affected within the couple relationship (Maliepaard, Phalet, 2012). In a mixed family with an Orthodox-Christian husband, the Muslim mother's role involves different responsibilities. The Romanian Christian-Orthodox husband may consider certain practices to be submissive and related to their different religious traditions: for example, a Tatar or Turkish wife's belief in her sole responsibility to carry out household chores (cleaning the house, cooking, etc.), and in the acceptance of the dominant position of the husband and eldest son in relation to the wife-mother and their daughters. A Muslim wife married to a Christian husband may find herself cooking pork for him and allowing him to help her by getting involved in household chores, while accepting the independence, responsibility and equal treatment of her daughters. Thus, gender and family roles have changed not only in the mixed families, but also in the religiously and ethnically homogenous Muslim families in Dobruja. The results of the present study show that, for instance, women's employability, and in general the social integration of Turkish and Tatar women in Romania, have resulted in greater sharing of money management between spouses, with the woman's role crossing the limits of her social isolation and moving beyond the circle of kinship relationships, into higher levels of socio-economic skills for women and children. All these changes are considered to be modern as compared to the life style of women in other countries with Muslim communities known to our interlocutors (e.g. Turkey, Bulgaria). “It's hard for everybody, but they learn. You have to adjust to the family where you're going. At home, you have different ways, and they have different ways, and so on. [...] When the bride went to live with her parentsin-law, she used to take over all the chores of the mother-in-law, the cooking and washing. That’s what it was like! That’s how it was! She had to be a “selemet” (in Turkish – housewife). Girls were sought depending on this. I even told my mother that “my mother-in-law did this and that”. And my mother said: “That's it! This is what to be married to a man means. You went away, you won't come back to me!” If you didn't like it, you couldn't come back home. No!” (Female, 55 years old, ethnic Turk, Cobadin, March 2014) — 194 —

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However, despite these changes, the social integration of Muslim women in Romania has taken place without changing the traditional role of women, i.e. the role of preserving and passing on the mother tongue, values and tradition within the family. Within the family, the woman still holds the main role in passing on the elements of the Muslim culture and in instilling the elements of ethnic identity in children. All the young people and the adults interviewed note the mother's role in shaping their own identity and emphasize the importance of this internalized model in all the important decisions they take in their adult life. The impact of learning the Islamic values, the system of rules regulating their relation with the family and community, learning the practices and customs concerning hygiene, nutrition and conduct, strongly manifest themselves during adult life in the endogamic behaviour, in choosing a life partner from the same ethnic group, and in practicing the same gender roles within the family they build. Thus, for the Turkish and Tatar communities in Dobruja, the cultural model arising from the ethnic and, especially, religious belonging is faithfully reproduced from one generation to another mainly through the mother, despite the changes in the socio-political context of society. Family, as a primary socialisation agent, represents for the community the first social environment in which a young child learns status role prescriptions, the main cultural values, the language, and the perspective upon the world and upon life. Within the dominant culture, part of this social learning is taken care of by the basic socialization institutions outside the family, such as the kindergarten, the school, the neighbourhood, the acquaintance and friend network, or children's clubs. Throughout the communist period, Turkish and Tatar minorities in Dobruja transmitted their cultural heritage between generations almost exclusively by oral means, within the family. “Not used in schools, government, justice, the mother tongue was virtually limited to the closed framework of the family or Islamic celebrations.” (Gîlă, 2011: 20) After the fall of communism, the reassertion process of Turkish and Tatar minority rights was initiated by the European Union directives, by the establishment of politically and culturally representative organizations in Dobruja in the — 195 —

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1990s14, by the development of international relations between Romania and Turkey and by the introduction of Turkish language and Islamic religion as optional subjects in public middle schools. These institutional changes that have occurred over the past 25 years multiply the possibilities of preserving the two minorities’ cultural heritage and provide opportunities for learning literary Turkish outside the family.

Discussion: Education as a resource of social integration Schools of the Muslim community have a long tradition in the historical Romanian Region of Dobruja. Famous over the centuries, the Islamic Seminary of Babadag, Tulcea County, was "established in 1610 by General Gazi Ali Paşa. The seminary was closed during the communist regime, in the period 1967-1994. Since the early 1960s, for a quarter of a century, all primary and secondary schools, as well as other educational institutions, which organized Turkish, or Tatar language, literature and culture courses or other courses taught in Turkish and Tatar, reduced their activity. After the fall of communism in Romania, the recognition of minority rights have contributed to a recovery of the ethnic identity of the two groups in question. Thus, in the two decades of Romanian democracy, the legal framework for studying the mother tongue was created, and courses were set up in public schools and other educational organizations, under the auspices of ethnic or religious organizations. Together, the Turkish and Tatar communities in Dobruja form the majority of Muslims in Romania. These two ethnic groups have a history of migration, define themselves as religious, are attached to the Sunni Islamic religious values and practices and show a high degree of ethnic and religious cohesion. For them, the religion classes taught in school have a key role in preserving cultural continuity and social cohesion, and in rebuilding the ethnic and religious identities which, for several decades, until 1990, were passed on exclusively orally and within the kinship network. 14

The current UDTR (The Turkish Democratic Union of Romania), UDTTMR (The Democratic Union of Turkish-Muslim Tatars of Romania), TIAD (The Association of Turkish Businessmen), The Yunus Emr Turkish Cultural Centre, Constanța etc.

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Sociodemographic data recorded for the Romanian population show that the members of the two ethnic communities analyzed in our study have a strong attachment to their mother tongue. The Turks, Tatars, Turkish Roma and members of mixed families state that their mother tongue is either Turkish or Tatar. In the case of the Tatars, the study of the Tatar language and the transmission of elements of Tatar history, literature, art and folklore take place by means of courses and cultural events outside the public education system. In an institutional framework, Tatar language courses or Tatar dance and song classes are organized almost exclusively by the non-governmental organizations of the Tatar community and by mosques. The older members of the Tatar community learned Tatar in school until the 1950s, but the active generations, as well as the younger ones, have learned the Tatar language and traditions and have assimilated their ethnic identity within the family exclusively. Many respondents believe that the disadvantage represented by the absence of Tatar language and Tatar culture and traditions classes in mainstream education is somewhat compensated by the fact that Tatar children have access to Turkish language courses. However, the fact that most Tatar children are enrolled in Turkish language and History and traditions of the Turkish minority classes is seen by most respondents as a form of dilution of their ethnic identity and of assimilating Tatars into the Turkish community of Romania. The Turkish state, through its educational institutions and cultural and religious organizations, provides financial support, textbooks, Turkish language books, offers free educational and specialization programs in Islamic theology for young Muslims in Romania, etc. Turkish and Tatar families and young people are attracted by these benefits, by the opportunity to become more familiar with the Turkic cultural heritage and to consolidate their Islamic religious identity. One of the structural issues faced by the Turkish community in Romania is the low level of education as compared to the national average. Statistics show a restricted stock of education in Turkish families. Also, at the level of Constanța County, we could identify social intervention projects15 15

For example, the SOPHR/23/2.2/G/40709 project entitled "A necessary support for Roma and Turkish students in Constanța County" implemented in schools in south-eastern Romania - Medgidia, Buhuşi, Bucharest (Ferentari and Buzeşti neighbourhoods), Pitești, Bacău – during the school year 2010-2011, by the Research Institute for the Quality of Life

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addressing the issues of access to education, school failure and dropout risk for Roma and Turkish children. The data recorded by the 2011 Population and Housing Census in Romania shows that the educational level of the ethnic Turkish population is well below the national average for higher education graduates and for secondary education. At the same time, the ethnic Turkish population presents an alarmingly large number of uneducated people. Higher education graduates: the national average is 14.3%, for Turkish population is of 9.2%, the Tatars average is 16.8% Secondary education: the national average is of 24.3% and the average of the ethnic Turkish population is of 19.2%, the Tatar average is 29.11% Uneducated people: the national average is of 3% and the average within the Turkish population is of 15%, the Tatar average is 2.5% On the other hand, the data is also eloquent as an illustration of the value placed on education among ethnic Tatars. Therefore, the average of all Tatars graduating from a higher education institution exceeds the national average, and the same trend is maintained in the case of high school graduates. As for the frequency of uneducated people, Tatars record an average (2.5%), which is close to the national average (3%). In the case of Turkish women, we notice a maximum level of primary school graduation (4 grades) for half of the female population and a high rate of functional illiteracy. The low level of education that characterizes the Turkish ethnic group and especially Turkish women can be explained by the prevalence of traditional practices within the Turkish family, by the low employment rate among Turkish women, and by her prevailing role in domestic activities. In contrast, the modernization efforts of the Tatar community over the last two decades are strongly reflected in women's emancipation, in the Tatar women’s active role within the socio-economic environment, and in their high level of education, which exceeds the national average and is at a considerable distance from the level of education of Turkish women.

Aknowledgement This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PNII-RU-TE2012-3-0077. — 198 —

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REFERENCES Blaikie, N. (2010). Modele ale cercetării sociale [Designing Social Research], Cluj Napoca: CA Publishing Fox, R., (1967). Kinship and Marriage. An Anthropological Perspective, Cambridge University Press Gîlă, C. (2011). Civilizație musulmană în Dobrogea [Muslim Civilization in Dobruja], In Roșioru, Mădălin (Ed.), Educație interculturală dobrogeană [Intercultural Education in Dobruja], Constanța: Asociația pentru Resurse Culturale Halbwachs, M. (1992). On Collective Memory, University of Chicago Press Manson, J. (2005). Qualitative Researching, London: SAGE Publications Ltd Mieke Maliepaard, Karen Phalet (2012). Social Integration and Religious Identity Expression among Dutch Muslims: The Role of Minority and Majority Group Contact, In: Social Psychology Quarterly 75 (2), 131–148. Population and Housing Census in Romania, 2011, http://www.recensamantromania.ro Stern, Stephen, Cicala, John (eds.) (1991). Creative Ethnicity. Symbols and Strategies of Contemporary Ethnic Life, Utah State University Press The Democratic Union of Turkish-Muslim Tatars of Romania, 2015, http://uniuneatatara.ro, webpage accessed on 11.21.2014 The Turkish Democratic Union of Romania, 2015, http://hakses.turc.ro, webpage accessed on 11.11.2014

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Chapter XV XV SOCIOSOCIO-PROFESSIONAL INCLUSION OF ROMA POPULATION. ROMANIAN EMPLOYMENT POLICIES FOR ROMA Melinda DINC2 Theofild LAZ2R Roxana UNGUREANU

Abstract Our paper aims to identify successful models through literature and policy analysis, being focused on national actions and their compatibility with the European Union on the specific problematic of the Roma population socioprofessional inclusion. The first part describes relevant research findings from both national and international studies on Roma population from Romania, addressing the main structural problems of the Roma ethnic communities, such as: poverty, lack of equal access to social resources, inefficiency in implementing social measures and actions for the increase of Roma social inclusions. The second part of the article follows the development of the employment policies affecting the Roma population, both at national and European level, presents the history of the postcommunist period policies and strategies on Roma population in Romania and describes the critical analysis results of the most recent National Strategy on Roma Inclusion and its convergence with the EU programmatic documents. The final section discusses social policies, funding programs for Roma and international and national mechanisms that have funded several research projects, interventions and measures in Romania. The conclusion aims to highlight their impact on the targeted population. Keywords Roma, Professional Inclusion, Social Integration, Social Policies

Introduction Literature review of relevant research regarding the labor market integration of the Roma population from Romania

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Roma – Education In the last decade, the Romanian national social research showed a low educational stock in Roma families and a cleavage between Roma population and the population of other ethnic groups regarding basic education access and other social resources that determine the quality of life (such as reduced access to public health, infrastructure and living conditions, etc.). The quantitative studies conducted through sociological enquiries and statistical analyses of social databases, such as population census or national yearly statistics, showed a decreased and decreasing level of education and qualification among Romanian Roma people, which alienates them from the labor market that requires higher and higher qualification. As a paradox, young Roma generations are even less educated and qualified compared to previous generations, which were qualified in the communist period, this leading to restricted access of young Roma people to the formal labor market, leading them towards occasional, temporary black market work, with obvious long term disadvantages. (Popescu, 2011: 76) One of the most relevant national social enquiries is “Roma Inclusion Barometer”16 which shows the difference between Roma ethnics and Romanians regarding education and professional abilities. This enquiry reveals that Roma population has a lower education, with an important percentage of uneducated Roma and a low percentage of high school and college graduates.”The percentage of Roma people with no school was 26.3% for those over 40 years of age and 20.9% for those under 40 (for the exact same age groups, the percentage of non-Roma people was 2.3% and 0.8% respectively)” (Millea, 2013: 90) As far as a correlation between the level of education and labor market access of Roma population, the study shows that the Roma people do not have access to management jobs, and most of them are doing unqualified jobs, due to insufficient schooling (Millea, 2013: 104). 16

‘Roma Inclusion Barometer’ is a research undertaken by the Soros Foundation Romania. The study uses data collected through two surveys; the first is representative for the entire Romanian population, while the second is representative for the Roma population in Romania. Features of the national research are sample size of 1,215 people 18 years and over; statistical error: ± 2.9%; multi-thematic questionnaire, duration 50-60 minutes; data collection period: November 14-30, 2006. Features of the Roma research are sample size: 1,387 people 18 years and over, self-identified as Roma ethnics; statistical error: ± 2.6%; multi-thematic questionnaire, duration 50-60 minutes; data collection period: November 14-30, 2006. (Bădescu et al. 2007: 6)

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The country report named “Romanian Roma situation. Between social inclusion and migration” drafted in 2011 by Soros Foundation Romania reveals that in Romania there are no official statistics regarding Roma education, because the Ministry of National Education does not collect disagregated data regarding ethnical structure of children that are enrolled in the school system. There is some research that has been done after 1990 which is trying to fill this gap and it shows that the level of education and qualification of Roma population is very low. The causes of school abandonment identified in the research are poverty, discrimination, monocultural curriculum, and lack of support. The family caught in the middle of extreme poverty, which is the case in numerous Roma communities in Romania, is at the same cause and effect of school abandonment. (Tarnovschi, 2012: 37) In the research bearing the title “Determinants of employment in vulnerable groups. A perspective of social services suppliers”, Călina Ana Buțiu shows that “in the numerous studies and reports of the last decade regarding Roma social inclusion, education deficit is considered the main factor of unemployment”. (BuŃiu, 2013: 50) All the national researches confirm the data of population census, of barometers and analyses of annual statistics that use official statistical data, portraying the education of Romanian Roma population thus: “as shown in research, a quarter (25%) of adults over 16 years old state that they cannot read or write”, women even more so than men. The most affected is the middle age population that is made up exactly of those that should be activating in the work field. The difference in education between Roma and non-Roma population is significant: more than double illiteracy in Roma population, school abandonment before 8th grade in 40% Roma compared to 27% in nonRoma population. Low education is reflected in low competence of Roma population, 25% of them being unable of read or write, while over 80% cannot surf the web17 (Neagu, 2011: 56). In this context, it is clear that their 17

Project ”L@EGAL 2 – European investment for the future of the Roma from Romania”, POSDRU/70/6.2./S/30873 is an initiative of the Foundation Centre of Resources for the Roma Communities (CRCR) in partnership with the ‘PRO VOCAȚIE’ Association Centre for Resources and Formation in Social Professions (CRFPS) and the Soros Foundation Romania. The quantitative research used a random, two-staged, stratified sample. The sample volume was 1,537 self-identified Roma persons, aged over 15 years, with a sampling error of ± 2.5% for a confidence interval of ± 95%. The questionnaire was multi-thematic, with an estimated duration of 50-60 minutes, and was applied by using the face-to-face interview technique. The questionnaire included approximately 10% open questions. (Cace et al. 2011: 7)

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chances of acceding the work field are lower due to the lack of qualification (Tarnovschi, 2012: 38-39), abilities and competence presently needed on labor market. The analysis of determinant factors of school failure and abandonment among Roma population is heading towards the finding of influence of family, living conditions, and community over education. In this respect, research has shown a direct relationship between parents’ financial situation and their children’s school trajectory. Nevertheless, Roma people encourage their children to a lesser extent to continue school, compared to non-Roma people of same financial background. (Millea, 2013: 90) Also, education is not one of the factors that Roma population considers determinant for life success. (Neagu, 2011: 56) A low level of education in parents leads to a low level of education in children. Political measures implemented through the education system as a means to improve Roma people’s education have only succeeded to increase children’s education relative to their parents’ by merely a step (Neagu, 2011: 57). The qualitative research bearing the title “Roma – Life Stories” (Voicu, Tufiș, 2008), based on case studies of Romanian Roma communities, reveals the particular causes of school absenteeism and abandonment. These particular causes materialize effects of macro problems in compact, segregated, mostly rural Roma communities: - Structural problems: poverty, lack of equal access to social resources, lack of allotment with infield of rural Roma communities (although agriculture is number one occupation for rural people in Romania), inefficiency in implementing social measures and actions for the increase of Roma social inclusions; - Local government errors: spacial segregation of Roma communities, lack of infrastructural elements in Roma living settlements, lack of identity and domicile papers; - Roma cultural and traditional elements: girls’ premature marriages, low social value attributed to education in Roma communities, engaging 8-9 year old children in lucrative activities in order to increase the family income.

Roma - Employment Roma vulnerability on labor market was the object of social research in Romania, in the context of social policy development regarding social inclusion and poverty control in Roma communities. The studies of poor — 203 —

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professional insertions of Roma population were done at the initiative of Romanian government institutions, European institutions, civil society, and non-governmental Romanian and International organizations for Roma people18. Starting with 2008, through generous funding of European Social Fund, Operational Sectoral Program Human Resources Development, the social economy projects for Roma have known an unprecedented development in Romania. There were numerous projects of professional insertion for Roma population, within which the Roma were counseled, informed, facilitated their integration on labor market and had access to special educational and professional qualification programs. Also, one of the programs was aimed towards the revival of traditional professions or the development of social enterprise (Popescu, 2011: 81). Numerous national science studies are oriented towards the causative factors of Roma vulnerability on the labor market, identifying as fundamental the conditions related to being situated at the limit of extreme poverty, living conditions, educational stock, qualifications for professions that have a demand on labor market, attitude towards education and work, including children in lucrative activities, occasional work on informal labor market, traditional occupations, social assistance income (children’s national allowance, statutory maternity pay or minimal wage), temporary migration for working abroad, and discrimination on labor market. For example, the study named “Determinants of employment in vulnerable groups” regarding the causality of reduced presence on labor market in the case of Roma, identifief a series of determinant factors, such as low level of education, prejudices and stereotypes associated with Roma that are consequently sidelined, lack of interest for legal work, active participation of Roma on informal labor market, lack of social security mechanisms concerning directly the needs of Roma population. (Buțiu, 2013: 51) Also, the Intervention Manual proposed by ICCV, “Vulnerable 18

Among the most active institutions and organizations interested in the findings of scientific research on Romanian Roma professional insertion as a determinant of social inclusion, there are: European Union, European Social Fund, Roma Educational Fund, Structural Instruments, Government of Romania – Ministry of Labor, Family and Social Protection, National Agency of Employment, National Commission of Employment Promotion, Resource Center for Roma Community, National Agency for Roma, European Commission, European Council, National Council for Fighting Discrimination, Romanian Academy – Research Institute of Quality of Life, Soros Foundation Romania, and Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005-2015.

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groups and social economy. Roma and women in difficulty”, as a result of the analysis of statistics supplied by Government of Romania, ANR and ANOFM, stated that Roma women have an even lower employment rate, as a result of lack of education, young marriages and childbirth, and traditional gender-related ideology. (Popescu, 2011: 74) In Romania, one of the main actors of employment, National Agency of Labor Force Employment in Romania (ANOFM) is the institution that administers the budget of unemployment benefits and that is involved in implementing the policies, strategies, plans and programs regarding employment, training and professional qualification for the unemployed persons. Every year, ANOFM presents a program for employment, and all measures and actions included in the program are focused on boosting employment. ANOFM’s annual programs are based upon the structure of governmental program, the strategic objectives of EU formulated according to Europe 2020 agenda. For instance, the main measures implemented in 2012 by ANOFM, according to Law no. 76/2002 and Law no. 116/2002 were mediation, information and professional counseling services, professional training, completion of salary income for employees, stimulating work force mobility, counseling and assistance for starting an independent activity or business, personalized assistance for young people at risk of being socially sidelined and other measures for people at risk of becoming unemployed. Presently, scientific research follows the assessment of the efficiency of actions, measures and programs efficiency in order to integrate Roma on the labor market. Such a step is the national diagnosis study – “L@EGAL 2 – European investment for the future of the Roma from Romania” – conducted in 2010, which investigated, among others, to what extend these measures were addressed to the needs of the Roma people. The results of the research showed that in the analyzed period of 2005-2010, public social databases and ANOFM reports failed to provide a complete image on the situation of inclusion of the Roma in professional insertion facilitating programs and the presence of a low rate of inclusion of the Roma as beneficiary of those programs. Actions that were taken through the program “Employment Caravan” were analyzed and it was revealed that it had a low efficiency for the increase of labor demand aimed at those with reduced levels of education. The results of the study showed that the program implemented by ANOFM in Romania starting with 2005, although it had great results — 205 —

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according to the annual statistics, had a reduced effect for the Roma, who had a lower education level that denied them access to qualification training and also had a diminished availability and interest to attend those programs. It is believed that those programs should be rethought to a better promotion of the stock market or caravan programs, a concrete labor offer in accordance with the qualification of the Roma. (Cace at all., 2011: 27-31) In conclusion, research results showed that the measures like “Caravan” or “Stock market of workplace” are not efficient because the labor offer is unrealistic, the education level demanded is not a reality for the Roma social reality, some of the qualification trainings offered by AJOFM are not acknowledged by the Ministry of Education and there is no follow up on these projects. Also, the number of participants in the qualification training is low, the Roma being discouraged by the lack of financial compensations for attendance. For the Roma to go to training, it means giving up on income based activities (agriculture, trade, etc.). The inefficiency of these programs is perceived by the Agency, the BJR (County Roma Bureau) and the Roma. (Cace et. all, 2011) The results of the research included in this analysis showed that the legal income sources of the Roma came mainly from social assistance and salary income of unqualified work, and the activities that provide income were mainly situated in the informal work market. In the research name “Needs and resources in Roma communities”, Mălina Voicu states that in rural areas, the Roma’s income is based on daily agricultural activities and minimal wage. In the urban areas, the income usually consists of salaries, pensions, and earnings from external migrations. (Voicu, 2007: 16) Another study conducted nationally in 2010 revealed the same trend an showed that the Roma income is made up mainly of the next activities: sporadic daily works, black market jobs, collecting garbage and scrapping premiums, children’s national allowance and minimal wage, work on the formal market (especially for the young Roma with a certain qualification), own business, traditional professions, working abroad, and trading wild products (berries, wood, fish, etc.). (Cace et. all, 2011: 93) In the same study, the analysis conducted by Simona Ilie reached the conclusion that the Roma who have traditional professions operate in fields such as collecting garbage and other reusable materials (scrapping premiums, clothing, glass), making of spoons, iron kettles, bricks, collecting plants, and music. It is noticeable that some activities, like collecting garbage and scrapping premiums are more of an — 206 —

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economic opportunity than a traditional profession that is specific to poorer population in general. (Ilie, 2011: 39) As far as the activity line of the Roma that activate in lucrative activities on formal or informal labor market concerns, these consist in majority in unqualified or poorly qualified jobs. As the analysis already showed, extreme poverty living conditions and social exclusion that imply reduced access to social resources, a level of formal education consisting between 0 and 8 years of schooling, reduced social capital, low degree of confidence and reliance in institutions are determinant factors of this state of fact. The research conducted in Roma communities reveals a major obstacle for the access to the formal labor market, the high percentage of those that do not seek formal employment, being involved in the black labor market without any legal papers. In addition, the ones that want a job on the formal labor market say that long-term unemployment, economic crisis, structural factors effects, ethnical discrimination, family obligations and poor health block their access to the market. (Voicu, 2007: 8) Specific to Roma population is the high percentage of those not seeking a workplace, being engaged in household duties and raising their children. Also, a large part of the population is working on the black market, with no papers. The majority of them (80%) are pessimistic in finding a workplace. (Preoteasa, 2011: 49) Unemployment is a common problem in all the case studies of the research named “Needs and Resources in Roma Communities” a problem signaled by local authorities as well as Roma community and field examiners. Long-term unemployment generates poverty and is higher in Roma communities because of the poor qualification of human factor, although it is also generated and sustained by the global economy crisis. (Voicu, 2007: 224) The Roma in Țigănie district, Geoagiu were traditionally brick makers and musicians, but nowadays most of them are unemployed and acquire income from daily activities, social assistance, prostitution and working abroad (5%). (Dincă, 2008: 88-89) The Roma occupational condition reveals hard labor conditions, inadequate for maintaining a proper health of the Roma workers. There is an important percentage of Roma people that are dissatisfied with the workplace, who endure increased physical strain after a day’s work, because of the tough work they do. The unqualified Roma view their workplace as an insecure, low paying job, with minimal promotion opportunity. Still, the Roma population, especially the urban population, makes a good delimitation between the two aspects of life: family and workplace. (Ilie, 2011: 48) — 207 —

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Roma – Living conditions The data of the Ministry of Labor, Family and Social Protection included in “Country report regarding social inclusion” of 2008 revealed that poverty in Roma population is acute, approximately one third of Roma population being poor. (Popescu, 2011: 64) The findings regarding employment of Roma community members, their access to education and social resources considered their living condition as a determinant factor, but also as an effect of structural problems that the Romanian poor population faced. The traditional Roma community family model included living in large families, young marriages and childbirths, and giving birth to many children. This model is a vicious circle, being determined by cultural as well as economic factors, leading to poverty, poor education (even poorer in the case of women), and lack of employment. (Popescu, 2011: 77) The national sociological enquiry of 2010 showed that the Roma live at the periphery of municipality (83%), in houses with yards (88.6%), in compact communities (77%). Half of the houses were made of resistant materials. In 2010, 40% of the Roma had property papers on their houses. Satisfaction level of living conditions for the Roma is high. (Popescu, 2011: 66) According to the data in the “Roma Inclusion Barometer” of 2007, ”network covers only 2% of cases, electricity 84%, regional gas networks cover only 17% of Roma community households, public water supply networks only reach 17% of Roma households, and only 16% can make use of the sewage system. Given these precarious conditions, in which the government ensures access to utilities only to a small number of households inhabited by Roma, these people provide for themselves resorting most often to makeshift and inadequate systems, which are more expensive than those available to the majority. Where household configuration is concerned, it is a common situation that two or three families live sometimes in the same place, leading to a specific overcrowding in Roma communities; the over crowdedness is also specific to the not so poor Roma families, regardless of geographical location or the type of living space. (Voicu, 2007) The research bearing the title “The Roma condition in Romania” conducted in 2011 showed that the majority of the Roma were living in the rural area, and the urban Roma lived at the municipality periphery, few of the Roma living in the center of the municipality. Most of them lived in places property of a family member, and some had state or town hall rented — 208 —

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houses. Most often, the living places have 2 rooms and are overcrowded, in a room often living 3 or more people. The houses are in proportion of 30% built of frames, clay and straws, a traditional way of building houses for the rural Roma, cheaper but of poor quality. The utilities they can access are electricity (91%), network drinking water (36%), and sewage (24%). Many of the houses do not have a toilet inside the house. The lack of decent living conditions leads to Roma’s health and education level implications. (Tarnovschi, 2012: 44)

Reviewing the developments in employment policies affecting the Roma population in Romania and EU The Roma minority’s social integration should represent a high priority at EU level, both from a social and economic point of view. Roma population in EU represents, according to estimates around 10-12 million (EC, 2011) EU citizens (highly estimated, the real number could be substantially different), most of them still facing social exclusion and discrimination on all levels: education, employment, healthcare, and living conditions. First, from a humanitarian point of view, the Roma population’s social inclusion should represent a priority at the EU level, Roma people being the poorest minority, the majority of them facing a multitude of social problems. Second, from an economical and general growth point of view, a dependent, poor and segregated continually growing segment of EU’s population is and will be a burden and a destabilization factor. Some studies show that, for example, a high professional integration of Roma could bring important economic growth to some countries (Ionescu, Cace, 2006) Is there a solid common ground between EU and Romanian national policies, which can allow for the development of coherent, efficient and sustainable strategies and policies for social inclusion of vulnerable populations on the labor market? Does Romania have all the instruments needed for facing the challenge of social inclusion of the largest and growing minority in the country? How do the Romanian Authorities intend to put in practice all the strategy measures and how much of a priority represents the social integration of the Roma population? We will try to answer these questions and others in this chapter — 209 —

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Specialised policies addressed to Roma population at European Union level Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005 – 2015 The Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005–2015 is a political commitment by European governments to improve the socio-economic status and social inclusion of the Roma population. The Decade is an international initiative that brings together governments, international, intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations, including Roma civil society, to accelerate progress toward improving the welfare of Roma and to review such progress in a transparent and quantifiable way. (Bojadjieva, Kushen, 2014) The Decade focuses on the priority areas of education, employment, health and housing, and commits governments to take into account the core issues of poverty, discrimination and gender mainstreaming. The current member states of the Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005–2015 are Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Spain. The Decade planning process is guided by an International Steering Committee made up of representatives of participating governments, Roma organizations, international donors, and other international organizations. In 2006, the International Steering Committee agreed upon the establishment of a Decade Secretariat in Budapest, Hungary, which directly supports the Presidency of the Decade. (Bojadjieva, Kushen, 2014)

European Platform for Roma Inclusion The idea of a European Roma platform emerged during the first European Roma summit in Brussels, in September 2008. Following the summit, EU countries called on the European Commission to organize “an exchange of good practice and experience between the EU countries in the sphere of inclusion of the Roma, provide analytical support and stimulate cooperation between all parties concerned by Roma issues, including the organizations representing Roma, in the context of an integrated European platform”. The first meeting of the Roma Platform took place in Prague on April 24, 2009. (Ilie, S. et al., 2012) The aim of the European Platform for Roma Inclusion is to stimulate the cooperation and exchanges of experience — 210 —

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on successful Roma inclusion and integration policies and practices by the representatives of national governments, the European Union, international organizations, and civil society. The European Platform for Roma Inclusion represents a conjugated guideline for the political decision-makers in order to create strategies and action plans with a common basis at the European Union level. Referring to the employment component, the key subjects that matter for the European Platform are transition from education to professional inclusion (occupational training, individualized support, and access to formal labor market); granting small loans to the entrepreneurs and selfemployed persons; promoting the partnership in employment; occupational training for adults and employment quality. To these, the anti-discrimination and promoting awareness in education, housing, health and employment areas are added. (Ilie, S. et al., 2012)

EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 In April 2011, the European Commission proposed for the first time ever a European strategic framework for a particularly vulnerable European minority. The EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies explicitly called upon EU Member States to design their national inclusion strategies with a view to include strong monitoring methods to help evaluate the impact of Roma integration actions, along with review mechanisms for the adaptation of the strategies. This was the first time that such actions were called for in the context of Roma inclusion. The European Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies has a strong economic and social focus, requesting all Member States to develop and implement dedicated long-term strategies to promote Roma integration in four key areas: access to education, healthcare, employment, and housing and essential services. It also seeks to allocate sufficient targeted resources to achieve progress. However, the Framework falls far short of fully tackling the challenges of Roma exclusion, which are intimately linked to widespread hostility and discrimination against the Roma people. Member States had to submit their national strategies by December 31, 2011and the European Commission had to provide yearly assessments to the European Parliament and Council of the European Union on progress made towards the targets on the four key areas. — 211 —

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Overall, the adoption of the Framework is a significant step forward and has the potential to make a difference by 2020 if efforts at all levels are upheld. Thus, policy instruments for social inclusion exist at European level. However, they have so far failed in producing measurable results for the inclusion of ethnic minorities and migrants. This is in part due to issues linked with data collection. Overall, the lack of data directly collected on migrants and ethnic minorities makes their socio-economic situation difficult to monitor. In turns, it makes it difficult to design adequate policies and measure progress. Monitoring the situation of migrants and ethnic minorities is indeed one of the most effective ways for ensuring that the Europa 2020 strategy improves and takes into account the socio-economic situation of migrants and ethnic minorities.

A short history of the development of the policies and strategies on Roma population in Romania From 1990, the social policies for Roma people in Romania went through three steps (Ionescu and Cace, 2006): the first step (1990-1995), called "the unstructured search period”, is characterized by policies and programs aimed rather toward exploratory steps that led to understanding the mechanisms necessary for coherent social interventions. Intervention programs implemented during this period shared the same exploratory goal. The second step (1996-2001) is called the "period of responsibility understanding" and is characterized by the development of strategies, measures and specific interventions by both public institutions and nongovernmental organizations. The third step (2001-present) is defined by the assumption of responsibilities by the relevant authorities in order of conferring response to a difficult situation, which is continuously increasing. An important step in the Romania’s post-communist period towards the development of structures, policies and strategies was the creation of the Council for National Minorities. The Council is established as an advisory body of the Government of Romania coordinated by the General Secretariat of the Government until 1997. Following the Government’s program of 1996 – 2000, an Interministerial Committee for Roma problems in Romania was created and a process of allocation of financial resources for projects and programs to support developments at the national minorities’ level organization, based on — 212 —

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projects and programs, was started. In 1997, a government agency for Roma affairs was first established, under the name of National Office for the Roma, which coordinated a component of the Department for the Protection of National Minorities. Between 1997 and 1999, the National Office for Roma created territorial offices in all of Romanian regions. In 1998, the Department for the Protection of National Minorities implemented a Phare project – the goal of the project was to create the Government Strategy on improving the situation of Roma in Romania. The Working Group of Roma Associations was established. The Government of Romania has introduced in its program from 19982000, the Roma issue as a priority involving total agreement with the EU pre-accession strategy and the adoption of European laws on minority rights. The Accession Partnership in 1999 emphasized the need to continue implementing strategies to improve the social and economic situation of Roma and to implement measures for fighting discrimination, including in the public administration, to create jobs and to increase access to education. In 2000, The Strategic Framework for Improving the Situation of Roma was adopted. Also in 2000, the Department for Protection of National Minorities was disbanded and the Department for Interethnic Relations was created, within which the National Office for the Roma operated. Immediately after 2000, in Romania a series of legislative measures directed to supporting disadvantaged groups in Romania, including Roma population were issued. Those were the next: Law no. 416/2001 on the guaranteed minimal revenue, Law no. 705/2001 regarding the national social work system, and Law no. 116/2002 on preventing and combating social exclusion, etc. The Government Program for 2001-2004 introduced new elements related to Roma population, the most important being the initiative to develop a national strategy and specific programs that offer a substantial improvement of the Roma. In April 2001, the Ministry of Public Information submitted to the Romanian Government the Government of Romania’s Strategy for Improving the Condition of Roma, a document welcomed both by Romanian and international institutions. Also on April 2001, the Anti-Poverty and Social Inclusion Governmental Commission was established, which had the mission to create the National Plan for Combating Poverty and Promoting Social Inclusion ("Anti-Poverty Plan"), approved by Government Decision no. 829/2002. The National Plan for Combating Poverty and Promoting — 213 —

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Social Inclusion includes an entire chapter (Chapter 14) on the reduction of poverty and social exclusion of Roma. The program aims to strengthen the participation of Roma communities in economic, social, educational and political life of the Romanian society and the improving access to health services. In July 2003, the representative body for Roma problems was renamed the "Office for Roma Affairs". In October 2004, the currently active National Agency for the Roma was established as an independent agency of the government, with specific responsibilities on Roma problems. An important document on combating the social inclusion and promoting social inclusion was the Joint Inclusion Memorandum elaborated in 2005 by the Government of Romania together with the European Commission (JIM, 2005). The document’s purpose was to promote social inclusion and to combat poverty in Europe by 2010, as stated in the Lisbon Strategy goals. JIM prepared full participation of Romania, after its accession, to the open method of collaboration on social inclusion implemented by the Member States. JIM aim was to sustain the promotion of a cohesive and inclusive society, the growth of population welfare, complementary to the rapid elimination of the serious problems of extreme poverty and social exclusion. The human resources development strategy, increasing employment and combating social exclusion addressed to the Roma and people with disabilities in the PND is based on two main pillars: increasing the adaptability of labor market requirements and actively combating social exclusion. In 2006, the Strategy for Improving the Condition of Roma was updated by adding several new elements and a new Action Plan for 2006 - 2008. The updated strategy, reorganized, defined only six action lines: Community development and administration, Communication and civic involvement, Housing, Healthcare, Justice and public order, Economic steps, Social security, Child welfare, Education and Culture and denominations. Compared to the first version, the benefit of this second version was that it stated, even if not too clearly, the financing of the actions from the Action Plan 2006-2008. “The actions established in the General Action Plan for 2006-2008 shall be financed by funds from the State budget, Pre-Accession Instruments, other EU funds, as well as by funds attracted from domestic and external sources”. — 214 —

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The National Strategic Reference Framework 2007 - 2013, launched in 2007, was created having as base the priorities established in the National Development Plan, with the purpose of being a financial and technical planning of the structural funds. The framework contains the strategic lines of the Sectoral Operational Programs financed from the European Regional Development Funds and the European Social Fund and Cohesion Fund. (Ilie et al., 2012) In 2007, the Sectoral Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007-2013 (SOP HRD) was launched in Romania. The general objective of SOP HRD is the development of human capital and increasing competitiveness, by linking education and lifelong learning with the labor market and ensuring increased opportunities for future participation on a modern, flexible and inclusive labor market for 1,650,000 people. Another recent document for the development of Roma population policies is the Governance Program 2009 - 2012. The Chapter 25 “Policies for the national minorities” includes as one of the main objectives “improving Roma condition and continuing the policies to reduce the gaps between the Roma Population and the overall society”. Within this document, the Government of Romania acknowledges the Roma population’s social problems as priorities and the following actions were proposed: decentralization, social dialogue, good housing conditions and ownership rights, as well as streamlining of the actions intended to sectoral aspects.(Ilie et al., 2012) In 2011, the Strategy of the Government of Romania for the inclusion of the Romanian citizens belonging to Roma minority for the period 2011 2020 is released, as the main guideline for all the specific measures for the Roma people social inclusion in Romania.

Conclusions In the last quarter of a century, the Roma social integration strategies, policies and measures made important steps forward in Romania and we can appreciate their present complexity, at least from the projections and planning perspective. Some lack of steering can be noticed in the direct implementation of the measures: the action plans, the responsabilities and the financing sources are unclear, this fact conducting in a lot of failure in achieving proposed targets. — 215 —

Melinda Dinc • Theofil Lazr • Roxana Ungureanu

The activities that support the professional insertion of vulnerable groups are developed by the public bodies but also non-governmental organizations in the POSDRU projects but not only. Public institutions provides identification of jobs, counseling, information, professional qualification for some vulnerable groups in the labor market: unemployed persons, Roma people, persons with disabilities, and convicts serving time in prisons. The NGOs provide services for identifying suitable jobs, as well as mediation, counseling, information, and professional qualification for various vulnerable groups, including the Roma. Housing is an economic issue with a history of segregation. This may be attributed, at least in part, to the fact that the Roma are poorer than their non-Roma neighbors. However, while this economic argument applies more generally, it is also important to highlight the historical context of the Roma and their poverty, which has persisted for centuries, as well as to acknowledge the continued discrimination against Roma peoplw. The (mis) perception that all Roma are ‘untrustworthy, lazy, uneducated, conniving thieves who make a living from conducting illegal businesses’ is a deep-rooted mentality that has been around for generations and continues to reinforce itself in many ways. The poverty and marginalization of the Roma is a manifestation of these attitudes, and unless they change, the random acts of disempowerment and discrimination that challenge their dignity will continue to be condoned. The knowledge on the Roma minority specific problematic increased, the preoccupation for the problematic is shown in the multitude of reports, research and publications on the problematic. Also the acknowledgment of the importance of the problematic at EU and national level, the importance given by many institutions and organizations to the social inclusion of Roma represent a positive aspect of the last period. The negative from this perspective is that even if, declaratively, the importance is shown, the practical approach does not seem as vigorous. The major problems of Roma population are still addressed more consistently by the civil society, compared with the Local Authorities, the latter continuing to resume their interventions granting the usual social benefits, without creating real social community services that can counsel, train, empower Roma citizens, in order to reduce discrimination and segregation Another plus is represented by the synchronization with the EU framework and the complementarity between the National Strategy and — 216 —

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other National Strategies at EU level. The centralized framework and the EU monitoring of Member States encourages common approach of the problematic that can result in better overall results and sustainability. The danger from this point of view is the creation of similar strategies and action plans, in order to respect the EU requirements, which are not adapted to the specific conditions and possibilities of each country. It’s not efficient to have complex Action Plans only for show but without financial or technical fundament. The actions will remain on paper, or will exist only as long the external funding is available. The reflection of the problematic in multiple programmatic documents, focused or mainstreamed, represents also a strong point of the social policies destined for Roma in the last quarter of a century. Starting with the periodical governmental programs, continuing with different law articles, all contributed to the increasing of direct social inclusion measures for Roma people in Romania. The weakness from this perspective is that despite the complexity of the policies, the priority of implementation of direct actions not seems to be a priority of the Romanian Authorities, most of the measures implemented are either old (traditional already), either financed from external funds. Another minus in the policy making is the weak involvement of the civil society in the development and implementation of the strategy, even if a strong Roma elite was formed in the last 25 years in Romania. The real and consistent involvement of the Roma real representatives in the decision making, the creation of instruments for Roma communities’ empowerment and self-determination could contribute in a more efficient way to the proficiency of the social inclusion policies (Baciu, 2013). Roma social issues should represent a high priority of the social system in Romania and Europa in the future also. Important steps were taken in the last period in structuring and organizing policies and bodies responsible for the problematic. The difficulty seems to reside still in the real change making in the communities. Poverty, discrimination, lack of education and unemployment still characterize most of the Roma citizens from Romania.

Acknowledgement This paper is a result of the project “E-QUAL – Qualitative research on the professional integration of vulnerable groups”.The research leading to these results has received funding

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Melinda Dinc • Theofil Lazr • Roxana Ungureanu from EEA Financial Mechanism 2004-2014 under the project contract number SEE13/30.06.2014. The project is implemented by the West University of Timişoara, Romania in partnership with the Nordland University, Bodø, Norway.

REFERENCES Baciu, L., Lazar, Th., Lukacs, G. (2010). “PregătiŃi pentru viitor” Raport asupra bunelor practici naŃionale şi transnaŃionale privind integrarea grupurilor vulnerabile pe piaŃa muncii (Ready for the Future. Report on the national and transnational good practice on integration of vulnerable groups in the labor market). Bojadjieva, A., Kushen, R. (2014) Decade Intelligence Report. Factors for success or failure of Roma inclusion projects, Decade of Roma Inclusion Secretariat Foundation, available at http://www.romadecade.org. BuŃiu, C. A. (2013). DeterminanŃi ai ocupării grupurilor vulnerabile. O perspectivă a furnizorilor de servicii sociale. [Determinants of employment in vulnerable groups. A perspective of social services suppliers]. In Lucian Marina (coord.) Ocupare și incluziune socială [Employment and Social Inclusion] Cluj Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană pp. 45 – 56 Cace, S., Preoteasa, A. M.; Stănescu, S. M.; Tomescu, C. (Coord.) (2011). Legal și egal pe piața muncii pentru comunitățile de romi. Diagnoza factorilor care influențează nivelul de ocupare la populația de romi din România. [Legal and Equal on the Labor Market for Roma Communities. Diagnosis of the factors influencing employment rate in Romanian Roma community] Bucharest: Editura Expert Dincă, M. (2008). Romii ursari din Geoagiu. [The Ursar (circus actor) Roma in Geoagiu] În Voicu, Mălina, Tufiș, C. D. (Coord.) Romii – Povești de Viață [The Roma – Life Stories] Bucharest: Soros Foundation Romania, pp. 83-101 European Commission (2000), Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, Official Journal L 180 , 19/07/2000 P. 0022 – 0026 European Commission (2014), Report on the implementation of EU framework for National Roma Integration Strategies European Commission, (2010), Communication from the Commission: Europe 2020, a strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, Brussels — 218 —

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European Commission. 2005. Communication to the Spring European Council. Working Together for Growth and Jobs. A new Start for the Lisbon Strategy. COM (2005) 24 final. Brussels. February 2, 2005 European Commission. 2008. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2008-2009. COM (2008) 674 final. Brussels. November 5, 2008 European Parliament (2000), The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2007/c 303/01, available at http://ec.europa.eu. European Union Council (2008), Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law. Eurostat data (2012), available at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. Human Development and Sustainable Development Teams. Europe and Central Asia. The World Bank Group (2014). Diagnostics and Policy Advice for Supporting Roma Inclusion in Romania Ilie, S., Rusu, M., Toma, S., Stoian, I., Arsu, A. (2012). Roma Inclusion in Romania: Policies, Institutions and Examples, Soros Foundation Romania. Ilie, S. (2011). Ocupare și neocupare. Comportamente pe piața muncii. [Employment and unemployment. Conduct on labor market] În Cace, Sorin; Preoteasa, Ana Maria; Stănescu, Simona, Maria; Tomescu, Cristina (Coord.) Legal și egal pe piața muncii pentru comunitățile de romi. Diagnoza factorilor care influențează nivelul de ocupare la populația de romi din România [Legal and Equal on the Labor Market for Roma Communities. Diagnosis of the factors influencing employment rate in Romanian Roma community]. Bucharest: Editura Expert, pp. 36-48 Impreuna Agency for Community Development (2012) – Romanian Government’s Strategy of Inclusion of the Romanian Citizens Belonging to Romani Minority for 2012-2020 – The position of the Impreuna Agency for Community Development, consulted at http://www.anr.gov.ro. Millea, V. (2013). Perspective ale angajatorilor asupra ocupării grupurilor vulnerabile. [Employees’ perspectives upon vulnerable groups occupation] In Lucian Marina (coord.) Ocupare și incluziune socială [Employment and social inclusion], Cluj Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană, pp. 83-111 Neagu, G. (2011). Educație și valori ai educației.[Education and educational values] În Legal și egal pe piața muncii pentru comunitățile de romi. Diagnoza factorilor care influențează nivelul de ocupare la — 219 —

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populația de romi din România. [Legal and Equal on the Labor Market for Roma Communities. Diagnosis of the factors influencing employment rate in Romanian Roma community] Bucharest: Editura Expert, pp. 55-59 Popescu, R. (2011). Grupurile vulnerabile și economia socială. Romi și femei în dificultate. Manual de intervenție [Vulnerable groups and social economy. Roma and women in difficulty. Intervention Manual], Bucharest: Editura Expert Preoteasa, A. M., Șerban, M., Tarnovschi, D. (2011). SituaŃia romilor în România. Între incluziune socială și migraŃie (Situation of Roma in Romania. Between social inclusion and migration), Bucharest: Foundation Soros Romania. Preoteasa, A. M., (2011). Specificul neocupării și atitudini. [The specifics of unemployment and attitudes] În Legal și egal pe piața muncii pentru comunitățile de romi. Diagnoza factorilor care influențează nivelul de ocupare la populația de romi din România. [Legal and Equal on the Labor Market for Roma Communities. Diagnosis of the factors influencing employment rate in Romanian Roma community] Bucharest: Editura Expert, pp. 49-54 Romanian Government (2013) National Strategic Report 2013 on the implementation of the Structural and Cohesion Funds. Sectoral Operational Program Environment 2007-2013, Annual Implementation Report (A.I.R) 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011. Sectoral Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013, Annual Implementation Report (A.I.R) 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011. Sectoral Operational Program Increase of Economic Competitiveness 2007 – 2013, Annual Implementation Report (A.I.R) 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010. Strategy of the Government of Romania for the inclusion of the Romanian citizens belonging to Roma minority (2011), available at http://ec.europa.eu. Tarnovschi, D. (Coord.) (2012). Situația romilor în România, 2011. Între incluziune socială și migrație. Raport de țară EU INCLUSIVE. [The Roma condition in Romania,2011. Between social inclusion and migration. Country report UE Inclusive] Constanța: Editura Dobrogea Voicu, M. (Coord.) (2007). Nevoi și resurse în comunitățile de romi. [Needs and resources in Roma comunities] Bucharest: Soros Foundation Romania — 220 —

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Voicu, M.; Tufiș, C. D. (Coord.) (2008). Romii – Povești de Viață. [The Roma – Life Stories] Bucharest: Soros Foundation Romania http://ec.europa.eu/ http://romaeducationfund.ro/ http://web.worldbank.org/ http://www.coe.int/ http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org http://www.sgg.ro/ http://www.unesco.org/ http://www.unrol.org/

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Alin Gavreliuc • Dana Gavreliuc

Chapter XVI AUTARCHIC INDIVIDUALISM – A ROMANIAN SPECIFICITY OF HOFSTEDE’S MODEL Alin GAVRELIUC Dana GAVRELIUC

Abstract: This article resumed the main portraits in terms of cultural dimensions made in Romanian culture, using two well-known theoretical models provided by cross-cultural psychology: first of one created by G. Hofstede, and the second one generated by K. Leung and M. H. Bond (social axioms). Our researches have been done on representative sample (study 1, N=1058 subjects) and on educational sample (study 2, N=522 subjects) and have evidenced the specificity of main dimension of Hofstede’s model, described as autarchic individualism. This particular concept designates the stressing of individual resources in the process of self-achievement, in a social context characterized by a deficient communitarian solidarity, hence the qualification of “autarchic”, that refuses the idea of loyal competition between social actors, which look at one another with suspicion, mistrust and act with resentments and selfishness. In our article we have presented the dominant portraits of samples, characterized by high power-distance and uncertainty avoidance, and the high scores of social cynicism. We have made also several generational comparisons, illustrating the prevalence of these duplicitous patterns of thinking and acting especially for younger cohorts and we have discussed the social implications of them. Keywords: Cross-Cultural Psychology, Social Cynicism, Romanian Educational Organizations, Culture, Personality

Introduction Diagnosis of Romanian organizations using the Hofstede model on a representative sample The first research evoked (Gavreliuc, 2011) focused on carrying out an assessment of the impact of cultural specificity over the value, attitudinal and behavioural patterns in the Romanian organizational medium, on a — 222 —

Chapter XVI — Autarchic individualism — a romanian specificity of hofstede’s model

large, representative sample (study 1). I have used the best well-known instrument in that area (VSM94), which operates with the concept of cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010) and assess the following dimension: power-distance: expresses the symbolic and operational inequality between superiors and subordinates in an organizations (PD high / low); uncertainty avoidance: fear of change and the need of formal rules or availability concerning change (UA high / low); individualism - collectivism: the distribution of personal attention, resources and commitment to a task toward ones’ self or collective belonging, the accent being laid on self-achievement or on integration into the social network, perceived as relevant (I / C); masculinity- femininity: focusing on personal objectives (income, organizational ascension and assertiveness), opposed to the interpersonal ones (friendly atmosphere, cordial cooperation with the authority, tolerance) (M / F); long / short term perspective: option for “now and here”, regressive reminisce / long term option for an organic management of organizational resources (LTP / STP).

Research methodology The methodology assumed has been deliberately combined: quantitative, through a psycho-sociological investigation, by applying the instrument mentioned (VSM 94) on a regional representative sample (1058 subjects) for an active population in the Fifth Development Region in Romania (Timiş, Arad, Caraş-Severin and Hunedoara counties) and a qualitative one, through 7 focus-groups in organizations of different sizes (small, medium and multinational corporations). The specific scores for these five factors were the following (see table 1): Table 1. Specific scores from Hofstede’s model dimensions (Gavreliuc, 2011) Landmark research / cultural dimensions PD I/C M/F UA L/S TP Gavreliuc (2011), regional representative 51 50 25 69 34 sample, Western Region - Romania, 1058 subjects Note> PD = power distance, I/C = individualism/collectivism, M/F= masculinity/femininity, UA = uncertainty avoidance, L/S TP = long/short time perspective. (source: own research data)

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Figure no. 1 shows the distribution of clusters among the national cultures, if we analyse the relationships between power distance and individualism/collectivism (I/C) and we can identify Romania’s position. Clusters of national cultures related to I/C and power distance: in the bottom right corner lies the Latin group (increased power-distance / high individualism) characterized briefly by G. Hofstede as a dependent individualism. The opposite pattern, called an independent collectivism is represented by Israel and Austria. The majority of the Third World countries are localized in the top right part, described as a dependent collectivism. Most of the “occidental” nations (post-industrialized) lie in the bottom left, expressing an independent individualism

Figure 1 Map of cultural dimensions – cross-cultural assessment (Gavreliuc, 2009, 2011a)

(source: own research data) — 224 —

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According to our research results, the score on the Romanian sample is positioned at the border between the area of dependent collectivism and that of dependent individualism. The most part of the organizational portrait in the West of Romania, achieved based on the cultural dimensions proposed by G. Hofstede should be resumed as follows: retractility and formalism in their relations with the symbolic over-ordinate (great power distance), moderate collectivism or, as it has been theorized all along throughout the paper, a species of “autarchic individualism”, centring on relation to the detriment of organizational performance (strong femininity), a fearing attitude toward change (high scores for uncertainty avoidance), preponderantly short term orientation. Synthesising around the main dimension of that model (I/C), “autarchic individualism” expresses the valorising individual resources in the process of self-achievement, in a social context characterized by a deficient communitarian solidarity, hence the qualification of “autarchic”, that refuses the idea of loyal competition between social actors, which look at one another with suspicion, mistrust and act with resentments and selfishness. In this kind of environment with arbitrary and unpredictable social opportunities, those opportunities should be capitalized, even by unethical means. These species of attitudes are articulated very differently than the classical species of individualism, from the consolidated democratic societies, where the pattern of normativity is “trans-individual” (“above” the individual). In this pattern, the networks of expectations and behaviours promote a normativity that becomes inter-individual, in which private interests and parochial resources are discretionarily distributed, following the power capillarity. In an autarchic individualism “everyone is with everyone” and the self-achievement depends on the capacity of each subject to maximize the informal social capital resources (actors with power in the social network knots), which, in turn, increase the capacity of the subject to approach biographical opportunities, often beyond the formal (legal) normativity. Therewith, autarchic individualism illustrates the precarious capacity of society to aggregate a “collective welfare”, which could conjugate the individual needs and interests in a convergent manner and behavioural opportunism becomes the functional option also for solving routine tasks, but especially in the stake tasks shared with the “otherness”. As it was already presented, when applying the VSM94 (the instrument for assessing cultural dimensions), the specific score for Romanian describes a contradictory ambivalence (at the same time, individualism and collectivism). — 225 —

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I have tried to better understand the semantic and operational area of these concepts through a qualitative methodology. Thus, the autarchic individualism has been proved in the very expressive narrative recurrences created by the persons interviewed. By analyzing the qualitative data from the 7 focus-groups, we have ended up with several very suggestive characterisations, which have been grouped in a series of narrative recitatives. However, the typical formulations of the subjects were generated in the register of self-achievement, describing a retractile identitary description, devoid of commitment: - “everything turns out as they want anyway” (D. M., 34 years old); - “it’s useless to come up with ideas in the firm, since whatever I’d do, they don’t care” (A. R., 22 years old); - “I’d like to be left alone with what who I am” (S. T., 48 years old); - “the best rule is to avoid rules, because bosses have made this the rule” (A. G., 37 years old). At the same time, the psychometric properties of VSM 94 on the Western Romania sample were situated at the limit of “liberal” acceptability (0.60) in general. These results prove a modest internal reliability (see table 2). The need to re-elaborate a new test is suggested by conjugating the ethic and emic methodological perspective (Berry, 1999). Table 2. Reliability of the cultural dimensions from VSM94 — Romanian sample CULTURAL DIMENSION

Alpha Cronbach

PD (power distance)

0,57

I/C (individualism-collectivism)

0,60

M/F (masculinity-feminity)

0,58

UA (uncertainty avoidance)

0,52

S/LTO (short/long term orientation)

0,78

(source: own research data) The further research promoted on this topic has nuanced this initial portrait, stressing the ambivalent definition of the self in the organizational environment and underlining the specificity of the Romanian, autarchic, individualism. — 226 —

Chapter XVI — Autarchic individualism — a romanian specificity of hofstede’s model

Culture and personality in the Romanian educational field: relationships between social axioms and Hofstede’s model The key challenge for the next research in this area, coordinated by Dana Gavreliuc (Gavreliuc & Gavreliuc, 2012; Gavreliuc & Gavreliuc, 2013; Gavreliuc & Gavreliuc, 2014), is to establish a local diagnostic based on the social axioms model, related to Hofstede’s model dimensions. Conducted also in the education field, the analysis aimed to identify the role of cultural factors in combination with personality factors in producing a symptomatology with many communitarian pathological accents. Moreover, our study indicates to what extent, for the Romanian educational environment, are the causal sources for its failures, both systemic and personal, not represented first and foremost by the scarcity of resources, but by a series of “mental inertia” found in assistential rhetorics such as “old mentalities”, “communist waste”, “conservativism”, “routines” which would characterize school and its actors. For example, the report of the Presidential Commission for Education describes the residual nature of behaviour and value patterns of many conservatives from the academic world, who are responsible for the “ineffective, irrelevant, unfair and of poor quality” nature of the Romanian education (Miclea, 2007, p. 7). When, however, one studies the “pathologies” of the system, an analysis is made predominant (inter)individual (strictly psychological) or a structural one (strictly sociological). Therefore, an approach that brings together the individual register (personal), the structural (societal), the organizational and, especially, the cultural one appears to be as necessary as it is urgent. Assembling therefore, these distinct theoretical and methodological positions, by signalling the observed trends and critical analysis in terms of the methodology they propose, this study focuses on the relationship between a number of personality variables (associated with personal autonomy: self-determination, self-esteem, locus of control) and a set of cultural dimensions (social axioms, factors Hofstede model). The study mentioned before was conducted on a sample composed of 522 subjects: 253 professors from high-schools and 269 teachers from universities, from the humanistic and social sciences areas, and the instruments applied were four cultural dimensions: the Social Axioms Survey (SAS) - which belongs to Michael Harris Bond and Kwok Leung; the Values Survey Module 94 (VSM94) - drawn-up by Geert Hofstede, and for personal autonomy: the Self-Determination Scale (SDS) - of K. M Sheldon, R. M. Ryan — 227 —

Alin Gavreliuc • Dana Gavreliuc

and H. Rice; Locus of Control Scale (LCS) - performed by J. Rotter and Selfesteem (RSE) - of Morris Rosenberg. The results associated with the cultural dimension of the Hofstede's model (power distance - PD, individualism-collectivism - I / C, masculinityfemininity - M / F, Uncertainty Avoidance - UA, long / short time perspectives / L / S TP) differ from other Romanian similar research, having worked with samples that have a different composition (national representative sample, or regional representative samples or groups of subjects made out of managers), and are described in a comparative analysis in table. 3. Thus, there is a very high score on power distance (PD = 78), which in terms of behavioural descriptors (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010) expresses a strong mutual distrust between the organizational actors placed on different hierarchical positions. Table 3. Comparative results with other relevant research in Romania / Balkans - cultural dimensions proposed by Geert Hofstede conventional test scores on VSM94 Landmark research / cultural dimensions

PD

I/C

M/F

UA L/S TP

(Gavreliuc, Gavreliuc, 2012) - sample formed 78 36 34 85 23 by made out of teachers (human, social and political sciences area) – Romania, 522 subjects Gavreliuc (2011), regional representative 51 50 25 69 34 sample, Western Region - Romania, 1058 subjects Spector, Cooper, Sanchez, et al. (2001), 26 47 23 50 55 national sample, Romania, 455 subjects, Luca (2005), representative national sample, 29 49 39 61 42 Romania,1076 subjects Romania - G. Hofstede estimates 90 30 42 90 Bulgaria - G. Hofstede estimates 70 30 40 85 Balkans - Hofstede estimates 76 27 21 88 Note: PD – power distance, I/C – individualism-collectivism, M/Fmasculinity/femininity, UA – uncertainty avoidance, L/S TP – long/short term perspective. (source: own research data)

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Chapter XVI — Autarchic individualism — a romanian specificity of hofstede’s model

The specific scores on this dimension have been closer to the global assessments of G. Hofstede (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010), but in the results obtained on the Romanian samples (Spector, Cooper, Sanchez et al., 2001, Luca, 2005; Gavreliuc, 2011), the distance from power was significantly lower. If past cited research evoke relational modernization in the sense of taking over an organizational and interpersonal hierarchical model on a Western pattern, the trend in our study illustrates an important return on the attitudinal level toward non-partnership patterns, characterized by aggression, mutual mistrust, frustration and disengagement. Also, the group portrait sample resulting from the application of SAS60 shows - especially if you make comparisons with other national samples obtained from similar cultural areas - results significantly higher than those of the overwhelming majority of the national samples (Leung & Bond, 2008). - See table. 4. Table 4. Cultural dimensions of the social axioms model Dimensions of the social axioms model (n = 522) Social cynicism Reward for application Social complexity Fate control Religiosity (source: own research data)

Minimum Maximum score score 1.76 1.75 2.08 1.00 1.29

4.65 4.83 4.33 4.57 5.00

M

SD

3.2970 3.8064 3.4347 2.6902 3.2750

.43363 .44364 .29657 .57815 .64114

The score obtained on the most problematic dimension of the social axioms model (social cynicism = 3.30), the Romanian sample consisting of teachers, is placed in the vicinity of countries like those in the Far East (China - 3.03, Hong Kong - 3.13, India - 3.04) or the Islamic area (Pakistan 3.29) (Bond & Leung 2010). Such a result shows striking duplicitous identity strategies which, beyond the rhetoric honourable interpersonal honest openness, works in an opportunistic and instrumental way (using it on the “other” as a means to achieve their own goals). Such cynicism of interpersonal logic in an educational environment testifies to an assimilation attitudes pattern deeply rooted in the Romanian society, which rely on a — 229 —

Alin Gavreliuc • Dana Gavreliuc

lack of social capital (mainly characterized by a very low interpersonal and generalized trust) (Sandu, 2003; Gavreliuc, 2011). With regard to personal autonomy, the results are distributed as follows, stabilizing at a low level (see table 5). Table 5. Personal autonomy of teachers

Scale (n=522) M Self-awareness 11.5920 Perceived choice 12.0613 Self-determination 23.6533 Self-esteem 21.0824 Locus of control 11.9521 (source: own research data)

SD 4.96283 4.32065 6.71524 4.30628 3.27610

And other specific scores were also similar to previous studies, although the samples were composed of all classes of people (not just teachers) (Gavreliuc, 2011). The entire period of recent years - especially after 2008, with the deepening of the economic crisis - was accompanied by a continuous deterioration of the working conditions, of the salary level and of the stability of teachers, and the fact that inference interfered with “the control people hold over their own lives” and the set of emotions that accompany them (anxiety, restlessness, insecurity, disappointment, etc.) articulate a trend that is confirmed by cross-cultural studies (Verschuur, Maric, & Spinhoven, 2010). A similar analysis performed on the identity portrait of teachers according to their belonging to the pre-university or university environment completes the “status quo” picture in schools, contouring the assumed social identities especially in the register of cultural dimensions. No fewer than six dimensions produce significantly different scores depending on the insertion of subjects in the pre-university, or university education (locus of control LC, power distance - DP, individualism-collectivism - I / C, social cynicism SC, reward for application - RA, religiosity - R), which are statistically significant, and one is at the limit of significance (fate control - FC). Of the 7 dimensions, at least 5 produce unexpected differences (PD, SC, AR, FC, R), according to whether the subjects are in an environment that requires the purchase of a symbolic capital (prestige, educational capital, capital and — 230 —

Chapter XVI — Autarchic individualism — a romanian specificity of hofstede’s model

opportunities and last, but not least, of all the material capital) specific, richer in the university than in the pre-university field. Thus, the Hofstede model establishes that those working in the pre-university field are involved in hierarchical relations based more on partnership and cooperation than than those working in universities, with a statistically significantly lower score on distance toward power (t (520) =- 4.583, p