Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut & Spices Board, Cochin ... National Research Center for Onion and Garlic(ICAR), Pune, Maharashtra ..... Charges for application of nutrient solution and pesticide. 1950. 4 ...... cell. Plants flower during March-June and the fruit, which is a berry, matures 3-4 mon ater.
HORTICULTURE VEGETABLE SCIENCE (Vegetables, Tubers & Spice Crops)
Spices and Condiments
V.A.Parthasarathy and K.Kandiannan Indian Institute of Spices Research (ICAR) Calicut-673 012 (21.9.2007) CONTENTS Introduction Export of Spices Area and Production of Spices Organizations Black Pepper Cardamom Ginger Turmeric Clove Nutmeg Cinnamon Allspice Curry Leaf Seed Spices Coriander Fenugreek Fennel Cumin Dill Celery Saffron Vanilla Rosemary Appendix
Introduction India is ‘The Land of Spices’ and the glory of Indian spices is known throughout the world. Satndard ISO 676: 1995 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines spices and condiments as “vegetable products or mixtures thereof free from extraneous matter, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods”. The term “applies equally to the product in the whole form or in the ground form”. It includes 109 spices and the list of such spices given in the Table 1.1. The list of spices differes from country to country. According to American Spices Trade Association (ASTA) list, there are 41 items. Spices Board of India has 52 spices under it’s list. According to Bureau of Indian Standards, there are 63 items under spices / condiments. Spices have been so valued primarily for their ability to make food taste better and sometimes for a perceived ability to make people feel better and fight disease. Spices are even more important today as around globe there is a clamour for tastier and’spicier’ foods. Spices or their extracts are also used in medicine, pharmaceutical, perfumery, cosmetics and several other industries. Their functional properties as antioxidants, preservatives, anti-microbial, antibiotic and medicinal have been well recoganised and made use of. Spices have also characteristic, often very attractive colours, which are an important part of their appeal to be used as natural colours in the foodstuffs. The concept of flavour in spices comprises a range of olfactory and tastes perceptions. The constituents responsible for these sensations are the volatile / essential oil and resinous compounds, which are a wide range of different natural organic chemicals and which generally have little or no nutritional value. These are also widely used for making ‘herbal’ teas and other medicinal applications.
Table 1.1: List of spices as per ISO 676: 1995 No. Botanical Name of the Plant
Family
Common Name of the Spice in English
Name of the Part of the Plant Used as Spice Rhizome
1
Acorus calamus L
Araceae
2
Aframomum angustifolium (sonn.) Schumann Aframomum hanburyi Schumann Aframomum korarima (Peroira) Engl. Aframomum melegueta (Roscoe) Schumann Allium ascalonicum L
Zingiberaceae
Sweet flag, myrtie flag Calamus, flag root Madagascarc cardamom
Zingiberaceae
Cameroon cardamom
Fruit, seed
Zingiberaceae
Korarima cardamom
Fruit, seed
Zingiberaceae
Grain of paradise, Guinea Fruit, seed grains Shallot Bulb
3 4 5 6
Liliaceae (Alliaceae) 7* Allium cepa L Liliaceae (Alliaceae) 8 Allium cepa var. aggregatum Liliaceae (Alliaceae) 9* Allium tuberosum Rottler Liliaceae ex. Sprengel (Alliaceae) 10* Allium fistulosum L Liliaceae (Alliaceae)
Fruit, seed
Onion
Bulb
Potato onion
Bulb
Indian leek, Chinese chive
Bulb, leaf
Stony leek, Welsh onion, Leaf and bulb Japanese bunching onion
No. Botanical Name of the Plant 11
Allium porrum L
12* Allium sativum 13* Allium schoenoprasum L 14
Alpinia galanga (L) wild
15 16 17
Alpinia officinarum Hance Amomum aromaticum Roxb. Amomum kepulaga Sprague et Burk. Syn .Amomum campactum Sol. ex. Maton Amomum krevanh Pierre Ex. Gagnepain Amomum subulatum Roxb.
18 19 20
Amomum tsao-ko Crevost Et Lemaire 21* Anethum graveolens L
Family
Liliaceae (Alliaceae) Liliaceae (Alliaceae) Liliaceae (Alliaceae) Zingiberaceae Zigiberaceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
34
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Anethum sowa Kurz Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Angelica archangelica L Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Anthriscuscereifolium (l.) Apiaceae Hoffm (Umbelliferae) Apium graveolens L. var Apiaceae dulce (Miller) Pers. (Umbelliferae) Apium graveolens L. var. Apiaceae rapaceum (Miller) Gaudich (Umbelliferae) Armoracia rusticana P. Brassicaceae Gaertn.B. Meyer et Scherb. (Cruciferae) Artemisia dracunculus L Asteraceae (Compositae) Averrhoa bilimbi L Averrhoaceae (Oxalidaceae) Averrhoaceae Averrhoa carambola L (Oxalidaceae) Brassica juncea (L) Czernj.et Brassicaceae Cosson (Cruciferae) Brassica nigra (l) Koch Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Bunium persicum (Boiss) Apiaceae B.Fedtsch (Umbelliferae) Capparis spinosa L Capparidaceae
35 36 37
Capsicum annum L 1) Capsicum frutescens L 1) Carum bulbocastanum L
22 23 24 25 26 27* 28* 29* 30* 31* 32* 33
Solanaceae Solanaceae Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Common Name of the Spice in English Leek, winter leek
Name of the Part of the Plant Used as Spice Leaf and bulb
Garlic Chive
Bulb Leaf
Greater galangal longwas, Rhizome Siamese ginger Lesser galangal Rhizome Bengal cardamom Fruit, seed Round cardamom, Chester Fruit, seed cardamom, Siamese cardamom, Indonesian cardamom Cambodian cardamom Fruit, seed Greater Indian cardamom, Fruit, seed Large cardamom, Nepalese cardamom Tsao-ko cardamom Fruit, seed Dill
Fruit, leaf, top
Indian dill
Fruit
Garden angelica
Fruit, petiole, root
Chervil
Leaf
Celery, garden celery
Fruit, root, leaf
Celeriac
Fruit, root, leaf
Horseradish
Root
Tarragon, estragon
Leaf
Belimbing, bilimbi cucumber tree Carambola, caramba
Fruit
Indian mustard
Seed
Black mustard
Seed
Black caraway
Seed, tuber
Fruit
Caper, common caper, caper Floral bud bush Capsicum, chillies, paprika Fruit Chiilies, Bird eye chilli Fruit Black caraway Fruit, Bulb
No. Botanical Name of the Plant 38* Crum carvi L 39 40* 41* 42 43* 44* 45* 46* 47* 48* 49 50 51 52.1 52.2 52.3 53 54 55 56
Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees. Syn. Cinnamomum cassia Nees ex. Blume Cinnamomum burmanii (Nees et T. Nees) Blume Cinnamomum loureirii Nees Cinnamomum tamala Nees Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume Coriandrum sativum L
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae Lauraceae
Craway, blond caraway
Name of the Part of the Plant Used as Spice Fruit
Cassia, Chinese cassia
Bark
Lauraceae
Indonesian cassia
Bark
Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae
Vietnamese cassia Bark Tejpat, Indian cassia Bark Sri Lankan cinnamon, Bark Indian cinnamon Coriander Leaf, Fruit
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Crocus sativus L Iridaceae Cuminum cyminum L Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Curcuma longa L Zingiberaceae Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Poaceae (Gramineae) Stapl. Cymbopogon nardus L. Poaceae (Gramineae) Randle Elettaria cardamomum (L) Zingiberaceae Maton var.minucula. Burk Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Zingiberaceae Maton var. major. Thwaites Ferula assa-foetida L Apiaceae Ferula foetida Regel (Umbelliferae) Ferula narthex Boiss Foeniculum vulgare Miller Apiaceae ssp.capillaceum Miller (Umbelliferae) var. vulgare Foeniculum vulgare Miller Apiaceae ssp.capillaceum Miller (Umbelliferae) var. dulce Garcinia cambogia (Gaertn.) Clusiaceae Desr. (Guttiferae) Garcinia indica (Thouars) Clusiaceae choisy (Guttiferae)
57* Hyssopus officinalis L 58 59 60 61*
Family
Illicumverum Hook. f Juniperus communis L Kaempferia galanga L Laurus nobilis L
62* Levisticum officinale Koch 63.1 Lippia graveolens Kunth 63.2 Lippia berlandieri Schauer 64* Mangifera indica L
Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Illiaceae Cupressaceae Zingiberaceae Lauraceae
Common Name of the Spice in English
Saffron Cumin
Stigma Fruit
turmeric West Indian lemon grass
Rhizome, leaf Leaf
Sri Lankan citronella
Leaf
Small cardamom
Fruit, seed
Sri Lankan cardamom
Fruit, seed
Asafoetida
Rhizome exudate
Bitter fennel
Leaf, twig, fruit
Sweet fennel
Leaf, twig, fruit
Garcinia, Camboge
Pericarp of the fruit Pericarp of the fruit
Garcinia , Kokum Hyssop
Leaf
Star anise, chinese anise Fruit Common juniper Fruit Galangal Rhizome Laurel, true laurel, bay leaf, Leaf sweet flag Garden lovage, lovage Fruit, leaf
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Verbanaceae
Mexican oregano
Anacardiaceae
Mango
Leaf, terminal shoot Immature fruit (Rind)
No. Botanical Name of the Plant 65* Melissa officinalis L 66* Mentha arvensis L 67
Mentha citrata L
68* Mentha x piperita L 69* Mentha spicata L 70 71
Murraya koenigii (L) Sprengel Myristica argentea Warb
Family Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Rutaceae Myristicaceae
Common Name of the Spice in English
Name of the Part of the Plant Used as Spice Balm, lemon balm, melissa Leaf, terminal shoot Japanese mint, field mint, Leaf, terminal corn mint shoot Bergamol Leaf, terminal shoot Pepper mint Leaf, terminal shoot Spear mint, garden mint Leaf, terminal shoot Curry leaf Leaf Papuan nutmeg Kernel Papuan mace Aril Indonesian type nutmeg Kernel Siauw type nutmeg Indonesian type mace Aril Siauw type mace Damas black cumin, love in Seed a mist Black cumin seed Sweet basil Leaf, terminal shoot Sweet marjoram Leaf , floral bud
72* Myristica fragrans Houtt
Myristicaceae
73
Nigella damascena L
Ranunculaceae
74* Nigella sativa L 75* Ocimum basilicum L
Ranunculaceae Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Pandanaceae
Oregano, origan
Leaf, flower
Pandan wangi
Leaf
Papaveraceae
Poppy, blue maw, maw seed Seed
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Parsely
Leaf, root
Myrtaceae
Pimento, allspice, Jamaica Pepper West Indian bay
Immature fruit , leaf Fruit, leaf
Aniseed
Fruit
76* Origanum majorana L 77* Origanum vulgare L 78
Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. syn. Pandanus latifolius Hassk. Var minor 79* Papaver somniferum L var nigrum 80* Petroselinum crispum (Miller) Nyman ex. A.W Hill syn. Petroselinum sativum Hoffm 81* Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr 82* Pimenta racemosa (Miller) J. Moore 83* Pimpinella anisum L
Myrtaceae
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) 84 Piper guineense Schumann Piperaceae et Thonn. L 85* Piper longum L Piperaceae 86* Piper nigrum L
Piperaceae
87* Punica granatum L
Punicaceae
West African or Benin Fruit pepper Long pepper, Indian long Fruit pepper Black pepper, white pepper, fruit green pepper Pomegranate Seed (dried with flesh)
No. Botanical Name of the Plant 88* Rosmarinus officinalis L 89* Salvia officinalis L 90* Satureja hortensis L 91* Satureja montana L 92 93
Schinus molle L
Schinus terebenthifolius Radde 94* Sesamum indicum L 95* Sinapis alba L
Family Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Anacardiaceae
Common Name of the Spice in English Rosemary Garden sage Summer savory Winter savory
Name of the Part of the Plant Used as Spice Terminal shoot, leaf Terminal shoot, leaf Terminal shoot, leaf Leaf twig
Anacardiaceae
American pepper, Fruit wall (rind) Californian pepper tree “Brazilian pepper” Fruit
Pedaliaceae Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Myrtaceae
Sesame, gingelly White mustard, mustard Clove
96* Syzygium aromaticum L. Merr. Et Perry syn. Eugenia caryophyllus Bullock et S. Harrison 97* Tamarindus indica L Caesalpiniaceae 98* Thymus serpyllum L Lamiaceae (Labiatae 99* Thymus vulgaris L Lamiaceae (Labiatae 100* Trachyspermum ammi (L) Apiaceae Sprague Umbelliferae 101* Trigonella foenum-graecum Fabaceae (leguminosae) L 102 Vanilla planifolia Andrews Orchidaceae syn. Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames 103 Vanilla tahitensis J . Moore Orchidaceae 104 Vanilla pompona Schiede Orchidaceae 105 Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) Annonaceae A. Rich 106 Zanthoxylum, bungei Planch Rutaceae syn. Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim 107 Zanthoxylum acanthopodium Rutaceae DC 108 Zanthoxylum piperitum DC Rutaceae 109 Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae
Seed yellow Seed
Tamarind Mother of thyme, wild thyme, creeping thyme Thyme, common thyme
Flower bud
Ajowan (Bishop’s weed)
Fruit Terminal shoot, leaf Terminal shoot, leaf Fruit
Fenugreek
Seed, leaf
Vanilla
Fruit (pod)
Vanilla Pompona vanilla Negro pepper, Guinean pepper Chinese prickly ash pepper Sechuang pepper
Fruit (pod) Fruit (pod) Fruit
Chinese pepper
Fruit
Japanese pepper Ginger
Fruit rhizome
Fruit
Export of Spices Agricultural commodities contribute around 7 % of total export from India and spices contribute around 3% of the total agricultural commodities exported from India. Spices share around 0.27 % to the total export from India (Table 1.2.). An item wise export of spices and their individual share both in volume and value of spices export is given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.2: Spices export from India and their share to total export in India (Value Rs in Lakhs) Sl No
Pepper Long Light Black Pepper Black Pepper Garbled Black Pepper Ungarbled
652.34 54.13 6,111.66 278.35
0.0014 0.0001 0.0134 0.0006
20062007(AprDec) 253.55 98.5 15,266.42 280.38
Dehydrated Green Pepper
1,049.01
0.0023
604.78
0.0015
Pepper Pinheads Freez Dried Green Pepper Fr0zen Pepper Othr Pepper Nthr Crshd Nor Grnd Crushed Or Ground Pepper
48.15 662.37 396.24 1,421.43
0.0001 0.0015 0.0009 0.0031
37.7 483.57 18.42 1,367.81
0.0001 0.0012 0 0.0033
4,878.12
0.0107
5,147.33
0.0124
Chilly Chilly Powder Fruits Of The Genus Capsicum Chilly Seed Pepper Jamaica (Pimenta/All Spices) Othr Fruits Of Gens Capscm/Pmnta Vanila Bean Vanilla Powder Other Vanilla Excldng Vnla Bean & Pwdr Cassia Cinnamon Bark Cinnamon Tree Flowers Pthr Cinmamn Not Crshd/Grnd Cinnamon & Its Tree Flwrs Crshd Or Grnd Cloves Extracted Clove, Not Extracted (Other Than Stem) Cloves Stems Other Cloves Nutmeg In Shell Nutmeg Not In Shell Mace
24,757.60 13,398.62 0.51
0.0542 0.0294 0
37,892.12 11,376.74 20.97
0.0909 0.0273 0.0001
118.74 1.04
0.0003 0
30.96
0.0001
933.89
0.002
748.75
0.0018
755.95 96.82 121.11
0.0017 0.0002 0.0003
1,148.87 64.97 289.11
0.0028 0.0002 0.0007
69.21 37.7 14.67 107.19
0.0002 0.0001 0 0.0002
111.5 27.66 0.44 73.81
0.0003 0.0001 0 0.0002
36.38
0.0001
73.53
0.0002
84.91 5.64
0.0002 0
39.53 7.34
0.0001 0
3.19 105.94 1,206.34 1,699.73 126.85
0 0.0002 0.0026 0.0037 0.0003
2.78 65.09 640.58 1,814.48 55.86
0 0.0002 0.0015 0.0044 0.0001
Commodity 1 2 3
2005-2006
%Share
%Share 0.0006 0.0002 0.0366 0.0007
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
32 33 34
Cardamoms Large(Amomum) Cardamoms Small Alleppey Green Cardamoms Small Coorg Green Cardamons Small Blchd,Half-Blchd/Blchble
1,483.07
0.0032
1,477.55
0.0035
665.08
0.0015
350.73
0.0008
1,038.63
0.0023
200.94
0.0005
49.66
0.0001
35.85
0.0001
18.96
0
14.74
0
Cardamom Small(Mixed)
0.2
0
59.7
0.0001
Cardamom Powder Others(Incl.Large Seeds)
145.52 271.58
0.0003 0.0006
97.6 147.77
0.0002 0.0004
Anise of Seed Qlty Other Anise Seeds Badian of Seed Qlty Other Badian Seeds Coriander of Seed Qlty Other Coriander Seeds Cumin Black of Seed Qlty
244.56 146.96 4.85 15.05 3,875.98 3,221.96 2,304.97
0.0005 0.0003 0 0 0.0085 0.0071 0.0051
266.61 110.62
0.0006 0.0003
3.13 3,429.92 3,418.63 3,053.20
0 0.0082 0.0082 0.0073
Other Cumin Black Seeds
1,619.86
0.0035
1,029.76
0.0025
Cumin,Othr Thn Blck of Seed Qlty Othr Cumin(Othr Thn Black) Seeds Caraway of Seed Qlty Other Caraway Seeds Fennel of Seed Qlty Other Fennel Seeds Juniper Berries of Seed Qlty Othr Juniper Seeds Ginger Fresh Ginger Dried Unbleached
2,475.44
0.0054
6,533.71
0.0157
2,698.67
0.0059
8,215.22
0.0197
24.72 2.29 2,001.65 624.87 2.78 119.57 928.28 1,507.37
0.0001 0 0.0044 0.0014 0 0.0003 0.002 0.0033
25.93 17.33 1,619.56 1,070.85 0.17 21.72 407.36 1,229.23
0.0001 0 0.0039 0.0026 0 0.0001 0.001 0.003
Ginger Dried Bleached Ginger Powder Ginger,Nes Incl Dried Saffron Stigma Saffron Stamen Other Saffron Fresh Dry Powder Other Turmeric
543.84 1,179.61 421.5 63.35 124.98 12.83 6,148.92 4,040.45 5,689.48 652.53
0.0012 0.0026 0.0009 0.0001 0.0003 0 0.0135 0.0089 0.0125 0.0014
267.62 1,122.16 451.11 137.11 52.99 129.21 4,600.87 3,709.08 4,959.97 580.96
0.0006 0.0027 0.0011 0.0003 0.0001 0.0003 0.011 0.0089 0.0119 0.0014
35 Cardamoms Small Seeds 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67
68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
Tejpat (Leaves Of Cassia Lignea) Thymes Bay Leaves Curry Mixtrs Of Two Or Mors Prodcts Of Diff Hdg Celery Seed Fenugreek Seed Dill Seed Ajwan Seed (Bishop Seed) Cassia T0rea Seed Other Spices N.E.S Cassia Powder Cumin Powder Celery Powder Fenugreek Powder Dill Powder Poppy Powder Mustard Powder Other Powder Of Other Spices N.E.S. Cardamom Husk Spices Husk/Spent, N.E.S., Other Spices N.E.S. Spices Total India's Total Export
130.18
0.0003
70.17
0.0002
45.16 74.89 1,225.89 2,684.06
0.0001 0.0002 0.0027 0.0059
121.68 58.02 2,066.92 2,851.56
0.0003 0.0001 0.005 0.0068
1,670.28 2,980.28 581.84 482.62
0.0037 0.0065 0.0013 0.0011
1,307.35 2,049.29 372.95 296.78
0.0031 0.0049 0.0009 0.0007
357.39 1,141.74 657.92 1,141.30 97.06 354.27 8.83 12.91 67.54 4,954.71
0.0008 0.0025 0.0014 0.0025 0.0002 0.0008 0 0 0.0001 0.0109
711.78 935.67 730.36 1,281.18 97.29 366.37 60.18 10.31 86.11 3,476.46
0.0017 0.0022 0.0018 0.0031 0.0002 0.0009 0.0001 0 0.0002 0.0083
207.29 460.24 987.76 123928.01 45,641,788.00
0.0005 0.001 0.0022 0.2717
67.14 372.62 1,014.45 64,491.44 41,668,588.00
0.0002 0.0009 0.0024 0.1546
(Source : Department of Commerce, Export Import Data Bank, Export :: Commodity-wise 8 digit level) http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/ecom8.asp?hs=09 (Accessed on 13-09-2007)
Table 1.3: Item-wise share of Export of Spices from India
Source: Spices Board, Cochin. http://www.indianspices.com/html/mjr_spc_exp.html (Accessed on 13-09-2007)
Quantity
Value
Fig 1.1: India's share in world trade of spices – 2006
Table 1.4a: Item-wise export of spices from India
Source : Spices Board, Cochin (http://www.indianspices.com/html/s0420sts.htm) accessed on 13-09-2007
Table 1.4b: Item-wise import of spices into India
Source : Spices Board, Cochin (http://www.indianspices.com/html/s0420sts.htm) accessed on 13-09-2007
India produced 38,17,900 tonnes of spices during 2004-05 and exported 3,20,530 tonnes during 2005-06. It indicated that strong domestic market is exists and we consume more than 90 % of our production only < 10 % is exported. India also imports considerable amount of spices (Table 1.4b). Traditionally we export freesh or dried produces but in recent times value added products are in great demand. The produce subjected to value addition chain. During which it is made into powders, oils, oleoresins etc., they are in great demand in culinary preparations and pharmaceuticals etc. For the export of spices and spice products, the exporting countries have to comply with the specifications laid down by the regulatory agencies in importing countries. Before the liberalisation, exporters had to comply with the pre-shipment inspection and quality control as
per the AGMARK Grade Specification prescribed by the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI). Export Inspection Agency, under the Export Inspection Council of India, also has the mandate for pre-shipment inspection and quality control certification. With the liberalization pre-shipment inspection and quality control was withdrawn and the exporters are free to export the spices and spice products as per the specifications prescribed by the importing countries. As per the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed between Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Govt. of India and the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), export of Black Pepper to USA can be made with the pre-shipment inspection and quality control certification by Export Inspection Agency. The most popular specification for spices and herbs the world over is the "ASTA Cleanliness Specifications for Spices, Seeds and Herbs". The unified ASTA, USFDA Cleanliness Specifications for Spices, Seeds and Herbs was made effective from 1-1-1990. Major producing countries have built up their facilities to meet the requirements as per ASTA Cleanliness Specification. The importing countries where they do not have specifications for spices, used to request the exporting countries to supply spices as per the ASTA Specification. Countries like UK, Germany and Netherlands have laid down cleanliness specification for spices. European Spice Association (ESA) comprising of the members of the European Union has come out with the "quality minima for herbs and spices". This serves as a guideline specifications for member countries in European Union. European Union is yet to finalise the cleanliness specification for spices and spice products. In addition to the cleanliness specification, the importing countries insist on the specification for parameters like pesticide residues, aflatoxin, trace metal contamination and microbial contamination. Individual member countries in European Union have fixed Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) for pesticide residues. European Union has not prescribed the limits for pesticide residues in spices and spice products. USA and Japan has prescribed the MRLs in spices. Under the Codex, MRLs for pesticide residues have not been prescribed. India has taken the initiative to fix the MRLs for spices at the Codex level. European Union has prescribed limits for aflatoxin as 5 ppb, for Aflatoxin B1 and l0 ppb for Aflatoxin total. Member countries in European Union and others have fixed limits for aflatoxin varying from 1 ppb to 20 ppb. Importing countries are cautious on the microbial contamination in spices at the time of import. Almost all the importing countries have fixed the limits for Salmonella as absent in 25g. Specifications have been prescribed laid out by major importing countries for the microbial parameters such as Total Plate Count (TPC), E. coli, Yeast, Mould, Coliforms, etc. The limits for the above parameters vary from country to country. The cleanliness specification, the limits for pesticide residues, aflatoxin and microbial contaminants prescribed by the major importing countries are given in spices board website online (http://www.indianspices.com/html/s1490qua.htm). Area and Production of Spices The important spices and condiments under commercial or large scale cultivation are Chillies, Black Pepper, Cardamom, Turmeric, Ginger, Coriander, Fennel, Fenugreek, Cumin, and Garlic.
The total area under spices is over 2.6 m.ha with a production of 3.8 m tones and our domestic consumption is around 80 % of the production (Table 1.5). Table 1.5: State Wise Area and Production and Important Spices Grown in India (2004-05) State Andaman & Nicobar
Area (‘000ha) 1.87
Production (‘000 tonnes) 3.1
Important Spices Grown
Black pepper, Chilli, Ginger, Clove, Nutmeg, Cinnamon Andhra Pradesh 354.6 1217.1 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard Seed, Garlic, Tamarind Arunachal Pradesh 6.7 37.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric Assam 26.0 17.6 Chilli, Turmeric Bihar 10.9 10.9 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard Seed, Garlic Chhattisgarh 12.4 8.7 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Mustard Seed, Garlic 260.4 279.4 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Cumin, Gujarat Fennel, Fenugreek, Ajwan Seed, Dill Seed, Mustard Seed, Garlic Himachal Pradesh 2.9 14.9 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Garlic Jammu & Kashmir 4.3 8.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic, Saffron Karnataka 151.4 214.4 Black pepper, Cardamom, Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard Seed, Garlic, Tamarind, Clove, Nutmeg, Cinnamon, Sweet Flag, Vanilla Kerala 326.4 178.9 Black pepper, Cardamom, Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic, Tamarind, Clove, Nutmeg, Cinnamon, Vanilla Maharastra 105.6 83.8 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic Mehalaya 19.7 73.6 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Mustard Seed, Tejpat 38.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic Mizoram 7.4 10.8 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Mustard Seed Manipur 15.0 209.4 266.5 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard Madhya Pradesh Seed, Garlic 13.7 70.3 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Garlic Nagaland Orissa 145.8 194.4 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard Seed, Garlic 4.0 22.2 Chilli, Celery, Garlic Punjab 574.2 492.8 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Cumin, Rajasthan Fennel, Fenugreek, Ajwan Seed, Dill Seed, Mustard Sikkim 31.8 40.1 Large Cardamom, Ginger, Turmeric Tamil Nadu 140.0 263.0 Black pepper, Cardamom, Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Mustard Seed, Garlic, Tamarind, Clove, Vanilla Tripura 4.5 9.4 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric Uttar Pradesh 51.7 134.0 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Fennel, Fenugreek, Garlic Uttaranchal 1.1 6.5 Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric, Coriander, Fenugreek, Garlic West Bengal 76.8 105.4 Large Cardamom, Chilli, Ginger, Turmeric Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, New Delhi and State Departments & Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut & Spices Board, Cochin
Organizations Research • Indian Institute of Spices Research(ICAR), Calicut, Kerala • National Research Center for Seed Spices(ICAR), Ajmer, Rajasthan • National Research Center for Onion and Garlic(ICAR), Pune, Maharashtra • Indian Institute of Horticultural Research(ICAR), Bangalore, Karnataka • National Research Center for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(ICAR), Anand, Gujarat • Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(CSIR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh • Central Food Technological Research Institute(CSIR), Mysore, Karnataka • All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices(ICAR), Calicut, Kerala • Indian Cardamom Research Institute(Spices Board), Myladumpara, Kerala • Cardamom Research Center (IISR)(ICAR), Appangala, Karnataka • State Agricultural Universities • CSIR Labs Development • Directorate of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants Development, Calicut Export • Spices Board, Cochin, Kerala • Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority, New Delhi • National Agricultural Cooperative Federation of India Ltd. , New Delhi • India Pepper & Spice Trade Association [IPSTA], Cochin, Kerala • All India Spices Exporters Forum [AISEF], Cochin, Kerala • Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Faridabad, Haryana
BLACK PEPPER Intorudction Black pepper (Piper nigrum) (Family: Piperaceae) is a perennial climbing vine grown for its berries extensively used as spice and in medicine. India is a leading producer, consumer and exporter of black pepper in the world. During 2005-06, 17, 563 tonnes of black pepper worth Rs. 150. 95 crore were exported to various countries accounting for 5.74 % of export earnings among spices. Black pepper is cultivated to a large extent in Kerala and Karnataka and to a limited extent in Tamil Nadu and other states. The crop is grown in about 2, 57, 020 hectares in India with a production of 79,640 tonnes annually. Kerala (94.1%) account for a major portion of production of black pepper in the country and Karnataka contributes around 3.6 %.
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Composition The composition of black pepper is given in Table 2. 1 Table 2.1: Composition of black pepper Moisture Total nitrogen Nitrogen in nonvolatile ether extract Volatile ether extract Nonvolatile ether extract Alcohol extract
8.7-14.1 % 1.55-2.60% 2.70-4.22%
Starch (by acid hydrolysis) Crude fibre Crude piperine
28.0-49.0% 8.7-18% 2.8-9.0%
0.3-4.2% 3.9-11.5% 4.4-12.0%
Piperine (spectrometrically) Total ash Acid insoluble ash (sand)
1.7-7.4% 3.6-5.7% 0.03-0.55%
Uses Its value as an essential preservative of meats and other perishable foods was known for centuries. It is, therefore, largely used by meat packers and in canning, pickling, baking confectionery and preparation of beverages. One of the principal values of pepper is its ability to correct the seasoning of dishes. Just before the end of cooling, a final dash of pepper can be used effectively to adjust the flavour. It is an important constituent of whole pickling spice and many ground spice formulae of seasonings for poultry dressings, sausages, hamburger and Frankfurter seasonings. Oil is a valuable adjunct in flavouring of sausages, canned meats, soups, table sauces and certain beverages and liquors. It is used in perfumery and in medicine. Piperine is used to impart a pungent taste to brandy. It is also being tried as an insecticide. Oleoresin is used for flavouring of sauces, sasusages, chutneys, etc., on commercial scale, since the use of standardized oleoresin results in production of processed foods of uniform quality and flavour. The ancient Aryans considered it as a powerful remedy for various disorders of anatomical system and prescribed it as an effective cure for dyspepsia, malaria, delirium tremors, haemorrhoids, etc. The Egyptians used it for embalming. The Asians used it as an aphrodisiac. The Dutch and French housewives use it as an insect-repellent and moth killer. Area and production Between 1997 and 2002, world production of pepper (piper nigrum) increased dramatically from 189,000 tons to 341,000 tons, with an anuual growth rate of 12% per annum. The increase in production is mostly attributable to Vietnam’s emergence as a major pepper producer but output from the other producing countries also increased substantially during this period, with increased production coming from Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and China (Table 2.2 & 2.3).
Table 2.2 Country-wise Area of pepper COUNTRY
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
432,206
461,748
472,544
492,130
493,317
Brazil
30,000
39,000
45,000
50,000
45,000
India
214,910
218,670
222,460
213,160
231,880
Indonesia
145,830
159,884
160,606
184,000
171,000
Malaysia
11,500
13,400
13,100
13,000
13,000
Sri Lanka Non-IPC Countries Vietnam
29,966
30,794
31,378
31,970
32,437
54,075
61,198
67,590
74,300
75,800
30,000
e)
36,106
42,000
48,800
50,000
China, P.R.
15,500
e)
15,700
15,700
15,700
16,000
e)
Madagascar
4,000
e)
4,000
Thailand
2,575
Others
2,000
IPC Countries
TOTAL
e)
2,892 e)
486,281
2,500
e)
522,946
4,000
e)
4,000
e)
4,000
e)
2,890
e)
2,800
e)
2,800
e)
3,000
e)
3,000
e)
3,000
e)
540,134
566,430
569,117
e) estimate Source: International Pepper Community, Jakarta
Table 2.3 Country-wise total production of pepper COUNTRY
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
200,176
215,841
227,600
228,660
194,820
Brazil India Indonesia Malaysia Sri Lanka Non-IPC Countries
30,000 58,000 77,500 24,000 10,676
43,000 79,000 59,000 27,000 7,841
45,000 80,000 66,000 24,000 12,600
50,000 65,000 80,000 21,000 12,660
45,000 62,000 55,000 20,000 12,820
73,635
92,395
113,460
133,500
151,659
Vietnam
45,000
56,000
75,000
85,000
100,000
China, PR. Thailand Madagascar Others
18,600 6,535 1,500 2,000
21,700 8,820 3,375 2,500
23,000 9,960 2,500 3,000
33,000 9,500 2,500 3,500
35,000 9,500 2,500 4,659
TOTAL
273,811
308,236
341,060
362,160
346,479
IPC Countries
e) e) e) e) e)
e) estimate Source: International Pepper Community, Jakarta
The pepper production in India for the past ten years is given in Table 2.4 and cultivation is mainly confined to the Southern States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Table 2.4: Area, Production and Consumption of Pepper in India Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Mean
Area (ha) 190,990 193,270 198,110 179,590 181,550 238,320 214,910 218,670 222,460 213,160 220,620 206,513.64
Production (Tons) 50,000 55,000 65,000 60,000 65,000 75,000 58,000 79,000 80,000 65,000 62,000 64,909.09
Consumption (Tons) 20,000 25,000 30,000 25,000 27,000 30,000 35,000 50,624 52,000 58,000 60,000 37,511.27
Table 2.5 State-wise Area, Production and yield of Black pepper in India (Area:’000 ha, production:’000 tonnes, Yield:kg/ha) State Karnataka Kerala Tamilnadu Andamans All India
Area 2.98 183.48 2.81 0.11 189.49
1992-93 Prodn. 0.75 49.67 0.28 0.05 50.76
Yield 252 271 100 455 268
Area 12.10 203.96 4.11 0.45 220.62
2001-02 Prodn. 20.76 58.24 0.91 0.09 80.00
Yield 1716 286 221 200 363
2004-05 Area Prodn. 13.07 2.84 237.67 74.98 4.12 0.91 0.66 0.12 257.02 79.64
Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, New Delhi
Botany Piper nigrum L. belongs to the family piperaceae, which is pan-tropical in distribution, concentrated mainly in South and Central America and South Asia. Over 1000 species were reported from the genus Piper of which about 110 are of Indian origin. In India, the southwestern and northeastern regions were recognized as two independent centres of distribution for Piper.A few of the economically important species of Piper along with black pepper are P. betle L.(betelvine), P. longum L.(Indian long pepper), P. retrofactum Vahl.(Java long pepper), P. mullesua Ham. and P. cubeba Lf. (cubebs or tailed pepper) used in indigenous medicine. Piper nigrum is a perennial glabrous woody climber growing up to a height of 15 m or more. The height of the vine depends on the height of the support; it climbs, under cultivation as a monocrop. The height is restricted to 4-6 m giving a columnar appearance. They are trailed on either living or nonliving standards. The pepper vine has two types of branches, the orthotropic climbing branches and the plagiotropic fruiting branches. The growth of orthotropic branches is vegetative and has monopodial growth habit. After climbing a support, they become woody with thick bark, which forms the central axis of the column. The nodes are swollen and each node has a cordate or ovate leaf. At each node, there may be 8-15 short adventitious clinging roots, which adhere
firmly to the support while climbing. At the axil of each leaf there is an axillary bud, which can develop into plagiotropic branches, which produce flowers and fruits. Both types of shoots branch but only orthotropic shoots produce further climbing shoots with roots at every node, which are used for propagation of pepper vines. The sympodially growing fruiting branches when rooted and planted grow into short black pepper bushes. A mature pepper vine has 10-20 main adventitious roots, 2-3 m long from the base of the stem and there is an extensive mat of surface feeding roots; about 80-90% of the feeding roots are in the upper 40 cm of soil. Leaves are simple, alternate and often unequal sided. Leaves are coriaceous, dark green and shiny above, pale and gland dotted below, cordate to ovate in orthotropic shoots and ovate to ovate-elliptic on plagiotropic shoots; lamina is entire with 5-7 vines arising from the leaf base or slightly above the base which is round, acute or cordate; leaf size varies with cultivars and may be 3-20 cm or more long and 3- 15 cm or more broad. Inflorescence is a filiform, pendant, spike borne opposite to the leaves on fruiting branches. The spikes are terminal in development but pushed aside by the new shoot developing from the axillary bird, so as to make it appear opposite to the leaf. The spikes are 2- 17 cm or more long bearing 5-100 or more minute flowers borne in the axi1s of ovate, fleshy and cupular bracts; cultivated types are monoecious exhibiting great variability in the composition of male, female and hermaphrodite flowers in the spike; high yielding cultivars have as much as 70-100 per cent bisexual flowers indicating that higher percentage of bisexual flowers results in greater productivity. Under intense shade conditions a few of the varieties with bisexual flower produce more of female and less of hermaphrodite flowers and sometimes the anthers fail to emerge out of the bracts or emerge late. The sessile flowers have no perianth. Male flower is represented by two naked two-celled anthers, one on either side of the ovary, 1-2 mm in size with short filaments. The globose ovary is one celled, sessile with a single orthotropous ovule; stigmas 3-5, fleshy, papillose, white when receptive, later turn black. They may be receptive up to ten days with peak receptivity from third to fifth day. The pollen grains are small and usually in small aggregates. Self-pollination is predominant in most of the cultivars and there is no active pollen transfer mechanism. In bisexual types, the presence of anthers on either side of the gynoecium ensures effective self-pollination, especially in types where both male and female flowers mature at the same time, exhibiting synchrony of male and female phases. Though there is protogyny in many cultivars, in most of them the female phase coincides with the male phase at least at some stage, so that the female flowers are exposed to the pollen from the same spike. Geitenogamy is the major mechanism effecting pollination. The presence of dew or water drops on the spike may further enhance dispersal of pollen grains. Cross-pollination may also occur to a limited extent aided by either insects or wind. The fruit, though known as berry is a sessile globose drupe with a pulpy pericarp. The green unripe fruit turns red upon ripening and turns black after drying. The size and number of drupes per spike varies with different cu1tivars. The seed has a minute embryo with little endosperm and copious perisperm.
Climate and soil Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics requiring adequate rainfall and humidity. The hot and humid climate of sub mountainous tracts of Western Ghats is ideal for its cultivation. It grows successfully between 20° North and South latitude, and from sea level up to 1500 m above mean sea level. The crop tolerates temperatures between 10 and 40° C. A well-distributed annual rainfall of 125-200 cm is considered ideal for black pepper. Black pepper can be grown in a wide range of soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.5, though in its natural habitat it thrives well in red laterite soils. The black pepper growing areas in the West Coast of India include 1) coastal areas where black pepper is grown in homesteads 2) midlands and where black pepper is extensively cultivated on a plantation scale and 3) hills at an elevation of 800-1500 m above mean sea level, where the crop is mostly grown on shade trees in coffee, cardamom and tea plantations Propagation Black pepper vines develop three types of aerial shoots, namely 1) primary stem with long internodes, with adventitious roots which cling to the standards 2) runner shoots which originate from the base of the vine and have long internodes which strike roots at each node and 3) fruit bearing lateral branches. Cuttings are raised mainly from runner shoots, though terminal shoots can also be used. Cuttings from lateral branches are seldom used since they develop a bushy habit. However, rooted lateral branches are useful for raising bush pepper. Production of Rooted Cuttings 1. Traditional method: Runner shoots from high yielding and healthy vines are kept coiled on wooden pegs fixed at the base of the vine to prevent the shoots from coming in contact with soil and striking roots. The runner shoots are separated from the vine during February-March, and after trimming the leaves, cuttings of 2-3 nodes each are planted either in nursery beds or in polythene bags filled with fertile soil. Adequate shade has to be provided and the polythene bags are to be irrigated frequently. The cuttings become ready for planting during May-June. 2. Rapid multiplication method: An efficient propagation technique developed at Sri Lanka has been modified for adoption in India for quick and easy multiplication of black pepper vines.
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
In this method, a trench of 60 cm depth, 30 cm width and convenient length is made. The trench is filled with rooting medium comprising of soil, sand and farmyard manure in 1:1:1 ratio. Split halves of bamboo with septa or split halves of PVC pipes of 1.25-1.50 m length and 8-10 cm diameter provided with plastic septa at 30 cm intervals are fixed at 45° angle on a strong support.
Rooted cuttings are planted in the trench at the rate of one cutting for each bamboo split. The lower portions of the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium (preferably weathered coir dust-farm yard manure mixture in 1:1 ratio) and the growing vine is tied to the bamboo split in such a way so as to keep the nodes pressed to the rooting medium. The tying can be done with dried banana leaf sheath fibers. The cuttings are irrigated regularly. As the cuttings grow, the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium and each node is pressed down to the rooting medium and tied. For rapid growth, a nutrient solution of urea (1 kg), super phosphate (0.75 kg), muriate of potash (0.5 kg) and magnesium sulphate (0.25 kg) in 250 litres of water is to be applied @ 0.25 litre per vine at 2 week intervals. When the vine reaches the top (3-4 months after planting of the cutting) the terminal bud is nipped off and the vine is crushed at about three nodes above the base, in order to activate the axillary buds. After about 10 days, the vine is cut at the crushed point and removed from the rooting medium and cut between each node. Each cutting with the bunch of roots intact is planted in polythene bags filled with fumigated potting mixture. Trichoderma @ 1g and VAM @ 100 cc/kg of soil can be added to the potting mixture. Care should be taken to keep the leaf axil above the soil. The polythene bags should be kept in a cool and humid place, or should be covered with thin polythene (200 gauge) sheet to retain humidity. The buds start developing in about 3 weeks and the polybags can then be removed and kept in shade. The advantages of this method of propagation are rapid multiplication (1:40), well-developed root system, higher field establishment and vigorous growth as a result of better root system. The cost of production of single cutting is Rs. 5(Table 2.6). Table 2.6: Cost of production of rooted black pepper cuttings using Rapid Multiplication SI.No
Items
I Non- recurring expenditure 1 Cleared, leveled nursery area with good drainage 2 Semi-permanent nursery structure of size 24x 6 m with G 3 Masonary charges including cost of cement 4 Shade net II. Recurring Expenditure (Once in 3 Years) 1 Bamboo 200 numbers @ Rs.54/ pc 2 Arranging bamboo splits (10 man days) @ Rs. 120 / day 3 Mother vines @ Rs 6.00 for 600 nos. 4 FYM @ Rs b/cft (260 cft) 5 Forest soil @ 600 / cft (650 cft) 6 Sand @ Rs. 9/cft (560 cft) 7 Fumigation of pitting mix 8 Coir dust (60 ft) 9 Preparation of rooting medium 240 cft (6 man days) 10 Preparation of potting mixture 982 cft (15 man days) III. Recurring Expenditure (every 3 year) 1 Fertilizers a. Urea 29 Kg @ Rs. 4.65/Kg b. Super phosphate 29 kg @ Rs. 3.10 / kg c. Muriate of Potash 15 Kg @ Rs. 4.35/Kg d. Magnesium sulphate 7kg @Rs. 3.50 / Kg
Cost 124000 Available 97000 15000 12000 30980 10800 1200 3600 5200 3900 2340 1300 120 720 1800 62145 135 90 65 25
2
e. Application of cow dung slurry Plant protection chemicals a. Ridomil 1kg @ Rs.1300/kg b. Phorate 22 kg @ Rs.50 / Kg c. Quinolphose 1 lit @Rs. 320 d. Copper Oxy Chloride 10 kg @ 14.61/ Kg
3 4 5 6
Charges for application of nutrient solution and pesticide
Labour charges for tying vines, irrigation and maintenance Cost of temporary shed (1000 capacity 12m x 6m) Cost of shade net Annuity value @ 11 % Total cost of production Cost of Production / cutting (Rs)
100 1300 1050 320 610 1950 38000 9500 9000 26315 88460 4.95
3. Trench method: A pit of 2.0 m x 1.0 m x 0.5 m size is dug under a cool and shaded area. Single nodes of 8-10 cm length and with their leaf intact, taken from runner shoots of field grown vines are planted in polythene bags (25 cm x 15 cm, 200 gauge) filled at the lower half with a mixture of sand, soil, coir dust and cow dung in equal proportion. The single nodes are to be planted in the bags in such a way that their leaf axil is above the potting mixture. The polythene bags with the planted single nodes are arranged in the pit. After keeping the bags in the pit, the pit should be covered with a polythene sheet. This sheet may be secured in position by placing weights on the corners. The cuttings should be watered at least two times a daily with a rose can and the pit should be covered with the polythene sheet immediately after watering. It is advisable to drench the cuttings 2-3 times with copper oxychloride (2g/litre). After 2-3 weeks of planting, the cuttings will start producing roots which are visible through the polythene bags. After about 1 month, new shoots start emerging from the leaf axil. At this stage it is advisable to keep the pit open for about 1 hour per day so that the cuttings would harden and will not dry when they are taken out of the pit. The cuttings can be taken out of the pit after 2 months of planting and kept in a shaded place and watered twice a day. These cuttings will be ready for field planting after about 2 ½ months. Foliar application of nutrient solution will also enhance the growth of the cuttings. The advantage is simple, cheap and efficient technique for propagating black pepper from single nodes of runner shoots. By this method 80-85% success can be obtained. 4. Serpentine method: In a nursery shed with roofing sheet or shade net, rooted black pepper cuttings are planted in polythene bags holding about 2 kg potting mixture, which will serve as mother plants.As the plant grows and produces few nodes small polythene bags (20x10 cm) filled with potting mixture may be kept under each node. The node may be kept gently pressed in to the mixture assuring contact with the potting mixture with the help of a flexible twig such as mid rib of a coconut leaflet to enable rooting at that junction. Roots start growing from the
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
nodes and the cuttings keep on growing further. The process of keeping potting mixture filled polythene bags at every node to induce rooting at each node is repeated. In 3 months the first 10 to 12 nodes (from the mother plants) would have rooted profusely and will be ready for harvest. Each node with the ploythene bag is cut just below the rooted node and the cut end buried into the mixture to induce more roots. The rooted nodes will produce new sprouts in a week time and will be ready for field planting in 2-3 months time. Daily irrigation can be given with a rose can. On an average, 60 cuttings can be harvested per mother plant in a year by this method. Cheaper propagation technique for production of rooted cuttings of black pepper is serpentine layering. Nursery Diseases 1. Phytophthora infections: The condition favouring are continous heavy rainfall/irrigation, high humidity, low temperature. Phytophthora infections are noticed on leaves, stems and roots of cuttings in the nursery. Dark spots with fimbriate margins appear on the leaves, which spread rapidly resulting in defoliation. The infections on the stem are seen as black lesions which result in blight. The symptoms on the roots appear as rotting of the entire root system. Spraying Bordeaux mixture 1% and drenching with copper oxychloride 0.2 % at monthly intervals prevents the disease. Alternatively, metalaxyl 0.01% (1.25 g of RidomilMancozeb/litre water) or potassium phosphonate 0.3% could also be used. The potting mixture may be sterilized through solarization. To the sterilized mixture, biocontrol agents such as VAM @ 100 cc/kg of mixture and Trichoderma @ 1g/kg of soil (Trichoderma population @ 1010 cfu/g) may be added at the time of filling of nursery mixture in polythene bags. Pseudomonas fluorescens (IISR-6) may be added to the potting mixture @ 1 g of product containing 1010 cfu/g to enhance growth and to suppress root pathogens. Since the biocontrol agents protect the root system only, the aerial portion may be protected with chemicals. If Bordeaux mixture is used care must be taken to prevent dripping of fungicide to the soil. Alternatively, systemic fungicides such as metalaxyl and potassium phosphonate which are compatible with Trichoderma may be used. 2. Anthracnose: The disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The fungus infects the leaves causing yellowish brown to dark brown irregular leaf spots with a chlorotic halo. Spraying Bordeaux mixture 1% alternating with carbendazim 0.1% is effective against the disease. 3. Leaf rot and blight: The disease is caused by Rhizoctonia solani and is often serious in nurseries during April-May when warm humid conditions prevail. The fungus infects both leaves
and stems. Grey sunken spots and mycelia threads appear on the leaves and the infected leaves are attached to one another with the mycelia threads. On stems, the infection occurs as dark brown lesions which spread both upwards and downwards. The new flushes subtending the points of infection gradually droop and dry up. Leaf spots caused by Colletotrichum sp. are characterized by yellow halo surrounding the necrotic spots. A prophylactic spray with Bordeaux mixture 1% prevents both the diseases. 4. Basal wilt: The disease is mainly noticed in nurseries during June-September and is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. Grey lesions appear on stems and leaves. On the leaves white mycelium are seen at the advancing edges of the lesions. The mycelia threads later girdle the stem resulting in drooping of leaves beyond the point of infection and in advanced stages the rooted cuttings dry up. Small whitish to cream coloured grain like sclerotia bodies appear on the mature lesions. The disease can be controlled, if noticed early, by adopting phytosanitary measures. The affected cuttings along with defoliated leaves should be removed and destroyed. Later all the cuttings should be sprayed with carbendazim 0.2% or Bordeaux mixture 1%. 5. Viral infections in the nursery: Vein clearing, mosaic, yellow specks, mottling and small leaf are the most obvious symptoms for identifying viral infections in the nursery. As viruses are systematic in nature, primary spread occurs through planting material since black pepper is vegetatively propagated. When infected plants are used as source of planting material, the cuttings will also be infected. Hence selection of virus free healthy mother plants is very important. Secondary spread of the disease occurs through insects such as aphids and mealybugs. Because of closed placing of seedlings in the nursery, chances of spread through these insects are more. Hence regular monitoring of the nursery for insects and spraying with insecticides like dimethoate or monocrotophos @0.05% should be resorted to whenever they are seen. Besides, regular inspection and removal of infected plants should also be done. 6. Nematode infestation in the nursery: Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis are the two important nematode species infesting rooted cuttings in the nursery. The damage caused to roots by nematode infestations result in poor growth, foliar yellowing and some times interveinal chlorosis of leaves. The establishment of nematode infected cuttings will be poor when planted in the field and such cuttings develop slow decline at a later date. Soil solarization can be done for sterilizing the nursery mixture. The solarized nursery mixture may be fortified with biocontrol agents such as Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum @ 1-2 g/kg of soil, the product containing 106.5 cfu fungus/gm of substrate.. A prophylactic application of nematicide is also necessary to check the nematode infestation. For this, make three equidistant holes of 2-3 cm depth in the bag around the cuttings and place phorate 10 G @ 1g/bag or carbofuran 3 G @ 3g/bag in these holes and cover with soil. A light irrigation may also be given to ensure adequate soil moisture. Cultivation Varieties: A majority of the cultivated types are monoecious (male and female flowers found in the same spike) though variation in sex expression ranging from complete male to complete female is found. Over 75 cultivars of black pepper are being cultivated in India. Karimunda is the
most popular of all cultivars in Kerala. The other important cultivars (Table 2.7) are Kottanadan (South Kerala), Narayakodi (Central Kerala), Aimpiriyan (Wynad), Neelamundi (Idukki), Kuthiravally (Kozhikode and Idukki), Balancotta, Kalluvally (North Kerala), Malligesara and Uddagare (Karnataka). Kuthiravally and Balancotta exhibit alternate bearing habit A few important cultivars and their salient features are given in below. In terms of quality, Kottanadan has the highest oleoresin (17.8%) content followed by Aimpiriyan (15.7%). Table 2.7: Important cultivars of black pepper and their characteristic features Cultivar Aimpirian Arakulan munda Balankotta Karimunda Kalluvally Kottanadan Kuthiravally Narayakodi Neelamundi Vadakkan
Mean yield (fresh) (kg/vine)
Oleoresin (%)
Quality attributes Piperine Essential oil (%) (%)
4-5 2
15.0 9.8
4.7 4.4
2.6 4.7
34 33
1-2 2-3 1-2 5 3 1-2 2 3
9.3 11.0 8.4-11.8 17.8 15.0 11.0 13.9 10.8
4.2 4.4 2.5-5.4 6.6 6.0 5.4 4.6 4.2
5.1 4.0 3.0 2.5 4.5 4.0 3.3 3.2
35 35 35-38 34-35 35 36 33-34 -
Dry recovery (%)
Ten improved varieties of black pepper have been released for cultivation given below (Table 2.8). Panniyur-1 and Panniyur-3 are hybrids evolved at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyur (Kerala) and have Uthirankotta and Cheriyakaniakadan as their female and male parents, respectively. IISR Girimunda and IISR Malabar Excel are the two hybrids in the process of release from Indian Institute of Spices Research. Establishment of plantations 1. Selection of site: When black pepper is grown in slopes, the slopes facing south should be avoided and the lower half of northern and north eastern slopes preferred for planting so that the vines are not subjected to the scorching effect of the southern sun during summer.
Girimunda
Shakthi Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Table 2.8: Improved varieties of black pepper and their characters Variety
Panniyur-1 (KAU) Panniyur-2 (KAU) Panniyur-3 (KAU)
Pedigree
Hybrid between Uthirankotta x Cheriyakaniakadan Selection (Cul. 141) from cv. Balancotta (KAU) Hybrid (Cul. 331) Uthirankotta x Cheriyakaniakadan Selection from Kuthiravally Type Clonal selection from Karimunda Open pollinated progeny selection from Kuthiravally
Panniyur-4 (KAU) Panniyur -6 (KAU) Panniyur -7 (KAU) Subhakara (IISR) Sreekara (IISR) Panchami (IISR) Pournami (IISR) IISR Shakti IISR Thevam* IISR Girimunda IISR Malabar Excel
Selection from Karimunda (KS27) Selection from Karimunda (KS14) Selection from Aimpiriyan (Coll. 856) Selection from Ottaplackal (Coll. 812) Open pollinated progeny of Perambramundi Clonal selection of Thevamundi Hybrid between Narayakodi x Neelamundi Hybrid between Cholamundi x Panniyur-1
Mean yield (dry) (kg/ha)
Dry recovery (%)
1242
35.3
5.3
11.8
3.5
2570
35.7
6.6
10.9
-
1953
27.8
5.2
12.7
-
1277
34.7
0
9.2
0
2127
32.9
4.9
8.3
1.3
1410
33.6
5.6
10.6
1.5
2352
35.5
3.4
12.4
6.0
2677
35.0
5.3
13.0
7.0
2828
34.0
4.7
12.5
3.4
2333
31.0
4.1
13.8
3.4
2253
43.0
3.3
10.2
3.7
2481 2880
32.0 32.0
1.65 2.2
8.15 9.65
3.1 3.4
1440
32.0
4.95
14.6
4.1
* Tolerant to foot rot disease
Malbar Excell
Thevam Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Quality attributes Piperi- Oleor- Essen ne (%) esin tial oil (%) (%)
2. Preparation of land and planting standards: With the receipt of the first rain in May-June, primary stem cuttings of Erythina sp.(Murukku) or Garuga pinnata (kilinjil) or Grevillea robusta (silver oak) are planted in pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm size filled with cow dung and top soil, at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m which would accommodate about 1111 standards per hectare (Seedlings of Alianthus malabarica (Matti) can also be planted and the black pepper vines can be trailed on it after 3 years when they attain sufficient height). Whenever E. indica is used as standard, application of phorate 10 G @ 30 g may be done twice a year (May/June and September/October) to control nematodes and stem and root borer. When E. indica and G. pinnata are used, the primary stems are cut in March/April and stacked in shade in groups. The stacked stems start sprouting in May. The stems are planted in the edge of the pits dug for planting black pepper vines. 3. Planting: With the onset of monsoon, 2-3 rooted cuttings of black pepper are planted individually in the pits on the northern side of each standard. 4. Cultural practices: As the cuttings grow, the shoots are tied to the standards as often as required. The young vines should be protected from hot sun during summer by providing artificial shade. Regulation of shade by lopping the branches of standards is necessary not only for providing optimum light to the vines but also for enabling the standards to grow straight. Adequate mulch with green leaf or organic matter should be applied towards the end of North East monsoon. The base of the vines should not be disturbed so as to avoid root damage. During the second year, the same cultural practices are repeated. However, lopping of standards should be done carefully from the fourth year onwards, not only to regulate height of the standards, but also to shade the black pepper vines optimally. Excessive shading during flowering and fruiting encourages pest infestations. Growing cover crops like Calapogonium mucunoides and Mimosa invisa are also recommended under West Coast conditions as an effective soil cover to prevent soil erosion during rainy season. Further, they dry during summer, leaving a thick organic mulch. 5. Manuring and fertilizer application: Manuring and fertilizer application for pepper vines is to be done for black proper establishment and growth of plants. Recommended nutrient dosage for black pepper vines are as follows. NPK 50:50:150 g/vine/year (General recommendation) NPK 50:50:200 g/vine/year (for Panniyur and similar areas) NPK 140:55:270 g/vine/year (for Kozhikode and similar areas) Only one-third of this dosage should be applied during the first year which is increased to twothirds in the second year. The full dose is given from the third year onwards. It is better to apply the fertilizers in two split doses, one in May-June and the other in August-September. The fertilizers are applied at a distance of about 30 cm all around the vine and covered with a thick layer of soil. Care should be taken to avoid direct contact of fertilizers with roots of black pepper. Organic manures in the form of cattle manure or compost can be given @ 10 kg / vine during May. Neem cake @ 1 kg/vine can also be applied. Application of lime @ 500 g/vine in
April-May during alternate years is also recommended. In soils that are deficient in zinc, foliar application of 0.25% zinc sulphate twice a year (May- June and September-October) is recommended. Plant protection
Diseases 1. Foot rot disease: Foot rot (quick wilt disease) caused by Phytophthora capsici is the most destructive of all diseases and occurs mainly during the south west monsoon season. All parts of the vine are vulnerable to the disease and the expression of symptoms depend upon the site or plant part infected and the extent of damage. The continuous high rainfall, high humidity, and poor drainage would favour the diseases occurrence. Symptoms • One or more black spots appear on the leaves which have a characteristic fine fibre like projections at the advancing margins which rapidly enlarge and cause defoliation. • The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of freshly emerging runner shoots trailing on the soil turn black when infected. The disease spreads to the entire vine, from these infected runner shoots and leaves, during intermittent showers due to rain splash. • If the main stem at the ground level or the collar is damaged, the entire vine wilts followed by shedding of leaves and spikes with or without black spots. The branches break up at nodes and the entire vine collapses within a month. • If the damage is confined to the feeder roots, the expression of symptoms is delayed till the cessation of rain and the vine starts showing declining symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, defoliation and drying up of a part of the vine. This may occur during OctoberNovember onwards. These vines may recover after the rains and survive for more than two seasons till the root infection culminates in collar rot and death of the vine.
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Management: The disease can be controlled by adopting integrated disease management strategies. a. Phytosanitation • Removal and destruction of dead vines along with root system from the garden is essential as this reduces the build up of inoculum (fungal population). • Planting material must be collected from disease free gardens and the nursery preferably raised in fumigated or solarized soil. b. Cultural practices • Adequate drainage should be provided to reduce water stagnation.
• •
Injury to the root system due to cultural practices such as digging should be avoided. The freshly emerging runner shoots should not be allowed to trail on the ground. They must either be tied back to the standard or pruned off. • The branches of support trees must be pruned at the onset of monsoon to avoid build up of humidity and for better penetration of sunlight. Reduced humidity and presence of sunlight reduces the intensity of leaf infection. c. Chemical control: Any of the following chemical control measures can be adopted. • After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), all the vines are to be drenched at a radius of 45-50 cm with copper oxychloride 0.2% @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture 1% is also to be given. Drenching and spraying are to be repeated once again during August-September. A third round of drenching may be given during October if the monsoon is prolonged. • After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are to be drenched with potassium phosphonate 0.3% @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% is also to be given. A second drenching and spraying with potassium phosphonate 0.3% is to be repeated during August-September. If the monsoon is prolonged, a third round of drenching may be given during October. L • After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are to be drenched with 0.125% Ridomil mancozeb @ 5 to10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with Ridomil mancozeb 0.125% may also be given. • At the onset of monsoon (May-June), apply Trichoderma around the base of the vine @ 50g/vine (this quantity is recommended for a substrate containing Trichoderma @ 1010 cfu). A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% or Bordeaux mixture 1% is also to be given. A second application of Trichoderma and foliar spray of Bordeaux mixture 1% or potassium phosphonate 0.3% are to be given during August-September. 2. Pollu disease (Anthracnose): This disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. It can be distinguished from the pollu (hollow berry) caused by the beetle by the presence of characteristic cracks on the infected berries. The disease appears towards the end of the monsoon. The affected berries show brown sunken patches during early stages and their further development is affected. In later stages, the discolouration gradually increases and the berries show the characteristic cross splitting. Finally, the berries turn black and dry. The fungus also causes angular to irregular brownish lesions with a chlorotic halo on the leaves. The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture 1%. 3. Spike shedding: Spike shedding especially in varieties like Panniyur-1 at higher elevations like Kodagu and Idukki is one of the emerging diseases. It is seen in serious condition when the pre-monsoon showers are delayed and flowering and spiking occur during June-July. These spikes predominantly produce female flowers instead of bisexual flowers. Heavy spike shedding may occur due to lack of pollination. Irrigation of vines from second fortnight of March coupled with prophylactic spraying with bordeaux mixture 1% or carbendazim 0.2% reduces the intensity of spike shedding. 4. Stunt disease: This disease which is caused by viruses is noticed in parts of Kannur, Kasaragod, Kozhikode, Waynad and Idukki Districts of Kerala and Kodagu, Hassan and Uthara Kannada districts of Karnataka. The vines exhibit shortening of internodes to varying degrees.
The leaves become small and narrow with varying degrees of deformation and appear leathery, puckered and crinkled. Chlorotic spots and streaks also appear on the leaves occasionally. The yield of the affected vines decreases gradually. Two viruses namely Cucumber mosaic virus and a Badnavirus are associated with the disease. The major means of spread of the virus is through the use of infected stem cuttings. The disease can also be transmitted through insects like aphids and mealy bugs. The following strategies are recommended for the management of the disease. • Use virus free healthy planting material • Regular inspection and removal of infected plants; the removed plants may be burnt or buried deep in soil • Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or standards should be controlled with insecticide spray such as dimethoate or monocrotophos @ 0.05%.
Stunted diseases affected plant. Courtesy: IISR, Calicut 5. Phyllody disease: This disease which is caused by phytoplasma is noticed in parts of Waynad and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. The affected vines exhibit varying stages of malformation of spikes. Some of the floral buds are transformed into narrow leaf like structures. Such malformed spikes show leafy structures instead of floral buds, exhibiting phyllody symptoms. In advanced stages, the leaves become small and chlorotic, and the internodes are also shortened. The affected fruiting laterals give a witches broom appearance. Severely affected vines become unproductive. In severely affected vines the entire spike is converted into small branches which appear chlorotic and the vines decline rapidly. The infected vine becomes unproductive within 2 to 3 years. The infected vines are to be destroyed to prevent the further spread of the disease.
Phyllody Courtsy: IISR, Calicut
6. Slow decline (slow wilt) (Nematodes): Slow decline is a debilitating disease of black pepper. Foliar yellowing, defoliation and die-back are the aerial symptoms of this disease. The affected vines exhibit varying degrees of root degeneration due to infestation by plant parasitic
nematodes. The diseased vines exhibit foliar yellowing from October onwards coinciding with depletion of soil moisture. With the onset of south west monsoon during May/June, some of the affected vines recover and put forth fresh foliage. However, the symptoms reappear in subsequent seasons after the cessation of the monsoon and the diseased vines gradually lose their vigour and productivity. The affected vines show varying degrees of feeder root loss and the expression of symptoms on the aerial parts occur after a considerable portion of the feeder roots are lost. The root system of diseased vines show varying degrees of necrosis and presence of root galls due to infestation by plant parasitic nematodes such as Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognita leading to rotting of feeder roots. The damage to feeder roots is caused by these nematodes and P. capsici either independently or together in combination. There is no spatial segregation of plant parasitic nematodes and P. capsici in the soil under field conditions. Hence, it is necessary to adopt a combination of fungicide and nematicide application for the management of the disease. • • • •
Severely affected vines which are beyond recovery should be removed from the plantation and destroyed. The pits for planting should be treated with phorate 10 G @ 15 g or carbofuran 3 G @ 50 g at the time of planting. Nematode free rooted cuttings raised in fumigated or solarized nursery mixture should be used for planting in the field. Phorate 10 G @ 30 g or carbofuran 3 G @ 100 g/vine should be applied during May/June (with the onset of south west monsoon) and September/October. Along with phorate the basins should be drenched with either copper oxychloride 0.2% or potassium phosphonate 0.3% or metalaxly 0.125%.
In areas severely infested with root knot nematodes, cuttings of the resistant variety ‘Pournami’ may be planted. Biocontrol agents like Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum can be applied @ 50g/vine twice a year (during April-May and September-October). The fungus load in the substrate should be 108 cfu/g. While applying nematicides, the soil should be raked in the basin of the vine lightly without causing damage to the root system and the nematicide should be spread uniformly in the basin and covered with soil immediately. Sufficient soil moisture should be ensured at the time of nematicide application. The control measures should be taken up during early stages of the disease. Insect pest 1. Pollu beetle: The pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis) is the most destructive pest of black pepper and is more serious in plains and at altitudes below 300 m. The adult is a small black beetle measuring about 2.5 mm x 1.5 mm, the head and thorax being yellowish brown and the fore wings (elytra) black. Fully-grown grubs are creamy-white and measure about 5 mm in length. The adult beetles feed and damage tender leaves and spikes. The females lay eggs on tender spikes and berries. The grubs bore into and feed on the internal tissues and the infested spikes turn black and decay. The infested berries also turn black and crumble when pressed. The term pollu denotes the hollow nature of the infested berries in Malayalam. The pest infestation is
more serious in shaded areas in the plantation. The pest population is higher during SeptemberOctober in the field. Regulation of shade in the plantation reduces the population of the pest in the field. Spraying endosulfan or quinalphos (0.05% each) during June/July and September/October or endosulfan or quinalphos (0.05% each) during July and Neemgold (0.6%) (neem-based insecticide) during August, September and October is effective for the management of the pest. The underside of leaves (where adults are generally seen) and spikes are to be sprayed thoroughly.
Pollu beetle damage to leaf and berries, Courtesy : IISR, Calicut 2. Top shoot borer: The top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa) is a serious pest in younger plantations in all black pepper areas. The adult is a tiny moth with a wing span of 10-15 mm with crimson and yellow fore wings and grey hind wings. The larvae bore into tender terminal shoots and feed on internal tissues resulting in blackening and decaying of affected shoots. Fully-grown larvae are greyish green and measure 12-15 mm in length. When successive new shoots are attacked, the growth of the vine is affected. The pest infestation is higher during July to October when numerous succulent shoots are available in the vines. Spray monocrotophos or endosulfan (0.05% each) on tender terminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals (during JulyOctober) to protect emerging new shoots.
Top shoot borer,
Leaf gall infection Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
3. Leaf gall thrips: Infestation by leaf gall thrips (Liothrips karnyi) is more serious at higher altitudes especially in younger vines and also in nurseries in the plains. The adults are black and measure 2.5ñ3.0 mm in length. The larvae and pupae are creamy white. The feeding activity of thrips on leaves causes the leaf margins to curl downwards and inwards resulting in the formation of marginal leaf galls. Later the infested leaves become crinkled and malformed. In severe cases of infestation, the growth of younger vines and cuttings in the nursery is affected.
Spray monocrotophos or dimethoate (0.05% each) during emergence of new flushes in young vines in the field and cuttings in the nursery. 4. Scale insects: Among the various scale insects recorded on black pepper, mussel scale (Lepidosaphes piperis) and coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor) cause serious damage to black pepper vines at higher altituudes and also to older cuttings in nurseries in the plains. Females of mussel scales are elongated (about 1 mm length) and dark brown and that of coconut scales circular (about 1 mm in diameter) and yellowish brown. Scale insects are sedentary, remaining permanently fixed to plant parts and appear as encrustations on stems, leaves and berries. They feed on plant sap and cause yellowing and wilting of infested portions; in severe cases of infestation the affected portions of vines dry up. The pest infestation is more severe during the post monsoon and summer periods. Clip off and destroy severely infested branches. Spray monocrotophos or dimethoate (0.1% each on affected vines); repeat spraying after 21 days to control the infestation completely. Initiate control measures during early stages of pest infestation. In nurseries spraying neem oil 0.3% or neemgold 0.3% or fish oil rosin 3% is also effective in controlling the pest infestation. 5. Minor pests: Leaf feeding caterpillars, especially Synegia sp., damage leaves and spikes of younger vines and can be controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05%. Mealybugs, gall midges and aphids infest tender shoots especially in nurseries. Spraying of monocrotophos (0.05%) may be undertaken if infestations are severe. Mealybug infestation on roots can be controlled by drenching with chlorphyriphos 0.075% and undertaking control measures against Phytophthora and nematode infections. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technolgy In Kerala, black pepper flowers during May-June. The crop is ready for harvest in 6-8 months from flowering. The harvest season extends from November to January in the plains and January to March in the hills. During harvesting the whole spike is hand picked when one or two berries in the spike turn bright orange. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days. The berries can be separated manually or mechanically using threshers. Threshers with capacities varying between 0.5 to 1.5 tonnes/ hour are available. This enhances speedy and hygienic separation of black pepper berries. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute before drying in the sun which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time. The recommended drying surfaces are bamboo mat coated with fenugreek paste, cement floor and high density black polythene which gives better appearance and cleanliness to the dried product. Mechanical driers such as copra drier, convection drier and cascade type driers can also be employed for drying. The optimum temperature to be maintained in mechanical driers should be around 60ºC. The yield of vine varies with age, climate, management, soil, variety. In general, 1 to 2 kg dry pepper vine is obtained in plains. However, yield may go up even upto 5 to 10kg dry pepper per vine. The white pepper of commerce is prepared either from freshly harvested berries or dry pepper using special techniques such as retting, steaming and decortication. The recovery of white pepper from ripe pepper berries is about 25%. Water steeping is the most popular technique for
preparing white pepper in which ripe pepper berries are soaked in water for 8-10 days and the outer skin is removed, washed and sun dried. The berries of Panniyur-1 are ideal to prepare white pepper. The following describes the intended use of pepper berries and the maturity level at which berries should be harvested for ensuring best results (Table 2.9). Table 2.9: Harvest stage for different end use Products
Maturity at harvest
Pepper in brine/ Canned pepper
Green and tender (4-5 months)
White pepper
Fully matured (ripened)
Black pepper
Fully mature and near ripe
Dehydrated Green pepper
10-15 days before full maturity
Oil and Oleoresin
15-20 days before maturity
Pepper powder
Fully matured with maximum starch
Products and grades 1. Green pepper products • Canned green pepper in brine • Bottled green pepper in brine • Bulk packed green pepper in brine • Cured green pepper (without any covering brine) • Frozen green pepper • Freeze – dried green pepper • Sun-dried or dehydrated green pepper • Green pepper pickles (in oil, vinegar of brine) • Green pepper mixed pickles in oil or brine • Green pepper falvoured products • White pepper (whole) • White pepper powder 2. Black pepper based products • Black pepper powder • Pepper oleoresin • Pepper oil 3. Other pepper products • Steri-spice • Mild spice • Green pepper oil-steam distilled • CO2 extracted pepper oil • Blanched sulphited bright green dehydrated pepper with green colour stabilized 4. Grades for black pepper used in trade • Malabar Garbled (MG) (Includes M.G. Grades 1 and 2) Black pepper • Malabar Ungarbled (MUG Grades 1 and 2) black ppper • Tellicherry Garbled Black Pepper Special Extra Bold (TGSEB)
• • • • • •
Tellichery Garbled Black Pepper Extra Bold (TGEB) Tellichery Garbled (TG) Pinheads (PH Grade Special and Grade 1) Garbled Light Pepper (GL Special and GL Grades 1 and 2) Ungarbled Light Pepper (UGL Special and GL Grades 1 and 2) Black Pepper (Non Specified)
Pepper drying, Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
AGMARK grade of black pepper is given in appendix. (Source: Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-9-2007. Cropping system Black pepper is a vine; it requires support for its growth and yield. In India, it is grown on live supports. In stead of seperate live supports, existing trees in the homestaed or garden like coconut, areca nut, jack, mango etc., can be made use. Black pepper is an ideal comopnent in agroforestry system of tropical humid climate. It is an intergarl part of multistorey cropping systems. It is also an important component in high density multi-species cropping system. In traditional systems it is planted primiscously but in organised cultivation it is planted definite spacing of 2.5 to 3.0m on either direction. In Kerala, (where more than 80 % pepper is cultivated) it is mainly grown as a part of multispecies cropping. Even, under monocropping situation also inter spces are utilized to grow vegetable, fodder or cover crops. It is an important component in cardamom, coffee and tea production systems as supplementery crop, where it is grown on shade trees particularly on silver oak, it is allowed to grow even up to a height of 8 to 10m, and yield levels are very high (some time > 150 kg green pepper per support).
CARDAMOM Introduction Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (Linn.) Maton) is the dried fruit of a perennial herb. The fruits are picked when they are almost, but not quite ripe. The seeds have pleasant aroma and characteristic warm but slightly pungent taste. The spice is used for flavouring curries, cakes and bread and for other culinary purposes.Green cardamom, Malabar cardomom are synomyms and are true cardamom of commerce. It is popularly known as the 'Queen of Spices'. It is one of the most valued spices of the world. India, Sri Lanka, Guatemala and Thailand are the major producers of cardamom in the world. Cardamom is also produced in a smaller scale in Laos, Vietnam, Costa Rica, EI Salvador, and Tanzania. Till recently, India had the monoply of cardamom meeting 90-95% of the total world take-off of cardamom, but of late, there is competition from Guatemala and other countries.
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Cardamoms occur wild in the evergreen monsoon forests of the Western Ghats in southern India and Sri Lanka. Up to 1800 AD the world's supply came from these forests, with the only cultivation being the partial clearing of the forest around the wild plants. The cultivation of cardamom in India was taken up actively by the erstwhile Travancore Government in 1823 AD. The geographical distribution of the crop in India extends northwards from Tirunelveli (Tamil Nadu) for over 1,000 kms to Sirsi (Karnataka) through the high ranges of Kerala. Considering the width, it is a narrow belt of land spread over the Western Ghats at an elevation of 600 m and above. During the first century AD, Rome was importing substantial quantities of cardamom from India. It was one of the most popular oriental spices in the Roman cuisine. Cardamom was listed among the Indian spices liable to duty in Alexandria in AD 176. Composition The composition of cardamom varies considerably with variety, region and stage of maturity. The composition of Indian cardamom (seeds) is as follows (Table 3.1)
Table 3.1: Compostion of small cardamom seeds moisture 7-10% (average 8.3) volatile oil 5.5-10.5% (average 8.3) total ash 3.8-6.9% (average 5.0) alkalinity of ash 0.4-2.4% (average 1.1) water-soluble ash 1.3-5.0% (average 2.7) acid-insoluble ash 0.4-1.9% (average 1.1) non-volatile ether extract 2.0-4.5% (average 2.9) crude fibre 6.7-12.8% (average 9.2) crude protein 7.0-14.0% (average 10.3) starch (by acid hydrolysis) 39.0-49.9% (average 45.4)
calcium 0.3% phosphorus 0.21 % sodium 0.01 % potassium 1.2% iron 0.012% vitamins (mg/l00 g) : B1 (thiamine) 0.18 B2 (riboflavin) 0.23 niacin 2.3 C (ascorbic acid) 12.0 A 175 I.U. per 100 g of seeds.
Analysis of cardamom capsules shows the following constituents (Table 3.2) Table 3.2: Compostion of cardamom capsule moisture 20% protein 10.2% ether extract 2.2% volatile oil 7.4% mineral matter (total ash) 5.4%
crude fibre 20.1 % carbohydrates 42.1 % calcium 0.13% phosphorus 0.16% iron 5 mg/l 00 g.
Uses True cardamom is used directly as flavouring agent in three forms - whole, decorticated seeds and ground. The spice is also processed on an industrial scale to prepare distilled essential oil and the solvent - extracted oleoresin. True cardamom is marketed predominantly in whole form at international market while trade of decortcated seeds is much smaller and that in the ground form, which is negligible. Grinding is carried out in consuming centres and the manufacture of the essential oil and the oleoresin are undertaken mainly in the western importing countries. The major use of true cardamoms on a world-wide basis is for domestic culinary purposes either in whole or ground form. In Asia, the spice plays an important role in a variety of spiced rice, vegetable and meat dishes. Indian cardamom adds lingering sparkle to every kind of cooking or dishes, both traditional and modern. International trade in true cardamoms depends, however, on the demand created by specialized applications which have evolved in two distinct markets; namely the Arab countries of the Middle East and Scandinavia. In the former, the spice is traditionally used for flavouring coffee, and in the latter, for flavouring a range of baked goods, including cakes, buns, pastries and bread. In other European countries and in North America, the spice is used mainly in ground form by food industries as an ingredient in curry powder, sausage products, soups, canned fish and to a small extent in flavouring of tobacco. Cardamom cola and instant gahwa, carbonated gahwa, biscuits, Danish pastries, toffees, chewing gum, encapsulated cardamom oil and various breakfast foods are other new products developed using cardamom as an ingredient. The Arabs use it in coffee, the Americans in baked foods, the Russians in pastries, cakes and confectionary; the Japanese in curry, ham and sausage; the Germans in curry powders, sausages and processed meats; the Scandinavians, in coffee and cakes and in countless other dishes. Indian cardamom is low in fat and high in protein, iron, vitamins B and C.
The essential oil finds its main application in flavouring of processed foods, but it is used also in certain liquid products, such as, cordials, bitters, liqueurs, and occasionally in perfumery. Tinctures of cardamom are also made, used chiefly in medicines for windiness or stomachache. Powdered cardamom seeds mixed with ground ginger, cloves and caraway are helpful in combating digestive ailments. In medicine, it is used as a powerful aromatic stimulant, carminative, stomachic and diuertic. It also cheks nausea and vomiting and is reported to be a cardiac stimulant also. A good nasal application is prepared by using extracts of cardamom, neem and myrobalan along with animal fat and camphor. Cardamom seeds are chewed to prevent bad smell in mouth, indigestion, nausea and vomiting due to morning sickness, excessive watering in mouth (pyrosis), etc. Gargling with the infusion of cardamom and cinnamon cures pharyngitis, sore throat, hoarseness during infective stage of flu. Daily gargle with this decoction protects one from flu. Powdered seeds of cardamom boiled with tea-water impart a very pleasant aroma to tea, and the same can be used as a medicine for scanty urination, diarrhoea, dysentery, palpitation of heart, exhaustion due to over-work, depression, etc. Eating a cardamom once daily with a tablespoon of honey improves eye-sight, strengthens nervous system and keeps one healthy. It is also believed by some people that excessive use of cardamom causes impotency. Area and production India is the world's largest producer of cardamom. The major cardamom producing countries are Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Thailand and Kampuchea. India accounts for 90% of the total world acreage. Area, production and export from India is given below. Cardamom cultivation in India is concentrated mainly in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Table 3.3). Table 3.3:State-wise area and production of cardamom in India (area in ha, production in MT) States Kerala Karnataka TamilNadu Total
1970-71 Area Prodn 55190 2130 28220 1000 8070 235 91480 3170
1980 - 81 Area Prodn 56380 3100 28220 1000 9350 300 93950 4400
1990 - 91 Area Prodn 43826 3450 31605 800 6123 500 81554 4750
2000 - 01 Area 41288 25947 5085 72320
Prodn 7580 2100 800 10480
2004 - 05 Area 41378 27094 5253 73725
Prodn 8616 1879 920 11415
Source: http:// www.indianspices.com Botany Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) belongs to family Zingiberaecae, exhibits an array of variations and naming of types after the place of cultivation has led to confusion regarding identity of varieties. Based on the size of fruits, two types are recognized. They are Elettaria cardamomum var. major Thw. and E. cardamomum var. minor WaIf. This classification is not widely accepted due to lack of distinct demarcation on the size and shape of fruits. Cardamom is a herbaceous perennial. A fully grown plant is about 2-4 m in height. The real stem of the plant is the underground rhizome. The aerial pseudostem is made up of leaf sheaths. The leaves are 35 cm long and 7-10 cm wide, lanceolate, with a acuminate tip, dark green, either glabrous or pubescent, soft velvety undersurface. Inflorescence or the long panicles with racemose clusters arise from the underground rhizome, but come up above the soil; clumps 3-4 m in height. Flowers bisexual, irregular, small, pale white, fragrant, alternate, short stalked, solitary at each point of the racemes; flowers open in succession from the base to the top and
develop into fruits' calyx is cylindrical and persistent, corolla tube shortly exerted. Fruit is tricolour, globose and rounded; seeds 15-20 per capsule, black when fully ripe in capsule and embedded or covered with their white mucilagenous coat. Climate and Soil Cardamom thrives at elevations from 600 to 1,500 m but the most productive range of elevation is 1,000 to 1,500 m. Cardamom requires an evenly distributed annual rainfall of not less than 150 cm with warm humid atmosphere. Some of the best cardamom areas receive a rainfall of not less than 500 to 625 cm per year. But in areas with low rainfall, by a careful selection of site like the moist valleys, in jungles or ravines or natural canopy of evergreen forests, where moisture is guaranteed by ground water supplies, cardamom cultivation can be ·made a success. Cardamom is invariably grown in perpetual shade, where light is filtered through a continuous overhead canopy of the evergreen jungle. Humus-rich soils holding a good growth of evergreen forest are ideal for this crop, provided there is a well-developed mulch, humus accumulation and adequate moisture. Steep situations and exposed areas cannot maintain good cardamoms. Cardamom abhors disturbance of soil. Propagation Cardamom is propagated both vegetatively as well as through seed. Being a cross pollinated crop, clones are ideal for generating true-to-type planting materials from high-yielding clumps. However, due to lack of adequate clonal planting materials, farmers still prefer seedlings. This is mainly due to low multiplication rate of existing vegetative propagation methods. Vegetative propagation 1 Rhizomes: Planting materials of rhizomes are collected by uprooting the 2-or-21/2-year-old clumps. These materials are noted for their high yield. The advantages of this method are greater uniformity and earlier bearing than seedlings. But one of the very serious disadvantages is that the cardamom mosaic virus disease is spread through rhizomes. Plantations raised by vegetative means are, therefore, short lived. Getting adequate planting materials pose another difficulty. If rhizomes are used for propagation continuously, the plants tend to lose their vigour after a few generations. Due to these limitations planters use seedlings. 2. Micropropagation: Studies on tissue culture of cardamom resulted in standardization of protocol for its clonal multiplication from vegetative buds. An average of six axillary shoots could be produced within 30 days of culture. High rate of multiplication coupled with additional advantage of obtaining uniform and disease-free planting material makes micropropagation a preferred method over conventional methods. Many commercial laboratories are at present using micro propagation techniques for large-scale production of cardamom clonal planting materials. However, the cost of these plants are high and not within the reach of small and marginal cardamom growers who constitute nearly 80% of the cardamom farming community. 3. Field evaluation of tissue cultured plants: Field experiments conducted at Indian Institute of Spices Research, Cardamom Research Centre, Appangala, to estimate genetic stability of micropropagated plants revealed that tissue-cultured plantlets derived from vegetative buds are on par with that of suckers in important yield attributing characters and in yield performance.
4. Inflorescence culture: Immature inflorescence forms an excellent source for clonal multiplication of cardamom through tissue culture especially when other sources are prone to high rate of contamination. When inflorescence is used as explants floral buds are converted into vegetative buds and subsequently into plantlets. 5. Regeneration of plantlets from callus: Protocols for organogenesis and plant regeneration from rhizome and vegetative bud derived callus culture were standardized. This protocol with excellent regeneration system (with about 20-50 plantlets per culture) is used at present for large-scale production of somaclones and selection of useful genotypes from them. Such techniques with high rate of as plant regenerations are essential for future genetic manipulation experiments to evolve disease resistant types. Seed propagation Propagation by seeds prevents spread of Katte disease. This is the most common and widely prevalent method among planters. A large number of seedlings can be raised. The main disadvantage is that the progeny is highly variable with no uniformity in yields. The seeds also do not remain viable for a long time. 1. Selection of seeds: Seeds from well-ripened fruits from robust, disease-free, high-yielding plants and producing compact panicles should be selected and dried. A few days before sowing, capsules should be immersed in water and pressed gently to eject the seeds. The seeds should be washed in cold water for 4 to 6 hours to remove mucilagenous coverings. In the absence of such treatment, they are likely to be attacked by ants which invade the nurseries and remove them all. After washing, the seeds should be mixed with ash and dried under shade for 2 to 3 days. To obtain uniform and good germination, seeds should be sown immediately after harvest. If sowing is delayed, the viability is lost by 60% in 1 1/2 months and 90% in 4 months. Sowing of seeds, soon after collection, was more advantageous than sowing after a lapse of 15 days and more. Stirring the seeds with coarse sand and scratching the seedcoat gave quicker and higher percentage of germination than untreated seeds. But the pretreatment of seeds with cow dung solution, hot water, cold water and Hortomone 'A' (NAA) did not improve germination significantly. Seeds start germinating within a few weeks and complete within six weeks. 2. Seed rate and season: To plant one ha. 250 g of seeds will be sufficient. Sowing season varies with regions but the ideal sowing season is during the dry months. In Tamil Nadu and Kerala, it is from November-January and in Karnataka September-October. 3. Raising of seedlings: Nurseries are generally selected near water source. The soil should be loamy and rich in humus. The selected site should be cleared off all the vegetation like stumps, roots, etc., and soil worked to a depth of 30-45 cm to a fine tilth.
Rapid multiplication , Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Raised beds, 1 m x 6 m are prepared. Seeds are sown thinly in the beds followed by a good stirring so as to cover the seeds. Beds are gently pressed and then covered with straw, dry leaves or other materials. Mulching of seed beds with dry leaves is found to give a high percentage of germination. A study conducted on the shading of nursery beds revealed that out of three treatments, viz., (a) natural shade of forest trees, (b) non-rain proof pandal and (c) rain proof pandal, shade provided by pandals gave better protection to the seedlings than the natural shade. Another study on the effect of sun and light on germination indicated that the seedbeds at the two ends of a long pandal registered better germination, advantageous to have short beds with short pandal than long row of beds with a single long pandal. 4. Transplanting: Seedlings of 25-30 cm height, when they are 8-to 9-month-old, are forked out and transplanted 15-20 cm apart in raised nursery beds. This first transplanting is done just before onset of monsoon. 5. Second transplanting: In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, seedlings are transplanted to secondary beds. They are planted at the rate of 1: 10, i.e., for every primary nursery bed of seedlings planted in, ten secondary beds, at 20 cm apart in 3 to 4 rows are required. Farmyard manure, wood ash or humus with rich forest soil are applied before planting. Mulching is also done. To provide shade a 'pandal' is erected. Regular watering is necessary. The seedlings remain for a year in the secondary nursery. Afterwards they are planted in the main field. In the Karnataka region, the common practice is to plant ten-month-old seedlings directly in the field. Cultivation 1.Varieties: Considering the nature of panicles, three cultivars of cardamom, such as, Malabar, Vazhukka and Mysore are recognized. Cv. Malabar is characterized by prostrate panicle while cv. Mysore possesses erect panicle. The third type, i.e., cv . Vazhukka, presumed to be a natural hybrid, between these two has semierrect panicle. The differences between these cultivars are given below (Table 3.4). Table 3.4: Differences in Growing Conditions and Morphological Characters among Cardamom Cultivars Parameters
cv. Malabar
cv. Mysore
cv. Vazhukka
Adaptability
Higher elevation (900-1,200 m MSL)
Higher elevation (900-1,200 m MSL)
Plant stature
Lower elevation (600-1,000 m above MSL) Withstand long dry spell (4-6 months) Dwarf (2-3 m)
Prefer welldistributed rain Tall (3-5 m)
Prefer welldistributed rain Tall (3-5 m)
Leaf
Short petiole
Long petiole
Long petiole
Panicle
Prostrate
Erect
Semi-erect
Bearing nature
Early short span of flowering Pale/golden yellow
Late, long flowering span Green
Late, long flowering span Green
Tolerance to drought
Capsule colour at maturity
Improved varities from Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut is given below.
IISR Avinash
IISR Kodagu Suvasini Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Cardamom is generally a cross-pollinated crop and propagated through seedlings and vegetative means. Systematic evaluation of germplasm resulted in the identification of a few elite clones having high yield potential and good quality capsules and details given below (Table 3.5). 2. Land preparation and planting: For planting cardamom, land is prepared by removing undergrowth and then thining out forest trees to give requisite shade. Thinning of overgrowth will be necessary initially. The purpose of thinning the forest trees is to develop a uniform overhead canopy, essential for growth and production of cardamoms. For starting a new plantation, the undergrowth of bushes has to be cleared. When open areas like marshy valleys and grasslands are selected for starting new plantation, shade trees need to be raised before planting cardamom seedlings. The quick-growing shade trees, such as, dadap (Erythrina subumbrans) is generally used for this purpose. Other trees like Albizia sp., Jack, Eucalyptus sp., red cedar and wild nutmeg can be used as shade trees. Pits may be dug at the spacing recommended for each cultivar and depending on the fertility of the soil. The size of pit should be 60 cm x 60 cm x 45 cm.· Spacing: Mysore and Vazhukka - 2 m x 2 m or 3 m x 3 m Malabar
- 1.5 m x 1.5 m or 2 m x 2 m
The pits are filled with rich top soil at least 2 months in advance of planting. Application of welldecomposed farmyard manure or compost or leaf-mould and 100 g of rock phosphate with the top soil in the pit helps in establishment and quick growth of plants. If the selected site is a hill slope, terraces may be formed before digging pits.
Table 3.5. Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability Sl. No.
Variety
Source
1.
PV-1
KAU, Pampadumpara
260
Essential oil (%) 6.8
2.
PV-2
KAU, Pampadumpara
982
10.4
-
-
Ovoid to ellipsoid
Cardamom hill reserves of Idukki, Kerala.
3.
Mudigere 1
UAS Bangalore
275
8.0
36
42
Oval
Malnad region of Karnataka
UAS Bangalore
476
8.0
45
38
Round
Traditional cardamom growing Tracts of hill zones of Karnataka
4.
Mudigere 2
Average yield (kg/ha)
1,8 Terpenyl Capsule cineole acetate shape (%) (%) 33 46 Long
Areas recommended for cultivation All cardamom tracts of Kerala & Karnataka
5.
ICRI-1
ICRI, Myladumpara
325
8.3
29
38
Round
South Idukki zone of Kerala
6.
ICRI-2
ICRI, Myladumpara
375
9.0
29
36
Oblong
Vandanmettu & Nelliampathi zones of kerala
7.
ICRI-3
ICRI, Myladumpara
439
6.6
54
24
Oblong
Hill zones of Karnataka
8.
ICRI-4
ICRI, Thadiyankudisai
455
6.4
--
--
Globose
Lower Pulneys in Tamil Nadu
3. Weed control and mulching: Cardamom being surface feeders, frequent weeding is necessary during the first year of planting. However, severe weeding around the clumps should be avoided as it would be injurious to roots. Weeds removed are spread around the clumps as mulch. In the established plantations, one to three weedings are done per year. First weeding is done in May-June after the last round of harvest, the second in August-September at the commencement of harvest and third in December-January in the beginning of the dry period. Towards the end of monsoon rains, a light raking is done around the plant to a radius of 75 cm to conserve moisture for the dry period ahead. Sufficient mulches are then applied at the base of the plant during the month of December to reduce the ill effects of drought during the summer months, minimize weed growth and to conserve soil moisture. Trashing (removal of old and dried shoots, leaves and dried panicles) should be taken up once in a year during June-July, with the commencement of monsoon. This will help to prevent the spread of diseases and expose the panicles to easy visit by honeybees. Application of Paraquat at 0.4 kg a.i./ha or Glyphosate at 0.8 kg a.i./ha is more effective in controlling weed growth and found to be cost effective compared to manual weeding. 4. Manuring and fertilization: In the earlier days, cardamom was found to grow in the forest rich fertile soils of natural ecosystem and there was no external supplement of manures or fertilizers. But continous cultivation deprived the soil fertility and planters started using organic manures, viz., farmyard manure and compost, Neem cake and castor cake were also used. Subsequently fertilizers schedule also were also developed. A fertilizer dose of 75 : 75: 150 kg NPK/ha is recommended for a normal crop of 100 kg dry capsules per hectre. If the yield is more, the fertilizer doses are to be increased proportionately. Additional fertilizer doses of 0.65 kg N, 0.65 kg P and 0.3 kg K per clump are to be applied for every increase in yield of 2.5 kg of capsules over the normal yield. When high-density planting (5,000 plants/ha) is adopted, the fertilizer dose should be 120 : 120 : 240 kg NPK/ha. Before application of fertilizer panicles should be coiled encircling the plant base. Fertilizer may be applied around the plant in a circular fashion and incorporated in the soil by working with hand fork. Mulching may be followed immediately after incorporating the fertilizer. Panicles are then released and spread on the mulch to facilitate honeybee movement for effective pollination. Split application of fertilizer in May and later in September are found the most optimum. Plant protection Insect pests Among the 50 species of insect pests recorded on cardamom, the major pests are thrips, shoot/capsule/panicle borer, hairy caterpillar, white fly and root grub, rhizome weevil, shoot fly and shoot borer. 1. Cardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) : Thrips infest panicles, flower buds and immature capsules. The feeding activity of the pest results in shedding of flowers and
immature capsules. In unprotected areas, the thrips cause up to 90% damage on capsules. Summer months are the peak points of occurrence. Control measures include pruning dry leaf sheath during February/March to reduce the population and spraying Quinalphos (0.025%) or Monocrotophos (0.025%) from February to May once in 30 days and August to November once 40-45 days. 2. Cardamom shoot/capsule/panicle borer (Conogethes punctiferalis): It is a serious pest on tillers, panicles and capsules. The initial stage of larva bores into panicles and immature capsules and at later stages into pseudostems, feeding on the internal contents. The pest incidence is noticed during December-March, May-June and SeptemberOctober but varies with agroclimatic conditions. Spraying of Monocrotophos (0.075%) or Fenthion (0.075%) would check the pests effectively
. Thrips infestation, Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
3. Root grub (Basilepta fulvicorne) : The grubs (larvae) feed on roots of cardamom leading to reduction in the uptake of nutrients, resulting to foliar yellowing. In the nursery, the grubs feed on rhizomes of seedlings after damaging the roots. The grubs occur in the soil from May-July and October-February. Mechanical control of the beetles during March-April and August-September and application of Chlorpyrifos 20EC (0.04%) at the base (3-8 litre/clump or Phorate 10 g @ 20-40 g/clump are recommended. 4. Rhizome weevil (Prodioctes haematicus) : This is a serious pest in the secondary nursery, especially where seedlings are raised continuously year after year. The grubs feed on the rhizome and basal portion of the stem, which results in the drying of the leaves and breaking up of the stem at the base. The pest can be controlled drenching the nursery beds with Aldrin (0.10%). 5. Shoot fly (Formosina flavipes) : The pest is observed in the nursery during January to May. Dead heart or decay of the central spindle is the external symptom. Spraying of Quinalphos (0.025%) or applying Phorate granules (l g/a.i/sq m) is recommended. 6. Shoot borer (Dichocrosis punctiferalis): The caterpillar bores into the stem and feeds of the internal contents. This results in the decay of the central spindle and production of 'dead heart'. Faecal matter of the caterpillar can be seen coming out through the holes. Spraying with Quinalphos (0.025%), Carbaryl (0.1 %), Fenthion or Dimethoate (0.05%) or Endosulfan/Phenthaoate (0.1 %) is recommended.
Nematode pests Nematodes are serious pests in nurseries. Roots of cardamom seedlings are infected mainly by root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). Lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus sp.) are also seen in cardamom roots and soil. The main symptoms of nematode infestations are galls on the root tips, profuse tillering, stunted and weak tillers, yellowing and drying of leaves and production of narrow, brittle and abnormal leaves, delay in flowering, immature fruit-drop and subsequent reduction in yield and plantations. Treatments of soil and plant as detailed below are effective control measures in nurseries and plantations. Fumigation of primary and secondary nursery beds with methyl bromide (500 g/ 10 sq m) is an effective method to control nematodes in the nursery. The treated area has to be kept covered with polythene sheets for 2-3 days. Pruning of infested root tips before planting is also recommended. Treat the plants in the nursery with Carbofuran 3 g @ 5 kg a.i./ha after 10 days of germination and is repeated after 3 months. In secondary nurseries, the plants may be treated along the rows with Carbofuran @ 10 kg a.i./ha after transplanting and every three months there after. Application of nematicides, viz., Aldicarb/Carbofuran/Phorate @ 5 g a.i./plant twice a year is effective in checking the nematode is suggested for controlling nematodes in plantations. Use of Vesicular Arbiscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) checks the nematode considerably. Diseases Although 22 diseases are reported, three viral diseases, viz., Katte, Nilgiri necrosis and Kokke Kandu (vein clearing) and four fungal disease, viz., Azhukalt clump rot, damping off, leaf blotch are of greater importance. 1. 'Katte' or mosaic disease: The disease is caused by cardamom mosaic virus, first ever disease noticed in cardamom. The infectious viral particles are present in all parts of the diseased plants except in mature seeds. Diseased plants become unproductive and yield reduction up to 70% is recorded. Aphids, the insect vectors transmit the virus. The disease incidence was high during periods of more vector activity. The measures suggested for the management of the disease are: (i) Use of only healthy seedlings and not rhizomes, (ii) uprooting and destruction of diseased plants, (iii) planting of self-sown seedlings may be avoided, (iv) replanting of severely affected plantations be taken up in a phased manner, and (v) raising of nurseries in the vicinity of diseased gardens may be avoided. 2. Nilgiri necrosis disease: Plants exhibit chlorotic streaks, followed by necrosis. This leads to shredding and drying of leaves with extreme stunting of tillers. Disease is transmitted through planting of infected rhizomes.
Kattee
Kokke Kandu Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
3. 'Kokke Kandu' disease: The name is based on the hook shaped young leaves of the affected clumps (Kokke Kandu in Kannada language). Formation of hook-like structures of the unrolled young leaves is the typical symptom of the disease. Mild mottling together with leaf shredding, resetting and stunting of tillers are the other symptoms. Diseased plants show quick decline in productivity. The transmission of the disease is through infected suckers as well as through aphids. 4. 'Azhukal' or Capsule rot: The disease is caused by Phytopthora nicotianae var. nicotianae and P. meadil. The fungus infects panicles and capsules causing rotting symptoms (Azhukal in Tamil and Malayalam).
Rhizome rot, Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
The fungus also infects leaves and tillers and in severe cases, the rhizomes. The disease appears with the onset of monsoon. Spraying of Bordeaux mixture (1 %) is effective against the disease. Biological control with Trichoderma spp. are also effected. 5. Damping off: It is caused by Pythinm vexans and Rhizoctonia solani. Infestation is
observed at the collas regions. Good drainage and spraying and drenching the nursery with 1% Boradeaux mixture are recommended. 6. Nursery leaf spot (Phyllosticta elettariae) : Pale specks appear on the leaf lamina, which dries up and becomes papery white. Spraying with Captafol (0.2%) at fornightly intervals is effective in controlling the disease. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technolgy Harvesting : Cardamom commences to yield from the third year onwards, but good yields are expected from the fifth year. The peak harvesting period is October-November but it is done at intervals of 30-40 days and completed in 5-6 months. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, harvesting is from September to February and in Karnataka region it is from August to December. While harvesting, each panicle is searched carefully for the fruits in the correct stage of ripeness for picking. Considerable skill and experience are required for efficient picking. At the time of harvest, capsules are at different stages of maturity and distinguished as bud stage, tender stage (gathered for making pickles), brown seed stage (shrink on drying giving a shrivelled appearance); dark seed stage (right stage for curing) and the capsules are picked with the stalk end intact and the fully ripe stage picked for seed purpose only. If they are left to ripen further, the fruits split during drying. If picked underripe, the fruits will shrink while drying resulting in a shrivelled appearance with their small seeds. The fruits should be harvested with peduncles as and when they are ready. They should not be stripped. Yield : At first year 25 to 50 kg/ha, second year 50 to 70 kg/ha and third year it is 100 kg/ha. Yield of dry cardamoms from estates of good bearing age is reported to be about 120 kg/ha. Normally a yield of 150 to 200 kg of dry cardamom per ha is expected and anything below is considered poor. Large well-grown clumps yield more than one kilogram. After fifteen years, the yield of cardamom decreases although there are some plantations giving record yields even after 25 years. Replanting is essential after 15 years. Curing of Cardamoms Capsules of cardamom when picked are almost juicy. Therefore, curing is necessary before they are stored and marketed. Sometimes sulphuring is done to remove moisture and it bleaches then also. Due to sulphuring, the natural colour of the cardamom is lost and this fetch low price. Therefore, this method of curing is not advised. 1. Sun drying: Sun drying of cardamoms is a common practice where the environmental conditions are favourable. It takes 3-4 days and the capsules get dried and bleached. Immediately after drying they should be stored as otherwise they reabsorbs moisture. The general complaint is that the sun dried capsules cannot be stored successfully due to the fact that still wet. In due course, they are exposed to attack by diseases or insects. Due to lack of regulation of heat in the case of sun drying and lack of green colouration of pods, they fetch low prices in the market. 2. Artificial curing : It is a locally devised, heating mud platform through wood fire. In
this device, there is a hollow platform about 60 cm wide and 180-240 cm long running along are side of a room and the hollow space underneath running from one side of the wall to the other opening at both the outside ends. On one side, wood fire is lighted and the hot flames and smoke pass through the hollow platform. The green cardamoms are spread over the smoothly plastered platform and dried. This is a crude method of curing. 3. Flue curing: In this method, the desired temperature is obtained by burning wood fuel in a hearth or fire chamber. The hot air is passed through chimneys. The room is fitted with rafts and wire meshes which are heated by the above pipes. The green cardamoms are spread on the rafts or racks. They are arranged in tiers at a distance of 30 cm. Before spreading the capsules they are treated with 2% washing soda solution for ten minutes. Colour of the dried cardamom capsules plays an important role in determining the market value. Since the green colour of the capsules is the criterion of the freshness, the Middle East countries attach much importance to the green colour of the cardamom. To preserve the green colour, the capsules are first subjected to the alkali treatment and then dried by artificial heating. The harvested fresh green cardamom capsules have to be soaked in 2% sodium carbonate solution for 10 minutes. For every 100 kg of fresh cardamom, 2 kg of sodium carbonate are dissolved in 100 litres of water. The cardamom capsules are tied in a piece of cloth or in wire basket and dipped in the solution for 10 minutes. After draining, they are spread for drying. The temperature is kept at 55°C for three hours, after closing the ventillators. Then the room is cooled by opening the ventilators to facilitate the vapour to escape. Again the temperature is raised to 46°C and maintained for 20 hours. Subsequently the temperature of· the room is further raised to 54°C and maintained for 3 hours. At the end of curing, ·pods are taken out of the chamber, cleaned by rubbing for removal of the adhering flower bracts and stalks. The natural colour of the cardamom is retained. White or bleached cardamom Cardamom capsules having ununiform colour will fetch poor value in the markets and hence these are processed to bleach them to attain a uniform colour. Bleaching has been developed into a highly scientific and paying proposition in Sweden. In India, bleaching is done at Haveri, Saklespur and Mudigere in Karnataka state. Bleaching of cardamom means the loss of green colour. The bleached cardamom is sold as whole cardamom in bottles in the USA and is preferred by the housewife because it gives a clean white appearance. It loses its flavour and in general is not as good as unbleached cardamoms in chemical characteristics. Products and grade Apart from dry capsule, bleached cardamom, decorticated seeds and seed powder, cardamom volatile oil, cardamom oleoresin are some of the end products. Grades of cardamom are – Alleppey green cardamom (AG Extra Bold (AGEB), AG Bold (AGB), AG Superior (AGS), AG Shipment 1(AGS 1), AG Shipment 2(AGS 2), AG Light (AGL))
Coorg Green Cardamom (CG Extra Bold (CGEB), CG Bold (CGB), CG Superior (CG 1), CG Motta Green (CG 2) CG Shipment (CG 3), CG light ( CG 4) Bleached and half bleached cardamom – BL 1 Leached White Cardamom (BW 1 A Clipped), BW 2 (Unclipped) Mixed cardamom ( M Extra Bold (MEB), M Bold (MB), M Superior (MS), M Shippment 1 (MS 1), M Shippment 2 (MS 2), M Light (ML) Cardamom Seed – (CS 1– Prime, CS 2- Shipment, CS 3- Brokens)
The AGMARK Grade of cardamom is given in appendix. (Source: Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007.
Cardamom
Cropping system Like black pepper, cardamom also originated in tropical humid region of Western ghat of India, where it is an under storey crop. Its ecological niche is satisfied in these humid tropics. Ideal shade, humus and moisture are essential for successful production. Shade trees of cardamom used to grow pepper. Organge tree(Citrus reticulata) is a part of traditional production system. Coffee, tree spices like clove, nutmeg, cinnamon are also recommended as mixed crop for cardamom cropping system. In low lying areas cardaomom intercropped in arecanut crop.
GINGER Introudction Ginger (Zingiber officinale.Rose) (Family: Zingiberaceae) is a herbaceous perennial, the rhizomes of which are used as a spice. It is one of the important spice native of South and South Esat Asia. In world, it is cultivated in 3, 54, 683 ha. with a production of 1, 072, 838 tonnes during 2004. It is recommended as a medicine in Ayurveda of curing liver complaints, flatulence, anemia, rheumatism, piles and jaundice. India is a leading producer of ginger in the world. Ginger is cultivated in most of the states in India. Kerala and Meghalaya are major ginger growing states in the country. In 2005-06, India exported 7250 tonnes of ginger to the value of Rs. 40.755 crores. Ginger products exported to more than fifty countries mainly to USA, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Morocco.
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Composition The composition of ginger varies with type or variety, region, agroclimatic conditions, methods of curing, drying, packaging and storage. The composition of dry ginger is given in Table 4.1 Table 4.1: Composition of dry ginger moisture 10.85%
crude fibre 7.17%
volatile oil 1.8%
crude protein 12.4%
oleoresin (acetone extract) 6.5%
total ash 6.64%
water extract 19.6%
water soluble ash 5.48%
cold alcohol extract 6.0%
acid insoluble ash 0.14%.
starch 53%
Uses The aroma of ginger is pleasant and spicy and the flavour penetrating, pungent, slightly biting due to antiseptic or pungent compounds present in it. These proportion make it indispensable in the manufacture of a number of food products like ginger bread, confectionery, gingerale, curry powders, certain curried meats, table sauces, in pickling and in the manufacture of certain soft drinks like cordials, ginger cocktail, carbonated drinks, bitters, etc. Ginger is also used for the manufacture of ginger oil, oleoresin, essences, tinctures, etc. Ginger preserve and ginger candy prepared from green or fresh ginger are quite a favourite of many and in great demand. A number of alcoholic beverages are prepared from ginger in foreign countries, such as, ginger brandy, ginger wine, ginger beer and gingerales, etc. According to the Ayurvedic medical system, ginger is considered carminative, stimulant and given in dyspepsia and flatulent colic. It is also prescribed as an adjunct to many tonic and stimulating remedies. It also has aphrodisiac values, besides its use in tinctures and as a flavourant. Ginger oil is used primarily as a food flavourant in soft drinks like gingerale, bitters, cordials and liquors, as a spice in bakery products, confectionery, pickles, sauces, and preserves. The pharmaceutical uses are carminative, rubefacient, stimulant in alcoholic gastritis, dyspepsia, flatulent colic, etc. Veterinary uses of ginger are as stimulant and carminative, in indigestion of horses and cattle, in spasmodic colic of horses and to prevent the griping by purgatives. The oil of ginger finds a limited use in perfumery, where it imparts a unique individual note to compositions of the oriental type.
Area and production Ginger commercially cultivated in many tropical and subtropical countries like India, China, Taiwan, Philippines, Sierra – Leone, Jamica, Fiji, Mexico, Queensland (Australia), Brazil and Nigeria. India is the largest producer of dry ginger in the world. Indian dry ginger is known in the export market as Cochin ginger and Calicut ginger. In India, ginger is cultivated in an area of approximately 98, 100 hectares with an annual production of about 3, 92, 300 tonnes and the productivity is about 3999 kg ha-1during 2004-05(Table 4.2). Indian production is said to account for nearly half of the world’s production, out of which around 10 per cent of the produce is exported to more than 50 countries. The crop occupies largest area in Orissa (17.8%), followed by Karnatak, West Begngal, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Sikkim. In terms of production Meghalaya, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Orissa and Sikkim are the Major producing states, details given below. Productivity is highest in Gujarat (16.87 tons/ha), followed by Uttaranchal (12.6). Table 4.2: Area and production of ginger in India (2004-05) S No State
Area (‘000 ha)
Yield (kg ha-1)
Production (‘000 t)
1
Andhra Pradesh
1.9
10.9
5823
2.
Andaman Islands
0.5
1.8
3600
3
Arunachal Pradesh
32.9
7311
4
Bihar
0.4
0.5
1250
5
Chhattisgarh
1.3
1.4
1077
6
Gujarat
1.9
4.0
2105
7
Himachal Pradesh
2.0
14.7
7350
8
Karnataka
9.1
11.9
1308
9
Kerala
10.0
45.3
4535
10
Madhya Pradesh
5.4
6.2
1148
11
Maharashtra
1.0
1.3
1300
12
Manipur
1.0
2.4
2400
13
Meghalaya
9.2
47.1
5120
14
Mizoram
4.5
29.6
6578
15
Nagaland
10.2
63.5
6225
16
Orissa
15.7
30.4
1936
17
Rajasthan
0.1
0.2
2000
18
Sikkim
6.5
34.7
5338
19
Tamil Nadu
0.6
23.0
38333
20
Tripura
1.4
2.8
2000
21
Uttar Pradesh
1.0
2.8
2800
22
Uttaranchal
0.8
6.1
7625
23
West Bengal
9.1
18.8
2058
98.1
392.3
3999
All India
4.5
Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, New Delhi & State Depts.
Botany The name 'Zingiber' seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word 'Sringabera', which seems 'hornshaped' through the Arabic 'Zanzabil' and Greeak 'Zingiber'. It is called as 'Kiang' in China. The ginger is named as 'Adrak' in Hindi, 'Ada' in Orya and Bengali, 'Ale' in Marathi, Allamu in Telugu, 'Inji' in Tamil, 'Hasisunti' in Kannada, 'Adrakam' and 'Inchi' in Malayalam. Ginger Zingiber officinale Rosc belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a tropical plant and its origin is presumed to be in the southeast region of Asia, probably India or China. It was brought to Mediterranean region from India by traders during first century AD. During the thirteenth century AD, the Arabs took ginger to East Africa from India. Later it was spread to West Africa by Portuguese for commercial cultivation. The order Zingiberales includes Musaceae, Strelitziaceae, Lowiaceae, Marantaceae, Cannaceae and Zingiberaceae. The family Zingiberaceae consists of 47 genera and about 1,400 species. This family is generally classified into two subfamilies, i.e., Zingiberoideae (aromatic) and Costoideae (nonaromatic). There are three tribes under the subfamily Zingiberoideae, i.e., Globbeae, Hedychieae and Zingibereae. The genus Zingiber consists of 80-90 species. Among these Z. zerumbet and Z. cassumunar are medicinal species and Z. officinale is the cultivated one. Zingiber officinale is a herbaceous perennial having underground rhizome which is very much branched resembling in shape of an irregular hand with fingers having circular scars all along their length with small scales adhering to them. The inner-core of the rhizome is pale yellow with bluish tinge while the outer is light yellow. Adventitious roots and tubular roots (storage roots) arise from the nodes of these scales. The auxiliary buds shoot up as leafy stem known as pseudostem which dies out annually but the plant continues to live through its rhizome. Leaves are sheathing arranged alternatively, linear lanceolate, gradually acuminate and glabrous. Flowers are borne on a spike produced in a peduncle different from the aerial leafy stem arising directly from the rhizome. The spike is condensed, oblong and cylindric with numerous bracts those are imbricate, persistent and each carrying a single flower. Flowers are numerous, trimerous, bisexual, irregular, epigynous, yellow in colour with dark purplish spots; outerperianth is cylindric, shortly three lobed, inner-perianth tube is cylindric, lobes are lanceolate; stamen is only one perfect, two combined into a petaliferous leaf the labellum; the outer whorl is absent. The perfect stamen has a short filament; anther cells are contiguous, produced into a long beak; ovary is inferior, three carpelled, three celled; ovules are many on axile placentation; style is long, delicate, lying in a groove in the stamen; stigma is small and subglobose. Fruit, which is seldom produced, is an oblong capsule. Seeds are glabrous, fairly large, arillate and perispermous. Climate and soil Ginger grows well in warm and humid climate and is cultivated from sea level upto an altitude of 1500 m above mean sea level. Ginger can be grown both under rain fed and irrigated conditions. For successful cultivation of the crop, a moderate rainfall at sowing time till the rhizomes sprout, fairly heavy and well distributed showers during the
growing period and dry weather for about a month before harvesting are necessary. Ginger thrives best in well drained soils like sandy loam, clay loam, red loam or lateritic loam. A friable loam rich in humus is ideal. However, being an exhausting crop it is not desirable to grow ginger in the same soil year after year. Propagation Ginger is propagated by portions of rhizomes known as seed rhizomes. Carefully preserved seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of 2.5-5.0 cm length weighing 20-25 g each having one or two good buds. The seed rate varies from region to region and with the method of cultivation adopted. In Kerala, the seed rate varies from 1500 to 1800 kg/ha. At higher altitudes the seed rate may vary from 2000 to 2500 kg/ha. The seed rhizomes are treated with mancozeb 0.3% (3 g in 1 litre of water) for 30 minutes, shade dried for 3-4 hours and planted at a spacing of 20-25 cm along the rows and 20-25 cm between the rows. The seed rhizome bits are placed in shallow pits prepared with a hand hoe and covered with well rotten farm yard manure and a thin layer of soil and leveled. Cultivation Varieties: Several cultivars of ginger are grown in different ginger growing areas in India and they are generally named after the localities where they are grown. Some of the prominent indigenous cultivars are Maran, Kuruppampadi, Ernad, Wynad, Himachal and Nadia (Table 4.3). Exotic cultivars such as Rio-de-Janeiro have also become very popular among cultivators and improved varieties of ginger are available and their salient features are given below (Table 4.4). Table 4.3: Local popular cultivars/land races of ginger Sl No.
Cultivar
1 2 3 4 5 6
China Assam Maran Himachal Nadia Rio-deJanerio
Mean yield (fresh) (t/ha) 9.50 11.78 25.21 7.27 28.55 17.65
Maturity (days)
Dry recovery (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Oleoresin (%)
Essential oil (%)
200 210 200 200 200 190
21.0 18.0 20.0 22.1 22.6 20.0
3.4 5.8 6.1 3.8 3.9 5.6
7.0 7.9 10.0 5.3 5.4 10.5
1.9 2.2 1.9 0.5 1.4 2.3
Table 4.4: Improved varieties of ginger Sl No.
Variety
1 2 3 4 5 6
IISR- Varada Suprabha Suruchi Suravi Himagiri IISR Mahima IISR Rejatha
7
Mean yield (fresh) (t/ha) 22.66 16.60 11.60 17.50 13.50 23.2
Maturity (days)
Dry recovery (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Oleoresin (%)
Essential oil (%)
200 229 218 225 230 200
20.7 20.5 23.5 23.5 20.6 23.0
4.5 4.4 3.8 4.0 6.4 3.26
6.7 8.9 10.0 10.2 4.3 4.48
1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 1.6 1.72
22.4
200
19.0
4.0
6.3
2.36
Season The best time for planting ginger in the West Coast of India is during the first fortnight of May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Under irrigated conditions, it can be planted well in advance during the middle of February or early March. Burning the surface soil and early planting with the receipt of summer showers results in higher yield and reduces disease incidence. Source of planting material Sl. nos. 1, 6 and 7 : IISR Experimental Farm, Peruvannamuzhi - 673 528, Kozhikode District, Kerala. Sl. nos. 2, 3 and 4 : High Altitude Research Station, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Pottangi, 764 039, Orissa. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni-solar, Himachal Pradesh – 173 230
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Land preparation: The land is to be ploughed 4 to 5 times or dug thoroughly with receipt of early summer showers to bring the soil to fine tilth. Beds of about 1 m width, 15 cm height and of convenient length are prepared with an inter-space of 50 cm in between beds. In the case of irrigated crop, ridges are formed 40 cm apart. In areas prone to rhizome rot disease and nematode infestations, solarization of beds for 40 days using transparent polythene sheets is recommended. Manuring: At the time of planting, well decomposed cattle manure or compost @ 25-30 tonnes/ha has to be applied either by broadcasting over the beds prior to planting or applied in the pits at the time of planting. Application of neem cake @ 2 tonnes/ha at the time of planting helps in reducing the incidence of rhizome rot disease/ nematode and increasing the yield.
The recommended dose of fertilizer for ginger is 75 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O per ha. The fertilizers are to be applied in split doses as shown in table below(Table 4.5). The beds are to be earthed up, after each top dressing with the fertilizers. In zinc deficient soils basal application of zinc fertilizer up to 6 kg zinc/ha (30 kg of zinc sulphate/ha) gives good yield. . Table 4.5: Fertilizer schedule for ginger (per ha) Fertilizer N P2O5 K2O Compost/Cowdung Neem cake
Basal application 50 kg 25 kg 25-30 tonnes 2 tonnes
After 40 days 37.5 kg -
After 90 days 37.5 kg 25 kg -
Mulching: Mulching the beds with green leaves/organic wastes is essential to prevent soil splashing and erosion of soil due to heavy rain. It also adds organic matter to the soil, checks weed emeregence and conserves moisture during the latter part of the cropping season. The first mulching is done at the time of planting with green leaves @ 10-12 tonnes/ha. Mulching is to be repeated @ 5 tonnes/ha at 40 and 90 days after planting, immediately after weeding and application of fertilizers. Ginger planting on raised beds and green leaf mulching
Mulching after planting ginger Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Inter Cultivation: Weeding is done just before fertilizer application and mulching; 2-3 weedings are required depending on the intensity of weed growth. Proper drainage channels are to be provided when there is stagnation of water. Earthing up is essential to prevent exposure of rhizomes and provide sufficient soil volume for free development of rhizomes. Plant protection Diseases 1. Soft rot or rhizome rot: Soft rot is the most destructive disease of ginger which results in total loss of affected clumps. The disease is soil-borne and is caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. P. vexans and P. myriotylum are also reported to be associated with the disease. The fungus multiplies with build up of soil moisture with the onset of south west monsoon. Younger sprouts are the most susceptible to the pathogen. The infection starts at the collar region of the pseudo stem and progresses upwards as well as downwards. The collar region of the affected pseudo stem becomes water soaked and the rotting
spreads to the rhizome resulting in soft rot. At a later stage root infection is also noticed. Foliar symptoms appear as light yellowing of the tips of lower leaves which gradually spreads to the leaf blades. In early stages of the disease, the middle portion of the leaves remain green while the margins become yellow. The yellowing spreads to all leaves of the plant from the lower region upwards and is followed by drooping, withering and drying of pseudo stems. Treatment of seed rhizomes with mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes before storage and once again before planting reduces the incidence of the disease. Cultural practices such as selection of well drained soils for planting is important for managing the disease, since stagnation of water predisposes the plant to infection. Seed rhizomes are to be selected from disease free gardens, since the disease is also seed borne. Application of Trichoderma harzionum along with neem cake @ 1kg/ bed helps in preventing the disease. Once the disease is located in the field, removal of affected clumps and drenching the affected and surrounding beds with mancozeb 0.3% checks the spread of the disease.
Rhizome rot, Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
2. Bacterial wilt: Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Biovar-3 is also a soil and seed borne disease that occurs during south west monsoon. Water soaked spots appear at the collar region of the pseudo stem and progresses upwards and downwards. The first conspicuous symptom is mild drooping and curling of leaf margins of the lower leaves which spread upwards. Yellowing starts from the lowermost leaves and gradually progresses to the upper leaves. In the advanced stage, the plants exhibit severe yellowing and wilting symptoms. The vascular tissues of the affected pseudo stems show dark streaks. The affected pseudo stem and rhizome when pressed gently extrudes milky ooze from the vascular strands. Ultimately rhizomes rot. The cultural practices adopted for managing soft rot are also to be adopted for bacterial wilt. Seed rhizomes must be taken from disease free fields for planting. The seed rhizomes may be treated with Streptocycline 200 ppm for 30 minutes and shade dried before planting. Once the disease is noticed in the field all beds should be drenched with Bordeaux mixture 1% or copper oxychloride 0.2%. 3. Leaf spot: Leaf spot is caused by Phyllosticta zingiberi and the disease is noticed on the leaves from July to October. The disease starts as water soaked spot and later turns as
a white spot surrounded by dark brown margins and yellow halo. The lesions enlarge and adjacent lesions coalesce to form necrotic areas. The disease spreads through rain splashes during intermittent showers. The incidence of the disease is severe in ginger grown under exposed conditions. The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture 1% or mancozeb 0.2%. Nematode pests Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), burrowing (Radopholus similis) and lesion (Pratylenchus spp.) nematodes are important nematode pests of ginger. Stunting, chlorosis, poor tillering and necrosis of leaves are the common aerial symptoms. Characteristic root galls and lesions that lead to rotting are generally seen in roots. The infested rhizomes have brown, water soaked areas in the outer tissues. Nematode infestation aggravates rhizome rot disease. The nematodes can be controlled by treating infested rhizomes with hot water (50°C) for 10 minutes, using nematode free seed rhizomes and solarizing ginger beds for 40 days. In areas were root knot nematode population is high, the resistant variety IISRMahima may be cultivated. Insect pests 1 Shoot borer: The shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) is the most serious pest of ginger. The larvae bore into pseudo stems and feed on internal tissues resulting in yellowing and drying of leaves of infested pseudo stems. The presence of a bore-hole on the pseudo stem through which frass is extruded and the withered and yellow central shoot is a characteristic symptom of pest infestation. The adult is a medium sized moth with a wingspan of about 20 mm; the wings are orange-yellow with minute black spots. Fully-grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs. The pest population is higher in the field during September-October. The shoot borer can be managed by spraying malathion 0.1% or monocrotophos 0.075% at 21 day intervals during July to October. The spraying is to be initiated when the first symptom of pest attack is seen on the top most leaves on the pseudostem. An integrated strategy involving pruning and destroying freshly infested pseudostems during JulyAugust (at fortnightly intervals) and spraying malathion 0.1% during September-October (at monthly intervals) is also effective against the pest.
Shoot borer, Courtesy: IISR, Calicut 2. Rhizome scale: The rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii) infests rhizomes in the field (at later stages) and in storage. Adult (female) scales are circular (about 1 mm diameter) and
light brown to grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. They feed on sap and when the rhizomes are severely infested, they become shriveled and desiccated affecting its germination. The pest can be managed by treating the seed material with quinalphos 0.075% (for 20-30 minutes) before storage and also before sowing in case the infestation persists. Severely infested rhizomes are to be discarded before storage. 3. Minor pests: Larvae of leaf roller (Udaspes folus) cut and fold leaves and feed from within. The adults are medium sized butterflies with brownish black wings with white spots; the larvae are dark green. A spray with carbaryl (0.1%) or dimethoate (0.05%) may be undertaken when the infestation is severe. Root grubs occasionally feed on tender rhizomes, roots and base of pseudo stems causing yellowing and wilting of shoots. The pest can be controlled by drenching the soil with chloropyriphos 0.075%. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology The crop is ready for harvest in about 8 months after planting when the leaves turn yellow, and start drying up gradually. The clumps are lifted carefully with a spade or digging fork, and the rhizomes are separated from the dried up leaves, roots and adhering soil. The yield is around 20 tons of fresh ginger. For preparing vegetable ginger, harvesting is done from sixth month onwards. The rhizomes are thoroughly washed in water and sun-dried for a day. For preparing dry ginger, the produce (harvested after 8 months) is soaked in water for 67 hours. The rhizomes are then rubbed well to clean the extraneous matter. After cleaning, the rhizomes are removed from water and the outer skin is removed with bamboo splinters having pointed ends. Deep scraping may be avoided to prevent damage of oil cells which are just below the outer skin. The peeled rhizomes are washed and dried in sun uniformly for 1 week. The dry rhizomes are rubbed together to get rid of the last bit of skin or dirt. The yield of dry ginger is 19-25% of fresh ginger depending on the variety and location where the crop is grown. Fresh ginger (with relatively low fibre) harvested at 170-180 days after planting can be used for preparing salted ginger. Tender rhizomes with a portion of the pseudo stem may be washed thoroughly and soaked in 30% salt solution containing 1% citric acid. After 14 days it is ready for use and can be stored under refrigeration. Storage of Seed rhizomes: In order to obtain good germination, the seed rhizomes are to be stored properly in pits under shade. For seed material, bold and healthy rhizomes from disease free plants are selected immediately after harvest. For this purpose, healthy and disease-free clumps are marked in the field when the crop is 6-8 months old and still green. The seed rhizomes are treated with a solution containing quinalphos 0.075% and mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes and dried under shade. The seed rhizomes are stored in pits of convenient size in sheds. The walls of the pits may be coated with cow dung paste. The seed rhizomes are placed in pits in layers along with well dried sand/saw dust (put one layer of seed rhizomes, then put 2 cm thick layer of sand/saw dust). Sufficient gap is
to be left at the top of the pits for adequate aeration. The pits can be covered with wooden planks with one or two small openings for aeration. The seed rhizomes in the pits may be checked once in about 21 days by removing the plank and shriveled and disease affected rhizome are to be removed. The seed rhizomes can also be stored in pits dug in the ground under shade. Farmers also preserve seed rhizomes using leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla (panal). Products and grade: Fresh ginger, dry ginger, preserved ginger, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin, ginger powder, encapsulated ginger, salted ginger, ginger paste, ginger candy are some of the ginger products. Indian garde for dry ginger is as follows 1. NGK/NGC – Garbled, non bleached Calicut/Cochin 2. BGK/BGC – Garbled bleached Calicut / Cochin 3. NUGK/K – Ungarbled non-bleached Calicut / Cochin a. Special b. Good c. Non Specified 4. BUGK/C – Ungarbled Bleached Calicut / Cochin a. Special b. Good c. Not Specified The AGMARK Grade of ginger is given in appendix. (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007. Cropping system Crop rotation is generally followed in ginger. The crops most commonly rotated with ginger are tapioca, ragi, paddy, gingelly, groundnut, maize and vegetables. In Karnataka, ginger is also mix cropped with ragi, red gram and castor. Ginger is also grown as an intercrop in coconut, areca nut, coffee and orange plantations in Kerala and Karnataka. Cereals like maize, pulses like red gram, vegetables like beans are inter cropped with ginger. The choice of inter crop is depends on farmers need. It is gorwn as a under story crop in many orchards and plabntations.
TURMERIC Introduction Turmeric (Curcuma longa) (Family: Zingiberaceae) is used as condiment, dye, drug and cosmetic in addition to its use in religious ceremonies. India is a leading producer and exporter of turmeric in the world. The major turmeric producing states in India are Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. During 2004-05, the country produced 7, 16,840 tonnes of turmeric from an area of 1, 61, 230 ha.
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Composition The composition of cured turmeric given below. (Table 5.1). Table 5.1: Composition of cured turmeric moisrure 5.8% protein 8.6% fat 8.9% carbohydrates 63.0% fibre 6.9% mineral matter 6.8% calcium 0.2% phosphorus 0.26% iron0.05%
sodium 0.01 % potassium 2.5% vitamin A 175 lU/l00 g vitamin B 0.09 mg/100 g vitamin B2 0.19 mg/100 g vitamin C 49.8 mg/100 g niacin 4.8 mg/ 100 g calorific value or food energy 390 calories per 100 g.
Uses The major quantity of turmeric is utilized as a condiment and only a small quantity is used in medicines and cosmetics in India. In many Asian countries, turmeric is used as a food adjuncr in vegetables, meat and fish preparations. It is used to flavour and colour butter, cheese, margarine, pickles, mustard, liquor, fruit drinks, cakes, table jellies and other food stuff. It is one of the principal ingredients of 'urry powder, which is a blend of many spices, common salt and farinaceous matter. It also acts as an appetizer and aids in digestion. A pinch of turmeric powder is often added to most of our savouries to impart simultaneously an agreeable flavour, colour and to improve the keeping quality. Turmeric oil and oleoresin are also used to impart the flavour in food and perfume industries. The medicinal value of turmeric is recognized since time immemorial in the Indian system of medicine. It is an ingredient in the preparation of medicinal oils, ointments and: poultices. A decoction of turmeric is considered an excellent cooling eye wash to relieve catarrh. Turmeric is considered a carminative, tonic, blood purifier, vermicide and an antiseptic. It is prescribed for the treatment of diabetes and leprosy and to relieve sore throat and common cold. The juice of the raw rhizomes is used as an anti-parasitic against many skin infections. Burnt turmeric used as tooth powder relieves dental troubles. The essential oil of turmeric is antiseptic. It is used in treating gall stones and gall complaints. The antimicrobial properties of essential oil from turmeric are reported against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Turmeric preparations are traditional beauty aids for Indian women. Smearing turmeric
paste on the face and limbs during a bath, clears the skin and beautifies the face. Its antiseptic and healing properties are said to be both preventive cure for the much feared malady of adolescence pimples. Area and production The turmeric producing states have fluctuation in their turmeric production level due to continuous changes in the rate of productivity and area of cultivation. Price also played important role in annual production. As in any other agricultural commodities, production in one year is strongly influenced by the price prevailed in previous year. The decadal analysis of production of turmeric has shown the increasing trend in two of the five major producing states Andhra Pradesh (10.7) and Tamil Nadu (16.34), while it is comparatively less in states of Orissa (0.48) and West Bengal (0.8) and negative in Karnataka (-3.76). India produced 716.84 thousand tonnes from 161.23 thousand hectare during 2004-05(Table 5.2). The increase in production is mainly because of either increase in area or productivity or both have contributed for increased production despite the year-to-year price changes. Andhra Pradesh occupies first position both in terms of average area and production of turmeric, but from the point of view of productivity per hectare Andhra Pradesh occupies the third position among the turmeric producing states of India. Table 5.2: Area and production of turmeric in India (2004-05) Sl No State
Area (‘000 ha)
Production (‘000 t) Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Andhra Pradesh
61.4
419.0
6829
2.
Andaman Islands
0.1
0.2
2000
3
Arunachal Pradesh
0.5
1.8
3600
4
Assam
11.7
8.4
718
5
Bihar
2.8
2.8
1000
6
Chhatisgarh
0.6
0.6
1000
7
Gujarat
1.0
14.1
14100
8
Haryana
0.6
7.0
11667
9
Himachal Pradesh
0.1
0.1
1000
10
Karnataka
5.4
26.4
4876
11
Kerala
2.8
5.7
2037
12
Madhya Pradesh
0.6
0.5
833
13
Maharashtra
9.0
9.0
1000
14
Manipur
0.6
0.4
667
15
Meghalaya
1.6
8.8
5500
16
Mizoram
0.3
2.3
7667
17
Nagaland
0.6
3.1
5167
18
Orissa
23.9
56.8
2377
19
Rajasthan
0.1
0.2
2000
20
Sikkim
0.5
1.7
3400
21
Tamil Nadu
21.6
118.5
5486
22
Tripura
1.5
4.3
2867
23
Uttar Pradesh
1.4
0.7
500
24
West Bengal
12.6
24.5
1944
161.2
716.8
4446
All India
Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, New Delhi
Botany Turmeric belongs to the family Zingeberaceae, which comprises 40 genera and 400 tropical species. Genus Curcuma has 40 to 50 species, situated in tropical Asia. Curcuma Longa L. (syn. C. domestica Val.) has tall pseudostem, robust with oblong or elliptic leaves narrowed at the base. Plant grows up to 67 to 83 cm in long duration types and produce 8-10 leaves and 67-69 cm in short duration types and produces 7-8 leaves. The leaf length ranges from 30-45 cm, breadth 14-16 cm with petiole equalling the blade. Spike length ranges 10-18 cm with a diameter of 5 cm. Flowers are pale yellow in colour equalling the bracts. Starchy root tubers are produced at the end of the fibrous roots. Flowering is stray and the species is a sterile triploid (3n = 63) and do not set viable seed. Rhizomes are larger in size with a stout mother rhizome, with branched primary and secondary fingers exhibiting yellow to bright orange-yellow colour. Rhizomes are rich in curcumin but moderate in volatile oil. Most of the high-yielding cultivars fall in this group and have a prolonged maturation period of 8-9 months. Climate and soil Turmeric can be grown in diverse tropical conditions from sea level to 1500 m above sea level, at a temperature range of 20-300C with an annual rainfall of 1500 mm or more, under rainfed or irrigated conditions. Though it can be grown on different types of soils, it thrives best in well-drained sandy or clay loam soils. Propagation Turmeric is vegetatively propagated crop through rhizome. Whole or split mother rhizomes are used for planting and well developed healthy and disease free rhizomes are to be selected. Small pits are made with a hand hoe in the beds in rows with spacing of 25 cm x 30 cm and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The optimum spacing in furrows and ridges is between 45-60 cm between the rows and 25 cm between the plants. A seed rate of 2,500 kg of rhizomes is required for planting one hectare of turmeric. True seeds are produced from turmeric for breeding new varieties. Tissue cultured production also possible but still methods have to be evolved to be practical. Cultivation 1. Varieties :A number of cultivars are available in the country and are known mostly by the name of locality where they are cultivated. Some of the popular cultivars are Duggirala, Tekkurpet, Sugandham, Amalapuram, Erode local, Alleppey, Moovattupuzha, and Lakdong. The improved varieties of turmeric and their salient features are given below (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: Characteristics of inproved turmeric varieties Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Variety
Suvarna Suguna Sudarsana IISR Prabha IISR Prathibha Co-1 BSR-1 Krishna Sugandham Roma Suroma Ranga Rasmi Rajendra Sonia IISR Alleppey Supreme IISR Kedaram
Mean yield (fresh) (t/ha) 17.4 29.3 28.8 37.5 39.1
Crop duration (days)
Dry recovery (%)
Curcumin (%)
Oleoresin (%)
Essential oil (%)
200 190 190 195 188
20.0 12.0 12.0 19.5 18.5
4.3 7.3 5.3 6.5 6.2
13.5 13.5 15.0 15.0 16.2
7.0 6.0 7.0 6.5 6.2
30.0 30.7 9.2 15.0 20.7 20.0 29.0 31.3 4.8
285 285 240 210 250 255 250 240 225
19.5 20.5 16.4 23.3 31.0 26.0 24.8 23.0 18.0
3.2 4.2 2.8 3.1 9.3 9.3 6.3 6.4 8.4
6.7 4.0 3.8 11.0 13.2 13.1 13.5 13.4 -
3.2 3.7 2.0 2.7 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 5.0
35.4
210
19.3
6.0
16.0
-
34.5
210
18.9
5.5
13.6
-
Source of planting material Sl. nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 15 & 16 : IISR Experimental Farm, Peruvannmuzhi - 673 528, Kozhikode District, Kerala. Sl. nos. 6 and 7 : Department of Spices and Plantation Crops, Faculty of Horticulture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003, Tamil Nadu. Sl. no. 8 : Maharashtra Agricultural University, Kasba Digraj -416 305, Maharashtra. Sl. no. 9 : Spices Research Station, Gujarat Agricultural University, Jagudan-382 701, Gujarat. Sl. nos. 10, 11, 12 & 13 : High Altitude Research Station, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Pottangi - 764 039, Orissa. Sl. no. 14 : Department of Horticulture, Tirhut College of Agriculture, Rajendra Agricultural University, Dholi-843 121, Bihar. 2. Preparation of land: The land is prepared with the receipt of early monsoon showers. The soil is brought to a fine tilth by giving about four deep ploughings. Hydrated lime @ 400 kg/ha has to be applied for laterite soils and thoroughly ploughed. Immediately with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers, beds of 1.0-1.5 m width, 15 cm height and of convenient length are prepared with spacing of 50 cm between beds. Planting is also done by forming ridges and furrows. 3. Planting: In Kerala and other West Coast areas where the rainfall begins early, the crop can be planted during April-May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Small pits are made with a hand hoe in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25 cm x 30 cm and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The optimum spacing in furrows and
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
ridges is between 45-60 cm between the rows and 25 cm between the plants. A seed rate of 2,500 kg of rhizomes is required for planting one hectare of turmeric. 4. Manuring and fertilizer application: Farm yard manure (FYM) or compost @ 40 tonnes/ha is applied by broadcasting and ploughing at the time of preparation of land or as basal dressing by spreading over the beds to cover the seed after planting. Fertilizers @ 60 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 120 kg K2O per hectare are to be applied in split doses as given below(Table 5.4). Zinc @ 5 kg/ha may also be applied at the time of planting and organic manures like oil cakes can also be applied @ 2 tonnes/ha. In such case, the dosage of FYM can be reduced. Table 5.4: Fertilizer schedule for turmeric (per ha) Schedule
N
P2O5
K2O
Compost/cow dung
Basal application After 40 days After 90 days
-
50 kg
60 kg
40 tonnes
30 kg 30 kg
-
60 kg
-
5 Mulching: The crop is to be mulched immediately after planting with green leaves @ 12-15 tonnes/ha. Mulching may be repeated for a second time after 45 days with the same quantity of green leaves after weeding and application of fertilizers. 6. Weeding and irrigation: Weeding has to be done thrice at 60,120 and 150 days after planting depending upon weed intensity. In the case of irrigated crop, depending upon the weather and the soil conditions, about 15 to 23 irrigations are to be given in clayey soils and 40 irrigations in sandy loams.
Plant protection Diseases 1. Leaf blotch: Leaf blotch is caused by Taphrina maculans and appears as small, oval, rectangular or irregular brown spots on either side of the leaves which soon become dirty yellow or dark brown. The leaves also turn yellow. In severe cases the plants present a scorched appearance and the rhizome yield is reduced. The disease can be controlled by spraying mancozeb 0.2%. 2. Leaf spot: Leaf spot is caused by Colletotrichum capsici and appears as brown spots of various sizes on the upper surface of the young leaves. The spots are irregular in shape and white or grey in the centre. Later, two or more spots may coalesce and form an irregular patch covering almost the whole leaf. The affected leaves eventually dry up. The rhizomes do not develop well. The disease can be controlled by spraying zineb 0.3% or Bordeaux mixture 1%. 3. Rhizome rot: The disease is caused by Pythium graminicolum. The collar region of the pseudo stem becomes soft and water soaked, resulting in collapse of the plant and decay of rhizomes. Treating the seed rhizomes with mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes prior to storage and at the time of sowing prevents the disease. When the disease is noticed in the field, the beds should be drenched with mancozeb 0.3%. Nematode pests Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) are the two important nematodes causing damage to turmeric. Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are of common occurrence in Andhra Pradesh. Wherever nematode problems are common, use only healthy, nematode-free planting material. Increasing the organic content of the soil also checks the multiplication of nematodes. Insect pests 1. Shoot borer: The shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) is the most serious pest of turmeric. The larvae bore into pseudo stems and feed on internal tissues. The presence of a bore-hole on the pseudo stem through which frass is extruded and the withered central shoot is a characteristic symptom of pest infestation. The adult is a medium sized moth with a wingspan of about 20 mm; the wings are orange-yellow with minute black spots. Fully-grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs. Spraying malathion 0.1% or monocrotophos 0.075% at 21 day intervals during July to October is effective in controlling the pest infestation. The spraying has to be initiated when the first symptom of pest attack is seen on the inner most leaf. 2. Rhizome scale: The rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii) infests rhizomes in the field (at later stages of the crop) and in storage. Adult (female) scales are circular (about 1mm diameter) and light brown to grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. They feed on sap and when the rhizomes are severely infested, they become shrivelled and desiccated affecting its germination. Treat seed material with quinalphos 0.075% (for 20-
30 minutes) before storage and also before sowing in case the infestation persists. Discard and do not store severely infested rhizomes. 3 Minor pests: Adults and larvae of leaf feeding beetles such as Lema spp. feed on leaves especially during the monsoon season and form elongated parallel feeding marks on them. The spraying of malathion 0.1% undertaken for the management of shoot borer is sufficient to manage this pest. The lacewing bug (Stephanitis typicus) infests the foliage causing them to turn pale and dry up. The pest infestation is more common during the post monsoon period especially in drier regions of the country. Spraying dimethoate (0.05% ) is effective in managing the pest. The turmeric thrips (Panchaetothrips indicus) infests the leaves causing them to roll, turn pale and gradually dry up. The pest infestation is more common during the post monsoon period especially in drier regions of the country. Spraying dimethoate 0.05%, is effective for the management of the pest. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in 7-9 months after planting during January-March. Early varieties mature in 7-8 months, medium varieties in 8-9 months and late varieties after 9 months. The land is ploughed and the rhizomes are gathered by hand picking or the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade. The harvested rhizomes are cleared of mud and other extraneous matter adhering to them. On an average around 20 Processing 1. Curing: Fresh turmeric is cured for obtaining dry turmeric. The fingers are separated from mother rhizomes. Mother rhizomes are usually kept as seed material. Curing involves boiling of fresh rhizomes in water and drying in the sun. In the traditional method of curing, the cleaned rhizomes are boiled in water just enough to immerse them. Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear giving out a typical odour. The boiling should last for 45-60 minutes when the rhizomes turn soft. The stage at which boiling is stopped largely influences the colour and aroma of the final product. Over cooking spoils the colour of the final product while under-cooking renders the dried product brittle. In the improved scientific method of curing, the cleaned fingers (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a perforated trough of 0.9 m x 0.5 m x 0.4 m size made of GI or MS sheet with extended parallel handle. The perforated trough containing the fingers are then immersed in a pan; 100 litres of water is poured into the trough so as to immerse the turmeric fingers. The whole mass is boiled till the fingers become soft. The cooked fingers are taken out of the pan by lifting the trough and draining the water into the pan. The water used for boiling turmeric rhizomes can be used for curing fresh samples. The processing of turmeric is to be done 2 or 3 days after harvesting. If there is delay in
processing, the rhizomes should be stored under shade or covered with sawdust or coir dust. 2. Drying: The cooked fingers are dried in the sun by spreading them in 5-7 cm thick layers on bamboo mats or drying floor. A thinner layer is not desirable, as the colour of the dried product may be adversely affected. During night time, the rhizomes should be heaped or covered with material which provides aeration. It may take 10-15 days for the rhizomes to become completely dry. Artificial drying, using cross-flow hot air at a maximum temperature of 60oC also gives a satisfactory product. In the case of sliced turmeric, artificial drying has clear advantages in giving a brighter coloured product than sun drying which tends to undergo surface bleaching. The yield of the dry product varies from 10-30% depending upon the variety and the location where the crop is grown. 3. Polishing: Dried turmeric has a poor appearance and a rough dull outer surface with scales and root bits. The appearance is improved by smoothening and polishing the outer surface by manual or mechanical rubbing. Manual polishing consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface. The improved method is by using a hand operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum. Turmeric is also polished in power operated drums. The yield of polished turmeric from the raw material varies from 15-25%. 4. Colouring: The colour of the processed turmeric influences the price of the produce. For an attractive product, turmeric powder (mixed with little water) may be sprinkled during the last phase of polishing. Products and grade Turmeric mainly sold in the form of dry turmeric, turmeric powder, oleoresins and volatile are other turmeric products. Alleppey turmeric, Madras turmeric and Rajapuri turmeric are main trade types from India. These classification is made based on place of origin (production). Alleppey fingers shall have closely grained characteristic wrinkles and yellow colour. They shall be from mould, insect infestation, perfectly dry and should not be artifically coloured. Occurance of defective bulbs should be < 7%. Grades such as Fait, Good, and Special are obtained by minimizing or eliminating the defects. Turmeric powder graded based on chemical analysis such as moisture, total ash, acid insoluble ash, presence of lead, starch. American Spices Traders Association (ASTA) standards for turmeric are given below (Table 5.5.). Table 5.5. ASTA Srandards for turmeric Specifications Whole insects dead by count Excreta mammalian by mg/lb Excreta other by mg/lb Mould percent wt. Insect infested per cent by wt. Extreneous foreign matter per cent by wt.
Limits 3.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 2.5 0.5
Specifications vary with importing county. The AGMARK Grade of turmeric is given in appendix (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-9-2007.
Processed turmeric, Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Preservation of seed rhizomes Rhizomes for seed purpose are generally stored by heaping in well ventilated rooms and covered with turmeric leaves. The seed rhizomes can also be stored in pits with saw dust, sand, leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla (panal), Stychnos nux-vomica (kanjiram) etc. The pits are to be covered with wooden planks with one or two openings for aeration. The rhizomes are to be dipped in quinalphos (0.075%) solution for 15 minutes if scale infestations are observed and in mancozeb (0.3%) to avoid storage losses due to fungi. Cropping system Turmeric can be grown as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut plantations. It can also be raised as a mixed crop with chillies, colocasia, onion, brinjal and cereals like maize, ragi, etc. The choice dpends on farmers requirement like fodder, grain, pulse, green, venetable etc.,. As it is prefer shade, it is best suited for agroforestry or agri-horti-silvi cultural systems.
CLOVE Introduction The clove of commerce is the aromatic, dry, fully grown, but unopened flower buds of the clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum) (Family: Myrtaceae). The islands of Zanzibar, Pemba (now part of Tanzania) and Indonesia are the major producers of clove in the world. In India, clove is mostly grown in the hilly tracts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. The production of clove in India during 2004-05 was 1,815 tonnes from an area of 2,528 hectares. We are also importing clove 8500 tonnes to the value of Rs.12300.00 Lakhs during 2005-06. Composition The composition of cloves varies with agroclimatic conditions and postharvest process. The dried clove bud has following composition (Table 6.1).
Courtsey: IISR, Calicut
Table 6.1: Composition of clove buds Moisture 5.4% protein 6.3% volatile oil 13.2% non-volatile ether extract (fat) 15.5% crude fibre I I. I %; carbohydrates 57.7% mineral matter 5.0% ash insoluble in HCl 0.24% calcium 0.7% phosphorus 0.11%
iron 0.01 % sodium 0.25% potassium 1.2% vitamins (mg/l00 g) B1 0.11 B2 0.04 C 80.9 A 175 I.U. niacin 1.5 calorific value (food energy) 430 calories/100 g.
Uses Clove is very aromatic, has a fine flavour and imparts warming qualities. In India, it is used as a culinary spice as the flavour blends well with both sweet and savoury dishes. Cloves, both whole and ground, are used extensively in the preparation of cakes, confectionery, chocolate, puddings, desserts, sweets, syrup, preserves, etc. Clove is used for flavouring curries, gravies, pickles, ketchup an sauces, spice mixtures and pickling spice. It is carminative, aromatic and stimulant, used in flatulence and dyspepsia. Clove has stimulating properties and used in betel nut chew and cigarette making. In medicine, the essential oil is used as an aid to digestion and for its antiseptic and antibiotic properties in toothache. It is an ingredient of many tooth pastes mouthwashes. The oil has many industrial applications and is extensively employed in perfumes, in scenting soaps and as clearing agents in histological work. The chief constituent of the oil, eugenol, is extracted and used as an imitation, carnation in perfumes and for the formation of artificial vanilla. Area and production It is native to Moluccas and introduced to India around 1800 by the East India Company in their spice garden at Courtallam, Tamil Nadu. The world clove is estimated around 63700 t and Indonesia alone accouints for 66 per cent of the world production. The major clove growing regions in India are Kanyakumari (Keeriparai, Mahendragiri, Pechiparai), Nilgiris (Kallar, Burliar), Lower pulney hills, Shevroys and Kolli hills in Tamil Nadu, Calicut, Kottayam, Quilon, Trivandrum districts of Kerala and South Kanara and Kodaku districts of Karnataka. Area and production of clove in India is given in Tables 6.2 & 6.3.
Table 6.2: Area and production of clove over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
2270
2455
2
1995-96
2300
2439
3
1996-97
2222
1836
4
1997-98
2273
1698
5
1998-99
2308
1056
6
1999-00
2795
1633
7
2000-01
1881
979
8
2001-02
1891
1048
9
2002-03
2127
1374
10
2003-04
2431
1811
11
2004-05
2528
1815
Source:Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Table 6.3: Statewise area and production of clove in India during 2004-05 Sl No.
State
Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Kerala
0.841
0.053
63
2
Karnataka
0.259
0.199
768
3
Tamil Nadu
1.304
1.557
1194
4
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
0.124
0.006
45
2.528
1.815
718
TOTAL/Mean
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Botany The clove, botanically Syzygium aromaticum belongs to family Myrtaceae. Clove tree is slender, evergreen, up to 2 m tall, conical when young, later becoming cylindrical on cultivation, usually branched from the base. Shoot growth determinant appearing in flushes, forming a dense canopy of fine twigs. Leaves obovate, oblong to elliptic, 6-13 cm x 3-6 .cm, opposite, simple, glabrous, coriaceous, shining with short reddish petioles. Terminal, corymbose, trichotomous, panicle shortly pendunculated and branched from the base with 3-20 flowers/panicle. Flower buds 1-2 cm long. Flowers bisexual,
hypanthium fleshy, reddish; sepals 4, fleshy triangular; petals 4; stamens numerous; style short; stigma 2 lobed. Fruit (called mother of cloves) a berry, ellipsoid-obovoid, 2-2.5 cm long, dark red, usually containing one oblong seed 1.5 cm long. Climate and soil Clove grows well in rich loamy soils of the humid tropics and can be grown successfully in the red soils of the midlands of Kerala as well as in the hilly terrain of Western Ghats at higher elevations in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. A cooler climate with well distributed rainfall is ideal for flowering. The site selected for cultivation of clove needs good drainage since the crop cannot withstand water logged conditions. It thrives well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 150-300 cm. In India, clove grows from sea level up to 1500 m above sea level. Propagation The seeds should be collected from fully ripe fruits for raising seedlings. Fruits for seed collection, known popularly as “mother of clove’ are allowed to ripe on the tree and drop down naturally. Such fruits are collected and sown directly in the nursery or soaked in water overnight and the pericarp removed before sowing. The second method gives quicker and higher percentage of germination. Only fully developed and uniform sized seeds which show signs of germination by the presence of pink radicle, are used for sowing. Though the ripe fruits can be stored for a few days by spreading them in a cool shaded place, it is advisable to sow the seeds immediately after harvest. Heaping the fruits or keeping them tied up in air tight bags hastens the death of seeds. Nursery practices Beds of 15-20 cm height, 1 m width and convenient length are to be prepared for sowing seeds. The beds should be made of loose soil -sand mixture over which a layer of sand may be spread (about 5-8 cm thick). Seeds can also be sown in sand beds but care should be taken to prevent erosion of the beds in rain. Seeds are sown at 2-3 cm spacing and depth of about 2 cm. The seed beds have to be protected from direct sunlight. If only small quantities of seeds are available for sowing, they can be sown directly in polybags filled with soil-sand-cow dung mixture and kept in shade. The germination commences in about 10 to 15 days and may last for about 40 days. The germinated seedlings are transplanted in polythene bags (25 cm x 15 cm) containing a mixture of soil, sand and well decomposed cow dung (3:3:1). Sometimes, the seedlings are again transplanted after 1 year to large polythene bags containing the same proportion of potting mixture. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in the field when they are 18-24 months old. Transplanting time can be reduced to 1 year by planting the seedlings in a mixture consisting of soil and vermicompost in 1:1 proportion. Cultivation Preparation of land and planting: The area selected for raising clove plantations is cleared of wild growth before monsoon and pits of 75 cm x 75 cm x 75 cm size are dug at a spacing of 6-7 m. If clove is planted as an intercrop, the spacing has to be adjusted based on the spacing of the major crop. The pits are partially filled with compost, green
Clove seedling, Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
leaf or well decomposed cattle manure and mixed with top soil. The seedlings are transplanted in the main field during the beginning of rainy season, in June-July, and in low lying areas, towards the end of the monsoon, in September-October. Clove prefers partial shade and comes up well at higher elevations with well distributed rainfall. Under Indian conditions it is best suitable for mixed cropping in older coconut or areca nut plantations or in coffee estates. In order to give a cool humid microclimate, intercropping with banana is ideal. Manuring and fertilizer application: Cattle manure or compost @ 50 kg and bone meal or fish meal @ 2-5 kg per bearing tree per year can be applied. Organic manures can be applied as a single dose at the beginning of the rainy season in trenches dug around the trees. The Kerala Agriculture Department recommends the application of inorganic fertilizers @ 20 g N (40 g urea), 18 g P2O5 (110 g super phosphate) and 50 g K2O (80 g muriate of potash) in the initial stage. The dosage is progressively increased to 300 g N (600 g urea) 250 g P2O5 (1560 g super phosphate) and 750 g K2O (1250 g of muriate of potash) per year for a grown up tree of 15 years or more. The fertilizers must be applied in two equal split doses in May-June and September-October in shallow trenches dug around the plant about 1-1½ m away from the base. Plant protection Diseases 1. Seedling wilt: Seedling wilt is a serious problem in a majority of the nurseries. The leaves of affected seedlings lose their natural luster, droop and ultimately die. The root system and collar region of the seedling show varying degrees of discolouration and decay. Cylindrocladium sp., Fusarium sp. and Rhizoctonia sp., are the commonly associated organisms with the disease. Since the infected plants promote further spread of the disease, they are to be removed and the remaining seedlings should be treated with carbendazim 0.1% both as spray and soil drench. Alternatively the foliage may be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture 1% and the soil drenched with copper oxychloride 0.2%. 2. Leaf rot: Leaf rot is caused by Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum and is noticed in mature trees and seedlings. The infection starts as dark diffuse patches at the leaf tip or margin and later the whole leaf rots, resulting in severe defoliation. The foliage of affected trees should be sprayed with carbendazim 0.1%. Prophylactic sprays with Bordeaux mixture 1% also prevents the disease.
3. Leaf spot and bud shedding: The disease is characterized by dark brown spots with a yellow halo on leaves and is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Such spots also appear on the buds resulting in their shedding. C. crassipes causes reddish brown spots on the leaves. Prophylactic spraying with Bordeaux mixture 1% prevents both the diseases. Insect pests 1. Stem borer: The stem borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus) infests the main stem of young trees at the basal region. The larva of the pest girdles the stem and bores downward into it. The girdled portion and bore-hole are covered with a mat like frass material. The infested trees wilt and succumb to the pest attack. Inspect the base of clove trees regularly for symptoms of pest attack. Spray quinalphos 0.1% around the bore-hole and inject the same into the bore-hole after removing the frass. Swabbing the basal region of the main stem with carbaryl and keeping the basins free of weeds are prophylactic measures for reducing the pest infestation. 2. Scale insects: Many species of scale insects infest clove seedlings in the nursery and sometimes young plants in the field. The scale insects generally seen on clove include wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis), shield scale (Pulvinaria psidii), masked scale (Mycetaspis personata) and soft scale (Kilifia accuminata). The scales are generally seen clustered together on tender stems and lower surface of leaves. Scale insects feed on plant sap and cause yellow spots on leaves and wilting of shoots and the plants present a sickly appearance. Spraying monocrotophos (0.05%) is effective for the management of scale insects. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology Clove trees start flowering from the fourth year of planting in fertile soil and good management conditions. But the full bearing stage is reached by about the 15th year only. The flowering season varies from September- October in the plains to December-January at high altitudes. The unopened buds are harvested when they are plump and rounded and before they turn pink. At this stage, they are less than 2 cm long. The opened flowers are not valued as a spice. Harvesting has to be done without damaging the branches, as it adversely affects the subsequent growth of the trees. As a common practice the growers do not allow the trees to bear fruits (mother of clove), as they believe that it has an adverse effect on subsequent flowering. The harvested flower buds are separated from the clusters by hand and spread in the drying yard for drying. The correct stage of drying is reached when the stem of the bud is dark brown and the rest of the bud is light brown in colour. Well dried cloves weigh about one-third the weight of fresh cloves. About 11,000 to 15,000 dried cloves weigh 1 kg. A full grown tree gives 3 to 4 kg dried buds after 15 years. Cloves area avialble as whole buds range from half to three fourth inch in length. Clove leaf oil, clove oil, clove stem oil are the products. Wide ranges of food products are being flavoured with cloves.
Clove buds, Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Cropping system It is a tree crop, it can be grown randomly in the farm or along the bunds or it may be intercropped in other plantations like coconut, areca nut or other fruit or avenue trees. Sole cropping also possible in an organized manner.
NUTMEG Introduction Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) (Family: Myristicaceae) produces two separate spices, namely nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is the dried kernel of the seed and mace is the dried aril surrounding it. Nutmeg is indigenous to Moluccas Islands (Indonesia). Over 50% of the worlds’ export of nutmeg and mace is from Indonesia. Grenada is the second largest exporter of nutmeg and mace in the world. In India, nutmeg is mainly cultivated in Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of Kerala and parts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu.
Courtesy: IISR, Calicut
Composition The composition of dried nutmeg and mace are given below(Table 7.1) Table 7.1: Composition of dried nutmeg and mace Content
Nutmeg
Mace
Moisture
14.3%
15.9%
Protein
7.5%
6.5%
Ether extraction (fat)
36.4%
24.4%
Carbohydrate
28.5%
47.8%
Fibre
11.6%
3.8%
Minerals
1.7%
1.6%
Calcium
0.12%
0.18%
Phosphorus
0.14%
0.10%
Iron
0.46%
0.26%
Vitamin B1
0.33 mg/100g
0.35 mg/100 g
Vitamin B2
0.01 “
0.42 “
Niacin
1.40 “
1.40 “
Nutmeg also contains a volatile oil (6-16%), starch (14-24.25%), furfural (1.5%) and pectin (0.5-0.6%), Mace contains a volatile oil (4-15%), amylodextrin (25%). Uses Both nutmeg and mace are used as condiment and in medicine. Nutmeg is a stimulant, carminative, astringent and aphrodisiac. It is used in tonics and electuaries and forms a constituent of preparations prescribed for dysentery, stomachache, flatulence, nausea, vomiting, malaria, rheumatism, sciatica and early stages of leprosy. Excessive doses have a narcotic effect, symptoms of delirium and epileptic convulsions appear after 1-6 hours. Mace is similarly used, it is also chewed for masking foul breath. Oil of nutmeg or mace is used for flavouring food products and liquor. It is used for scenting soaps, tobacco and dental creams and also in perfumery. It has been recommended for the treatment of inflammations of bladder and urinary tract, the oil is somewhat toxic owing to the presence of myristicin and should be used with caution. Nutmeg butter is used as a mild external stimulant in ointments, hair lotions and plasters and forms a useful application in cases of rheumatism, paralysis and sprains. It is used in perfumes for imparting a spicy odour and in the manufacture of soaps and candles. Nutmeg butter is sometimes substituted by fats from other Myristica spp. The pericarp or rind of the ripe fruit is locally used in pickles; it is also used in the preparation of jellies. Alcoholic extracts of nutmeg show anti-bacterial activity against Micrococcus var. aureus. Aqueous decoctions are toxic to cockroaches. The volatile oil from leaf has weedicidal properties. It may also be used for scenting soaps, dentifrices, chewing gums and tobacco. It is not produced on a commercial scale. Area and production Nutmeg is indigenous to Moluccas Islands (Indonesia). Over 50% of the worlds’ export of nutmeg and mace is from Indonesia. Grenada is the second largest exporter of nutmeg and mace in the world. In India, nutmeg is mainly cultivated in Thrissur, Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of Kerala and parts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu. Nutmeg area and production is given below (Tanle 7.2 & 7.3). We import nutmeg 865 tonnes to the tune of Rs.1250.0 Lakhs and mace 525 tonnes to the value of Rs.1485.0 Lakhs
Table 7.2: Area and production of nutmeg over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
4756
2895
2
1995-96
5345
1471
3
1996-97
6419
2044
4
1997-98
6592
2102
5
1998-99
6401
1603
6
1999-00
7110
1773
7
2000-01
7517
1919
8
2001-02
7849
1985
9
2002-03
8704
2184
10
2003-04
10010
2525
11
2004-05
10010
2530
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Table 7.3: Statewise area and production of clove in India during 2004-05 Sl No.
State
Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Kerala
10.780
2.700
250
2
Karnataka
0.228
0.096
421
3
Tamil Nadu
0.035
-
-
4
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
0.029
0.002
69
11.072
2.798
253
TOTAL/Mean
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Botany Nutmeg belongs to the family Myristicaceae, with about 18 genera and 300 species. Myristica is the most primitive genus of the family and distributed from India and SE Asia to North Australia and the Pacific Islands. In this region 72 species are distributed. M. fragrans is not known in its wild state. Three wild species of Myristica, viz., M. malabarica, M. magnifica and M. dactyloides are found in the forests of South India.
Nutmeg is an evergreen, conical tree reaching a height of 4-10 metres. The tree is typically dioecious with male and female flowers on different trees. Occasionally male trees carrying a few female flowers or female trees carrying a few male flowers are observed. Hermaphrodite trees having bisexual flowers are also noticed rarely. Inflorescence, axillary in umbellate cymes, males usually many-flowered, female 1-3 flowered. Flowers fragrant, creamy yellow in colour, waxy and fleshy with 3-lobed perianth. Male flowers are smaller than female flowers, the androecium is up to 7 mm long with 8-12 stamens, adnate to a column. Female flowers one cm long with superior sessile, one-celled ovary, 7 mm long, surmounted by a very short, two-lipped stigma. Fruit pendulous, broadly pyriform, yellow, smooth, 7-10 cm long, fleshy, splitting open into two halves when ripe, showing the ovoid 2-3 cm long dark brown shinning seed with hard seed-coat that is surrounded by a laciniate red aril attached to the base of the seed. The seed of nutmeg is large, having ruminate endosperm. The somatic chromosome number of M. fragrans was reported to be 2n = 42. Though no improved variety has been developed, high-yielding nutmeg trees have been identified from various nutmeg growing areas and their progenies are being evaluated for yield. Climate and soil Nutmeg thrives well in warm humid conditions in locations with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and more. It grows well from sea level up to about 1300 m above mean sea level. Areas with clay loam, sandy loam and red laterite soils are ideal for its growth. Both dry climate and water logged conditions are not suitable for nutmeg cultivation. Propagation An important problem in nutmeg cultivation is the segregation of seedlings into male and female plants resulting in about 50% unproductive male trees. Though there have been several claims that sex could be determined at seedling stage on the basis of leaf form and venation, colour of young sprouts, vigour of seedlings and shape of calcium oxalate crystals on leaf epidermis, none of them is sufficiently reliable. The only alternative is to adopt vegetative propagation either by top-working male plants or using budded or grafted plants. Epicotyl grafting: Nutmeg is commercially propagated through grafts. For raising rootstocks, naturally split healthy fruits are harvested during June-July. The seeds are extracted from the pericarp and sown immediately in sand beds of convenient length, 1 to 1.5 m width and 15 cm height. Regular watering is necessary for good germination. Germination may commence from about the 30th day and last up to 90 days after sowing. About 20 day old sprouts are transplanted to polythene bags containing a mixture of soil, sand and cow dung (3:3:1). The selected rootstock at the first leaf stage should have a thick stem (diameter of 0.5 cm or more) with sufficient length so as to enable to give a cut of 3 cm length. Scions with 23 leaves, collected from high yielding trees can be used for grafting. The stock and scion should approximately have the same diameter. A ‘V’ shaped cut is made in the stock and
a tapered scion is fitted carefully into the cut. Bandaging at the grafted region may be done with polythene strips. They are then planted in polythene bags of 25 cm x 15 cm size containing potting mixture. The scion is covered with a polythene bag and kept in a cool shaded place protected from direct sunlight. After 1 month, the bags can be opened and those grafts showing sprouting of scions may be transplanted into polythene bags, containing a mixture of soil, sand and cow dung (3:3:1) and kept in shade for development. The polythene bandage covering the grafted portion can be removed after 3 months. During grafting, precautions should be taken to prevent wilting of scions and to complete the grafting as soon as possible. The grafts can be planted in the field after 12 months. Cultivation 1 Varieties and planting material: As nutmeg is cross-pollinated, considerable variations are observed in the crop. The plants differ not only for all aspects of growth and vigour, but also for sex expression, size and shape of fruit and quantity and quality of mace. A good tree yields about 2000 fruits annually on an average, but the yield may vary from a few hundreds to about 10,000 fruits. IISR has released a high yielding variety IISR Viswashree which yields about 1000 fruits at the eight year of planting. An average yield of approximately 3122 kg dry nut (with shell) and 480 kg dry mace per hectare could be obtained with a population of 360 plants/ha. The dry recovery of nut and mace of IISR Viswashree is 70 and 35%, respectively. The nut has 7.1% essential oil, 9.8% oleoresin and 30.9% butter, while the mace has 7.1% essential oil and 13.8% oleoresin. IISR has also identified a few elite lines such as A9-20, 22, 25, 69, 150, A4-12, 22, 52, A11-23, 70 as high yielders and grafts of these lines are produced for distribution. Konkan Sugandha and Konkan Swad are other improved varieties. 2 Preparation of land and planting: Planting in the main field is done at the beginning of the rainy season. Pits of 0.75 m x 0.75 m x 0.75 m size are dug at a spacing of 9 m x 9 m and filled with organic manure and soil about 15 days earlier to planting. For planting plagiotropic grafts, a spacing of 5 m x 5 m has to be adopted. A male graft has to be planted for every 20 female grafts in the field. The plants should be shaded to protect them from sun scorch during early stages. Permanent shade trees are to be planted when the site is on hilly slopes and when nutmeg is grown as a monocrop. Nutmeg can best be grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens that are more than 15 years old where shade conditions are ideal. Coconut gardens along river beds and adjoining areas are best suited for nutmeg cultivation. Irrigation is essential during summer months. 3 Manuring and fertiliser application: Manures are applied in shallow trenches or pits dug around the plants. The Kerala Agriculture Department recommends 20 g N (40g urea), 18 g P2O5 (110g superphosphate) and 50 g K2O (80 g muriate of potash) during the initial year and progressively increasing the dose to 500 g N (1090 g urea), 250 g P2O5 (1560 g superphosphate) and 1000 g K2O (1670 g muriate of potash) per year in subsequent years for a fully grown tree of 15 years or more. FYM is to be applied @ 25 kg for 7-8 year old trees and 50 kg for grown up tree of 15 years.
IISR Viswashree – High yielding Nutmeg
Yield – 480 kg mace/ha 3122 nut kg dry nuts/ha High yielding high quality variety with compact plant type
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Plant protection Diseases 1 Die back: The disease is characterized by drying up of mature and immature branches from the tip downwards. Diplodia sp. and a few other fungi have been isolated from such trees. The infected branches should be cut and removed and the cut end pasted with Bordeaux mixture 1%. 2 Thread blight: Two types of blights are noticed in nutmeg. The first is a white thread blight wherein fine white hyphae aggregate to form fungal threads that traverse along the stem underneath the leaves in a fan shaped or irregular manner causing blight in the affected portions. The dried up leaves with mycelium form a major source of inoculum for the spread of the disease. The disease is caused by Marasmius pulcherima. The second type of blight is called horse hair blight. Fine black silky threads of the fungus form an irregular, loose network on the stems and leaves. These strands cause blight of leaves and stems. However, these threads hold up the detached, dried leaves on the tree, giving the appearance of a birds nest, when viewed from a distance. This disease is caused by Marasmius equicrinus. Both the diseases are severe under heavy shade. These diseases can be managed by adopting phytosanitation and shade regulation. In severely affected gardens, Bordeaux mixture 1% spraying may be undertaken in addition to cultural practices. 3 Fruit rot: Immature fruit split, fruit rot and fruit drop are serious in a majority of nutmeg gardens in Kerala. Immature fruit splitting and shedding are noticed in some trees without any apparent infection. In the case of fruit rot, the infection starts from the pedicel as dark lesions and gradually spreads to the fruit, causing brown discolouration of the rind resulting in rotting. In advanced stages, the mace also rots emitting a foul smell. Phytophthora sp. and Diplodia natalensis have been isolated from affected fruits. However, the reasons for fruit rot could be both pathological and physiological. Bordeaux mixture 1% may be sprayed when the fruits are half mature to reduce the incidence of the disease.
4 Shot hole: The disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Necrotic spots develop on the lamina which are encircled by a chlorotic halo. In advanced stages the necrotic spots become brittle and fall off resulting in shot holes. A prophylactic spray with Bordeaux mixture 1% is effective against the disease. Insect pests 1 Black scale: The black scale (Saissetia nigra) infests tender stems and leaves especially in the nursery and sometimes young plants in the field. The scales are clustered together and are black, oval and dome shaped. They feed on plant sap and severe infestations cause the shoots to wilt and dry. 2 White scale: The white scale (Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli) is greyish white, flat and shaped like a fish scale and occurs clustered together on the lower surface of leaves especially in nursery seedlings. The pest infestation results in yellow streaks and spots on affected leaves and in severe infestations the leaves wilt and dry. 3 Shield scale: The shield scale (Protopulvinaria mangiferae) is creamy brown and oval and occurs on tender leaves and stems especially in nursery seedlings. The pest infestation results in wilting of leaves and shoots. The scale insects mentioned above and other species that may also occur sporadically on nutmeg can be controlled by spraying monocrotophos 0.05%. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology The female nutmeg tree starts fruiting from the sixth year, though the peak period is reached after 20 years. The fruits are ready for harvest in about 9 months after flowering. The peak harvesting season is during June-August. The average yield of a good tree in full bearing is 3000 fruits between 15th to 30th year of age. The average weight of a single fruit is 60 g of which the seed weights 6-7 g, mace 3-4 g and the rest pericarp. The fruits are ripe and ready for harvesting when the pericarp splits open. After harvest the outer fleshy portion is removed, and the mace is manually separated from the nut. The nut and mace are then dried separately in the sun. The scarlet coloured mace gradually becomes yellowish brown and brittle when drying is completed. The fleshy pericarp can be used for making pickles, jams and jellies. Mechanical drying: Freshly harvested mace can be blanched in water at 750C for 2 min to retain the scarlet colour. This is followed by hot air drying at 550- 650 C which takes 34 hours for drying to a moisture level of 8-10%. However nut can be dried in 14-16 hours using hot air technique. Nutmeg (rind) pickle, nutmeg (rind) preserve from slices, nutmeg(rind) preserve from shreds, nutmeg(rind) candy, nutmeg (rind) sweet chutney and nutmeg (rind) powder.
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Cropping system Nutmeg is a tree spice; it may be grown randomly in the farm or planted along the bunds. It can be a inter crop in other plantation crops like coconut, areca nut etc., It may be mixed with other tree spice crops like clove and cinnamon.
CINNAMON Introduction Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) (Family: Lauraceae) is one of the earliest known spice mainly cultivated for the dried inner bark of the tree. Cinnamon is a native of Sri Lanka and is cultivated in lower elevations of Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Composition : The composition of bark is given below (Table 8.1) Table 8.1. Composition of cinnamon bark moisture 9.9% protein 4.6% fat (ether extract) 2.2% fibre 20.3% carbohydrates 59.5% total ash 3.5% calcium 1.6% phosphorus 0.05% iron 0.004%
sodium 0.01 % potassium 0.4% vitamins (mg/100 g) B1 0.14 B2 0.21 C 39.8 A 175 I.U niacin 1.9 calorific value (food energy) 355 per 100 g.
Uses Bark, wood, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits and roots are all useful in one or other way. 1 Bark: Cinnamon bark primarily is one of the most popular spices in use in every house. It has a delicate fragrance and a warm agreeable taste. It is extensively used as a spice or condiment in the form of small pieces or powder. It is aromatic, astringent, stimulant and carminative and also possesses the property of checking nausea and vomiting. Cinnamon is used for flavouring confectionary, liquors, pharmaceuticals, soaps and dental preparations. Powdered cinnamon is a constituent of chocolate preparations made in Spain. Cinnamon is also used in candy, gum, incense and perfumes. 2 Bark oil : Cinnaman bark contains 0.5 to 1.0% volatile oil. It is used for flavouring confectionary, liquors, pharmaceuticals, soaps and dental preparatians. It has the cordial and carminative properties of cinnaman without its astringency and is employed as adjuvant in stomachic and carminative medicine. As a powerful local stimulant, it is sometimes prescribed in gastrodiarrhoea, flatulent, colic and gastric debility. Cinnamon leaf oil is used for perfuming saaps, flavouring sweets and confectionery. It is a cammon adulterant for the bark oil. The root bark and seeds also contain oils. Unripe fruits are used as adulterant in cloves. Medicinal oil is obtained from the fruits. Cinnaman wood provides a soft timber for use as law-grade board wood. Area and production Cinnamon is mainly cultivated in Kannore (Kerala), South Kanara (Karnataka), Nilgiris, Lower Pulneys, Courtallam and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu). The domestic production is about 1660 tonnes during 2004-05. During 2005-06, 9750 tonnes of cassia worth of Rs 2775 .0 Lakhs was imported to India. Table 8.2: Area and production of Cinnamon over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
714
300
2
1995-96
655
364
3
1996-97
833
371
4
1997-98
745
371
5
1998-99
720
1176
6
1999-00
718
1661
7
2000-01
701
1658
8
2001-02
727
1658
9
2002-03
739
1659
10
2003-04
757
1659
11
2004-05
774
1659
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Table 8.3: Statewise area and production of clove in India during 2004-05 Sl No.
State
Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Kerala
0.328
-
-
2
Karnataka
0.389
1.651
4244
3
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
0.057
0.008
140
0.774
1.659
2192
TOTAL/Mean
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Botany Cinnamomum belongs to Lauraceae family having more than 250 species distributed in South and South-East Asia, China and Australia. Only a few species are important commercially. The cinnaman is the dried bark obtained from Cinnamomum verum. The cassia is obtained from various sources, viz. : (i) Chinese cassia: True cassia or Chinese cassia is from C. cassia. (ii) Indonesian cassia: C. burmanii (iii) Saigan cassia: C. loureivii (iv) Indian cassia : C. tamala. Twelve species of Cinnaman were reparted endemic to South India. C. verum was closely related to C. malabatrum. Somatic number is 2n = 24. Among the economically useful related taxa, Camphar (C. camphora L.). Bercht & Presl., is important as source of camphor, used in many pharmaceutical preparatians. C. glauscescens (Sugandha Kokila) is a Nepalese species, the oil of which is used in perfumery. The immature fruits of a few species like C. cassia constitute the 'cassia buds' (also called kala nagakesai), used extensively in the preparation of pan in India. Cinnamomum verum is a medium-sized tree with smooth grey, fragrant bark, terminal bud with a few inconspicuous bud scales, early caducous. Bark is the economically useful part of cinnaman. The bark tissue is characterized by secretion cells containing mucilage or oil. Presence of glands of sclerenchyma in the pericyclic region is a characteristic feature of certain species including C. verum and C. cassia. Raphides as well as prismatic crystalline inclusions occur in the bark cells. These raphides occur sparsely in C. verum and C. cassia, and are abundant in.the wild cinnamon, C.
malabatrum. Leaves variable in size, ovate-Ianceolate or elliptic, opposite, triplinerved, the two basal or sub-basal lateral nerves, strongly ascent, often reaching the tip of the leaf; hairs simple when present, oil and mucilage cells are always present in both mesophyll layers; idioblasts are also present in the palisade and spongy parenchyma. Flowers in panicle, pseudoterminal, many-flowered; pale yellow, actinomorphic, bisexual, trimerous, perigynous; perianth (sepals) in two whorls of three each; stamens 9+3 in whorls of three each on slender filaments, the inner three flanked by stalked nectarial glands, the innermost row modified into staminodes rather well-developed with stalks, fertile stamens show valvular dehiscence; ovary superior, one-celled with one pendulous ovule; style welldeveloped with triangular stigma. Fruit is a fleshy ovoid berry, black or purplish black, glossy, one-seeded; the perianth tube growing out into more or less deep fleshy cup in which the base of the fruit is seated. Climate and soil Cinnamon is a hardy plant and tolerates a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. In the West Coast of India, the tree is grown on laterite and sandy patches with poor nutrient status. It comes up well from sea level to an elevation of about 1,000 m. Since it is mostly raised as a rain fed crop, an annual rainfall of 200-250 cm is ideal. Propagation Propagation of cinnamon is by rooted cuttings, air layerings and seedlings. 1 Cuttings : Semi hardwood cuttings of about 10 cm length with 2 leaves are taken and dipped in IBA 2000 ppm or in a rooting hormone (Keradix-B) and planted either in polythene bags filled with sand or a mixture of sand and coir dust (1:1) or in sand beds raised in a shaded place. The cuttings in polythene bags must also be kept in a shaded place or in a nursery. The cuttings are to be watered regularly 2-3 times a day The cuttings root in 45-60 days and the well rooted cuttings can be transplanted to polythene bags filled with potting mixture and maintained in a shaded place and watered regularly. 2 Air layering : Air layering of cinnamon is done on semi hardwood shoots. A ring of bark is removed from the semi hardwood portion of the shoot and a rooting hormone (IBA 2000 ppm or IAA 2000 ppm) is applied on the portion where the bark has been removed. Moist coir dust or coir husk is placed around the region where the hormone has been applied and is secured in position by wrapping with a polythene sheet of 20 cm length. This would also avoid moisture loss. Rooting takes place in 40-60 days. The well rooted air layers are separated from the mother plant and bagged in polythene bags filled with potting mixture and kept in a shaded place or nursery by watering the plants twice daily. The rooted cuttings and layers can be planted in the main field with the onset of rains. 3 Seedlings: Cinnamon can also be propagated through seeds. However, in such cases wide variability is observed among the seedlings. Under West Coast conditions, cinnamon flowers in January and the fruits ripen during June-August. The fully ripened fruits are either picked from the tree or the fallen ones are collected from the ground. The
seeds are removed from the fruits, washed free of pulp, and sown without much delay as the seeds have a low viability. The seeds are sown in sand beds or polythene bags containing a mixture of sand, soil and well rotten cattle manure (3:3:1). The seeds start to germinate within 15-20 days. Frequent irrigation has to be provided for maintaining adequate moisture. The seedlings require artificial shading till they are about 6 months old. Cultivation Varieties: Two high yielding, high quality cinnamon varieties released from IISR are suitable for cultivation in various regions of India. The varieties Navashree and Nithyashree have an yield potential of 56 and 54 kg dry quills/hectare per year respectively, in the initial years, when one seedling or cutting is planted in a hill. Navashree yields 2.7% bark oil, 73% cinnamaldehyde in bark, 8% bark oleoresin, 2.8% leaf oil and 62% leaf eugenol. Nithyashree yields 2.7% bark oil, 58% cinnamaldehyde in bark, 10% bark oleoresin, 3% leaf oil and 78% leaf eugenol.
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Preparation of land and planting: The area for planting cinnamon is cleared and 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm size pits are dug at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m. They are then filled with compost and top soil before planting. Cinnamon is planted during June-July to take advantage of the monsoon for the establishment of seedlings. For transplanting, 10-12 month old seedlings or well rooted cuttings or air layers are used. In each pit, 3-4 seedlings or rooted cuttings or air layers can be planted. In some cases, the seeds are directly dibbled in the pits that are filled with compost and soil. Providing partial shade in the initial years is advantageous for healthy, rapid growth of plants. Manuring and cultural practices: Two weedings in a year during June-July and October-November, and digging of the soil around the bushes once during AugustSeptember is recommended. A fertilizer dose of 20 g N, 18 g P2O5 and 25 g K2O per seedling is recommended in the first year. The dose of fertilizers is increased gradually to 200 g N, 180 g P2O5 and 200 g K2O for plants of 10 years and above. The fertilizers are to be applied in two equal splits, in May-June and September-October. Mulching with green leaves (25 kg) during summer and application of FYM (25 kg) during May-June is also recommended. Plant protection Diseases 1 Leaf spot and die back: Leaf spot and die back disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Small deep brown specks appear on the leaf lamina, which later
coalesce to form irregular patches. In some cases the affected portions are shed leaving shot holes on the leaves. Later the entire lamina is affected and the infection spreads to the stem causing die back. Pruning the affected branches and spraying Bordeaux mixture 1% are recommended to control the disease. 2 Seedling blight: Seedling blight caused by Diplodia sp. occurs on seedlings in the nursery. The fungus causes light brown patches which girdle the stem resulting in mortality . The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture 1%. 3. Grey blight: Grey blight is caused by Pestalotia palmarum and is characterized by small brown spots which later turn grey with a brown border. The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture 1%. Insect pests 1 Cinnamon butterfly: The cinnamon butterfly (Chilasa clytia) is the most serious pest especially in younger plantations and nursery and is generally seen during the post monsoon period. The larvae feed on tender and slightly mature leaves; in severe cases of infestation, the entire plant is defoliated and only midribs of leaves with portions of veins are left behind. The adults are large sized butterflies and occur in two forms. One has blackish brown wings with white spots on outer margins; the other has black wings with bluish white markings. Fully grown larvae are pale yellow with dark stripes on the sides and measure about 2.5 cm in length. The pest can be controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05% on tender and partly mature leaves. 2 Leaf miner: Infestation by the leaf miner (Conopomorpha civica) is more common during the monsoon period and generally nursery seedlings are seriously affected. The adult is a minute silvery grey moth. The larvae are pale grey initially and become pink later measuring about 10 mm in length. They feed on the tissues between the upper and lower epidermis of tender leaves resulting in linear mines that end in ‘blister’ like patches. The infested leaves become crinkled and the mined areas dry up leaving 9large holes on the leaves. Spraying quinalphos 0.05% during emergence of new flushes is effective in preventing the pest infestation. Many other leaf feeding caterpillars and beetles also occur sporadically on cinnamon feeding on tender flushes. Application of quinalphos 0.05% would keep them under check. Harvesting and Post Harvest Technology The cinnamon tree may attain a height of 10-15 m, but it is generally coppiced or cut back periodically. When the plants are 2 years old, they are coppiced during June-July to a height of about 12 cm from the ground. The stump is then covered by earthing up. This operation encourages the development of side shoots from the stump. This is repeated for every side shoot, developing from the main stem during the succeeding season, so that the plant will assume the shape of a low bush of about 2 m height and shoots suitable for peeling would develop in a period of about 4 years. The first coppicing can be done from the fourth or fifth year of planting.
The shoots are harvested from September to November, under Kerala conditions. Coppicing is done in alternate years and shoots having 1.5-2.0 cm thickness and uniform brown colour are ideal for bark extraction. A ‘test cut’ can be made on the stem with a sharp knife to judge its suitability for peeling. If the bark separates readily, coppicing can be commenced immediately. The stems are cut close to the ground when they are about 2 years old. Such shoots are bundled after removing the leaves and terminal shoots. The harvested shoots are cut into straight pieces of 1.00 -1.25m length. Cutting is followed by scraping and peeling operations. Peeling is a specialized operation, requiring skill and experience. It is done by using a specially made knife, which has a small round end with a projection on one side to facilitate ripping of the bark. The rough outer bark is first scraped off. Then the scrapped portion is polished with a brass or an aluminium rod to facilitate easy peeling. A longitudinal slit is made from one end to the other. The bark can be easily removed by working the knife between the bark and the wood. The shoots cut in the morning are peeled on the same day. The peels are gathered and kept overnight under shade. They are dried first in shade for a day and then in sunlight for four days. During drying, the bark contracts and assumes the shape of a quill. The smaller quills are inserted into larger ones to form compound quills. The quills are graded from 00000, being the finest quality, to 0 the coarsest quality. The small pieces of the bark, left after preparing the quills are graded as ‘quillings’. The very thin inner pieces of bark are dried as ‘featherings’. From the coarser canes, the bark is scraped off, instead of peeling, and this grade is known as ‘scraped chips’. The bark is also scraped off without removing the outer bark and is known as ‘unscraped chips’. The different grades of bark are powdered to get ‘cinnamon powder’. Leaf and bark oils of cinnamon could be obtained by distilling dried cinnamon leaves and bark, respectively. The dried cinnamon leaves are steam distilled in special distiller. About 4 kg of bark oil could be obtained from a hectare of cinnamon plantation. Leaf oil and bark oil are used in the manufacture of perfumes, soaps, tooth pastes, hair oils and face creams and also as an agent for flavouring liquor and in dentifrices.
Cinnamon harvest Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Cropping system Cinnamon tree architecture is shrub to tree and it is trained like a shrub. It requires bright sun light, hence, it could be choice for fence / boundry side. It can also be intercropped in
other planation crops. It can be plated in the soil between rocky patches. Periphery of tea or coffee planatation can be planted with cinnamon.
ALLSPICE Introduction Allspice (Pimenta dioica Linn.) a minor tree spice, is indigenous to West Indies and tropical America. Allspice of commerce is the dried immature fruit. The flavour resembles a mixture of cinnamon, clove and nutmeg and hence the name. The word 'Pimento' is derived from 'Pimenta', the Spanish word for the pepper corn, as the spice (fruit) resembles pepper corns. The plant is reported to be abundantly growing in Jamaica, which is the major producer. Allspice also occurs in southern Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Cuba and Costa Rica. In India, the plant is reported to be grown in some gardens in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Courtesy : IISR, Calicut
Composition A typical analysis of allspice berries (ground) shows the following composition (Table 9.1) Table 9.1: Composition of allspice berries moisture 8.8% protein 6.0% fat (ether extract) 6.6% fibre 21.6% carbohydrates 52.8% total ash 4.2% calcium 0.8% phosphorus 0.1 %
sodium 0.08% potassium 1.1% iron 7.5 mg/100 g vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 39.2 mg/100 g vitamin B I (thiamine) 0.1 mg/l00 g vitamin BJ2 (riboflavin) 0.06 mg niacin 2.9 mg vitamin A 1445 IU calorific value is 380 calories per 100g.
Allspice owes its characteristic odour to the presence of an essential oil (3.3-4.5%),
concentrated mainly in pericarp. In addition, it contains inercitannic acid (over 8%) responsible for the astringency, a soft resin with a burning taste, fixed oil (5.8%), proteins (5.8%); crude starch (20%) and traces of alkaloid. Uses The berries are used as a condiment and flavouring agent in ketchups, soups, sauces, pickles, canned meats, sausages, gravies, relishes, fish dishes, pies, puddings, preservatives, etc. Used as a flavouring ingredient for vines and as a perfume in soap making, it is an important ingredient of whole mixed pickling spice and spice mixtures, viz., curry powders, mincemeat spice, poultry dressing. Frankfurter and hamburger, etc. Allspice is used as an aromatic stimulant in digestive troubles. Powdered fruit is used in flatulence, dyspepsia and diarrhoea. Earlier, it was used in medicine as an adjuvant to tonics and puratives. It is considered to be carminative. It is an anodyne against rheumatism and neuralgia. Pimenta berry oil is used for flavouring condiments and food products and in perfumery, soap and pharmaceutical preparations. Area and production There is no organized cultivation of this crop in commercial scale except few homestead plants. Ambanaad Estate in Kollam district, Kerala grows this crop but there is no buyers for produce. Botany Botanical name of allspice is Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. and belongs to Myrtaceae. Allspice is a small evergreen tree. The flowers are small and whitish with a peculiar aroma. They are present in groups of cymes. They are structurally hermaphrodite, but functionally dioecious. Those trees which bear no fruit are male trees wherein the flowers will have above 100 stamens and the flowers in bearing female trees have around 50 stamens. The receptacle has four cream-coloured calyx lobes, spreading at anthesis and persistent in the fruit. Petals are four, whitish and quickly deciduous. The style is white with a yellow stigma. In females, the style is slightly shorter and the stigma longer than in the barren trees. The ovary is inferior and 2-celled, usually with I ovule in each cell. Plants flower during March-June and the fruit, which is a berry, matures 3-4 months later. For spice purpose, it is picked when it is fully developed, but still green. The fruit has two kidney-shaped seeds. Male trees flower early. Plants normally do not bear in the plains. Climate and soil Pimento grows from sea level to an altitude of 1,000 m above MSL; however, it grows well below 300 m. An annual rainfall of 100 to 200 cm or more with a mean monthly temperature up to 27°C are the best. The performance of allspice in plains is poor and fruiting is not observed in India. The plant grows in a wide range of soils with good drainage. It is not suited to red oils with inadequate moisture. Propagation No variety is reported in India. The common method of propagation is by seeds. Ripe fruits are collected from high yielding regular bearing trees. Seeds are extracted after
soaking the fruits overnight in water and rubbing them in a sieve and washing with clean water. Drying of seeds is done in shade. Seeds should be sown as soon as possible or else germination is reduced. The seeds are sown neither in nursery beds, boxes, pots or basins. Beds of 1.2 m width are prepared by using light soil and incorporating organic matter or a mixture of sand and coir dust or coir dust alone. After sowing, nursery beds are mulched to hasten germination. Dried leaves, straw, paper and damp sacks are used as mulch. Watering is done using a fine spray. Germination takes place between 9 and 10 days or sometime 15 days after sowing. Vegetative propagation by bottle grafting, budding, approach grafting and top working are also possible. Propagation by micropropagation is also reported. Shoot tip cultures of allspice were established and activated to grow. Callus cultures from leaf as well as shoot explants were also established. Cultivation Planting : Six- to ten-month-old seedlings, 25-30 cm in height are ideal for field planting. Seedlings are planted at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m. If soil is poor in fertility, closer spacing is suggested. To avoid losses, instead of one seedling, three are planted in holes of 60 cm3 size. When grafted plants are used, it is suggested to plant one per hole. To ensure sufficient 'males' as pollinators, it is necessary to plant female and 'male' at the ratio of 8:1. Addition of well-rotten farmyard manure or compost and filling with top soil in planting hole is a usual practice. Care should be taken at young stage by providing shade and regular irrigation to reduce casualties in the main field. Manuring and fertilizer : Not much work has been done on this aspect. However, the tentative fertilizer schedule per plant is application of 10 kg compost along with 20:18:50 g N, P2O5 and K2O during the first year, and 20 kg compost 40:36:100 g N, , P2O5 and K2O during the second year. The dose is gradually increased to 50 kg compost and 300 : 250 : 750 g N, , P2O5 and K2O per tree up to 15 years after planting. The fertilizer is applied in two splits, one in May-June and another in September-October. Weeding: As the crop is widely spaced weed problem is common, especially at early stage. The base of plants is always kept clean by regular weeding and mulching. Inter spaces can be used to grow intercrops. Plant protection Pests: Infestation by Helopeltis antonii was observed on tender shoots and leaves. The pest infestation resulted in drying of tender shoots and formation of necrotic spots on leaves. Spraying with quinalphos (0.05%) controls the pest. No other pest is reported. Diseases Leaf spot: Grey to brownish grey coloured discolouration appears on the margin of leaves which extends inward, causing leaf rot. Affected leaves drop off causing varying degree of defoliation. The disease is caused, by Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum. The lower surface of infected leaves shows a downy growth due to production of abundant conidia. The disease is generally noticed during July-September. In addition,
Pestalotiopsis also causes leaf rot. The brown lesions Pestalotiopsis exhibit dark brown advancing margins. The fungi produce conidia in acervuli on the upper surface of affected leaves which could be seem black dots. In severe cases, both these fungi cause die back. Spraying the foliage with Bordeaux mixture (1%) checks this disease. No other disease is reported from India. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Male trees flower early compared to females and the usual flowering time in India is during March to June. It takes 5-6 years for flowering under good management. Fruits are ready to harvest after 3-4 months of flowering. The berries grow in clusters, and are in the best condition for spice when they are green, full matured but not ripe. The unripe berry is spicier and somewhat peppery in taste. They are gathered by climbing on ladder. After harvest, ripe berries are separated from green ones. The berries are spread out in the sun and turned over with a wooden rake, so that they may dry uniformly. Drying takes three to twelve days. A good dry wind accelerates the drying process. End product should be bright brown colour. Completion of drying is confirmed by sharp, dry and crisp rattling sounds when a handful is shaken close to the ear. Then berries are cleaned by winnowing and stored after removing dust. A wellgrown tree yields 20-25 kg dry berries per year. Cropping system All spice mostly cultivated in limited scale in India. It is grown along the border or as mixed crop in other plantation crop.
CURRY LEAF
Introduction Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii Sprengel) (Syn. Bergera koenigii Koen (N.O. Auratiaceae), Chaleos koenigii Kurz ex Swingle) is a perennial leaf vegetable. It belongs to the family Rutaceae and is named ‘Murraya’ after John Adam Murray, Professor of Botany at Gottingen and editor of many of Linnaeus’s works. The leaves of the plant are used extensively for seasoning and flavouring dishes. Curry leaf is exported as curry leaf and as curry leaf oil from India.Deccan, Circar mountains, Western ghats, Coromandel and Travancore – Cochin.
Composition The leaves contain the following free amino acids: asparagines, glycine, serine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, theonine, alanine, praline, tyrosine, tryptophan, γamino butyric acid, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, and traces of ornithine, lysine, arginine and histidine. The leaves also contain a crystalline glucocide, koenigin and a resin. By analysis of concentrated essence of curry leaf, mainly terpenes were obtained. It was also found that M. koenigii produced less than 4% of other components with eight monoterpene hydrocarbons (Ca 16%) and seventeen sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (Ca 80%). Accordingly the most important constituents of M. koenigii are β–caryophyllene, β-gurjunene, β-elemene, β-phellandrene and β-thujene. In another study, it was reported that a carbazole alkaloid-isomurrayazoline from M. koenigii with a structure of 9a, 10, 11, 12, 13, 13a-hexahydro-5, 9, 9, 12 tetramethyl-1, 12-epoxy-9H-indolo (3,2,1-de) phenanthridine (C23H27NO2). Alkaloids like muconicine, mahanimbine, koenimbine, koenigicine, cyclomahanimbine, mahanimbidine, girinimbane, isomahanimbine, murrayacine, mahanine, koenine, koenine, koenigine, koenidine and scopolin were reported. From the stem of M. koenigii, a new C23-carbazole alkaloid mahanimbinol, was isolated. It is the key precursor in the biosynthesis of some 20 other carbazole alkaloids. It was identified two carbazole alkaloids namely 2-methoxy carbazole-3-methyl carboxylate and 1-hydroxy-3-methyl carbazole from the stem bark extract of M. koenigii. From the stem bark, alkaloids like mahanimbinol, mukonal, murrayanine, murrayacinine and murrayazolidine were isolated and characterized. The fruit is edible. It yields 0.76% of a yellow volatile oil with neroli-like odour and pepper-like taste, accompanied by an agreeable sensation of coolness on the tongue. The fruit is reported to contain koenigin. A yellow clear and transparent oil procured from the seeds which is known as limbolee oil.It was reported that leaves on hydrodistillation gave 0.5% essential oil on fresh weight basis, having dark yellow colour, spicy odour and pungent clove-like taste. On examination by GC-MS the oil contained aromadendrene, β-bisabolene, butyl myristrate,carvomethone, cis-caryophyllene, β-costol, citral, trans-caruophyllene, isocaryophyllene, camphene, dehydro aromadendrene, dipentene, β-elemene, β-eudesmol, farnesol, junipene, linalyl acetate, isomenthone, menthol, spathulenol, stearyl alcohol, ateraldehyde, stearic acid, α-terpineol, palmitic acid, α-pinene and zingiberene. The essential oils hydrodistilled from leaves of Murraya koenigii were analysed by GC and GC-MS. Both essential oils contained mainly monoterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes. The main constituents are α-pinene (19─19.7%), sabinene (31.8─44.8%), β-pinene (4.2─4.7%), α- terpinene (1.3─4.3%), beta-phellandrene (6.5─7.9%), tauterpinene (3.9─7.1%) and terpinen-4-01 (5.2-9.9%). Madalageri et al. reported 21 different compounds in the hydrodistilled essential oil out of which only seven were identified. A commercially important odouriferous compound β-caryophyllene is among them.
Uses Curry leaf is used in traditional medicine, for example ayurvedic and unani medicine. The plant is credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Curry leaf has a potential role in the treatment of diabetes. Supplementing a high fat diet with 10% curry leaf can prevent the formation of free radicals and maintain the tissues at normal levels. The curry leaves at 1 % concentration could be used instead for extending the shelf-life of ghee. The leaves of the plant are employed extensively as flavourant in curries like ‘dal’, ‘South Indian Sambar’, ‘rasam’ and chutneys and mulligatawny. Ground curry leaf with mature coconut kernel and spices forms an excellent preserve. Area and Production Curry leaf is a small or medium sized tree. It is grown in homesteads of Kerala and on commercial scale in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Farmers cultivate mostly purple petiole type than green ones as purple one is more pungent. Botany Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii Sprengel) (Syn. Bergera koenigii Koen (N.O. Auratiaceae), Chaleos koenigii Kurz ex Swingle) is a perennial leaf vegetable. It belongs to the family Rutaceae and is named ‘Murraya’ after John Adam Murray, Professor of Botany at Gottingen and editor of many of Linnaeus’s works. Climate and Soil The curry leaf is a plant of tropical / subtropical found growing throughout India including the Andaman Islands up to an altitude of 1500 m above MSL. It is recorded wild in Garwhal to Sikkim, Bengal, Assam. It can grow any type of soil. In Tamil Nadu it is grown in red sandy loam soil and black cotton soil. In Kerala it is grown in laterite soil. Drainage is essential for crop. Propagation Propagation is through seeds as well as root suckers. Fruit from healthy mother plants are collected during July – August and seeds have no dormancy and should be sown immediately. Each fruit has two to three seeds. Seeds are sown in raised sand beds of convenient size. Seeds may germinate within a week. 15 to 20 days old seedlings transplanted to poly-bags having potting mixture. Six month to one year old seedling is ready for filed planting. Seeds also sown directly in the poly-bags. Cultivation Planting: The main field has to be prepared by repeated ploughing. During last ploughing, five to ten tonees of compost or FYM per ha. may be applied depending on soil fertility. Pit of 30 x 30 x 30 cm dimension has to be prepared at 120 cm spacing on either direction. This pit may be filled with well decomposed compost or FYM. One seedling per pit is planted during the onset of rainy season or with irrigation. Irrigation: In areas where rainfall is irrigation is essential. Source irrigation may be well, canal or tank etc., Sandy soil requires more frequent irrigation and heavy soil need less frequency. In general, irrigation is practiced at weekly interval after harvest of leaf
Manuring: Unlike other crops, it is not received much attention from researchers. Application of organic manures or urea is common among farmers. There is no recommended chemical fertilizer schedule for this crop. Few farmers apply urea to accelerate leaf production after harvest. Weed management: As crop is relatively wide spaced, weed problem is expected and interspace may kept clean or intercropped with legumes. Depending upon weed intensity weed management practice has to be adopted. However, closer spacing of 1.5mx1.5m no weed problem was observed. Plant protection Aphids or leaf eating caterpillars or webs can be controlled by spraying dimethoate @ 2ml / litre of water. Carbendazim 1 g / litre of water are used to control leaf spot. Leafs should be harvested after one week to 10 days after spray. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology The leaf yield of 250 to 375 kg / ha. is possible at the end of one year after transplanting. During second and third year after planting the leaf yield is 1500 to 2000 kg / ha at four monthly interval. The yield increases progressively to 2500 kg /ha at three monthly interval during fourth year and 3000 to 3500 kg / ha at two and half monthly interval form 5th year onwards. The leaves retain their flavour even after drying and hence these are marketed both in fresh and fried forms. There is not much loss of volatile oil during drying either in sun/shade or in cross flow dryer. Oven drying at 500C is recommended as the best technology for conversion of fresh leaves into dry powder. Higher temperatures during drying deteriorated powder quality. Fresh leaves on steam distillation under pressure (90lb/in2) yield 2.6% of a volatile oil (curry leaf oil). Hydro-distillation of fresh leaves at 70OC is a cheap and noncumbersome method of extraction of essential oil. Leaf maturity influenced oil composition, the youngest leaves tested being the best. An extended period of extraction caused loss/decrease in certain components while there was gain/increase in other components. The leaves are a fair source of vitamin A. They are also a rich source of calcium, but due to the presence of oxalic acid in high concentration (total oxalates, 1.35%; soluble exalates, 1.15%), its nutritional availability is affected. Cropping system Curry leaf cultivated as sole crop in large scale in certain areas of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It can be grown as a mixed crop with other plantation or field crops. It is suitable grow as a border or bund crop in boundries.
SEED SPICES CORIANDER Introduction Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is a native of Mediterranean region and mainly cultivated for its fruits and leaves, which have a fragrant odour and pleasant aromatic taste. The odour and the taste are due to an essential oil, containing of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds. It is cultivated in Morocco, Russia, Bulgaria, Mexico, USA, Argentina, China, Romania, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala and India.
Composition The composition of coriander seed and green leaves is given below (Table 11.1.1) Table 11.1.1: Composition Of Coriander Seeds And Green Leaves Coriander seeds Moisture Protein Carbohydrate Volatile oil
Per cent 6.3 1.3 24.0 0.3
Green leaves Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate
87.9 3.3 0.6 6.5
Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Sodium Iron
Per cent 0.44 1.2 0.8 0.02 0.006
Calcium Phosphorus Iron
0.14 0.06 0.01
Vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Niacin Vitamin C
mg/100 g 175 IU 0.26 0.23 3.2 12.0
Uses The oil content ranges from 0.10% to 1.00% in the dry seeds. Besides the essential oil, the seed contains 19 to 2 I % fatty oil, which is used for the preparation of soaps of pleasant odour and good lathering property. Whole or ground fruits are a major ingredient of curry powder, and are also used to flavour foods, like pickles, sauces, and confectionery. The distilled essential oil from thefruits are used in perfumes, soaps, candy, cocoa chocolate, tobacco, mea products, baked food, canned foods, soups, liquors and alcoholic beverages an to mask offensive odours in pharmaceutical preparations. After distillation of the fruits, the remaining press-cake is said to be a good cattle feed, rich in vitamin C.
Young plants as well as leaves are used in preparing chutney and are also used for seasoning curries, soups, sauces and chutneys, Besides as condiments, coriander also has medicinal value. Fruits of coriander are used against stomachache, for this purpose fruits are boiled in water and taken in empty stomach. The dry fruits are said to have carminative, diuretic tonic, stomachic, and aphrodisiac properties. Powdered fruit or oil is added to purgative medicines to prevent griping. Coriander is also used as an ingredient of many ayurvedic medicines prescribed for curing ailments concerning indigestion, diarrhoea, dysentery, bad cold and urinary troubles. Area and Production In India it is cultivated throughout the country. Area and production over the years given below (Table11.1.2). The main coriander-growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. Total area under cultivation in India is 4.8352 million hectares with a production of 0.38975 million tones during 2003-04. The area and production are the highest in Rajasthan(Table 11.1.3). A sizeable quantity is exported after meeting the home requirement mainly to the countries like Sri Lanka, Japan, UK, Singapore, USA and Malayasia. Table 11.1.2: Area and production of coriander over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
430400
193000
2
1995-96
407600
196100
3
1996-97
452700
255500
4
1997-98
656500
337700
5
1998-99
546500
290000
6
1999-00
415100
239300
7
2000-01
353600
231300
8
2001-02
429200
319400
9
2002-03
285900
174310
10
2003-04
483520
389750
11
2004-05
373900
326600
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Table 11.1.3: Area and production of coriander in states of India Sl No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
State Andhra Pradesh Bihar Chhatisgarh Haryana Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Meghalaya Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh TOTAL
Area (‘000 ha.) 49.0 2.1 4.0 1.7 9.6 115.9 0.1 19.1 148.4 18.5 5.5 373.90
Production(‘000tonnes) 16.0 1.4 1.0 2.2 1.5 45.0 0.3 9.1 241.4 5.5 3.2 326.60
Yield (kg ha-1) 327 667 250 1294 156 388 3000 476 1627 297 582 873
Botany Coriander, Coriandruln sativum L., is an annual herb belonging to the family Umbelliferae. The genus Coriandrum has two species, of which only C. sativum is cultivated. The plant is a glabrous, erect or semierect herb, attaining 20 to 90 cm in height. It is corymbosely branched in the upper part. The lower simple leaves 2.5 to 10 cm long and 2.0 to 7.5 cm wide and pinnate with long petioles with nearly sessile rounded lobes; upper decompound leaves finely cut linear leaflets. Flowers small and borne in compound umbels, about 4.0 cm across; calyx-gamosepalous, green and 5toothed; corolla with 5 white or pink-coloured petals of unequal size; androecium’sstamens 5 with spreading filaments. Hermaphrodite or staminate flowers may occur in the same umbel; gynoecium’s-two carpel with syncarpous inferior ovary. The schizocarp fruit consist of two mericarps, inner surface of which is concave and outer convex. Climate and Soil Coriander is a tropical crop and can be successfully cultivated in the rabi season in areas free from severe frost, when the crop at a in flowering and seed setting stages. A dry and cold weather favours higher seed production. Cloudy weather during flowering and fruiting stage on the other hand, increases pests (aphids) and diseases incidence. Coriander is cultivated both as irrigated and un-irrigated crop. As an irrigated crop coriander can be cultivated on almost all types of soils provided sufficient organic manure is applied. Un-irrigated crop may be cultivated only on the heavier types of soils which have better water retention capacity. It can be grown successfully in soil with a pH of 6-7. Very light and alkaline soils are not suitable. Propagation The coriander is seed progated. Before sowing, the seeds should be split into two by rubbing and treated with suitable fungicide. Sowing is generally done in rows behind the plough. In irrigated soils where fertility is high, 40 em row spacing is recommended but 30 cm row spacing is optimum for un irrigated crop. Under irrigated con the sowing is also done by broadcasting. The broadcast seeds should be covered well by soil with the help of rake. A light irrigation is given after sowing. A second light irrigation after 810 days is required for proper germination, which completes in 10-15 days depending
upon the temperature. In light soils sowing followed by light irrigation is preferred for better germination. A seed rate of 10-15 kg per hectare is sufficient. Cultivation Cultivars : Important cultivars of coriander are RCr-41, RCr-20, RCr-435, RCr-436, RCr-446, GC-l, GC-2, CS-2 (Sindhu), CS-4 (Sadhna), CS-6 (Swathi), CO-1, CO-2, CO-3, CS-287, RD-44 (Rajendra Swathi), DH-5, Rajendra Sonia, Karan (UD 14), UD 20, UD 446, Pant Haritima, and Hisar Sugandh. Land preparation: The preparatory tillage on heavy soils must start as soon as the soil moisture after kharif season drops down to an optimum level. To avoid loss of soil moisture and to break the clods, the field must be planked immediately after ploughing. In irrigated areas, if the soil moisture is not sufficient the preparatory tillage operations should be carried out after presowing irrigation. On light soils where coriander is cultivated, two to three ploughing are sufficient. Sowing : Coriander crop is taken once a year in North India but twice in South India. Depending upon the day temperature, optimum sowing time in North India is between mid-October and mid-November, when day temperature does not affect germination adversely. Though early sowing results in better growth; but high temperature at sowing time may reduce the plant stand. The early sown crop may come to flowering earlier making the crop more vulnerable to frost damage. Late sowing though affects the crop growth and its yield adversely, it is a safer in areas of frost incidence. Late-sown crop is also affected more by pests, particularly aphids and diseases. In South India, first crop is sown in May and second in October. The crop from October sowing gives better yield. Sowing time and spacing used for coriander is given below (Tabl 10.1.4). Table 11.1.4. Sowing time and spacing adopted in different state State Sowing time Spacing 26 cm x 15 cm Andhra Pradesh First fortnight of November 45 cm x 15 cm October to mid November Gujarat 30 cm x 10 cm Mid October to mid November Rajasthan 15 cm x 15 cm Mid October Tamil Nadu Mid October to early November 30 cm x 10 cm Uttar Pradesh Manuring and fertilization: Ten to fifteen tonnes of well-rotten farmyard manure are applied at the time of field preparation. In addition to this, 20 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O per hectare in the form of fertilizers are recommended for a good crop of coriander in unirrigated areas, and should be applied as a basal dose. For irrigated crop, the rate of N should be increased to 60 kg per hectare and the whole amount of P2O5 and K2O and one third of N should be applied as a basal dose. Remaining nitrogen is to be applied in two equal doses, the first about one month after sowing and the second at the time of flower initiation followed by irrigation. Fertilizer schedule for different states is given below (Table 11.1.5).
Table 11.1.5: Fertilizer schedule for different state State
Schedule (N P K kg / ha)
Remark
Andhra Pradesh
10 – 15 tonnes FYM + 20 : 40 : 40
Full dose as basal
Bihar
60 : 40 : 20 (Irrigated condition)
N applied in two equal splits
Gujarat
20 tonnes FYM + 60 : 60 : 30
N in two splits 30 kg basal and 30 kg at flower initiation
Haryana
60 : 37.5 : 0
Rajasthan
10-20 tonnes FYM + 60 : 30 : 40
Basal N 3 splits, 20 kg basal, remaining 40 kg in 2 equal splits
Tamil Nadu
10-15 tonnes FYM + 20 : 40 : 40
Full dose as basal
Uttar Pradesh
60 : 40 : 30
N in 3 splits, 20 kg basal, 20 kg at first time leaf cutting and 20 kg at second time leaf cutting
Irrigation: For irrigated crop, depending upon temperature and soil type, 3-4 irrigations are required in addition to those given for germination. The first irrigation is given after 35-40 days from the date of sowing, second after 60-70 days and third 80-110 days when seed formation has started. Care should be taken that adequate moisture is available to crop after flower initiation, particularly at the time of seed formation. Interculture operations: In unirrigated crop, normally there is no need of intercultural operations. But if there is an early rain in the standing crop, hoeing and weeding should be done to remove the weeds and to provide better soil aeration. In irrigated crop, depending upon weed problem and duration of a variety, two to three weeding and hoeing operations are required, the first 30-45 days after sowing and later at intervals of 30-40 days. At the time of first weeding and hoeing, thinning should be done to adjust the plant spacings of 10-15 cm within the rows. Plant protection To obtain good yield, crop should be protected from pest and diseases, frost. Pests: The major pest affecting coriander is aphid. The attack usually occurs after flowering has started. This insect though can be easily controlled by a number of insecticides, their use after the crop has started flowering would kill the bee population which affects pollination of the crop. In fact, no insecticide is available which will kill the aphids without affecting the bees. The problem may, however, partly be solved by spraying of 0.03% solution of Endosulfan which is safer for bees compared to Dimethoate or Phosphamidon, or Monocrotophos. Diseases Wilt, powdery mildew and stem gall are the three major diseases of corianders.
1 Wilt: The disease is caused by Fusrium oxysporum and can attack the plants at any stage of growth. The infected plants wilt in green stage and then die. Since the wilt infection occurs in the roots it is very difficult to control this disease and it inflicts heavy losses in all coriander growing areas. Though no direct control measure is available against this disease, the following preventive steps may help in reducing the wilt incidence: (i) use disease-free seeds obtained from the preceding year; (ii) treat seeds with suitable fungicides before sowing, like Bavistin @ 1g/kg seed or Thiram, Agrosan G.N., or Cerasan @ 2 g/kg of seed; (iii) do not grow coriander continuously for more than three years in the same field; (iv) grow wilt-tolerant cultivar : RCr-41; and (v) provide deep summer ploughing to the land. 2 Powdery mildew: The initial stage of this disease caused by Erysiphe polygoni is recognized by the appearance of whitish powdery mass on the leaves and stem. If unchecked at this stage the disease gets intensified and the whole plant becomes almost white with the powdery coating. Infection, at the early stage, normally does not permit seed formation. However, if the infection occurs at a later stage, the seed formation may occur but the seeds will be small and shrivelled, thus affecting the yield and quality of the produce. This disease can be effectively controlled by spraying the plants with 0.2% solution of wettable sulphur or 0.2% solution of Karathane. The spray should be repeated after 10 to 15 days. Dusting the crop with 20 to 25 kg of sulphur dust per hectare would also control the disease. Dusting may be repeated, if necessary. 3 Stem gall: It is caused by Protomyces macrosporus and it is very difficult to control stem gall by any of the fungicides. Cultivar RCr-41 is found to be resistant to this disease under field conditions. 4 Frost : Frost damages coriander crop frequently in North India, particularly in unirrigated areas. In irrigated areas, if the crop is irrigated when frost is expected it will help to save the crop from frost. Fumigation of the crop at dawn, when the temperature is low, is also useful in protecting the crop. Spraying of 0.1 % sulfuric acid has been reported to be beneficial to protect the crop from frost. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Harvesting : Stage of harvesting and handling of the harvest affect the yield as well as quality of coriander, panicularly colour of seed and essential oil content. Overripening will result in deterioration of quality, particularly colour of the seeds and immaturity will result in poor yield and poor quality of essential oil. The crop should be harvested when the seeds of the main umbel turn slightly brown. Harvesting is done either by uprooting the plants by hand or by cutting them with sickles. The plants are then tied in small bundles and stacked for drying with the bundles kept upside down so that the grains are not exposed to the direct sun. If possible, harvested crop should be stacked under shed to avoid discolouration of grain and loss of volatile oil. The grains from dried plants are separated by beating gently and cleaned by winnowing and stored after drying.
Yield: The yield from irrigated crop varies between 10 and 15 q/ha, whereas unirrigated crop gives only 4-5 q/ha. Yield as high as 20 q/ha under unirrigated and 27 q/ha under irrigated conditions have been recorded under favourable conditions and good management. Storage : At the time of storage seeds should not contain more than 8.5 to 9% moisture. High moisture content will deteriorate the quality of the grains. After drying and cleaning, grading is done and the produce is stored in gunny bags lined with paper or in polythene bags (to avoid moisture entrance) under cool, dark and dry conditions so as to prevent browning and loss of flavour. Some loss of volatile oil is inevitable during prolonged period of storage. Under good storage conditions, seeds retain flavour and colour upto 9 months. Gravity separation is used to remove unwanted material. Grading is done further as special, good, fair and NS as specified by AGMARK and ISI. Secretion of some toxic metabolites (aflatoxins) by certain fungi have been reported during storage of coriander. It is necessary to store coriander very carefully as aflatoxins are produced more during first six months of storage, which coincides with high relative humidity (60-75%) and temperature (18-28OC). The AGMARK Grade of coriander is given in appendix (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007. Cropping System Corinader crop can be mix cropped with Indian mustard, maize, pearl millet, cowpeas, sorghum. Turmeric + Coriander + Onion is a very common system in turmeric growing areas of Tamil Nadu. It is grown under both irrigated and rainfed condition. It can be intercropped with chili also. Crop rotation with other field or vegetables are in practice at many parts of India.
FENUGREEK Introduction Fenugreek or Methi (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is the third largest seed spice in India after coriander and cumin. This is one of the oldest known plants. It was a part of Indian diet even 3000 years ago. This was used by Egyptians as medicine and food. They also used it as a component of holy smoke, an Egyptian incense used in fumigation and embalming. In the second century B.C., it was grown as fodder in Roman fields. In the middle ages, it was recommended as cure for baldness in men. It has a mention in Ayurvedic preparations like methi-modak, swalpa-mehti modak. It is originated from South Eastern Europe and West Asia. Composition The important constituents of seed are volatile oil, fixed oil, proteins, cellulose, starch, sugars, mucilage, minerals, alkaloids, vitamins and enzymes. The specific odour with bitter taste is mainly attributed to oleoresin content. Composition of fenugreek seeds is given in below(Table 11.2.1).
Table 11.2.1: Composition of Fenugreek Seeds Per Minerals cent Moisture 6.3 Phosphorus Protein 9.5 Potassium Fat 10.0 Calcium Fibre 18.5 Sodium Carbohydrate 42.3 Iron Calorific value 370 calories/100 g
Per cent 0.48 2.1 1.30 0.09 0.04
Vitamins
mg/100 g
Vitamin A Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Niacin Vitamin C
1040 IU 0.41 0.36 6.0 12.0
Uses It is cultivated mainly for seeds, but sometimes, also cultivated as a leafy vegeetable or fodder crop. The seeds are used as a spice to improve the flavour and the nutritive value of foods. It forms one of the odorous constituents of curry powder. It is used as a seasoning agent for pickles. Fried seeds with a small quantity of oil are used for seasoning vegetables. Besides being an important spice, fenugreek seeds possess important medicinal properties. They are mucilaginous, demulscent, diuretic, tonic, carminative emmenagogue, astringent, emollient and aphrodisiac. The seeds are, therefore, used in preparation of several ayurvedic medicines. Preparations from seed are consumed to promote appetite, correct digestive system and also to relieve pain in joints, particularly in old age. In recent years, the importance of fenugreek seed has further increased for the important steroid 'diosgenin' which it possesses. Diosgenin is used in the preparation of sex hormones and oral contraceptives. Area and Production Fenugreek is considered to be native of South-East Europe and West Asia. It is now cultivated in India, Argentina, Egypt, southern France, Morocco, Algeria, Ethiopia, Bulgaria, Spain, Turkey, China, Pakistan, Russia, Greece, Africa, and Lebanon. India occupies a prime position among the fenugreek-growing countries of the world (Table 11.2.2). The area and production is mainly concentrated in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu(Table 11.2.3), though it is also cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. In India it is grown in 50,596 ha and 64,221 tonnes production during 2003-04. Rajasthan alone cultivates 43,856 ha with an annual production of 56,175 tonnes (2003-04).
Table 11.2.2: Area and production of fenugreek over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
45733
57146
2
1995-96
39035
47494
3
1996-97
33421
43741
4
1997-98
33590
31413
5
1998-99
35732
35737
6
1999-00
37250
40480
7
2000-01
35450
52020
8
2001-02
115600
136640
9
2002-03
50600
64220
10
2003-04
50600
64220
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut Table 11.2.3: Statewise area, production and yield of fenugreek in India during 2003-04 Sl No
State
Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Rajasthan
43.856
56.175
1281
2
Uttar Pradesh
0.221
0.156
706
3
Gujarat
6.258
7.494
1198
4
Uttaranchal
0.261
0.396
1517
TOTAL / Mean
50.596
64.221
1269
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Botany Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) belongs to the family Fabaceae. The plant is an annual, erect or spreading, 50-70 em tall herb. The young terminal parts of the roots bear nodules harbouring nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The stem is slender, smooth and bears alternate branches. Leaves pinnately trifoliate; leaflets, 2-2.5 cm long, toothed, oblanceolate to oblong. Flowers axillary, 2 or 3 per axil, sessile and small; calyx gamosepalous, 5 sepals represented by 5 linear subequal teeth; corolla typical of papilionaceous flowers with obovate or oblong standard, oblong wings, keel shorter than the wings, obtuse and exserted; androecium-diadelphous, 9 united and one free, anthers uniform; gynoecium-ovary unicarpellary superior, axile placentation, maturing in 5-7.5 cm long pod with long persistent beak, 10-20 seeded. Seeds are 2.5-5 mm long, 2-5 mm broad, oblong-rhomboidal, with a deep furrow running obliquely from one side, dividing
the seed into a larger and smaller part. Climate and Soil Fenugreek is a cold-weather crop. It is mainly cultivated as a rabi crop and is fairly tolerant to frost. In South India, it is also cultivated as a kharif crop in moderate or low rainfall areas. Heavy rainfall area is not suitable for its cultivation. At the time of initial growth, it requires moderately humid climate and low temperature. But cool dry weather at the time of maturity favours seed yield. Cloudy weather during flowering and fruiting increases pest and disease incidence. Fenugreek can grow successfully on all types of soils ranging from clay loam to sandy loam. It is more tolerant to salinity compared to the other legume crops. Fertile, well-drained loam or sandy loam soil is best for fenugreek cultivation. Propagation It is seed propagated crop. Fenugreek can be sown by broadcasting the seeds or in lines spaced 30 cm apart. The broadcast seeds are covered by soil with the help of rakes. For proper germination of seeds the field should have adequate moisture at the time of sowing. Germination starts in 3-4 days depending upon the soil temperature and moisture. A 10 cm plant to plant distance is suggested for high-grain yield. A seed rate of 15-25 kg per hectare is enough in either method. Seed treatment with Rizhobium culture has been reported to be useful for growth. Cultivation Cultivars Pure-line selection in the superior types identified in the germplasm collection has yielded a number of superior cultivars. Characteristics of important cultivars of fenugreek are summarized hereunder. RMt-l : It is developed by Rajasthan Agricultural University through pure-line selection from a local collection, released in 1989. The plants are semierect, tall, and moderately branched with bold, and yellow-co loured grains. It is moderately resistant to root rot and tolerant to powdery mildew diseases. It matures in 140-150 days and produces an average yield of 14.7 q/ha. RMt-l43: It is developed through pure-line selection in a local collection from Jodhpur area and indentified for release in 1997. The grains of this cultivar are bold with typical yellow colour. It is moderately resistant to powdery mildew. It takes 140-150 days to mature and produces an average yield of 16.0 q/ha. It is especially suitable for heavier soils of Chittor, Bhilwara, Jhalwar and Jodhpur area in Rajasthan. CO-l : It is developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University through the selection from TG 2336 of IARI and released in 1982. The plants are short and green with mediumsized brownish orange seeds. It is tolerant to root rot. It matures in 95 days and produces an average yield of 6.80 q/ha. Rajendra Kanti : It is developed by Rajendra Agricutural University, Bihar through mass selection from Raghunathpur germplasm and released in 1987. The plants are tall
and bushy with medium-sized golden yellow seeds. It is moderately resistant to powdery mildew, caterpillar and aphids. It matures in 120 days and produces an average yield of 12.50 q/ha. Lam Selection-l :It is developed by Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University through selection from germplasm collected from Madhya Pradesh and released in 1992. The plants are bushy, green with medium-sized golden yellow seeds. It is tolerant to root rot, powdery mildew, caterpillars and aphids. It matures in 90 days and produces an average yield of 7.40 q/ha. HM-I03:It is developed by Haryana Agricultural University through pure-line selection from local germplasmand identified in 1997. The plants are bushy, semierect with bold, yellow, attractive grains (13-15 gll 000 grains). It is modertely resistant to leaf spot disease. It matures in 140-150 days and produces an average yield of 20.1 q/ha. Hissar Sonali:It is developed by Haryana Agricultural University through pure-line selectio from local germplasm and identified in 1993. The plants are bushy, semierect with bold, yellow attractive grains (13-15 gllOOO grains). It is moderately resistant to leaf spot and root rot complex diseases. It matures in 140-150 days and produces an average yield of 19.0 q/ha. A thorough soil preparation is necessary for good growth. In heavy soils 3-4, whereas, in light 2-3 ploughings followed by planking are sufficient for field preparation. Soil moisture should be optimum at the time of field preparation to ensure proper soil structure. Sowing : The optimum sowing time in North India is last week of October to first week of November. The highest yield was recorded in mid-October sown crop in Rajasthan but the yield reduction up to mid-November sowing was not significant. Late-sown crop is affected more by pests and diseases, particularly aphids and powdery mildew. In latesown crop, it is likely that maturity coincides with high temperature which causes forced maturity resulting in poor yield. In South India, optimum sowing time for rabi crop is first week of October to mid-October and for kharif crop is mid-June to late July. Manuring and fertilization : For good yield, apply 10-15 tonnes of farmyard manure at the time of field preparation. In addition to this application of 15 kg Nand 25 kg P2O5 in the form of fertilizers at the time of field preparation significantly increased the yield. Fertilizer schedule for different state is given below (Table 11.2.4) Irrigation: In rabi season, fenugreek is cultivated as an irrigated crop. The number of irrigation required, of course, depends upon the type of the soil and evapo-transpiration potential prevailing during the season. In Rajasthan, a good fenugreek crop needs about 8 irrigations. The number of irrigations may be reduced to 4-5 in heavy soils with good water retention capacity. Distribution of irrigations during the growing season should be such that the crop does not suffer a water stress during pod and seed development.
Table 11.2.4: Sowing time, spacing and fertilizer recommendations for various states State Rajasthan
Time of sowing Ist week of November
Spacing (cm) 25 x 10
Fertilizer schedule 10 FYM; 20:40 kg/ha N : P as basal and 20 kg of N as top dressing
Gujarat
Ist week of October
15 x 10
40 : 40 kg/ha of N : P
Bihar
Middle of October
20 x 10
40 : 60 : 20 kg/ha of N :P:K
Uttar Pradesh
End of September to beginning of November
30 x 10
60 : 50 : 10 kg/ha N : P :K
Tamil Nadu
Ist week of October
15 x 10; 22.5 x 10
50 : 40 : 25 kg/ha N : P :K
Haryana
Mid October November
30 x 10
40 : 40 kg/ha N : P
to
Inter-culture operations: Two weeding and hoeing operations, first 10-15 days after and second 40-50 days after germination, are normally required to keep the crop free from weeds and the soil well-aerated. At the time of first weeding, crop should be thinned to adjust the plant to plant distance of about 10 cm within the rows in the linesown crop. In broadcast-sown crop also the excess plant should be removed to minimize plant competition. Plant protection Pest Aphid (Aphis craccivora) : It causes heavy loss to the crop. It can, however, be easily controlled by spraying of 0.03% solution of any of the Endosulfan, Dimethoate, Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos. The spray should be repeated if insect reappears or cloudy weather, which favours the insect, prevails. Diseases 1 Powdery mildew: The disease is caused by Erysiphe polygonii. The initial stage of this disease is marked by the appearance of whitish powdery mass on the leaves. If not checked at an early stage, the disease intensifies and the whole plant becomes whitish with the powdery coating. The seed size and the yield are adversely affected. The disease can be effectively controlled by spraying the crop with 500 litres/ha of 0.2% solution of wettable sulphur or 0.I % solution of Karathane. The spray should be repeated after 1015 days. Dusting the crop with sulphur dust 15-20 kg per hectare also controls the disease. Dusting may be repeated if the disease reappears. 2. Downy mildew: It is caused by Peronospora trigonellae. The initial stage of the disease is marked by appearance of whitish downy growth on the lower surface of the leaves. As the disease advances, the leaves become yellow and fall. The plant becomes
stunted and in the severe form it dies. The disease spreads fast if temperature rises. The disease can effectively controlled by spraying the crop with 0.2% solution of any of the copper fungicides, namely, Blitox, Cupramar and Fytolan. The spray should be repeated if the disease symptom reappears or the control is not complete. 3 Root rot: The disease caused by Rhizoctonia sp. appears at the late stage of the crop. The diseaese, beginning with the wilting and drying up of the leaves, may be reduced through adopting the proper crop rotation schedule and deep summer ploughing. The incidence is severe if legume crops, such as, moth or green gram in kharif is followed by fenugreek in rabi. It should therefore, be avoided. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Harvesting: Desi methi for vegetable purpose is ready for harvesting in 25-30 days after sowing, when 3-4 leaves are formed on each plant. While Kasuri or Champa methi takes 30-35 days for intiating leaf cuttings. The plants are cut 2-3 cm above the ground with a sharp knife, leaving the stubs to produce new shoots for further cuttings. The cut or nipped portions are tied into bundles before marketing and by that time, they should be kept cool and moist. The ratoon may be harvested 12 – 15 days. If harvested late, leaves develop a bitter taste. After taking 2-3 cuttings, plants mqay be kept for seed purpose or after 4-5 cuttings, they are uprooted. However, yield of seeds is more when grown for seed purpose. Leaves are also dried off soon after harvesting and well dried leaves can be stored for one year. The crop takes 70-80 days for flowering after sowing and for maturity, it may take another 80-90 days. The harvesting should be done when the crop has turned yellow and most of the leaves, excepting the top ones, have fallen off. The grain will shatter if the harvesting is delayed beyond this stage. The harvested plants are stacked in small bundles. After drying in the sun for 4-5 days, the grains are separated by beating the bundles on the threshing floor. The grains are cleaned by winnowing and stored. Yield : If appropriate package of practices are followed, a grain yield of 10-15 q/ha is easily obtained. Yield as high as 30 q/ha can be obtained under favourable conditions and good management. Seeds are stored in gunny bags lined with polythene paper with an initial moisture level of 7-8% for two years. The AGMARK Grade of fennugreek is given in appendix. (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007. Cropping system Fenugreek can be successfully grown as mixed crop with green gram, sesamum and coriander. It is also rotated with field or vegetable crops.
FENNEL Introduction Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller) is a biennial or perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the family Umbelliferae. It is also cultivated as an annual crop of relatively longer duration in winter months in frost-free area of North India, particularly in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The crop is mainly cultivated for its seeds - botanically schizocarpic fruits, though all the parts of the plant are aromatic and used in one or the other way. The aroma is due to the presence of volatile oils.
Composition Table 11.3.1 below gives composition of fennel seeds indicating the percentage 0 important ingredients besides volatile oil content. Table 11.3.1.Composition of Fennel Seeds Content Moisture Protein Fat Fibre Carbohydrate
Percent 6.30 9.50 10.00 18.50 42.30
Content Calcium Phosphorus Iron Sodium Potassium
Percent 1.30 0.48 0.01 0.09 1.70
The seeds are also rich in vitamins, particularly B I' B2, niacin, C and A. In European countries another species of Foeniculum, viz., F dulce is also cultivaaed for its volatile oil which is commercially known as sweet or Roman or Florence fennel oil in contrast to bitter fennel oil of F. vulgare seeds. Uses Fennel seeds for their fragrant odour and pleasant aromatic taste, are widely used in soups, pickles, meat dishes, sauces, pastries, confectionaries, etc. In India and neighbouring countries, they are also used as a masticatory or for chewing alone or with 'betel', particularly after meals. Besides seeds, the tender leaves are used in fish sauce and for garnishing. The leaf-stalks and the tender shoots are also used in salads. The seeds also possess stimulating and carminative properties. The seeds are, therefore, used as an important ingredient in several allopathic as well as Ayurvedic medicines which are administered in diseases like cholera, bile, gripping, constipation, dysentery and diarrhoea, and also in diseases affecting chest, lungs, spleen and kidney.
Area and Production Fennel is considered to be native of southern Europe and Mediterranean region. It is widely cultivated throughout the temperate and subtropical region in the world mainly in the countries like Romania, Russia, Germany, France, Italy, India, Japan, Argentina and the USA. In India, fennel is grown mostly in the North, the important states being Gujarat and Rajasthan. Ona limited scale it is also cultivated in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu & Kashmir. Though the area and production of fennel in India fluctuate, it was cultivated in an area of 23,010 ha and the annual production was 27,780 tonnes in 2003-04. A sizeable quantity of fennel seeds is exported every year to the countries like USA, UK, Germany, Japan, Singapore, Canada, Malaysia, etc. Area and production details given below (Table 11.3.2 & 11..3.3) Table 11.3.2: Area and production of fennel over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
25244
29349
2
1995-96
13466
16004
3
1996-97
25899
28975
4
1997-98
28275
36896
5
1998-99
18323
23897
6
1999-00
18220
19290
7
2000-01
25830
27270
8
2001-02
39920
38530
9
2002-03
23010
27780
10
2003-04
23010
27780
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Table 11.3.3: Area, production and yield of fennel in different states during 2003-04 Sl No
State
Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Rajasthan
4.137
2.053
496
2
Uttar Pradesh
0.814
0.450
553
3
Gujarat
17.947
25.099
1399
4
Haryana
0.108
0.181
1676
TOTAL / Mean
23.006
27.783
1208
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Botany A large number of varieties and races differing in size, odour and taste of fruits exist among wild and cultivated fennel but they are hardly distinguishable from one another. They are regarded as races, varieties or subspecies of Foeniculum vulgare. The varieties which yield commerciaI1y important volatile oil are generally referred to the subspecies capillaceum which contains two distinct varieties, var. vulgare (cultivated or wild) yielding bitter fennel oil, and var. dulce yielding sweet or Roman or Florence fennel oil. While the former variety is cultivated in Russia, Romania, Hungary, Germany, France, Italy, India, Japan, Argentina and the USA, the cultivation of dulce is mainly confined to France, Italy and Macedonia in southern Europe. The botanical description which follows refers to Indian fennel (F vulgare) which is sometimes regarded as a distinct variety, var. panmorium (syn. F panmorium). A stout glabrous aromatic herb, 100-180 cm high; stem slender, smooth and hollow at maturity with distinct veins. Leaves alternate, pinnately compound with partite leaf blades and sheathed petiole. Inflorescence terminally borne compound umbel subtended by an involucre of bracts; number of umbels per plant varies widely depending upon the cultivar and agronomic condition. Flowers small, complete, regular and pentamerous; calyx small, gamosepalous five teeth representing the sepals, adnate to ovary apex; corolla five yellow coloured petals, polypetalous, usually apically inflexed; androecium five stamens inflexed within bud but spreading ultimately, alternating with petals; bicarpellary, syncarpous with inferior ovary. Fruit commonly known as seed is a schizocarp of two mericarjJs attached to a dividing carpophore; 4-8 mm long. Climate and Soil Fennel is a cold-weather crop and comes up well in mild climate. A dry and cold weather favours high seed yield. That is why it does not thrive well in South India except at high altitudes. Fennel is infected with diseases, particularly Ramularia blight, if cloudy weather prevails for long during the flowering season. Well-drained loam or black sandy soil rich in plant nutrients is ideal for fennel cultivation. Sandy soil is unsuitable for fennel. Propagation It is a seed propagated crop. The seeds may be broadcast in the beds uniformly and covered by soil. Line sowing in rows 50 to 60 cm apart in heavy and 40 to 50 cm apart in lighter soils, is better for interculture operations. Plant to plant distance within rows should be adjusted to 20-30 cm by thinning when the plants are 4 to 5 weeks old. In either method of sowing, care should be taken that the seeds are not covered deeper than 2 cm and at the same time all are covered with the soil. Germination is problem in fennel as with other umbellifers. Soaking of seeds for 5 days prior to seeding and use of fullymatured seeds will increase germination. Cultivation Cultivars Following different methods of selection in the elite germplasm material five cultivars have been identified or released. Salient growth and yield parameters of these cultivars
are summarized below: RF-101: It is developed by Rajasthan Agricultural University through recurrent half-sib selection from a local collection of Tonk and indentified for release in 1995. The plants are tall, erect with stout stem. It bears large umbels with long bold grains. It matures in 150-160 days and produces an average yield of 15.5 q/ha. RF-l25: It is developed by Rajasthan Agricultural University through recurrent half-sib selection from an exotic collection, EC-243380 from Italy, and identified for release in 1997. The plants are early, short, with compact umbels and long bold grains. When green, they present a denser view. It matures in 110-130 days and produces an average yield of 17.3 q/ha. PF-35 :It is derived by Gujarat Agricultural University through selection from local germplasm and released in 1973. The plants are tall and spreading with mediumsized, hairless and green seeds. It is moderately tolerant to sugary disease, leaf spot and leaf blight. It matures in 225 days and produces, on average, yield of 12.8 q/ha. Gujarat Fennel-l:It is developmed by Gujarat Agricultural University through selection from Vijapur local and released in 1985. The plants are tall and bushy with oblong, medium bold and dark green seeds. It is moderately tolerant to sugary disease and leaf spot. It matures in 225 days and produces an average yield of 16.95 q/ha. It is suitable for early sowing and reasonably tolerant to drought. CO-l :It is developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University through reselection from PF-35 and released in 1985. The plants are medium in height with diffuse branching. It matures in 220 days and produces an average yield of 5.67 q/ha. It is suitable for drought-prone, waterlogged, saline and alkaline conditions. It is suitable for hilly areas as well as for intercropping and border cropping. The field should be ploughed 3-4 times to bring the soil up to the depth of 20-25 cm to a fine tilth. The field is then planked and divided into beds of convenient size. Sowing Fennel is a long duration crop. Early sown crop therefore, gives more yield. In Rajasthan, maximum yield is obtained from sowing in the first week of October. There is a progressive decrease in yield with delay in sowing. Manuring and fertilization Fifteen to twenty tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare should be applied at the time of field preparation. Fennel also responds favourably to nitrogenous fertilizers, with a progressive increase in yield up to a dose of 45 kg nitrogen per hectare. Half of the nitrogen along with 15 kg P2O5 per hectare should be applied as a basal dose and the remaining half of the nitrogen should be divided in two splits, the first split top-dressed after one month from germination and the remaining split at the time of flowering with irrigation.
Fertilizer recommendations for different state Guarat
- 90:45:20 kg NPK/ha and 20 t FYM; N is in 3 splits 50 kg basal, other 25 and 25 at 30 and 60 DAS.
Rajasthan
- 30: 40 kg NP / ha as basal and 30 kg N each at 30 and 60 DAS
Haryana equal
- 50:30 kg N : P2O5 / ha. N in 3 splits i.e., 25 kg as basal and remaining in splits at 30 and 60 DAS.
Bihar
- 60:40:20 kg NPK/ha.
Uttar Pradesh& Uttaranchal - 30:40:40 kg NPK/ha as basal and 30 kg N top dressings in two equal splits at #0 and 40 DAS. Irrigation Fennel requires more frequent irrigation. A light irrigation should be given immediately after sowing so that the seeds are soaked well. Second irrigation is given after 8 to 10 days, depending upon temperature. The germination starts after second irrigation. Subsequent irrigations are given at an interval of 15 to 25 days depending upon the weather condition and soil type. For good yield, the crop should suffer from water stress, particularly after grain formation has started. Interculture operations :First weeding and hoeing is done about 30 days after sowing when the plants are approximately 5 cm tall. At this stage, thinning is also done to adjust the plant spacing. Another one or two hoeings and weedings are required to remove weeds and for proper aeration of the soil. Earthing should be done to prevent lodging of the plants. Plant protection To obtain high yield of good quality grain, crop will be protected from pest and diseases. Pest Aphids attack the crop severely following flowering. The pest can, however, be effectively controlled by spraying the crop with 0.05% solution of Endosulfan or 0.03% solution of Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos. Two sprays at the interval of 10 to IS days, depending upon recurrence of the pest, may be given. The crop should be sprayed in the evening so that damage to honeybees is minimum. Endosulfan is comparatively safe for honeybee. Diseases 1 Blight: Fennel is severely infested by blights, caused by Ramularia foeniculi and
Alternaria tenuis. 2 Ramularia blight: The disease appears after 60 to 80 days from sowing, on the lower leaves as minute, angular, brown necrotic spots which later become larger and are covered with greyish erumpent growth. The disease advances upwards and the linear and rectangular spots coalesce covering the entire stem, peduncles and fruits. If the plants are affected at early stages, seed formation does not take place, otherwise the seeds are shrivelled and blackened. 3 Alternaria blight: The disease affects the inflorescence of the crop causing heavy loss in yield. It initially appears on flower buds, which turn pale yellow, later light brown, and finally dry and fall down. The disease spreads rapidly and the whole inflorescence and pedicel get infected within a fortnight. The fungus also infects young developing seeds whenever disease appears late. In some rare cases, the disease is observed on the tips of leaves of young plants, though mostly it confines to the inflorescence region. Both the blights can be controlled by spraying 0.2 to 0.3% solution of Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 or any copper fungicide namely Blitox, Cupramar, Fytolan or blue copper at the first appearance of the disease. Spray should be repeated at an interval of 10 to 15 days. 4 Powdery mildew: The disease appears as powdery mass on the leaves as sporadic spots which later spreads on the whole plant. The disease can be controlIed by spraying 0.03 to 0.1"% solution of Kerathane or 0.2% solution of wettable sulphur. 5 Gummosis : The disease is marked by oozing of a gummy substance from the inflorescence which becomes sticky, shrivelIed and subsequently dries up without producing any seed. The disease is endemic to certain areas in Rajasthan and its adjoining area of Gujarat state, where it appears in severe form. No control measure is available for this disease. Even the casual factor has not been established. Besides the above diseases, the crop is sometimes infested by wilt caused by Fusarium equiseti affecting mostly at the seedling stage. Control measures similar to those described for cumin wilt may be folIowed. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Harvesting : For good quality grains, umbels should be picked as soon as they tend to turn yelIowish from green. Since alI umbels do not attain the picking stage at a time, the picking should be done 3 to 4 times at an interval of 10 to 15 days. The harvested umbels may be dried in sun for a day or two and then in shade tilI they are ready for threshing. Keeping in sun for a long time may cause loss of green colour of seeds which is important from quality point of view. Harvesting of umbels when the grains have attained half the length of fulIy grown seed, approximately 30 to 40 days after anthesis, and drying them in shade wilI yield fine quality of masticatory fennel, traditionalIy known as Lucknow Soup. However, contrary to early belief, the volatile oil content of smalI and large (fulIy grown but harvested
before they dry on the plant) seeds, is similar, of course the yield difference is high. Yield : From a disease-free field with recommended package of practices an yield up to 19.00 q/ha of matured grains can be obtained. Yield of small grains harvested at half length size of grain, range between 5.0 to 7.5 q/ha. To maintain quality and lustre of seeds, fennel should be stored in gunny bags after thoroughly drying to the level of 8 to 9% moisture. The AGMARK Grade of fennel is given in appendix. (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007. Cropping system In chilli growing areas fennel mixed and intercropped with it. At the time of transplanting of chilli in August – September, fennel seeds are broadcasted in between chilli plants or line sowing is done in between chilli rows. Chilli crop is ready for harvesting during December to January and Fennel crop in April to May. Potato, pea and French bean are intercropped in fennel fields. It is intercropped with sugarcane and potato.
CUMIN Introduction Cumin seed is one of the most important condiments and it is one of the earliest known minor spices used by mankind. It is believed to be native of Egypt and Syria, Turkestan and the Eastern Mediterranean region. The typical pleasent aroma which the seeds possess is due to its volatile oil content. Cuminol or the cuminaldehyde is the principal constituent of the volatile oil.
Composition In the indigenous cultivars of cumin the volatile oil content varies from 2.5 to 3.5 per cent. Volatile oil content as high as 5.6 per cent was recorded in one exotic (Egyptian) cultivar UC-198. Besides volatile oil, the seeds contain 14.3 to 24.0 per cent ether extract, 17.7 per cent protein, 35.5 per cent carbohydrate and 7.7 per cent ash. They are also rich
in vitamins, particularly, B1, B2, A and C. The composition of cumin seeds is given in below(Table 11.4.1). Table 11.4.1: Composition of Cumin Seeds Content Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Calcium Potassium Phosphorus Sodium Iron
Per cent 6.2 17.7 23.8 35.5 0.9 2.1 0.45 0.16 0.048
Vitamins Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Vitamin C Vitamin A Niacin
mg/100 g 0.73 0.38 17.20 175 IU 2.5
Uses The cumin seeds form an essential ingredient of all mixed spices and curry powders for flavouring vegetables, pickles, soups, sausages, cheese and for seasoning bread, cakes and biscuits. The cumin oil is also used in perfumery and for flavouring liquors and cordials. The seeds are also extensively used in Ayurvedic medicines prescribed for stomachache and dyspepsia, diarrohoea and hoarseness of voice. The seeds have diuretic, carminative, stimulant, astringent and emmenagogue properties which make them useful for medicinal preparations. Area and Production Cumin is believed to be native of the Mediterranean and near-east region. It is mainly cultivated in the countries like India, Egypt, Israil, Libya, Iran, Pakistan, Morocco, Japan and Turkey. In India, it is cultivated in almost all the states, excepting high humidity areas like Assam, Kerala and West Bengal. Total area under the crop is around 5.2 lakh hectares with a production of about 134760 tonnes during 2003-04. Rajasthan and Gujarat states together account for more than 90 per cent of the total area. In these states its cultivation is concentrated in the arid and semiarid districts. India exports a sizeable quantity of cumin seed every year, during 2005-06 12,000 tonnes exported to the value of Rs. 8800 lakhs. Table 11.4.2: Area and production of cumin over the years in India Sl No
Year
Area (ha.)
Production (tones)
1
1994-95
249627
78769
2
1995-96
220326
75241
3
1996-97
307046
117122
4
1997-98
288832
115344
5
1998-99
264018
107858
6
1999-00
247450
70820
7
2000-01
315800
139360
8
2001-02
526640
206420
9
2002-03
521250
134760
10
2003-04
521250
134760
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Table 11.4.3. Area, production and yield of cuminin different states during 2003-04 Sl No
State
Area (‘000 ha.)
Production (‘000 tonnes)
Yield (kg ha-1)
1
Gujarat
200.049
64.275
321
2
Rajasthan
321.201
70.478
219
3
Uttar Pradesh
0.002
0.007
3500
TOTAL / Mean
521.252
134.760
259
Source: Arecanut and Spices Database, Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Calicut
Botany Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is an annual herb belonging to the family Umbelliferae. The plant is semierect attaining a height of 20 to 30 cm. Stem slender and smooth, usually 4 to 5 branches emerge form the base of the plant, giving an umbrella shape to the plant. Flowers, small and borne in compound umbels about 2 to 3 cm across; calyx, five-toothed gamosepalous; corolla consists of five pink-coloured but sometimes whitecoloured petals united at base; androecium consists of five stamens; anthers mature earlier than the stigma becomes receptive; gynoecium, two carpels with syncarpous inferior ovary, stigma persisting as distinct stylopodium. The commonly known cumin seed is a schizocarpic fruit-each mericarp with concave inner and convex outer surface, contains a single seed embedded in the endosperm. Climate and Soil It is a tropical plant and it can be cultivated as a rabi crop in areas where the atmospheric humidity during the months of February and March, when the crop is in flowering and seed formation stage is low. High humidity during flowering and fruiting period would induce certain diseases. Cumin grows well under dry and cold climatic conditions. Cumin can be successfully cultivated .on well-drained, medium-textured fertile soils. Continuous cropping of cumin in the same field may cause soil-borne diseases, particularly wilt. Studies also indicate that seed exudates of cumin inhibits the germination of subsequent crop. In addition to diseases, accumulation of harmful exudates is the probable cause in deterring continuous cropping of cumin.
Propagation Cumin is a seed propagated crop. Twelve to fifteen kg of good quality seed per hectare is enough to obtain an optimum plant stand. The required quantity of seeds are broadcast uniformly and covered with soil to a depth of 1.5-2.0 cm. Line sowing at 30 cm row spacing is better than broadcasting for interculture operations. Germination is a problem in cumin and takes 10 to 14 days to germinate, depending upon temperature. Soaking of seeds for 48 hours improves germination. Cultivation Cultivars : Four high-yielding cumin cultivars tolerant to major diseases are described below: RZ-19: It is developed by Rajasthan Agricultural University through recurrent single plant progeny selection from a collection of Kekri (Ajmer) and released in 1988. The plants are erect with pink flowers and bold grey pubescent grains. As compared to local check, the cultivar is more tolerant to wilt as well as blight. It matures in 120-140 days and produces an average yield of 5.6 q/ha. RZ-209: It is developed by Rajasthan Agricultural University through recurrent single plant progeny selection from a local collection of Ahore (Jalore) and identified in 1995. The plants are erect with pink flowers and bold, grey, pubescent grains. The cultivar has shown higher resistance to wilt and blight diseases. It matures in 140 to 150 days and produces an average yield of 6.5 q/ha. GC-l : It is developed by Gujarat Agricultural University through recurrent single plant selection and released in 1988. The plants are erect with pink flowers and bold, linearoblong, ash-brown grains. The cultivar is tolerant to wilt disease. It matures in 105-110 days and produces an average yield of 7.0 q/ha. GC-2: It is developed by Gujarat Agricultural University through pure line selection and released in 1991. The plants are bushy with good branching habit and attractive grains, brownish grey in colour. The cultivar is moderately tolerant to wilt, blight and powdery mildew. It matures in 100 days and produces an average yield of 7.0 q/ha. Land preparation: Field preparation should start just after harvesting of kharif crop. Two to three ploughings are sufficient to bring the soil to a fine tilth required for cumin sowing. The field is then planked and divided into beds of convenient size. Sowing: Optimum time of sowing is from mid-November to first week of December. However, good yields are obtained when the sowing is done in mid-November. Line sowing results in poor growth of the crop, more disease and pest attack and ely in low yield. Manuring and fertilization : Farmyard manure @ 15 to 20 tonnes per hectare should be applied uniformly in the field before ploughing. Cumin responds favourably to nitrogenous fertilizers and 30 kg of nitrogen per hectare is the optimum dose. The nitrogen should be applied as top-dressing in two equal splits with irrigation. First dose at
40 days after sowing and second at flowering stage, viz., 70-80 days after sowing. Irrigation: A light irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Care should be taken while irrigating the field that water does not flow too fast in the beds. It may gather the seeds towards the sides resulting in uneven distribution of plants. Second irrigation is required after 8 to 10 days. The germination starts only after second irrigation. If day temperature is high and crust formation has occurred, a third light irrigation may be required after another 5 to 6 days for completion of germination. After the above 2-3 irrigations, subsequent irrigations are given at an interval of 15 to 25 days depending upon weather condition and soil type. It is, however, important to keep in mind that irrigation should be avoided during the period when the crop is maturing as this may affect the seed quality adversely. The irrigation at the time of grain formation should be somewhat heavier so that no further irrigation is required. Interculture operation :The first weeding and hoeing is done at the time when the plants are 5 cm tall to facilitate proper growth of the crop. At this stage, thinning is also done to adjust a plant spacing of 10-15 cm. Another one or two hoeings and weedings are also recommended if weeds appear again and crust formation occurs. Chemical weed control with Fluchloralin (Basalin 48% BC) @ 1.0 kg a.i. per hectare, as preplanting incorporation or Terbutryn (80% WP) @ 0.5 to 0.75 kg a.i. per hectare as preemergence has been found to be economic and effective. At the time of herbicide application, there should be optimum soil moisture. Basalin has also been found to be effective against zeeri (Plantago pumila WiIld.), which is a serious weed in cumin and because of its morphological similarity with cumin hand weeding is difficult. Plant protection Pest : The crop is frequently attacked by aphids (Myzus persicae), which in its severe form may cause up to 45 per cent loss of the seed yield. The pest can, however, be effectively controlled by spraying the crop with 0.03% solution of Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos or 0.05% solution of Endosulfan. Two sprays at the interval of 10 to 15 days depending upon recurrence of the pest is better than single spray. Diseases : Powdery mildew, blight and wilt are the three major diseases of cumin causing heavy losses. 1 Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) : The initial stage of infection of this disease is marked by the appearance of whitish powdery mass on the leaves and stem. If the infection is not checked at this stage, the disease spreads and the whole plant becomes almost whitish with the powder. Infection of the plant in early stage will not permit seed formation but if the seeds are already formed they will be small and shrivelled. The disease can be effectively controlled by spraying 400 to 500 litres solution of 0.2% wettable sulphur (2 g/l), 0.3% Karathane (3 mill) or 0.05 to 0.1 % calixin (1.5 to 3,0 g/I) per hectare. The spray should be repeated after 10 days. Dusting 15 to 20 kg sulphur powder per hectare is also very effective in controlling the disease. It may be repeated
after 15 to 20 days, if necessary. The control measures should be adopted at the initial stage of the appearance of the symptom to check the disease effectively. 2 Blight (Alternaria burnsii) : The disease appears at the time of flowering. The infected plants show dark brown lesions on the leaves and the stem and the tops bend down. The infection spreads rapidly if there is cloudy weather and it becomes very difficult to save the crop in advance stage of infection. At the flowering time, particularly if an overcast prevails, the crop should be sprayed as a prophylactic measure with 0.2% solution of Dithane Z-78 or M-45, or a copper fungicide, such as, Blitox, Fytolan, Blue Copper, etc. The spraying should be repeated after 10 days. 3 Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum or F. cumini) : The disease can attack the plants at any stage. The infected plants wilt and die. Since the infection occurs in the roots it is very difficult to control this disease and it inflicts heavy losses in all the cumin-growing areas. The following measures may help in controlling the disease: (i) use healthy and disease-free seeds; (ii) seeds should be treated with a suitable fungicide like Bavistin, Captan, Thirarn @ 2 g/kg of seed before sowing, (iii) follow crop rotation; and (iv) deep summer ploughing is also recommended to keep the infection low Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Harvesting: The crop which matures in about 90 to 110 days is harvested by uprooting the plants with hands and stacked in the sun for drying. The grains are separated by rubbing the plants with hand on gunny bags or by beating lightly with sticks. The grains after cleaning and drying properly are filled:' in gunny bags. Yield : Cumin seed yield much depends upon the incidence of diseases and pests. From a disease- free field with recommended package of practices and yield of 8 to 10 quintals per hectare can be obtained. Storage : At the time of storage, seeds should not contain more than 8.5 to 9.0 per cent moisture. High moisture content will deteriorate luster and quality of the grains. The volatile oil content decreases fast under open storage. The eumin seeds should, therefore, be stored in gunny bags, or other suitable containers . The AGMARK Grade of cumin is given in appendix. (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007. Cropping system Cumin is crop rotated with peral millet, ground nut and other legumes. It is grown with fruit crops and also a component in wheat based cropping system.
DILL Introduction Dill (Anethum graveloens Linn.) is a minor spice, which yields dill oil and is mainly used in medicine. It is an annual aromatic branched herb known for culinary use since ancient times. Two types of Dill exist in cultivation viz., European Dill and Indian Dill. It is a native of south-east Europe and is cultivated commercially in most parts of Europe, particularly The Netherlands, Hungary, Germany, Romania, South Russia, Bulgaria and on a lesser scale in France, Sweden, Belgium, Poland, Greece, Spain, UK, Turkey and the United States of America. A variant called east Indian dill or Sowa (Anethum graveloens var sowa Roxb. ex, Flem.) occurs in India and is cultivated for its foliage as a cold weather crop throughout the Indian sub-continent, Malaysian archipelago and Japan. The earliest reference to use of dill seed in medicine goes back to ‘Charak Samhita’ (700 BC), an ancient renowned medical treatise on Indian medicinal plants.
Composition Analysis of dill herb using IR as a method of characterization of individual constituents by preperative GC and column chromatographic fractions, it was reported the oil to contain α-pinene (0.9%), β-pinene (0.1%), myrcene (0.4%), α-phellandrene (30.2%), limonene (22.5%), β-phellandrene (3.8%), p-cymene (1.0%), terpinolene (0.1%), α- p-dimenthylstyrene (0.1%), 3,9-epoxy-p-menthlene (5.6%), cis-pmentha-2, 8-dien-lol (0.1%), transdihydrocarvone (0.5%), cis-dihydrocarvone (1.2%), carvone (31.6%), di-hydrocarveol (0.1%), cis-carvyl acetate (0.1%), trans-carveol (0.1%), cis-carveyl acetate (0.1%), trans-carveol (0.1%), dihydrolimonene-10-ol (0.1%), dihydrolimenon e10-yhexanoate (0.1%), p-mentha-1, 3 dien-10-yl-hexanoate (0.1%) and p-mentha-1(7), 2-dien-10-yl butyrate (0.1%) besides a host of other compounds in traces. It was found through solvent extraction to contain limonene (44.0%), d-p, dimethylstyrene (0.2%), transhydrocarvone (0.4%), cis-dihydrocarvone (2.1%), neodihydrocarveol (0.2%), carvone (51.5%), dihydrocarveol (0.1%), isoduhydrocarveol (0.4%), trananethole (0.1%), trancarveol (0.1%) and cis-carveol (0.2%) besides many other compounds in traces. An interesting feature of growing dill is that after successive generations, the European dill develops higher oxygenated compounds in the oil, which includes a small quanity of dillapiole. It was found to contain up to 3.0% of dillapiole when grown under tropical climate and explained this as being due to more sunlight hours combined with solar intensity in the tropics.
Uses Dill foliage, fruits and their volatile oil are used extensively for culinary and medicinal purposes. The fresh aromatic leaves are used in falvouring of soups, sausages, curries, gravies, salad, marinades and pickles; the leafy stems and tops are used in flavouring vinegar, pickled cucumber and fermented cabbages, whereas the seed is used for flavouring meat. In Malaysia and Indonesia, the leaves are steamed with rice whereas fruits are used in flavouring native confectionery. Balkan countries use dill in flavouring yogurt, sour cream and wine. In Sweden, bread is flavoured with popular condiment in Asian countries and is used in seasoning several types of processed meat. The leaf oil has largely replaced the use of the fresh herb in the food industry in Europe. The International Trade Centre has brought out a material survey of four west European countries (France, UK, The Netherlands and Germany) estimating an overall demand of freeze-dry herb to be less than 300 tonnes per annum. France produces a small quantity and imports it from Egypt, Israel, The Netherlands and Morocco. The Netherlands and Germany are larger producers and import a part of their demand from Hungary. The USA is said to import between 70 and 100 kg of herb oil annually, largely from Hungary. India exports 500 to 800 tonnes of seed annually to west Asian countries and a small quantity of dill seed oil to Western Europe. Area and production In India, it is cultivated mostly in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. During 19992000, country produced 2000 tonnes of dill seed from an area of 1000 ha. During 20002001 the export touched Rs. 318 Lakhs from 706 tonnes. Botany Dill is characterized by long dissected leaves and compound radiating umbels. It grows to between 1 and 1.2 m in height under cultivation. Dill is an annual glabrous, long-day plant with long fusiform (10-15 cm) tap root with few secondary rootlets. The stem is erect , dull-green, glaucous, cylindrical, fistular with longitudinal light-green streaks, up to 1.5 cm thick around the base. It is sub-dichotomously branched, usually above the basal few nodes. Leaves are de-compound, tripinnati-partite with ultimate segment 5-15 (-20) mm long and 1-1.5mm wide. Flowers are small, bisexual, more in outer unbellules (30-40) than inner ones (15-20), and opens centripetally. The fruit is oblong, slightly plano-convex in shape, dorsally compressed, 3-4 mm long and 1.5-3.0 mm broad, glabrous, with three prominent longitudinal ridges, developed into thin broad wings, 0.25-0.5 mm wide. Dill flowers in June-August and fruiting takes place in AugustOctober in Europe., while it is February- March and March-April respectively in India. In the Sowa plant, the fruits are longer, 3-5 (-5.5) X 1.5-2.5 (-3) mm in dimension, with three longitudinal ridges on the dorsal side more pronounced than the (European) dill. The carpophores holds two mericarps more firmly and consequently these remain joined together in the fruit for a longer time. The vittae has irregular marginal walls in contrast to straight walls in the dill. It has a number of local races like Vizak Sowa, Variyali Sowa and Ghoda Sowa distinguished by the oil composition of their fruits.
Climate and Soil Dill is grown as an irrigated annual crop both in temperate and tropical regions up to 1000 m above MSL. The crop remains in the field for 125 to 180 days. It is grown as rabi season or winter season crop for commercial seed production in India. It can resist frost to a limited scale during vegetative stage. A dry and relatively high temperature is desirable during seed production. It is grown as irrigated crop in North India while in South India as a rainfed crop in black cotton soils and as an irrigated crop in the light soil. The fresh yield of the dill was higher in high rainfall areas and warmer growing seasons. It prefers warm sunny weather, particularly cool moist climate favours vegetative growth and warm, drier and sunny conditions are needed for luxuriant flowering and fruiting to ensure a high crop yield. It can be grown even in soils with moderate fertility with less input. It is found to be grown in light heavy soils. Dill prefers light sandy to loamy well drained fertile soils, slightly acidic to neutral in reaction; the pH extends to 8.5 in subtropical parts of India. Propagation The seed is sown by broadcasting in ploughed land and then planked. It can be sown by seed-drills at a spacing of 25 to 30 cm in between lines and at a depth of 2 to 3cm. Deep sowing should be avoided. It was reported that highest seed yield was obtained from 15th October sowing and seed rate and row spacing had no marked effect on oil yield. The seed is sown directly during the spring season (February- March) in temperate climate and October in tropical conditions. Seed rate is 5 to 10 kg per hectare depending on the method of sowing, viz. drilling in rows or broadcast; usually it is sown in rows, 1.5 to 2.0 cm deep at 30 to 60 cm apart and spacing at 45 X 20 cm is found to produce high seed yield in India. Germination commences after a week in tropical regions and may take two weeks in warm temperate conditions. Cultivation Varieties: A large number of varieties are known in cultivation in Europe. Some are Dura, Dukst, Mammut and 83 E 2203. The varietals performance with respect to growth, herbage yield and aroma vary with locations. There are no improved varieties from India. Sowing: The land is ploughed 3-4 times with a country plough and soil is pulverized and leveled before sowing for better germination. Three to four kg of good viable seed is required to sow one hectare. Sowing of dill is done during October to November. The best time of sowing is from 15th October to 15th November in most commercial growing areas for seed crops. Sowing is staggered at a fortnight’s interval (Oct-mid-December) to obtain fresh foliage crop, marketed throughout the winter season. Manuring and Fertilizer application: Dill crop is not generally manured by farmers. About 6 to 10 tonnes of farmyard manure should be mixed in the soil with the first ploughing for land preparation. Along with FYM one 50 kg bag of ammophos (28:28) is applied during last ploughing just before sowing. European dill required high nitrogen and moderate phosphorus for higher seed oil. Nitrogen 30 to 120 kg, 10 to 40 kg P and 10
to 20 kg K is applied per hectare. Response varies with variety and soil type and other production practices. It is essential to develop location specific recommendation. Intercultivation: The germination is completed within 10 to 12 days after sowing. Thinning is to be done three weeks after sowing when 7 to 10 cm tall keeping the distance in between the plants about 8 to 10 cm along the rows and at 15 to 20 cm apart in the rows. The plot should be kept clean by proper weeding and hoeing. First weeding and hoeing is done in about 3 to 4 weeks after sowing. Next weeding is done whenever needed. The crop remains 40 to 67 days in vegetative stage (after germination). Irrigation: Two to three irrigations are given in light soils but when dill is grown in black cotton soils no irrigation is required. If seed is sown by broadcasting, first irrigation may be given immediately after sowing for better germination. Subsequent irrigations are given according to requirements of the crop and prevailing climate. At the time of flower initiation and seed development stage sufficient soil moisture should be present in the soil. Plant protection Dill crop is not affected by any serious pests due to acrid odour. However, crop is occasionally infested with leaf eating caterpillars and powdery mildew. 1 Leaf eating caterpillar : They damage the leaves and can be controlled by spraying 0.01 % of monocrotophos once or twice depending upon the incidence. 2 Aphids: Aphids (Myzus spp) suck flowering axils causing loss in growth vigour and weekly spraying of Melathione (0.2%) in water controls the infestation. 3 Powdery mildew: Incidence of powdery mildew is seen on all green parts of the dill plant. It can be controlled by spraying sulphur combined with 3 g / litre of water twice. First spraying is done as soon as the disease appears in the field and then after 15 days. Sometimes attack the crop at flowering, occasionally causing severe damage for which spraying of Bordeaux mixture three to four times at weekly intervals is recommended. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Flowering starts by the end of December and continues till 2nd week of January. It is pollinated mostly by bees and other insects. The crop will be ready for harvest by middle of March. The duration of crop varies from 130 to 160 days. The plants become yellow at maturity and the seeds are light to dark brown in colour. It was found that essential oil content increased gradually till the seed ripened after which it started declining. Delay harvesting results in shattering of grains. When first flower head turns brown, harvest the crop and carry shade drying for 7 to 10 days. Threshing is done by hand or with a small stick. The seeds ar better dried in shade, rather than in sun to avoid loss of dill oil. It has been reported that the yield of oil was 2.88 percent when seeds were dried in shade, but only 1.03 per cent when dried in the sun. The seed is cleaned and stored in gunny bags for marketing. On an average the yield of seed under rainfed conditions varies from 7 to 9 q / ha.
The herb oil is a colourless to brownish-yellow mobile liquid. The fresh herb at vegetative stage contains 0.60% of oil, which progressively increases with growth and is 0.78-0.99% at flowering, rises to 1.28-1.91% at milky –wax seed ripening and 1.9-2.84% in the herb when the seed is nearing maturity. For herb oil, the crop is harvested when it is between the maximum flowering to beginning of fruit formation stage as oil content in the leaves is high and the oil has a lower amount of oxygenated compounds. In Germany and The Netherlands, the entire, the over-ground crop is harvested at blooming stage (with no seeds) whereas milky-wax to mid-ripe fruiting stage is preferred for obtaining herb oil (dill weed oil) in Hungary and USA. As a matter of fact, the relative quantity of fruits present in the harvested material and their state of ripening determine the oil content and flavour of the oil produced on distillation. On average 2.5 to 3.0 tonnes of fresh herb per hectare is produced when the crop is harvested at maximum flowering stage, which on distillation give 18 to 20 kg of herb oil, containing up to 30% carvone. Harvesting at later stages increased oil yield and its carvone content progressively. In the seed crop, the terminal umbels are hand-picked when the fruit begins to turn yellowish-brown in colour; these come to maturity 40 days early. The rest of the crop is cut from the base later when tertiary umbels begin to turn brownish; delay may cause seed shattering leading to crop loss. The harvested crop is transported to the threshing floor where it is dried in a thin layer for one or two days before carrying out light threshing to separate the fruits. It is found that the milky-waxy fruit maturity stage contains maximum seed oil; the carvone and dihydrocarvone contents accumulated rapidly in the later part of fruit maturity. The seed yield ranges from 700 to 800 kg per hectare and shade dried seed contains 3-4% oil; the seed yield in east Indian dill (Sowa) is higher (1 tonne per hectare). The wilted dried plants show a decrease in carvone content over the fresh herb at every stage of growth until flowering, but this trend is reversed in fruiting herb as wilted, dried and stored material showed an increase in carvone content in the oil. As a matter of fact, the dried herb produces oil emitting poor intensity of odour. The mature stored seeds yield a higher quantity of carvone because some of the terpines in the seed are lost during storage; this could be protected by storing seed in gunny bags, lined with polythene in a dry cool place. The essential oil of herb as well as seed crop is obtained through hydrodistillation or steam distillation and complete exhaustion of the produce takes 4.0 and 2.5 hours respectively for herb crop and 8 to 10 hours for seed crop; the seed are crushed into powder to facilitate easy extraction of the oil. During the first one or two hours, the distilled oil has high d-carvone content and the broad ratio between carvone and limoanene is 80(88):12(19); because carvone is more easily soluble in water and being higher boiling fraction, it is distilled easily. This trend declines at a later stage. The wilted (herb) material should be distilled within 72 hours. Cropping system Dill is a component in wheat / rice / vegetable based cropping system.
CELERY Introduction Celery seed is one of the important minor spice of India. The botanical name of celery is Apium graveolens Linn. The native habitat of celery is the lowlands of Italy from where it spread to Sweden Egypt, Algeria and Ethiopia, and in Asia, to India, the Caucasus and Baluchistan. Celery is also claimed to be first mentioned as a cultivated food plant in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy Belgium and Holland. In India, it is cultivated in the North-western Himalayas, the Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. Celery seed is in great demand both in Indian and abroad. Indian celery seed is exported mostly to the UK and the USA and to a lesser extent to continental countries like France, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany as well as to Australia and New Zealand.
Compostion and uses The celery seed has the following constituents. Moisture: 5-11%; volatile oil: 1.5-3%; (average 2.4%); non-volatile ether extract: 5.8-14.2% (average 9.4%) cold water extract: 5.9-12.6% (average 8.4%); total ash: 6.9-11.0% (average 8.8%); ash insoluble in acid: 0.5-4.0% (average 2.5%). Fresh celery leaves and stalks contains moisture: 81.30, 93.5%; protein: 6.0, 0.8%; fat: 0.6, 0.1%; fiber: 1.4, 1.2%; carbohydrates: 8.6, 3.5%; mineral matter: 2.1, 0.9%; calcium: 0.23, 0.3%; phosphorus: 0.14, 0.4% Iron: 0.06, 0.05%; Vit A: 5800, 7500 I.U.; Vit B traces, Vit C: 62, 6 mg/100 g; calorific value; 64, 18 calories per 100 g respectively. Area and production In India, Punjab produces about 90% of the total Indian production. It is mainly grown in Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Haryana (Karnal and Jogadhari) and few parts of Uttar Pradesh (Saharanpur, Shamli). It is a export oriented crop and exported as whole spice or in oleoresin from. In India, it was grown in an area of 2800 ha with a production of 3000 tonnes having a yield of 1.53 t / ha during 2003-04. About 3400 tonnes of celery was exported during 2005-06 giving a value of Rs. 1265 lakhs. USA is the single largest importer of celery seeds from India, although celery is cultivated for consumption as vegetable in large scale at USA. The important markets are Jandiala and Amritsar.
Botany The botanical name of celery is Apium graveolens Linn. (2n= 22) Family: Apiaceae; Umbelliferae. It is popularly known as ‘Karnauli’ or ‘Ajmod’. There are four known types of celery. A. graveolens var. dulce (Mill) Pers., whose leaves and stalks are consumed as a salad, appetizer and as a flavouring in soups; and var. rapaceum (Mill) Gaudic commonly called celeriac with dark green leaves, cultivated for root tubers which are cooked and eaten. The other two are var. secalinum and smallage. The main variety cultivated in India is var. dulce. Commercially, celery is available as celery seeds, celery flakes, vegetable, celery seed oil and celery seed oleoresin. Celery is a herbaceous annual or biennial erect herb growing to a height of 60-90 cm. It has a shallow tap-root system. The stem is branched, succulent and ridged. The leaves are reduced, pinnate, large, deeply divided and coarsely-toothed at the apex. The leaflets are ovate to suborbicular, 3-lobed, 2.0-4.5 cm long. The inflorescence is a compound umbel. The flowers are small and white, the calyx teeth are obsolete. There are 5 petals, ovate, cute with inflexed tips. The carpels are semiterete, subpentagonal, the primary ridges are distinct and filiform. The fruit is a schizocarp with mericarps, suborbicular to ellipsoid, 1-2 mm in diameter, aromatic and slightly bitter. Celery is naturally crosspollinated but no self-incompatible. The seeds, on steam-distillation, yield and oil (1.75%) which contains limonene (80%) as a major constituent. The other constituents of the oil are :α-p- dimethyl styrene, n-pertyl benzene, caryophyllene, α-selinene, n-butyl phthalide and sedanolide along with sabinene, β- elemne, trans-1, 2-epoxy limonene, linalool, isovaleric acid, cisdihydrocarvone, trans-dihydrocarvone, terpinene-4-ol, cis-p-menth-2, 8-dine-1-ol trans-pmenth-2, 8-dien-1-ol, a-terpineol, carvone, transcarveol, cis-carveol, trans-anethole, trans-p-menth-1 (7), 8-dien-2-ol, perillaldehyde and thymol. The seeds are also rich in Vitamin B. The dried, ripe seeds are used as spice to flavour food and liquids, the seeds are stimulant and carminative and are used as a nerve tonic in domestic medicine. It is also a remedy for rheumatism. The seed-oil is used as a food flavouring, and in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. The fatty oil, obtained from the fruit, is used as an antispasmodic and nerve stimulant. Climate and Soil In colder climates and on the hills, celery behaves as a biennial, but in the plains it behaves as an annual plant. Celery is a moisture-loving plant, requiring a clod climate. It can be successfully cultivated as a winter crop in areas which are free from severe frost and with low atmospheric humidity during February-March when the crop flowers. The crop comes up well in places having low humidity and plenty of sunshine and moisture. It thrives best when weather is relatively cool with a moderate well distributed rain during its growing period. Northern and Central India, including the hills, with a cold and dry climate, are the most suited for celery cultivation. A combination of 120 to 150 and 22 to 250 C day-night temperatures gives 80% seed germination within a 2- week period. High
temperature during growth incrases leaf bitterness. Bolting is favoured by lo temperature, when plants are exposed to temperature below 15OC for at least ten days. Celery can be successfully cultivated on all soils except saline, alkaline and water-logged ones; however, the loamy soils which are rich in organic matter and retentive of soil moisture, are the best. This crop is not suited to heavy clayey and sandy soils. It cannot withstand water stagnation. Celery is sensitive to the extremes of soil reaction, a soil pH range of 5.0 to 7.0 is suitable for its cultivation. Propagation Celery can be grown from seeds, by raising the seedlings in nursery beds. The seeds are very small. An ounce contains about 70000 seeds. The germination percentage in seeds is about 50%. A seed rate of 1.5 kg/ha is sufficient. To raise nursery, for one hectare 200-250 g seeds are sown in 25 x 5 m well prepared and manured seed bed in the beginning of October. In temperate region, crop is sown in August-September and March – April. Seeds are soaked in luke warm water to ensure good germination. Ideal temperature for germination is 15 to 20OC. As the seeds are minute, required quantity of seeds is mixed with dry sand in the ratio of 1 : 5. Beds are mulched with thin layers of soil and FYM mixture till germination. Seeds are sown two months in advance of the onset of monsoon. The seedlings of 50-60 days old are ready for transplanting when they are about 10 cm tall. When grown as a garden crop in the hills, the seeds are sown in March-April. The seedlings are transplanted in May and the crop is ready for harvest in November. In the plains seedlings, preferably brought from the hills, are transplanted in September-October and the crop is ready within three months and the transplanting of seedlings 30 cm apart in rows spaced at 30-45 cm is carried out in January. It is also grown as a direly seeded crop, on a smaller scale, in Amritsar District. Cultivation Varieties: Varieties are generally of two types i.e. self blanching or yellow leaved and green leaved. Self-blanched yellow types are Florida Giant and Golden self blanching. IARI has recommended the green leaved cultivar for salad viz., Standard Bearer (early, good size and flavour) and Wright Grove Giant (medium tall, fine quality stalks and immense cropper) and Ford Hook Emperor (dwarf, late maturing, stocky, solid, white thick broad tender leaves). The other important high-yielding varieties recommended for cultivation under this crop are EC-99249-1 and PRL-85-1. Manures and Fertilizers: Application of manures and fertilizer depends on inherent supply of nutrients by native soil. If soil is in poor fertility, apply before planting the seedlings, about 30-50 t/ha of FYM. On medium soils about 80-200 kg N, 33-40 kg P and 20 kg K/ha is applied to the crop. A half dose of N, a full dose of P and K are applied in rows at the time of planting and the remaining N is given as a top dressing after one month.
Irrigation and Inter-culture: Celery requires frequent irrigation with good drainage for its successful production. The crop is irrigated immediately after transplanting. The crop requires 10-12 irrigations during the crop period. Crop requires fortnightly irrigation during winter months and at weekly intervals during warmer days of April-May. Celery is a long duration crop so weed control is essential. Once established, the crop requires 3 to 4 hoeings to keep down the weeds. Weeding and hoeing is dine 3, 5 and 7 weeks of transplanting. The crop may dislodge if fierce winds blow when the soil is moist and hence earthing up helps to keep the plant erect. The application of chemical weedicides like Basalin (preplanting) at 2-2.5 l/ha or Stamp at 2 l/ha or TOK-E-25 + Lasso @ 2.5 l/ha or Fluchloralin 0.90 kg/ha and Pendimethalin at 0.6 kg/ha, are reported to control the weeds. Plant protection Insect pests: The leaf-miner (Liriomyze trifolli) is found attacking the outer leaves of the celery plants and causes damage to most of the leaves. The insect can be effectively controlled by spraying a systemic insecticide like Quinolphos (0.1%). The carrot rustfly, tarnished plant bugs, celery leaf tier, celery fly, aphids, caterpillars, flea beetle, mole crickets, spring trails, army worms, wire worms and red spider mites are the other insect pests which cause losses in some areas. Suitable control measures may be taken up as and when they are noticed. Diseases: Cercospora apii is reported to cause early blight; Septoria petrosainii causes late blight and Phyllosticta appi causes leaf-spot diseases to celery crop. These diseases can be controlled by spraying Thiophanate Methyl (0.5%) + Maneb (0.1%) or Fenthin hydroxide (0.2%) at 2-week intervals. Petiole rot caused by Sclerotium spp., and Fusarium, and yellow mosaic are the other diseases reported on this crop. Harvesting and Post Harvest Techonology Harvesting is done during May in plains and November and March – April in hills. Seed crop is harvested during March in plain and June – July in hills. In cooler climates and on the hills, celery is a perennial plant and produces seeds only in the second year. It takes about 4-5 months from the time of sowing to seeding. In the plains, the crop matures within about 3 months of transplanting. The crop is harvested when about 80% of the buds begin to turn light-brown. The harvested crop is stacked in the field for a few days and then threshed to obtain the seeds. Care must be taken to avoid prolonged exposure to sun. The seeds are then cleaned by winnowing. The average yield of celery is about 1000-1500 kg/ha. Celery seeds yield 2-3% of paleyellow volatile oil with a persistent odour. The volatile or essential oil contained in the seed is isolated by steam distillation. The seeds should be crushed and immediately sent for distillation to avoid the loss of oil by evaporation. It is important that the seed be spread evenly on the perforated grids with which a still, serving for seed distillation, should be equipped. The distillation of one batch lasts for about 10-12 hours. The
distillation of one batch lasts for about 10-12 hours. The distillation wastes are usually redistilled. The AGMARK Grade of celery is given in appendix. (Source : Department of Agricultural Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) available online at www.indianspices.com (Spices Board, Cochin) accessed on 15-92007. Cropping system It is intercropped with vegetables and field crops.
SAFFRON Introduction The name has been derived from the Arabian word ‘Azaferon’, which means yellow. Saffron is one of the oldest and most valued aromatic crops native of Southern Europe. It is cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Austria, Greece, Iran, Turkey, England, India and China. La-Macha belt of Spain is the largest producer of saffron in the world and contributes about 80-90 per cent of world saffron production.
Composition The average composition of commercial saffron is as follows (Table 12.1) Table 12.1: Composition of saffron Water Starch and sugars Essential oil Fixed oil Total N free extract Crude fibre Ash
15.6% 13.35% 0.6% 5.63 % 43.64 % 4.48 4.27%
Uses Saffron is famous for its medicinal, colouring and flavouring properties. The principal colouring agent of saffron is the glycoside crocin and the bitter substance in it is the
glocoside picrocrocin. On account of its colouring and aromatic properties, saffron is used mostly as a food additive in culinary, bakery and confectionary preparation. It is used abroad in exotic dishes particularly in Spanish rice specialties and French fish preparations. It is also used for colouring butter, cheese, pudding and pastry. Saffron is an important ingredient of the Ayurvedic and Unani system of medicine in India. It is popularly known as a stimulant, warm and dry in action, helping in urinary, digestive and uterine troubles. It is used in fevers, melancholia and enlargement of the liver and spleen. In modern pharmacopoeias, it is employed to colour other medicines or as a cordial adjunct. Saffron bulbs are toxic to young animals, and stigmas in overdose are narcotic. Area and Production In India, saffron is cultivated in Jammu and Kashmir valley and Himachal Prdesh in an area of more than 1000 ha with an annual production of nore than 10, 000 kg. Kistwar region of Jammu and Pampore region of Kashmir about 18 km south east of Srinagar are famous growing areas. Poochhal, Malta, Charhar and Juna areas o Donda district are cultivates this crop. Pulwama is the most important district of Jammu and Kashmir, covering about 80 per cent of the total area and about 78 per cent of the total production in the state followed by Srinagar and Badgam district accounting for 12 and 8 per cent of production, respectively. Attempts have also been made to cultivate it in Kinnaur area of Himachal Pradesh, Kumaoun and Garhwal regions of Uttar Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh of Northeast region. About 27 per cent of produce (2379 kg) was exported to European and Middle East countries during that period. Botany Saffron is a small bulbous perennial plant with an average height of 15-25 cm. Leaves are green in colour and resemble pine leaves. Flowers are hermaphrodite but stamens become sterile and ovaries contain trifid stigma red in colour. Anthors become yellow in colour and are smaller than stigma. The female parts (orange red trifid stigma) are picked up and used as saffron after drying. Saffron (Crocus sativus) belongs to the family Iridaceae. There are some other varieties of saffron which are occasionally used as adulterants of true saffron viz; meadow saffron (Calchicum autumnale L. fam. Liliaceae) or bastard saffron (Carthamus tinctorius L. fam. Compositae). Saffron is a highly labour intensive cash crop and farmers can get good returns, if improved methods of saffron cultivation are followed though there is need to reduce production cost. Climate and Soil Saffron is basically a temperate season crop hence it thrives well in cold regions. It can resist frost and snowfall easily, however, during October-November cultivated area should be free from snowfall. In the Kashmir valley, saffron thrives well in subtemperate climate at an elevation ranging from 1500-2400m, Sunny days during flowering are favourable for good yield. In general, localities which receive 300 to 400 mm rainfall and are covered with snow during winter are suitable for commercial cultivation. Spring rains are favourable for promoting of new corms while a second spell of rains at the end of summer or at the beginning of autumn encourages profuse flowering. The number of
flowers and time of blooming are dependent on the temperature prevalent in spring and autumn, and also upon the amount of rainfall. A warm spring and long autumn are conductive to early flowering. An optimum day temperature range of 15 to 200C is required during the flowering period with an optimum night temperature of 6 to 80 C. It can be grown on different types of soil ranging from sandy loam to clay loam. However, saffron prefers very well drained soil as in water logged soils corms rot and thus a proper drainage system is an important requirement for this crop. A medium light soil neutral to slightly alkaline is suited for its cultivation. The clay-loam soil of Karewas of Kashmir valley, locally known as grut is most suited for its successful cultivation. Propagation Saffron is propagated vegetatively by means of corms ranging from 2 to 5 cm in diameter. Each mother corm may produce 2 to 6 cormlets. The plants remain in deep dormancy from mid June to August. The mother corms reproduce new cormlets annually and these remain attached to the mother corm till the dormancy period starts. It provides food to the new developing corm and in doing so wither, shrink and finally die. Numerous new corms can be produced by IAA and GA treatment. Cultivation Land preparation and planting: Land preparation starts in March –April and field are ploughed 4-5 times to a dept of 30-35 cm. The farmyard manure and other organic materials should be properly mixed in the solid before final ploughing to get good seed beds. Last ploughing is done in May. The field is divided into (2 x 8m ) strips with 20 cm deep inter-drainage channels. This is efficient and less expensive method recommended by the Sere Kashmir University of Agriculture. Small manageable seed beds always give good results. The beds should have channels on all sides to drain out excess water. It is desirable to have raised beds, where soils are loamy and there is good rainfall. The corms selected for planting should be healthy, well developed and free from cuts, wounds or disease. Before planting of corms a pophylactic treatment with 5 per cent copper sulphate solution or with any other copper fungicide is given against corm-rot. Planting is done for middle of August to middle of September in Kashmir whereas in Himachal Pradesh it is planted from middle of July to middle of August. It was suggested that planting of corms 4-5 cm in diameter assured the best yield. The corms are planted in furrows at the rate of 30-40 quintals at a depth of 7.5 to 10 cm with spacing of 5-7.5 cm in rows and 7.5 to 10 cm between the rows. Better yields of dry stigma obtained at a spacing of 15 cm row to row and 5 cm within the rows than wider spacing in Italy. Planting at a depth of 15 cm was preferable to shallower or deeper planting. It was advocated that furrows are opened 8-10 cm deep and corms are planted in the furrows 8-10 cm apart with row to row distance of 15-20 cm. The highest fresh and dry weight of stigma + style was recorded by planting the corms at distance of 15 x 5 cm with 10 cm deep in comparison to wider spacing.
Manuring: During land preparation 15-20 tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare are incorporated into the soil. The higher yield was harvested by application of sheep manure at the rate of 150 quintal per hectare. It was suggested the application of organic manure + NPK for better flower yield and quality. For commercial production of saffron, application of 40 kg nitrogen and 50 kg of phosphorus per hectare annually was adequate. It was also suggested that application of 20 kg N, 80 kg P2 O5 and 30 kg K2 O/ha for higher yield in equal split doses, one at the time of planning or before final hoeing i.e. first week of September and second after flowering is over i.e. third week of November. In Himachal Pradesh nitrogen is given at the rate of 80-90kg/ha in 4-5 split dose at an interval of 20-25 days. Urea spray at the rate of 3-3.5 per cent is effective in enhancing the total dry weight of saffron by HPKV observations. Higher doses showed adverse effects on dry yield of saffron. Inter cultivation: The fields of saffron should be kept weed free for proper growth and production of flowers. Weeding is done two to three times in a year to check the weed growth and also to avoid nutrients loss by weeds. Hoeing is also an important cultural operation in cultivation of saffron. The crusty soil around each bulb is loosened some time in the spring itself to facilitate the emergence of the flower stalk. At least three hoeings are carried out every year to facilitate the growth of the plants. The first hoeing should be given in the month of June whereas the second in the month of September and the third some time later. Mulching with wood chips and sawdust increased flower yield of saffron in Italy. In the absence of rainfall irrigation is required during August-September. However, Saffron should not be irrigated during the flowering season. Saffron is an irrigated crop in Spain whereas it is cultivated as a rainfed crop in India . To avoid fungal infection, the corms should be treated with 5 per cent copper sulphate solution. In the event of attack by rodents the burrows should be fumigated with phostoxin or zincphosphide treated cereal grains should be put in to the freshly opened burrows. Plant protection Rabbits, rats and birds cause damage to corm. Nematodes and diseases like corm rot, leaf rust infest the crop. Moist conditions would help fungus to spead fast. Drenching with fungicide may check the infection. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology Harvesting : By late autumn the crop is ready for harvest. Saffron starts to bloom in the middle of October and continues till November. The picking is performed on alternate days during early morning hours after the evaporation of dew. The flowers are cleaned during the day and the orange red trifid stigms along with style are separated from the flower manually. Separation of stigmas from the perianth has to be carried out every day, otherwise the flowers wilt and further operation become very difficult. The female worker hold a flower in her hand and with the thumb-nail of the same hand, she she removes the pistils below the perianth, at the same time tearing off the stigmas with the fingers of the right hand depositing these in the containers held for this purpose.
Following a rather sluggish period in the first two years the saffron growth and production of flowers reaches its peak by the third year and after about six year the bulbs are uprooted for subsequent planting elsewhere , leaving the ground fallow for a considerable length of time (almost five years). Interestingly, the bulbs continue the cycle for 10-15 years, new bulbs being produced annually while the old one rot. Curing : The value of saffron depends mainly on the method by which the stigmas are dried. The techniques of curing or drying of flowers followed in preparation of different grades of saffron are described below. 1 Shahi Saffron: In the Kashmir valley, the finest quality saffron “Shahi Saffron” is obtained from the red tips or the stigmas borne on the styles. The stigmas are sundried or, dried over low charcoal fires. After this the product is packed immediately, preferably in containers. 2 Mongra Saffron: The flowers are dried in the sun three to five days, then lightly beaten with strikes. The entire material is then passed through coarse sieves into water. The heavier stigma products which sink to the bottom are collected and when dried subsequently constitute the best quality Mongra saffron. 3 Lachha Saffron: The discarded parts of the flowers are again subjected to the beating process and the process of throwing the entire pounded mass in water is repeated. The product which sinks, is collected and is very much inferior in value, constituting the 3rd grade which is locally known as Lackha saffron or kong in Kashmir valley. 4 Toasting : In Spain, curing process is called toasting. The stigmas are placed in sieves, in layers 2 to 3cm thick and the sieves are placed 15cm above the fire. By stacking them and changing their order and position, the product is carefully dried. Special stoves for the purpose of drying are also utilized. During drying the saffron has to be kept protected from dampness and light because light bleaches it to a dull yellow. In general saffron is dried to moisture content of 8-10 per cent and after grading and packing stored in moisture proof containers. Saffron is sold in 1 g to 10g packs. Yield : About 1,50,000 flowers are required to produce a kilogram of good quality dried saffron. At the maximum stage of production, i.e. from the fourth year onward a farmer can get a yield of 2 to 2.5 kg per hectare of Mongra grade saffron in Jammu and Kashmir. It was reported a yield of about 100 kg of fresh flowers, corresponding to 5 kg of dried saffron from Kishtwar area of Kashmir valley. However, in some countries the yield is as high as 12.5 kg per hectare particularly in Spain depending on the crop management. Generally the yield will be highest between the third and the sixth year. Cropping system Saffron is a perennial crop with longevity up to 12 years but plantations start to thin out after 5 – 6 years, therefore the economic yield reduces. The allelopathic effect was
noticed from saffron corm. Hence, species selection should be careful if at all intercrop is needed.
VANILLA Introduction Vanilla is the most expensive spice traded in the global market after Saffron. Vanilla is the only member of Orchidaceae has a real economic value in the food and related industries, owing to its unique flavor and pleasant aroma and vanillin (C8H8O3) is responsible for it. Vanilla is obtained primarily from the grown but unripe fruits or ‘beans’ of a climbing orchid Vanilla planifolia Andrews (V. fragrans (Salisb)) . It is indigenous to wet low land forests in South-Eastern Mexico, Guatemala and other parts of Central America. V. tahitensis J.W.Moor, the Tahitian vanilla, which is cultivated in the Tahiti and V. pompona Scheide, cultivated in some of the South Pacific Islands also yield vanillin, but of inferior quality. Vanilla introduced into India. Considering export potential, Spices Board launched a scheme for vanilla cultivation during 1990-91 for covering an area of 30 ha in five years. Being a new crop, presently there is no stabilized market for vanilla in India.
Vanilla essence is largely used in the preparations of ice creams, chocolates, bakery products, puddings, pharmaceuticals, liquors and perfumes. During 2001 the global trade of vanilla accounted for 103.18 million US $ giving direct and indirect employment to many thousands of persons both in the producing and consuming countries. World import of natural vanilla (beans) in terms of value is six to seven per cent of nearly 1500 million US $ of global spice trade. The major consumers of vanilla beans currently are the developed countries with the US, France and Germany absorbing about 80 per cent of the world imports. Among them, the US imports 50-60 per cent while the latter 10-15 per cent each. They are also main re-exporters of both vanilla beans and processed products. The total area under vanilla cultivation in the world during 2002 was 38066 hectares with the production of around 4956 metric tones. The major vanilla producing countries are Madagascar, Comoros, Indonesia, Mexico and Reunion. Area under vanilla in India
during 2002-03 is 2545 hectares with the production of 92 metric tones. World over there is an increasing trend for use of natural flavour and colours and therefore the share of natural vanillin is likely to increase to a great extent. Madagascar was holding the prominent position with a cultivated area of 25,900 hectares. Of late, with an average production of more than 2000 metric tones from 1998-2002, Indonesia leads the world production of vanilla. These two countries together contribute about 76 per cent of the world average production of 4863 during 1998-2002. Mexico, the native land of vanilla is in third position now after losing its first position to Madagascar in nineteen eighties. The support side for the commodity is characterized by unstable productions largely due to natural reasons and dominance of market by very small number of countries. There is a decreasing trend in Indonesia's production for the last few years, mainly due to unforeseen agro-climatological factors. During 2003-04 there was a short fall in vanilla production in Madagascar leading to high price rise. This increasing price level acted as catalyst to increase area under crop in many new entrants including India. Vanilla production in different countries given below (Table 13.1). Table 13.1: Country wise production of vanilla (Metric Tonnes) Country
1998
1999
Traditional producing and exporting countries Madagascar 1650 1650 Indonesia 1900 2102 French Polynesia 30 34 Mexico 564 300 160 150 The Comoros Reunion 30 30 Tonga 100 50 Zimbabwe 10 10 Cook Islands 2 NA Guadeloupe 8 40 Malawi 22 NA New entrants Kenya NA 10 China NA 550 Uganda NA 60 Turkey NA 100 India 10 World 5196 4376 Source: FAO, Rome, NA: Not available
2000
2001
2002
Average
1815 2102 40 550 180 28 130 10 NA 8 NA
1815 2102 40 550 180 28 130 10 NA 8 NA
1518 1800 35 300 140 35 130 10 8 20
1690 2001 36 453 162 30 108 10 2 14 21
NA NA NA NA NA 4863
NA NA NA NA 60 4923
8 650 40 170 92 4956
9 600 50 135 54 4863
Composition The proximate composition of whole vanilla beans is given in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2: Composition of vanilla bean Moisture 25.8-30.9% protein 2.5-4.8% fatty oil 4.6-6.7% volatile oil 0.0-0.4% nitrogen free extract 30.3-32.9% carbohydrate 7.1-9.1% fibre 15.2-19.6% ash 4.5-4.7%
vanillin 1.4-2.9% resins 1.5-2.6% calcium 19.7% sodium 6.7% phosphorous 9.5% iron 0.3%.
Uses Vanilla, constituets the world’s most popular flavouring agent for numerous sweetened foods. ‘Vanilla Sugar’ is used in the manufacture of chocolates. ‘Vanilla flavouring’ is used in countless commercial food products, in liquor, in cheap brandy and in wishky. At USA, most of the vanilla flavour is marketed in the form of pure vanilla extracts, widely used as a flavouring par excellence for ice-creams, soft drinks, chocolate, confectionary, candy, tobacco, baked foods, puddings, cakes, cookies. It is used in deodorants, perfumes, odour fixatives, and as a masking agent in pharmaceuticals and vitamin preparations. Area and Production Organized cultivation of vanilla in India started in 1990s. Hefty price in recent years for the crop and low price for other competing crops like coffee and black pepper etc. accelerated growth in vanilla industry in the country. Vanilla cultivation is mainly concentrated in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. There are also reports that vanilla cultivation is getting expanded to other states like Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Andamans and Northeastern states. Since vanilla cultivation started very recently only 50% of area is now under yielding stage. This implies that, the production and productivity is likely to increase substantially in the near future when the entire area under cultivation starts yielding. However, it depends on market price. India has produced 92 Mt of vanilla during 2002-03 with total area of 2545 ha (Table 13.3), this is hardly 1.90 per cent of total average world production. For the period ending 2007 the targets have been fixed at 15,000 ha. Table 13.3. State-wise area and production of vanilla in India (2002-03) State Karnataka Kerala Tamil Nadu Total
Total Area (ha) 1465 812 268 2545
Yielding Area (ha) 545 239 130 914
Yield (cured) (kgs / ha) 100 78 147 101
Production (Mt) 54 19 19 92
Source: Survey Report of Spices Board, India
Botany Vanilla is a genus of the family Orchidaceae. About 50 species have been described, only three of which V. planifolia, V. pompona, V. tahitensis are of commercial importance as
sources of vanilla.V. pompona (the West Indian vanilla) has large and broad leaves and large fleshly flowers compared to V. fragrans (the Mexican vanilla). The petals and sepals of V. pompona are greenish yellow with bright green colour at the tips whereas the petals and sepals of V. fragrans are pale green. The latter species also have short, thick and obscurely three angled pods. V. tahitensis(the Tahitian vanilla) is less robust than V. fragrans and it is predominantly cultivated in Hawaii. All the three species are diploids (2n=32). Vanilla is a climbing orchid having sessile leaves, oblong in shape with succulent green stems. At the nodes aerial roots are produced. Large and showy flowers appear in axillary raceme on 4-5 cm long stalks. The flower has three sepals and petals each, a central column in which stamens and pistils are united with one of the petals, modified to form a lip or rostellum. Climate and Soil Vanilla is a tropical plant requiring a warm, humid climate for proper growth and economic production. Although vanilla thrives best under moist conditions, precipitation should not be very high as it may cause disease problems. The cop can be grown wide range of temperature but the mean minimum temperature during cooler months should not go below 12O to 15OC and the mean maximum temperature should not be above 35 O C. The optimum is 21 O-32 OC, with an average around 27 OC. The ideal relative humidity is 80 per cent. The rainfall should be moderate and evenly distributed, the quantum required being 2000 to 2500 mm per annum. However, there should be two drier months prior to the flowering season to check vegetative growth and bring the vines to flower. If heavy rain occurs during flowering, vanilla puts forth new growth instead of flowering and consequently it reduced the yield. Vanilla grows well up to 1000 m MSL. Successful cultivation of vanilla depends on soil quality, soil factors such as texture and pH are more important than soil fertility. Steep slope land / water logged situation should not be selected for establishing plantation. Under uniform distribution of rainfall, good drainage is essential. Vanilla is a surface feeder. Hence, humus rich forest soil is ideal for growth. In areas where the soils are relatively heavy with high rainfall, the vines may be planted on mounds or ridges to help alleviate the drainage problem. The best soils for vanilla in Puerto Rico are of lime stone origin, with a pH 6.0 to 7.0 having less incidence of root rot disease compared to Catalina clay soils of pH 5.0 to 5.5. Propagation Vanilla is amenable to both sexual and asexual methods of propagation. The stem cuttings are capable of striking roots at nodes when they come in contact with soil or any other rooting medium hence, it is prepared for commercial propagation. Stem cuttings either planted directly in the field or grown in polythene bags and transplanted. Only vigorously growing healthy disease and pest free vines are selected from yielding plants for collection of cuttings. Any part of the vine with dormant axillary vegetative buds can be selected for taking stem cuttings. However, vines of current years growth, which are in vegetative phase leaving the tender shoots at the tip, are most ideal. This is because the number of vegetative buds will be less in those portions, which have already, yielded
during previous years. The length of vine used for planting varies from place to place but it has a profound influence on further growth and time taken to attain maturity. Large cuttings if planted at the beginning of the rainy season maintain a continuous growth and bear flowers and fruits in one or two years while shorter cuttings do not flowers until third or fourth year. Collection of sizable quantities of stem cuttings could lead to arrest of vegetative growth of mother plants. Nurseries can be established for steady supply of planting materials. Vanilla also produced through micro-propagation by different labs for commercial planting. Cultivation 1. Supports: Vanilla is a climbing vine, it requires support trees for grow erect and for shade. A number of tree species have been recommended. In general, small leaved species, which permit filtered light through the foliage, are useful. Species, which can be easily propagated through long stem cuttings and those that grow faster and produce branches sufficiently low (from 1.5 to 2.0 m from ground) for the vines to hang within easy reach of the workers are found to be the most ideal. The trees selected should be strong enough to support the vines and the beans without breaking down in a strong wind and should never become entirely defoliated during summer months. It is also important for the support tree to have deep penetrating roots so that they do not compete with the shallow rooted vanilla plants for nutrients. In India the commonly used support trees are Gliricidia maculata, Erythrina lithosperma, Plumaria alba and Morus sp. 2 Trellis system : Instead of live support trees, some planters use hard wood / other posts and bars, the bars resting in notches on the top of posts. They are put at a height of from 1.25 to 1.75 m from ground and plants are brought over them and lopped up as they grow to long. Wire is used in some places instead of bars of wood; it has a disadvantage that wire may cut the vine during wind. It was noted that coiling or hanging treatment is essential to promote flowering and fruiting of vanilla vine. 3 Planting: When long cuttings are used for planting, the basal portion of the stem is to be laid on the ground and coiled around its support, The stem may be covered with a light layer of soil or rotten leaves to save it from injury and hasten its growth. The tip is to be protected from the sun using banana sheath or plaited coconut leaves and the plant must be frequently watered. While planting short cuttings, the base is to be inserted in the ground for about 1.5 m and a stick put close to it to start it climbing or it may be put close to the tree on which it is to climb. At least two nodes of the stem must be above the ground. After one or two weeks, the plant puts out a shoot from one of the leaf axils. This soon lengthens and sends out roots of climbing type and to cling to the support. While planting cuttings by the side of supports, whether tree or trellis, they should in such a position that the aerial roots may come into contact with the support and the cuttings should be tied to it. Vanilla cuttings usually planted at about 3 m apart at the base of supporting trees or poles. A spacing of 1.5 to 3.0 m is adopted. Closer spacing may be inconvenient for field operations. General recommendation is that planting may be done during September to November. It can be done throughout the year under protected cultivation or well managed irrigated condition.
4 Nutrient requirement: Vanilla is not a heavy feeder. Under low soil fertility, proper shade, adequate moisture and mulching are essential. Where the soil is rich in humus of sufficient depth, it is not necessary to add anything in the way of manure. The best known source of nutrients for vanilla is a deep layer of mulch maintained over and around vanilla roots. The source and composition of the mulch is important. Nutritional studies carried out at the Indian Cardamom Research Institute has indicated that vanilla yield can be enhanced by soil application of 20:10:30 g NPK per vine per year and foliar application of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash at the rate of 1.0, 0.5 and 1.5 per cent respectively during January, May and September. 5 Irrigation: Vanilla requires moist climate with frequent but not excessive rains. Under excessive rainfall, there is wide spread of diseases and under drought, the plant may suffer considerable physiological damage and the vines may not recover. In extremely dry years, irrigation should be provided at least once in four to five days. 6. Shade management : Judicious lopping of branches of the living supports is very important to give shade to vanilla plants. Vanilla leaves show yellowing and sun scald when exposed to direct sunlight. Shade can be provided for vanilla by means of existing tree shade or planting shade trees in between or along the borders. Under high rainfall and high relative humidity, vanilla can withstand more sunshine than under low humidity and drought. Thus, it is important that support trees maintain much of their foliage during dry periods. 7. Trailing and pruning of vines: The way in which the vines are trailed has an effect on flowering. Vanilla is to be trained to keep vines within the limits and to facilitate cultural management. The vines are twisted around the lower branches of the supporting tree or over the lattice of trellis so that they may hang down. Care is required so as not to tear or bruise the leaves, branches or roots. Bending of vines appears to be an important factor in causing it to flower and fruit beyond the bend, which may be due to an accumulation of carbohydrates and possibly other flower inducing substances in the regions of the vine. If vegetative growth of vines arrested by pruning, it turns to reproductive phase. At pruning time special bearing branches are prepared. Shoots when attains 1 – 1.2 m long are bent down round a branch of a support slightly twisted in the process with tip pruned at about 45 cm from the soil. Any shoots appearing on the bearing branches themselves are cut off when 7.5 to 10 cm long but the shoots appearing on the rest of the plant before the bends are allowed to grow. They will constitute the bearing branches of the following year. As a result there is a decreased sap flow towards the bearing branches, which favors flower formation. After the harvesting of beans, the old branches are cut off. Meanwhile the following year’s bearing branches have already been prepared. The vine architecture after three to four years is therefore that of a vine with a number of shoots hanging down over the branches of the live support. 8. Flowering and pollination : Vanilla usually starts flowering in the third year of planting; however, it depends on the size of the original cutting used for planting. Maximum production of flowers occurs during the 7-8th year. Vanilla flowers during December to February and each flower lasts for only a day. Pinching off the top 7.5 to
10.0 cm of the vine, 6-8 months before the flowering season encourages flower production. Similarly, pruning off the older branches (which bore fruits the previous year) also encourages flower production. The flowers are borne in axillary racemes and each inflorescence consists of 15-20 flowers. The flowers are to be artificially pollinated (hand pollination) for fruit set. Since the flowers last only for a day pollination must be done on the same day. The remaining flower buds are nipped off. About 10-12 inflorescences may be pollinated in a vine. In hand pollination method, a pin or needle or small piece of pointed wood or a tooth pick is ideal to apply pollen on the stigma of the flower. The pollen of the vanilla flower is produced in a mass called pollinia, and is covered by hood or anther cap. The stigma is protected with a lip known as ‘rosetellum’ or ‘labellum’. For pollination, the stamen cap is removed by a needle and exposing the pollinia. Then the flap like rostellum is pushed up and the pollinia are brought into contact with the stigma. The ideal time for pollination is 6 amm to 1 pm. An efficient worker can pollinate 100-150 flowers a day. Plant protection Fungal diseases: A number of pathogenic fungi cause diseases in vanilla, some of which result in total death of vines. The pathogens affect almost all the plant parts like roots, stem, leaves and beans and occasionally inflorescence also. Fungal infections often lead to rotting of affected plant parts or wilting of the entire vine as in the case of stem rot or root rot diseases. Generally, fungal diseases are wide spread in closely planted gardens having thick shade, intensive management with manures, frequent irrigation and where no phytosanitory measures are adopted. 1 Stem rot: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vanillae: Spray 0.2 % Mancozeb + Carbendazim 2 Stem blight: Phytophthora sp: Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or 0.4 % Potassium Phosphonate 3 Root rot: Fusarium batatis Wollen var. vanillae : Soil drenching with 0.2 % Carbendazim or 0.2 % Copper oxychloride. Bio control with Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens are successful. 4 Bean rot : Phytophthora meadii: Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 % Copper oxychloride Viral diseases: Occurrence of viral diseases is common in several countires where vanilla is grown on a commercial scale. The crop affected by six viruses. Management measures suggested are a) b) c)
Use of virus – free planting material Regular inspection and removal of infected plants Control of insect vectors like aphids
Pests : Among the insect pests that damage vanilla, a hemipteran bug, a lepidopteran caterpillar and a coleopteran weevil cause considerable damage. They cause shoot tip rot. Spary of Monocrotophos at 0.1 % a.i. controls the nymphs. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology The beans or pods are ready for harvest 6-9 months after flowering. The beans can be considerd as mature when they change from green to pale yellow. At this time, the pods may be 12-25 cm long. It is essential to harvest the pods at the right stage, as immature pods produce an inferior product and over mature pods split during curing. The right picking stage is when the distal end of the pod turns yellow and fine yellow streaks appear on the pods. Daily picking of mature pods is essential. The pods can be harvested by cutting with a knife. A good vanillery yields 300-600 kg of cured beans per hectare per year. About 6 kg of green pods produce 1 kg of cured beans. The yield of vines declines after 12 –14 years. Processing technology Due to lack of technical know how, hardly 20 per cent farmers process their produce before sale. Majority farmers do not go for processing just because they are afraid that they may loose the quality because of improper curing i.e. the farmer doesn’t have the fool-proof technology for processing, which involves the following five stages: 1. Washing (1st. day): The harvested beans are washed to remove remains of Bordeaux mixture, chemical spray and other unwanted adhering material. Generally women labours are engaged in this operation. 2. Killing (1st. day): In this process, 8-10 kgs of beans in a jute bag, dipped in hot water at 63-65° c for three minutes. In order to carry out this process materials required are 10 jute bags, one container to boil the water and a thermometer. Both men and women labours were employed to carryout this operation. 3. Sweating (1st. day): In this third process of sweating, three-four kgs of killed beans will be put in to a dark blankets and the blankets are arranged in to wooden box. Around 15-16 blankets folded with killed beans will be put in to each wooden box for sweating. For around 8-10 days continuously they will take the beans out and spread under sunlight for about two hours a day. Required, materials for this process are 25 dark blankets, 6 wooden boxes and 18 women labour. 4. Slow drying:(12th day): In this process sweated beans are spread on the stand made out of wooden/iron under shade, to allow for complete drying, this processs lasts for two months. Materials required for this process are one stand of either wood or iron. 5. Grading and Packing (73rdDay): Last stage in on-farm processing (curing) of beans is grading and packing. In this stage dried beans are segregated based on the grade: First grade having length more than six inches, Second grade having length between 4-6 inches and third grade below four inches. Then the beans are packed grade wise
separately in a self stickable polythene covers. Materials required are 20 polythene selfstickable covers, and two women laborers. Cropping system Vanilla is vine it requires support for its growth. Generally, shrubs are prepered for live support. It is very candidate for agroforestry of tropical humid regions. It can be intercropped in the interspaces of coconut or arecanut plantation.
ROSEMARY Intoduction The name ‘Rosemary’(Rusmary) has its origin from Latin word ‘Rosmarinus’ (Ros means ‘dew’ and marinus meaning ‘from the sea’). Rosemary, botanically known as Rosmarinus officinalis L. of the family Lamiaceae; Labiatae, is a native of the Mediterranean regions of Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. It is an evergreen, perennial dicot shrub.
Composition The leaves and flowering tops, on steam-distillation, yield the essential oil. The oil has 1, 8 cineole (20-50%), borneol (20%), camphor, linalool, α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, limonene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, terpinolene, thujone, copaene, terpinen-4-ol, caryophyllene, methyl chavicol, α-terpineol, thymol and carvacrol. Uses The oil is valued for its use in culinary, medicine, perfumery and cosmetic industries. It is an excellent fixative material and the oil also contributes a strong fresh odour, which blends well with various other oil odours and also serves to mask the unpleasant smell of certain other ingredients in any preparation. Rosemary oil is known to have antimicrobial activity against certain gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. It is also used in formulations of compounded oils for flavouring meat, sauces, condiments and other food
products. The leaves are used in cooking. A distilled water is obtained from the flowers which is used as a smoothing eye-wash. Area and Production Rosemary is grown in Spain, Italy, France, Algeria, Morocco and Portugal for its essential oil. Spain has traditionally been the largest supplier of the oil, but it appears to be rapidly losing ground to Tunisia. The annual world production of the oil has been increasing gradually over the years and now 200-300 t of oil is being produced annually, against the negligible quality produced in India. In India, Rosemary is cultivated to a limited extent in the Nilgiris in South India and Himalayas. Its cultivation in the plains is of recent origin and now it is being cultivated in and around Bangalore on a small scale. The oil is comparable to the Spanish oil in quality and has been well received by the trade. Botany The plant is an hardy, dense, evergreen shrub, have tap root system and grows up to 1 to 2 m in height with an erect stem divided into numerous long, slender branches bearing many sessile, opposite leaves which are smooth and green, woody, whitish and glandular beneath. The leaves are narrow 2 to 4 cm long and cylindrical, leathery and green on top, white and hairy below and sticky to touch. The flowers are situated in little clusters towards the end of the branches. The calyx is two-lipped, the upper one with a single broad oval lobe, the lower one with two segmented triangular lobes. The corolla is also two-lipped with two violet stamens and a long style projecting from it. The fruit is an oval, four-sectioned cremocarp. Climate and Soil Rosemary prefers a Mediterranean type of climate with low humidity, warm winters and mild summers for its successful growth. However, any place where frost occurs frequently should be avoided as the plant is succeptible to it. The climate of the Himalayas, Nilgiris and Bangalore, in India, have been found suitable for its cultivation. Crop prefers well – drained calcareous soil. It is very hardy plant and is found growing on rocky terrains in the temperate parts of the world. In India, the plant comes up well on the light, loamy soils of the Nilgiris and the sandy loam soils of Bangalore. The crop requires a soil pH ranging from 6.5-7.0 for its successful growth. Propagation 1 Vegetative Propagation: It is best propagated by stem-cuttings. Cuttings from healthy mother-plants, 10-15 cm in length, are taken. All leaves about half of the length from bottom should be removed. The cuttings are then planted in nursery beds of sandy soil under partial shade at a depth of about 6 to 10 cm. Thereafter, regular watering and weeding is provided to the nursery for about a month. After about 6-8 weeks, the cuttings are ready for transplanting into the main filed. They can also be raised in small polybags or seed-pans and it helps in easy transportation of the rooted cuttings.
2 Seed Propagation : Seeds are slow to germinate and seedlings are raised in nursery. The ideal season for raising the nursery is between September and November. The seeds are very small and about 0.2 to 2.5 g seeds are required to cover 1 sq m area and are sown to a depth of 1-2 cm. After they are sown in well-prepared nursery beds, regular watering and weeding of the nursery is continued. The seeds germinate best at a soil temperature raging from 14-150C. When the seedlings are about 8 to 10 weeks old, they are ready for transplanting into the main field. Cultivation Varieties: There are two types of rosemary under cultivation. They are the ‘French rosemary’ and the ‘Italian rosemary’. The French type produces white-coloured flowers and its oil is superior in quality to that of the Italian type whose flowers are purple coloured. Land Preparation: The land is prepared well by repeated ploughing and harrowing. About 20 t of well-rotted FYM is incorporated into the soil at the time of the final ploughing before seed bed preparation. Planting: Eight to ten weeks-old rooted cuttings or seedlings are planted in the main field at a spacing of 45 cm x 120 cm. About 20000 plant/ha give the highest yield of oil. It was found that a spacing of 45 cm x 45 cm between plants is optimum and gives the best yield. Manures and Fertilizers: Prior to transplanting, 20 t of FYM, along with 20:40:40 kg N, P2O5, and K2O per ha. is applied to the soil as a basal dose. After each harvest, 80 kg/ha of N is applied in 4 equal split doses as a side dressing to promote vegetative growth. For obtaining the highest yield, the CIMAP, Lucknow has recommended the application of 300 kg/N/ha/year. Irrigation : Initially the crop is irrigated twice a week till the plants establish. Afterwards, once a week is sufficient depending upon soil and climate. By nature, this crop is drought resistant and can withstand long drought periods. Intercultivation: About 5-6 cultivations between the rows and an equal number of weedings within the rows are required to keep the weeds under control. Plant protection When the crop was introduced, there were no major pest and disease problems for this plant. But of late, blight caused by Rhizoctonia spp. A soil-borne fungus, Phytocoris rosmarini and Orthotylus ribest have been reported. Maneb (1%) can be sprayed on the crop and drenching may be done at 8-10 days’ intervals to keep these diseases under control. Harvest and Post Harvest Technology During the first year, the crop is ready for harvest 8 months after planting and only 2 harvests are obtained. In subsequent years, 3 to 4 harvests at 100 to 120 days intervals
can be taken. Depending upon the exposure of plantation, the plants start flowering earlier in warmer and low altitude areas and later on the high slopes. In some areas harvesting commences from the second year in August after the full flowering, which commences in May-June. Harvesting should begin at the time of 50% blossoming and continue till 75-90% inflorescence emerges and must end when the flowers have finished blossoming. The shoots are cut for distillation when they have reached their maximum size, but have not become woody. The hardwood should not be distilled as it imparts an odour of turpentine. Leaves are spiky and thin, they are cut into pieces, dried in shade for 2 to 3 days and crushed or powdered and packed. Herb needs immediate drying in dark ventilated place after harvest to avoid loss of essential oil. Rosemary can last 25 to 30 years and require pruning and training in each season. Distillation: Essential oil is obtained by steam-distillation of the freshly harvested herbage. The most modern method uses steam directly or indirectly, produced at 2-3 atmospheric pressure. The herbage can also be shade dried, stored and distilled at convenience without any loss or oil. The time required to distill one charge is 3 hours. Rosemary also is distilled for 2 hours for the maximum recovery of oil. Oil content and Yield: In the laboratory, the fresh rosemary leaves yield 1% and shade dried leaves yield 3% oil. However, in field-distillation units, a yield of 0.7% is considered satisfactory. About 12 to 15 t/ha/annum of herbage, yielding about 85 to 100 kg/ha/annum of oil, is obtained. Cropping system It is a perennial crop. After 2 to 3 years, the bushes are cut frequently to keep them form becoming leggy and to promote the formation of numerous shoots, which can be harvested for the oil. When a 10 to 12 year-old plantation starts ageing and its yield is reduced, its regeneration is necessary. This should be done when the plants are in a period of rest. For this purpose, the plants are cut 4-5 cm above the ground. Quick regeneration of a plantation requires adequate care by extra dose of manure and fertilzewrs. A normal yield from an adult plantation is obtained during the second year after regeneration. Regeneration restores the production capacity of the old plantation, after it has been uprooted and replanted.
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