south asian archaeology

ESTRATTO

ISTITUTO ITALIANO PER IL ME DIO ED ESTREMO ORIENTE ISTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO ORIENT ALE D ipartimento di Studi Asiatici

SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY 1987 Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference' of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western -Europe, held in the Fondazione Giorgio Cini, Island of San Giorgio M aggiore, Venice

edited by M AUIHZIO

T ADDEI

with the assistance of PI ERFRANCESCO C ALLlERI

Part I r

ROME I STITUTO ITALl ANO PER IL MEDIO EO ESTREMO ORIENT E

19 9 Q

7

ROB ERT O C I A RL A

Frag me nts of Sto ne Vessels as a Base Material. Two Case Studies: Fai laka and Sha hr- i Sok hta

In 1985 we had t he op port unity to ca rry ou t a closer scr ut iny of the arc ha eol ogical collection s fro m Bron ze Age Failak a sett lements stored in the Kuwait National Mu seum (KM) fo r det ermining local indicators o f manufactures I . Ou r pr imary task was to identi fy in th e collectio ns find s related to the ma nufacturing of soapsto ne vessels in or de r to establish the pro cess of thi s spec ialized craft on the island in the Dilmu n period at the end of the 3rd millen nium BC. Not a single to ol or production by-product could be sa tis fac to rily related to a local indu stri al acti vit y among th e 365 item s surveyed in th e Kuwait Nati onal Mu seum collections (Ciar la 1985a : 396-406) . Nevertheless, the ori ginal suggestio n by T. Howard Carter th at a large part of those fragment s showed traces of manufacturing was not groundless. Unquestionabl y, the maj ority of the fragments had tr aces o f reuse, while man y ot her item s were undeniabl y prod uced fro m fragmented sto ne vesse ls. The fragments are , in fact, related to craft ac tivities in the sense that the ca rved steatite vessels ha d been reworked to produce di ff erent types of a rt ifacts. Recyclin g, o n a very impressive sca le, was then the an swer ! We suggest that in a pr eviou s peri od a very lar ge number of ca rved steatite vessels had been imp o rted to the island and were eventually discarded over a rel atively sho rt peri od o f time. Lat er , the ir sherds were co llected to be used as a base material in new manufacturing proce sses.

I The learn was composed o f Pro f. M . T osi , Dr M . Vidale and myself; (he first visit 10 Kuwait lasted fro m A pril 12 to 19, 1985. W e gratef ully acknowledge the generous assistance of

th e Director of the Museum, Mr Ibrahim al- Baghly as well as of Mr J awed al- Najar, Superinten de nt for Archaeo logy and Museu m, and Dr Th cresa Ho ward Ca rter, who made o ur invitat ion to Kuwait possible.

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Such an argument is supported by the evident chronological discrepanc y between many of the reused steatite sherds and the context in which th ey have been fo und , prima rily by th e Dani sh Archaeological Expedit ion in 1959- 61. While all the carved vessels fall into P. Ko hl's ' Intercultu ral Style' (Kohl 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978), commo nly dated to ED Il l- Akkadian times, a nd co rrespo nding to P . de Miro schedji ' s Serie 'Ancienne ' at Susa (Miroschedj i 1973), the ea rliest sett leme nt of Tell Said -Tell Sa 'ad in SW Fai laka , pert ain to the so- called Dilmun Civilization ; thi s latter dated between 2000- 1750 BC, i.e. between Ur III a nd Old Bab yloni an times (Hojlund 1981, 1986; P Oll S 1983, n.d.) . Fo r so metime archaeologists have been dating t he earliest occupa tio n in SW Failaka to EO III essent ially o n th e basis o f the "lntercult ura l Style' stea tite vessels, while no excava tio ns prod uced evidence for an ea rlier occupation. T he extensive recycling in lat er times might have been carried out o n discarded materials from ano ther site on the island , mo st likely the unexplored co mpo und along the ba y of al- Khid r in th e NW part of the island (Bibb y 1969: 2 11 -12). Recycling migh t provide the explanatio n for the previo us incon gru ence between the dati ng of the ca rved stea rire vessels and the rest o f th e a rchaeological evidence. Our first im pression was later reinforced during a 1986 second visit to the Kuwait Natio nal Mu seum. In tha t sa me occasion Mari o Micheli fr om th e Istituto Cent ra le de l Restauro , in cha rge of samp ling a nd ana lysis of metal art ifacts from F.3 (Tell Sa 'ad) and F.6, disco vered that mos t of the bro nze ma terials he was survey ing appea red to be a produ ct of ' rec ycling' . In the light of observa tions previously carr ied out on the Sha hr- i Sokhta ma terials, diff used recycling had been detect ed throu ghout the ent ire ra nge of local industries and , particularl y, in sto ne vessels manufactu re (Ciarla 1979). On th is ba sis the tec hnological process of sto ne vessels recycling at Bro nze Age Fa ilak a was reco nstructed stage by stage (Ciarla 1985a: 400). Recycling appears, in fact , as a consta nt indicato r of fast growing ind ustr ial prod uctio n; as in Sha hr-i Sokht a , we suggest it is expl ica ble as a form of labou r- time saving where wasted base materials are very close to the main industr ial act ivity areas. We also suggest that in a co ntext where co nsumption prevails on prod uction , as seem s to be the case fo r Faila ka, certain secto rs of th e dem and might have been sa tisfied by low co st local prod ucts manufactured from any kind of locally reco vered ba se mat erial , in our par ticular case, soap-sto ne vessels fragments.

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Fragments of Stone Vessels as a Base Material

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F ROM W A ST E TO C OMM O DI TY: R EC YC LI NG AT F A ILAK A

Two discrete pa thways of recycling activity can be distinguished amo ng the materials collected thu s far:

I. Recycling 10 maintain the original fu nction of the artifa ct. For exa mple a pear - shaped serie 'recente ' cas ket from F3 (KM 59) was reshaped by po lishin g a ll along the rim and, pro ba bly, an hemisph erical bo wl was (KM 66) partly rewo rked alo ng the rim . 2. Recycling to produce new artifacts completely different f rom the original. Whe n the soapsto ne vessel fra gment is simply considered as an amorpho us ba se material to be worked by chipping, saw ing, po lishi ng and dr illing to produce the fo llowing obj ects: 2.1 Production tools. Mostly ' net - sinkers' and items of unk now n use which we presume cou ld fa ll into the present category (cf. Cia rla 1985a : 400, figs. 2, 6, 7), a nd spindle who rls (e.g. KM 1403). 2.2 Beads. Two main types have been recog nized so far : A. Barrel- shap ed; B. Qu adran gular - shaped; in this latter case the entire seq uence o f manufacturing stages ha s been docum ent ed; the soapsto ne vessel fragment was, in fact, first rou gh ly sha ped by chipping alon g the fr acture surface , then by po lishing a long the chipped surface int o the de sired shape (fig . I) and then deco rated mostly with incised criss-cross lines. It is interestin g to no te ho w the cra ftsma n was entirely un affected by the pre- existing, when present , 'dot-and-circle' decoratio n of the serie 'recente ' type (fig . 2), probably beca use it was out of fas hio n or considered inappropriate to the new kind of objects. 2.3 Pendants. Probabl y the less known catego ry of soa pstone object s from Failak a , penda nt s a re usuall y deriv ed fro m the bod ysherds of steatite vessels shaped int o q uad ra ngular o r tra pezo ida l slides (fig. 3) with a suspensio n hole on the shorter side usually hori zontally pierced or , in a single case (KM 1639), with a vertical hole, d rilled o n the upp er fac e of the sho rte r side an d co mmunicating with the horizonta l one , in order to faci litate the verti cal hangi ng of t he o bject probably from a neck lace (fig. 4). Usually pend an ts sho w an incised ' deco ration ' on both large face s, mor e ra rely also the co nto ur sur face has been decorated by slanting incised segments o r by a n incised line running along the lateral surface. Thi s deep ly incised line which could also be a functio nal device (we a re not able,

Roberto Ciarla

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I -

Soapstone vessel fragment (KM 1365) sha ped into a block lct by chipping a nd pol ishing .

Fig. 2 -

Q uadra ngular ' bead s' fro m so a psto ne vessel Iragrncn ts: th e on e on th e left (F3 BEE) sho ws a ha tch ing decora tio n ove r a preexisti ng ' dOIS an d circles' mot if.

Fig .

at thi s stage of the resear ch , to prov ide an y qu an tificatio n of shap e/decor ation type occ urre nces). Whil e on e of th e two faces seems to have been invariabl y decora ted by different kinds of notching lines (fig. 5, D- E), thinl y or deepl y incised, th e oth er face seems to be decorated mo stly by figurative motif whose style is clearl y charac teristic of th e ' Dilmun seals' type. In spite of the close similarity in style bet ween th e figur es engraved on the sta mp seals and the on es on the pendants, th ese latter figures give the impr ession of having been engraved (or incised) with mu ch cruder skill (fig. 6). In other words, pend ant s and seals co uld repr esen t two different levels of experience during the career of th e cra ftman or , the pend an ts co uld

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479

Fragments of Stone Vessels as a Base Material

a

!

Fig . 3 -

b

Pol ished soa pstone vessel fragments prepared ill the fo rm o f a trape zoida l blockle t fo r pendants.

represent some prepar atory stage before the manu facturing of the mor e complex seals. Either interpretation seems to be sustained by the presence, amo ng the materials sur veyed so fa r, of fragmented items showing single or very simple motif incised in a quite ro ugh man ner (fig. 5, E) or showing cuneiform inscript ion s located on quite unu sual surfaces, as in the case of the one on a polished side of a steatite sherd (KM 1649; fig. 7a- b), per haps pa rt of some apprenticeship work .

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a _

b

c Fig.

4 -

H angi ng trape zoida l pendan t ( KM 16 39 ) with incised lines de co ration Oll both face s.

2.4 Seals, of the so-called Dilmun type, are probably the artifacts which ha ve mo stl y attracted the attention o f scholars in Gulf archaeology, from the typological and stylistic point s of view as element s of chronological seriation (Buchanan 1965; Kjaerum 1980, 1983; Porada 1971); littl e attention has been paid so far to their manufacturing process. Dome-shaped alabaster as well as steatite seals - 'conical or hemisph erical seals', Group 11 B in Kja erum typology (1983: 128) ~ were fir st reco gnized by Co rethia Quall s as locally manufactured on Failaka (Quall s 1985). On the basis of our observations we would add that mo st. of the hemi sph erical seals as well as th e entire cat egory of the sta mp seals of Dilmun type at Failaka could ha ve been manufactured by recycling fra gment ed stone containers; although still incomplete, our data seem not to be totally gro undless. According to our hypothesis, in fact, steatite sherds were treated to obtain rough-outs by two different operations: A.a: the sherd s were chipped along the fracture surface to obtain th e circular rough -out, as seems 10 be the case of a fragment with an

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Fragments of Stone Vessels as a Base M aterial

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A

O F')"

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B

Fig . 5 -

C

Pendant Manufacturing stages. a , The soapstone vessel fragment is shaped into a trap ezoid a l bloc k let by chipping and polishing alo ng the fracture surface . b . T he trapczoidal- shaped blocklct is drill ed on the narr owe r side to obt ain a suspension hole. c. The pend an t is decora ted anew with incised lines fo rming either simple deco rative mot ifs (D) or integrating a preexistin g decoration {El . (A : FM 233; B: FM 1030, KM 1385: c. KM 1647: D: KM 1640: E: FM 53).

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Roberto Ciarla

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a

.....------------...I b

Fig. 6 -

T rap ezoida! pendant (Klvl 1648) with an incised 'branch moti ve' decoration similar 10 the on e o n 'Dilm u n type' seals .

Fig . 7 -

a . Soap sto ne vesse l fragment (KM 1649) po lished o n three sides , decorated wit h incised parallel lines o n the ou ter surface and b. Cuneiform iscriprio n incised in one of the three polished sides.

' Intercultu ra l Sty le' deco ra tion (KM 24 1?) or o f a handle fragment most probably fro m a serie 'recente' cas ket (KM 1493; figs. 8, 9). A. b : the sherds were d rilled wit h a large tubu lar d rill to ob ta in , again, th e circula r roug h-ro ut. T his seco nd oper atio n is still highl y q uestio na ble, being indicated o nly indi rectly; it seems, ho wever , the o nly expla nation fo r the num erou s sherds bea ring traces o f large mo nopolar drilling, e.g . th e un invcnt oried item fro m F .2 show n in fig. 10. R EC YCLI NG AS A P RO DUCTI O N V A RIA BLE

While under stand a ble from a p urely techno log ical point of view, in term s o f physica lly self- co ntained manufactur ing stages, th e ro le o f

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Fragments of Stone Vessels as a Base Material

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a

b

Fig. 8 -

"ln tercuh ura l Style ' vessel fragment (KM 241 ?) po lished a lo ng the fractu re sur face probably pre pa red ( 0 make a pendant o r a sea l.

a

b

Fig. 10 - Knob handle (KM 1493) fro m a serie 'recente' vase pro ba bly pre pa red to mak e a pendant or a seal.

'J

i

Fig. 9 -

Uninveruoricd so apsto ne vessel fragme nt sho wing ro tatio n ma rks p robab ly left by a tubu la r drill-head .

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Roberro Ciarla

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' waste-recycling' still remains to be evaluated fully in ter ms of its economic role within a given commodity production context. Both at Failaka and Shahr-i Sokhta prestige commodities, such as sto ne vessels, once their original functio n is lost, or in ot her words a fter breakage, tend to recirculate in the system befor e becoming 'undesired' , 'out-of-fashion ' or, mor e simp ly, discarded in a dump. At this po int we feel it necessary to draw some ord er in the concepts we use when speaking of re-cycling . In a 1972 st udy by M. Schiffer (1972: 156- 65) he offered a sketch and termi nology adaptabl e to illustrate the concepts we are dealin g with . Schiffer's wor k - A rchaeological Co ntext and Systemic Contex t - was not inte nded to illustrat e the archaeological evidence of the recycling processes, rath er Schiffer tries to link ' I...] archaeological context material to behavioral and organizational hypoth eses about elements in systemic context [.. .]' (1972: 163). In dealing with the cultural aspects of the processes responsible for the form ation o f an archaeological depo sit , Schi ffer distin guishes between 'dura ble' a nd 'consumable' the mat erial element s which a given community produ ces and deposits. Ea ch of these elements is invariably subject to a life cycle lasting into a ' discard process' which led the elemen ts, once ref used, from the systemic co ntext to the arc haeologica l context. Illustrating the life cycles of durable/ consumable elements Schiffer presents two ' Flow Models' where , a linear sequence of processes ('procurement manufacture/preparation - use/ consumption - discard - refuse') is responsible for for ming the archaeological record (figs. 11 , 12). He properly point s out the role played by two non-li nea r processes, namely 'recycling' a nd ' lateral cycling' , in the production of a substantial porti on o f a ny given archaeologica l deposit. Within th e genera l life-histor y of any material element, recycling and lateral use appears to be, according to Schiffer, respectively ' [.. .] the rout ing of an element at th e completion of use to the manufactu re pro cess of the same or a di fferent element [.. .]', and ' I...] the termination of a n element 's use I...] in one set of activities and its resumption in a nother, often with only maintenance, storage, a nd tr ansport intervening [.. .]'. If we intend to ana lyse the structure and the role o f a recycling pro cess within a genera l pro duction process, then ' recycling' a nd ' lateral cycling' would correspond to the normative use of goods used in the prod uction of other goods , while 'durable/ con sumable' would simply ap pear as the poles of a context- dependent continuum. From this perspecti ve th e untidy occurrence o f recycling evidence - of ten con sidered of secondary importance for the general reconstru ction of primary production processes - wit hin an a rchaeological context , reflectin g appar ent ly separated

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Fragm ents of SIO'he Vessels as a Base M aterial SYSTE MIC

CONTEXT

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- - - - . pr ocurement ... . . manu f ac ture ..

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A RC HA E OL O GICA L CON TEXT

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recyclrng

I I

I I

485

dis cord 1

maintenance

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.... re fuse

LEGEND Sys tem

und er

Oppor t uni t y and /or

Fig. I 1 -

f or

an aly sis

s loroO'

t ran s por t

Schiffcr' s ' Flow Mod el' for the cycle of d ura ble elements.

SYST EMIC

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

CONTE XT

CONT EX T

10t.raJ cyc lil'lQ

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_ _ _ procurement ... . . . prepororion'" . . con su mp lion '"

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discord.. . . ref use

LEGEND Sys tem \/nde' onol)/.is Opportunity for s lor oO' and /o r transport

Fig. 12 -

Schi ffer 's ' Flow Mo del ' for the cycle o f co nsu mable element s .

486

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Pr oduction o.ncl Recyc ling Flow Dto. q r-o.n x

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Fig . 13 -

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Produ c t io n Cy c l e Con s u -i p tro n Cyc l e W'o s t e Re cy c l ing Ex tr-o c t ron Cycle Dif f er e nt t y pe s of COMMo clit ies A 8 C Stog e s o f l"'1o.n ifnctu r e

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Prod uctio n an d recycl ing no w diagram showing the recircula rion of waste in nn

industrial co ntext.

' re- manufacturing' processes in the frame of a given cultural context, results closely linked to th e genera l understanding of a given produ ctio n as well as to the genera l understand ing of the spatial pattern ing of a rchaeologica l remain s. Acco rding to such an assumption we propose a ' Flow Mod el' illustrating an aggregat ed system of: 'commodity production and recycling cycle' (CPRC) (fig. 13). Compared to Schiffe r' s 'F low Model' , the first phase, or proc urement,

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Fragments of Stone Vessels as a Base Material

487

is subdivided in two aspects always operat iona lly different iated as follows: 1. ' Raw Material' Pr ocurement 2. ' Base Mat erial' Procurement A ' Raw Material' is defined as such only in relat ion to its occurre nce in natur e. It becomes a 'B ase Materia l' only when it physically pa rt icipa tes in a ma nufacturing cycle. Th e concept o f ' proc urement' in Schiffer's work is, in other words, a ' tra nsformation process' perfor med by expenditure of a variable qua ntity of energy between the two poles: a process we define as an 'Extraction Cycle' . In his ' Flow Model' , Schiffer distinguished between 'durable' and 'consumable' elements, but fo r our pur poses it seems more useful monitori ng our reasonin g, and the consequent logic- formal ordering, toward s P . Sra ffa 's distinction betwee n ' base commodities' and ' non- base comm od ities' (Sraffa 1960). As clearly stated by Schiffer, ' Recycling labels the routing of a n element at the completion of use to the manu facture process of the sa me or a di fferent element' (Schiffe r 1972: 158). Alth ough clea rly a gene ral prin ciple, Schiffer's recycling defi nition doesn't offer a ny economical or ergo nomical explanation ; what is recycling and why is it perform ed? How heavy was the incidence of reuse processes within a general production cycle in term s of energy investm ent? Was it an independent variable in an elastic demand cont ext or , on the contrary, was it determined by a situation of shortage o f a critically inelastic demand of goods ? I rea lize that too man y question s have been raised for a class of data usually und erestimated by arc haeo logists, and I am not in the pos itio n to provide an a nswer to all of the m at th is stage of th e resea rch, but at least a glance 'along t he line of investigation I am currently following ca n be satisfacto rily offered here. First let us distinguish what is usually recycled in a pre-industrial pro duction context. The answer should be quite easy: what is immediately useless but worthy of being reused with a mini mum investment of energy (time plus lab our)! Let us ca ll it ' waste' , j ust to distinguish it from ' refuse' or - accor ding to Schiffer (1972: 159) - wha t is irreversibly discarded and doesn't participate fur th er in the behavioral system which originally produced it. According to the observat ions drawn on th e Sha hr-vi Sok hta stone industries' it is necessar y to generate a furt her distinction within the 2 In the last few years our understanding of stone co ntainer manuf acture at Shahr- i So k bta

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category 'waste', with:

I. By - product of Consumption (Consumption Waste), or items maintained in their origina l function a nd then reused , a nd items rework ed to create functionally di fferent goo ds. 2. By-product of Production (P roduction Waste), or chunks of Base Material worth y of re- circulation within the same produ ction cycle or shifted to a different stage o f a different pro duction cycle. Especially in the latter case we want to underline that we are not overemphasizing widely known commo n concepts. In ar chaeological contexts, in fact , as well as in economical ones we never face a manuf acturing cycle as a whole but its single, physical phases pro ducing specific waste relati ve to explicit manufacturin g stages. The arc haeological and economical distinctio n of those stage/ waste units is a crucia l one particularl y when we realize that a manu facturing pr ocess, for specific needs of economic ra tio nality , often occur s side by side with othe r manu factu ring pro cesses]. Going back to our 'Flow' diagram (fig. 13) illustrating a complete Extractio n-Product ion- Co nsumption- Recycling Cycle - as exemplified by the case of Shahr-i Sok hta a labaster vessels production (Ciarla 1979, 1980) - we ca n suggest two different rationa les which make waste recirculate in the system : I. In the case o f Production Waste (produced during the first and second pha ses o f o ur 1979 reconstru ction of the manufacturing cycle), two variables can determine their recirculation as a Base Mat erial: the energy has de velo ped along a rather wmdi ng path and we can present ly add very lit tle 10 the basic picture

of the manufacturing process de velope d in 1984 (Ciarla 1984). Mo re detailed info rmation has been gathered o n the critical drilling tec hniqu es used 10 create the hollo wed- o ut cav ity o f the vessels; a number o f large drill -heads clearly sho wing ro tati on ma rks have bee n fo und while revisiting sample co llec tions fro m the early campaigns at Shahr-i Sokhta and we ha ve sugges ted they co uld be in so me way related to sto ne vessel manu factu re (Ciarla 1985b : 4 18-25). M . Tosi ha s kindl y in formed me that dur ing the fi rst seaso n of expl ora tion at Sha hr-f Sokbta, in the Fall of 1967, surface coll ect ions where carried out across the site ; so me o f the mo st representative finds were do ne this way, e .g . a Jemdet Nasr stearite sea l (To si 1968 :, 61 -62, fig . 107 a-b) was picke d up the very first day the site was visited by the tea m. A mo ng ot hers , all large sto ne o bjects lying on the surface we re co llec ted , altho ugh very few cou ld be identified at that ea rly stage. They ended up in the sample co llectio n, amo ng uni nventcried finds. Onl y the long lasting halt in our fieldwork and the rest ud y revisitati o n o f the co llect ions has broug ht them to light. 3 We o bserved , in fac t, an d no t onl y at Shahr- i So khta , that more init ial is a pr 9 d u c ~i on stage , the more it tends to occur toge ther with stage s of o ther different manuf actures, rarely sha ring the same technological cycle, but very o fte n sharing the 'working time' . As shown by Piperno & Tosi (1973: 15-23) in the lapis bead manufacture, for exa mple, ini tial stages o f manufacture are tho se responsible fo r the pro duction o f much abu ndant waste, o r, in o ther words , C raft Activity Indicato rs.

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REF ER EN CE S

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