Spirituality, Hope, and Self-Sufficiency among Low

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Jan 19, 2015 - Philip Young P. Hong, David R. Hodge, and Sangmi Choi ... Engendering hope may assist clients overcome some of the many challenges.
Social Work Advance Access published January 19, 2015

Spirituality, Hope, and Self-Sufficiency among Low-Income Job Seekers Philip Young P. Hong, David R. Hodge, and Sangmi Choi Self-sufficiency (SS) is an important social welfare policy goal in the United States, yet little is known about the process that leads to SS. To address this gap in the literature, this study examined the relationship between spirituality, hope, and SS among a sample of low-income job seekers (N = 116). It was hypothesized that spirituality would be related to hope, and that hope, in turn, would be related to SS. Using survey data from two workforce development agencies, this hypothesis was confirmed—hope fully mediated the relationship between spirituality and SS. Of the two factors through which hope is commonly operationalized— agency and pathways—supplemental analysis suggested that spirituality only affects SS through the agency channel. To help foster hope in direct practice settings, it is suggested that social workers might employ spiritually modified cognitive–behavioral therapy protocols. Macrostructural interventions that block the pathway component of hope are also suggested to help reverse exclusion from labor market entry. As such, hope needs to be addressed comprehensively—intrapsychically and macrostructurally—to effect bottom-up change for SS. Engendering hope may assist clients overcome some of the many challenges they encounter on the journey to SS. KEY WORDS:

employment; hope; poverty; self-sufficiency; spirituality

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n the past two decades, self-sufficiency (SS) has become a primary goal of social welfare policies in the United States. One of the main goals of the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program, Title I of Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (P.L. 104–193), is to decrease dependency on the welfare system and help low-income families achieve economic SS (ESS). The idea that employment is the solution to welfare dependency is also engraved in the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105–220), in which SS is defined as earning enough money by employment to meet basic needs. Although no universally agreed upon definition of SS exits (Hawkins, 2005; P.Y.P. Hong, Sheriff, & Naeger, 2009), it is widely viewed as an economic and financial “outcome,” or more specifically, independence from government support (Taylor & Barusch, 2004) and being employed with financial security ( Johnson & Corcoran, 2003). Outcome-driven understandings of SS implicitly dichotomize the concept. One is either employed, and independent from income-based government benefits, or not. Perhaps more important, outcomedriven understandings tend to ignore the psychological process that leads to SS (P.Y.P. Hong, 2013).

doi: 10.1093/sw/swu059

© 2015 National Association of Social Workers

Indeed, numerous scholars have argued that viewing SS as a labor market outcome is inadequate and called for approaching the issue more holistically (Braun, Olson, & Bauer, 2002; Gowdy & Pearlmutter, 1993; Hawkins, 2005; P.Y.P. Hong et al., 2009). In response to these concerns, recent studies have emphasized the importance of the process that engenders SS (P.Y.P. Hong, 2013; P.Y.P. Hong et al., 2009). A central aspect of this process is developing and sustaining hope (P.Y.P. Hong, 2014).The journey toward SS in the labor market is often characterized by anxiety, fear, and uncertainty. Hope provides the psychological drive necessary to seek and obtain employment (Clark, 2014). One factor that may be related to hope is spirituality. For some people, spirituality appears to provide a deep source of motivation that helps foster and sustain hope (Pargament, 2007). Yet, little empirical evidence exists on how spirituality may contribute to hope and subsequently SS. The present research fills a gap in the literature by investigating how spirituality, through the construct of hope, affects SS. This study is guided by the following research questions: Does hope mediate the relationship between spirituality and SS among low-income job seeking clients? And if so, through what channels?

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BACKGROUND LITERATURE

Spirituality

Gallup data indicate that approximately 90 percent of the general population believes in God or a universal spirit (Newport, 2012). Although many definitions of spirituality exist (Canda & Furman, 2010), this construct is commonly conceptualized in terms of an individual’s relationship with God (Wuthnow, 2007). As a relational construct, spirituality can shape individuals’ personal narratives (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2013). Perceiving one’s self to be in a relationship with a divine Other can alter one’s cognitions. In turn, these scripts help adherents understand reality through the prism of their interpersonal relationship with their divine Other. These salutary scripts can foster positive mental health outcomes. Indeed, a substantial body of research has linked spirituality with a wide variety of salutary constructs (Koenig, King, & Carson, 2012; Pargament, 2007). For instance, in direct practice settings, cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) protocols that have been modified to incorporate clients’ spiritual beliefs have been associated with positive outcomes (Hook et al., 2010). Particularly notable is the role of this spiritually informed treatment in ameliorating depression, a construct that in many ways represents the inverse of hope (Arnau, Rosen, Finch, Rhudy, & Fortunato, 2007). Another body of research links spirituality directly with hope. According to one review, 40 studies have examined the relationship between spirituality and hope (Koenig et al., 2012). Of these, 29 (73 percent) reported a positive, significant relationship between spirituality and hope. No studies reported a negative relationship between spirituality and hope. Spirituality may engender higher levels of hope through creating narratives that frame events from a transcendent perspective (Pargament, 2007). For instance, belief that God will—in a certain sense— empower adherents may enhance one’s sense of personal agency. Similarly, belief that God has a plan for one’s life may engender hope in terms of planning for the future. Taken together, the extant theory and research suggests that higher levels of spirituality may foster higher levels of hope. Hope

Hope is a core concept in both the strengths perspective (Saleebey, 2013) and positive psychology (Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2011). Broadly

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speaking, hope is generally understood as a goalcongruent and future-oriented psychological posture that relates to obtaining expected outcomes. Hope is related to outcomes that people view as congruent with the goals they desire to achieve (Lazarus, 1991; MacInnis & De Mello, 2005). In other words, if individuals hope for something, they expect a goal-congruent outcome to be realized and unfavorable outcomes to be avoided. Hope is future-oriented in that it concerns attaining goals that have yet to be achieved. As such, two of the most frequently used hope scales—Snyder et al. (1991) and Herth (1991)—share the concepts of goal orientation, outcome expectation, motivation to take actions, and making plans for goal achievement. More specifically, hope can be conceptualized as a positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful (a) agency (that is, goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways (that is, planning to meet goals) (Snyder et al., 1991). Dufault and Martocchio (1985) defined hope as a multidimensional and process-oriented “dynamic life force characterized by a confident yet uncertain expectation of achieving a future good which, to the hoping person, is realistically possible and personally significant” ( p. 287). As might be expected, hope is positively associated with ESS among low-income job seekers (P.Y.P. Hong, Choi, & Polanin, 2014; P.Y.P. Hong, Polanin, & Pigott, 2012). These job seekers typically encounter a host of personal and structural difficulties in the labor market. Individuals who are more hopeful are more motivated to make plans and take actions to achieve economic goals. Hope provides the psychological impetus to implement agendas in the face of difficulties. Without sufficient levels of hope, low-income job seekers can become overwhelmed by the challenges associated with obtaining ESS. HYPOTHESES

The literature suggests that spirituality is associated with hope and hope is associated with SS. These relationships, however, have not been empirically tested together in the same model with unemployed individuals attempting to obtain SS. Given the importance of understanding the factors that facilitate SS, this study addresses this gap in the literature by examining these relationships with a sample of low-income job seekers in job training.

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Figure 1: Hypothesized Models and the Results of Hypothesis Tests

Notes: Supported hypotheses are reported as solid lines, rejected hypothesis as dotted line. H1 = spirituality positively related to hope; H2 = hope positively related to self-sufficiency; H1a = spirituality associated with pathways; H1b = spirituality associated with agency; H2a = pathways associated with self-sufficiency; H2b = agency associated with self-sufficiency.

The hypothesized relationships are depicted in the form of two models (see Figure 1). In model 1, it was hypothesized that spirituality would be positively related to hope (H1) and that hope would be positively related to SS (H2). Put differently, hope is posited to fully mediate the relationship between spirituality and SS. Model 2 depicts a slightly more nuanced understanding of these relationships that draws from the fact that hope can be conceptualized in terms of two intertwined channels: agency (goal-directed energy) and pathways ( planning to meet goals). In model 2, it was posited that spirituality would be positively associated with the agency (H1b) and pathways (H1a) channels, and that the agency (H2b) and pathways (H2a) channels would also be positively associated with SS. METHOD

Sample and Data Collection

This study used data collected from two groups of low-income job seekers (see Table 1). The first sample (sample 1) comprised individuals participating in a financial coaching program operated by a social services agency in Chicago, Illinois. Survey data from 55 individuals was collected between October and December of 2008 (100 percent response rate). The average respondent was a 39.6 year old (SD = 13.7) unemployed African American woman with at least some college education who had participated in a job training program within the past 10 years and had an average annual household income of $14,847.23 (SD = 15,265.10).

The second sample (sample 2) was derived from a comparable social services agency in St. Louis, Missouri. Survey data were collected from 61 job training participants who were receiving job readiness services between October 2008 and March 2009 (100 percent response rate). The average respondent was a 27.92 year old (SD = 7.64) unemployed African American woman with at least a high school education who had previously participated in a job training program and had average annual household income of just $3,469.36 (SD = 5,017.93). Measures

Key constructs in the hypothesized models are spirituality, hope, and SS. Spirituality was measured with the Intrinsic Spirituality Scale (Hodge, 2003). This six-item scale measures the degree to which spirituality functions as a source of personal motivation. The scale is designed to assess spirituality among both theistic and nontheistic populations, regardless of whether they express their spirituality within or outside of a religious framework. The scale uses a phrase completion methodology in which respondents complete a phrase using a 10-point response key (Hodge & Gillespie, 2003). A sample item is, “In terms of the questions I have about life, my spirituality answers . . .” (0 = no questions; 10 = absolutely all my questions). The Cronbach’s alpha for the scale in this study was .88. Hope was measured with the Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991). This eight-item measure consists of two factors: agency and pathways. More specifically,

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Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Samples 1 and 2 Total Characteristic

n (%)

Gender Male 29 (25.0) Female 87 (75.0) Age (years) 18–29 53 (46.5) 30–39 24 (21.1) 40–49 23 (20.2) 50–59 13 (11.5) Over 60 1 (0.9) Race African American 112 (97.4) Other 3 (2.6) Education level Less than high school 21 (18.4) High school/GED 31 (27.2) Some college but no degree 29 (25.4) Diploma/certificate from technical, 16 (14.0) vocational, or trade school Above associates degree 17 (14.9) Employment status Employed 85 (75.2) Not employed 28 (24.8) Job training experience Yes 74 (69.2) No 33 (30.8) Annual household income ($) None–999 1,000–4,999 5,000–9,999 10,000–29,000 Above 30,000

M (SD)

M (SD)

27 (49.1) 28 (50.9) 33.46 (11.43)

16 (28.6) 13 (23.2) 9 (16.1) 12 (21.5) 6 (10.7)

Sample 2 n (%)

M (SD)

2 (3.3) 59 (96.7) 39.60 (11.84)

27.92 (7.64)

14 (25.9) 11 (20.4) 15 (27.8) 13 (24.1) 1 (1.9)

39 (65.0) 13 (21.7) 8 (13.3) — —

54 (100.0) —

58 (95.1) 3 (4.8)

6 (10.9) 14 (25.5) 15 (27.3) 6 (10.9)

15 (25.4) 17 (28.8) 14 (23.7) 10 (16.9)

14 (25.4)

3 (5.1)

24 (43.6) 31 (56.4)

4 (6.9) 54 (93.1)

43 (82.7) 9 (17.3)

31 (56.4) 24 (43.6)

9,767.82 (13063.89)

hope is conceptualized as a cognitive set that is based on a reciprocally derived sense of successful (1) agency (that is, goal-directed determination) and (2) pathways (that is, planning to meet goals) from a goal-setting perspective. Items in the agency factor reflect perceptions of successful determination in meeting goals in the past, present, and future. Items in the pathways factor refer to a sense of being able to generate successful plans to meet goals. Respondents rate each statement on a Likert-type response key ranging from 0 to 3, where 0 = definitely false and 3 = definitely true. The alpha for the scale in this study was .74. SS was measured with the Women’s Employment Network Economic Self-Sufficiency scale (Gowdy & Pearlmutter, 1993). This 15-item multidimensional measure comprises four factors: (1)

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Sample 1 n (%)

14,847.23 (15265.10) 6 (19.4) 4 (12.9) 7 (22.6) 8 (25.8) 6 (19.4)

3,469.36 (5017.93) 10 (40.0) 9 (36.0) 2 (8.0) 4 (16.0) —

autonomy and self-determination, (2) financial security and responsibility, (3) family and self wellbeing, and (4) basic assets for community living. Each question reflects respondents’ assessment of the degree to which their financial situation in the past three months allowed them to do certain things that represent ESS (for example, pay one’s own way without borrowing from family or friends). Respondents rate each statement on a Likert-type response key ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = not at all, 5 = all the time). An alpha of .92 was obtained in the present study. Data Analysis

Prior to testing the hypotheses, an invariance test was conducted to ensure the demographic characteristics of the two independent samples were

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invariant. After testing for invariance, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to assess the proposed dimensionality through the fit of the individual items to their respective scales, using Amos 7.0 (Arbuckle, 2006). After the measurement model was verified, the two theoretical models were tested using structural equation modeling with the maximum likelihood estimation method. Full information maximum likelihood was employed to estimate missing data. Finally, the two hypothesized models were compared with two possible rival or alternative models.

The measurement model was evaluated using multiple fit indices. It is widely recognized that the chi-square test is unduly affected by sample size and provides an inaccurate assessment of model fit (Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999; S. Hong, 2000). Accordingly, the primary fit indices used in this study were the RMSEA, CFI, and TLI. RMSEA values lower than 1.0 and CFI and TLI values greater than .90 were used as cutoffs to assess acceptable model fit. Based upon these criteria, the measurement model fit the data reasonably well [x 2 ( p) = 77.404 (.001), df = 41, TLI = .903, CFI = .940, RMSEA = .088 (.057–.118)].

RESULTS

Invariance Test

Hypothesis Tests

To test for measurement equivalence across samples, a series of invariance tests were conducted. Milfront and Fischer (2010) indicated that the first step in this process is to conduct a configural invariance test. This procedure descriptively equates the latent factor and item structure. The results of this analysis revealed that the two independent samples share a common latent factor and item structure [x 2 ( p) = 87.38 (.028), df = 64, TLI = .931, CFI = .960, RMSEA = .057 (.020–.084)]. Given adequate fit, it is possible to test for metric invariance, for which the factor pattern coefficients were constrained to be equal (Milfront & Fischer, 2010). Because the metric invariance model is nested within the configural invariance model (model 1), a chi-square difference test was performed. The chisquare difference was statistically significant [x 2 (df) = 31.198 (8), p .05], demonstrating that partial metric analysis is plausible. Once metric invariance is achieved, the differences of measured items can be meaningfully compared across groups (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1998).

After confirming the validity of the measurement model, the hypothesized structural models were tested. The primary fit indices indicated that the hypothesized model 1 was acceptable [x 2 ( p) = 78.214 (.001), df = 42, CFI = .940, TLI = .906, RMSEA = .087 (.056–.116)]. As can be seen in Table 2, the effect of spirituality on hope was statistically significant, supporting H1. Similarly, hope was significantly related to ESS, supporting H2. After confirming model 1, model 2 was tested to determine how the two factors of hope—agency and pathways—might mediate the relationship between spirituality and ESS. Although the CFI value was somewhat lower than the acceptable cutoff, the other primary fit indices suggest that the model was acceptable [x 2 ( p) = 181.758 (.000), df = 115, CFI = .873, TLI = .904, RMSEA = .071 (.051–.090)]. This model sheds additional light on the channels through which spirituality may affect ESS. Spirituality was significantly related to both factors of hope (agency and pathways), supporting H1b and H1a. The agency factor of hope was associated with ESS, supporting H2b. However, the pathways channel was not associated with ESS. Thus, H2a was not confirmed.

Measure Validation

Individual item reliability was tested to assess the proposed dimensionality. One item of the intrinsic spirituality scale was deleted due to a factor loading of less than .7 (Fornell & Larker, 1981). The measurement model was tested using CFA after this item was deleted.

Alternative Models

Alternative or rival models were estimated to assess the plausibility of other theoretical models. Both hypothesized models are full mediation models in which spirituality influences ESS mediated solely by hope. It is possible, however, that spirituality affects ESS directly as well as indirectly through hope. Alternative models were constructed to test this possibility.

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Table 2: Structural Equation Modeling Results with Hypothesized Models 1 and 2 (N = 116) Path

Model 1 H1: Spirituality ! hope H2: Hope ! ESS Model 2 H1b: Spirituality ! hope agency H1a: Spirituality ! hope pathways H2b: Hope agency ! ESS H2a: Hope pathways ! ESS

Path Coefficient (Standardized Coefficient)

p

SE

CR

.089 (.411) 1.110 (.456)

*** ***

.026 .317

3.436 3.507

.047 (.280) .087 (465) 1.136 (.361) .521 (.186)

.025* .010** .005** .148

.021 .034 .402 .361

2.237 2.582 2.825 1.445

Note: ESS = economic self-sufficiency. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Rival model 1 adequately fit the data [x 2 ( p) = 77.404 (.001), df = 41, CFI = .940, TLI = .903, RMSEA = .088 (.057–.118)]. However, the added path from spirituality to ESS was not statistically significant ( p = .374). The chi-square difference test was not significant for the rival model 1 versus the original hypothesized model 1 [Δ x2 (Δ df ) = .810 (1), p > .05]. This suggests that the more parsimonious original model 1 explains the data better than the rival model. Similar results were recorded with rival model 2. Although the model fit was acceptable (see Table 3), the added path from spirituality to ESS was not significant ( p = .428). The chi-square difference test was not significant for rival model 2 versus the hypothesized model 2 [Δ x 2 (Δ df ) = .675 (1), p > .05]. This suggests that the original hypothesized model 2 fits the data better. In sum, the comparisons suggest that the effects of spirituality on ESS are fully mediated by hope. In other words, spirituality affects ESS indirectly through hope, not through a direct relationship with ESS as posited in the alternative models. DISCUSSION

This study investigated the extent to which spirituality affects hope and hope affects ESS among lowincome job seekers. The results indicate that hope fully mediates the relationship between spirituality

and ESS. Of the two factors through hope is commonly operationalized—agency and pathways— supplemental analysis suggests that spirituality only affects ESS through the agency channel. Although spirituality was positively associated with both factors of hope, only the agency factor was significantly associated with ESS. ESS is an important policy goal (Hawkins, 2005; P.Y.P. Hong et al., 2009). The paths identified in this study represent one possible map of how clients might reach ESS. This map is unique in that previously suggested avenues to SS have commonly highlighted tangible outcome-based strategies that are external to one’s psychological domain—that is, attainment of job skills and work experience. Implications for Practice

The results have important implications for practice with low-income job seekers and perhaps other populations seeking ESS. Hope is an essential internal strength that animates the transition from public dependency to work (P.Y.P. Hong et al., 2009). For low-income job seekers striving to achieve ESS, hope is the positive noncognitive drive that helps people surmount the many barriers to employment (P.Y.P. Hong, 2013, 2014; P.Y.P. Hong, Polanin, Key, & Choi, 2014). Such barriers can foster a strong sense of discouragement. Only when hope outweighs this discouragement is it possible to

Table 3: Hypothesized (Full Mediation) Models versus Rival (Partial Mediation) Models Model

Hypothesized model 1 Rival model 1 Hypothesized model 2 Rival model 2

x 2 (p)

78.214 (.001) 77.404 (.001) 181.758 (.000) 181.083 (.000)

Δ x 2 (Δ df)

.810 (1) .675 (1)

df

TLI

CFI

RMSEA

42 41 115 114

.906 .903 .904 .904

.940 .940 .873 .871

.087 (.056–.116) .088 (.057–.118) .071 (.051–.090) .072 (.051–.091)

Note: The rival models are partial mediation models with an added direct path from spirituality to economic self-sufficiency. TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.

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productively move toward ESS (P.Y.P. Hong, 2013; P.Y.P. Hong et al., 2009). At a more applied level, the findings underscore the importance of administering a spiritual assessment (Canda & Furman, 2010). Such assessments can be used to identify spiritual strengths, including those that foster hope. It is important to note that people often become overwhelmed by their problems (Saleebey, 2013).Seeking ESS may be an especially trying process. As already implied, obtaining a reasonable degree of ESS is often an exhausting ordeal in which job seekers experience numerous and repeated challenges that, over time, can erode clients’ sense of hope. As a result, individuals can become emotionally overwhelmed to such an extent that they overlook their strengths. Assets, resources, and strengths that enhance wellness are neglected. Sources of resilience fall into disuse in the face of pressing problems that seem to demand continuous attention (Snyder et al., 2011). Social work practitioners can assist clients by refocusing their attention on their strengths. For instance, practitioners with expertise in spirituality and CBT might employ use spiritual interventions— such as spiritually modified CBT—to enhance hope (Hodge, 2008). Although spiritually modified CBT has not been tested with low-income job seekers, research reviews indicate this modality is effective in overcoming a variety of challenges with numerous populations (Hodge, 2006; Hook et al., 2010; Koenig et al., 2012). In spiritually modified CBT, the cognitive restructuring techniques and behavioral assignments are identical to traditional CBT (Nielsen, 2004). Practitioners and clients work together to identify unproductive thoughts, feelings, and circumstances. In spiritually modified CBT, detrimental beliefs and behaviors are replaced with salutary alternatives drawn from clients’ spiritual narratives (Ellis, 2000). In other words, secular CBT treatment protocols are modified to incorporate clients’ spiritual beliefs and practices (Hodge, 2008). Take, for instance, a client struggling with discouragement, which might be considered the opposite of hope, in the face of persistent rejection on the job market. To foster a sense of hope, practitioners would collaborate with the client to identify the cognitions underlying the sense of discouragement. Once isolated, these scripts might be replaced with alternatives scripts emphasizing the notion of working together with God as partners,

a potentially empowering belief that may engender hope (Pargament, 2007; Pargament & Raiya, 2007). This same basic process might also be used to assist people who are not spiritual. Although this article has focused on the relationship between spirituality, hope, and SS, it is important to note that some people reject the notion of spirituality (Newport, 2012).For such individuals, practitioners might seek to identify non–spiritually based cognitive scripts that engender a sense of hope (for example, “I think I can do this because I have done . . .”) (Cheavens, Feldman, Woodward, & Snyder, 2006). In other words, traditional CBT strategies might be used to foster hope and, in turn, SS. Regardless of the choice of intervention— spiritual or secular—a few key principles should be noted in working with clients, and perhaps lowincome job seekers in particular. The power differential that tends to exist between practitioners and clients may be accentuated when working with vulnerable populations. This can represent a threat to client autonomy, including clients’ right to make their own spiritual choices. As a result, it is especially critical for practitioners to continually monitor the practitioner–client relationship to ensure that clients’ desires regarding the incorporation of spirituality into therapy are honored (Canda & Furman, 2010). On a related note, practitioners should ensure that they remain within the boundaries of their respective areas of clinical expertise (Hodge, 2011). For instance, if practitioners are not conversant with the basic principles of CBT, then they should typically refrain from attempting to use spiritually modified CBT with their clients. Similarly, if minimal cultural competency exists regarding clients’ spiritual tradition, then attempting to operationalize clients’ spiritual strengths becomes a highly questionable activity. To some extent, however, the lack of cultural competency can be alleviated by collaborating with clergy from clients’ spiritual tradition, assuming clients consent to this approach. Given that clergy are spiritual experts, they can often help practitioners identify salutary spiritual beliefs and practices that can foster hope. It is questionable, however, if practitioners have received adequate training in their social work educational programs to implement spiritual interventions appropriately (Canda & Furman, 2010). Researchers have repeatedly found that most practitioners report receiving little, if any, training in

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spirituality during their graduate education (Sheridan, 2009). Thus, agencies might consider offering supplemental training to ensure that practitioners engage client spirituality in an ethical and effective manner. Similarly, social work educational programs should also ensure that content on spirituality is incorporated into their curricula to equip students with the necessary skills. At a policy level, the results underscore the need for spiritual assessment guidelines and protocols to help ensure that clients have the opportunity to incorporate their spiritual strengths into the therapeutic dialogue, if they so desire. This study raises the possibility that spirituality affects ESS only through the agency component of hope, perhaps due to the sample characteristic being highly attached to the labor market (75.2 percent employed, 69.2 percent having had job training experience). As suggested by P.Y.P. Hong (2013), a plausible explanation is that the pathways component may be relatively more important in relation to labor market entry, whereas the agency component could have more relevance for surviving through fear of failure and anxiety once in the labor market. This suggests a moderation effect by labor market attachment (that is, employment status) that needs further investigation. In this regard, although spiritual interventions may empower individuals and help provide the motivation to achieve SS goals, the pathway component of hope may also need to be specifically addressed to foster hope building and maintaining strategies as one tries to enter the labor market. In a pathways-oriented intervention, practitioners might work with clients to evaluate specific progress on each goal within individualized employment plans (Bratt & Keyes, 1998). It is particularly important to reassess and revise goals to ensure that they remain realistic and congruent with the present labor market lest clients’ transformative path fall prey to labor market exclusion and further despair (P.Y.P. Hong, 2013, 2014). Support services and programs that help remove barriers that block pathways are critical. Although this study may seem to have focused primarily on micro-level factors that contribute to ESS, this intrapsychic approach does not exclude but adds to the primary importance of macrostructural conditions in the labor market that make it nearly impossible for families to survive on lowwage work. As Edin and Lein (1997) found among

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unskilled and semi-skilled single mothers, future outlook of surviving on low-wage work can be less than promising when considering the structural barriers such as cost of work-related expenses, child care and health care, and job security (that is, consistent income) and quality (for example, compatibility with parenting, with sick leave and vacation days). To make ends meet, welfare-reliant and wagereliant mothers both tend to rely on additional sources of income, the former through other informal cash work and the latter through contributions from their social support network. Therefore, for those trying to enter the lowwage labor market from short- or long-term spells of unemployment, hope’s pathways component may be structurally truncated by inadequate financial returns to match family economics (Edin & Lein, 1997). For the blocked pathways of hope to reopen, structural interventions need to complement the agency component of hope at the individual level. These may include, but are not limited to, improving the quality of education and training programs that lead to living wages, providing transitional child care and health care benefits for welfare leavers, and expanding the Unemployment Insurance coverage of workers in the low-wage sector, including part-time workers (Edin & Lein, 1997). Raising the state minimum wage close to locally adjusted living wage would also make the pathway component a possibility in one’s imaginative map in attaining the SS goal. By activating hope comprehensively, at the individual and structural levels, one can effect bottomup social change—investing in the possibilities of access, sustainability, and upward mobility for disconnected workers (P.Y.P. Hong, 2013). To change the employer-dominant low-wage market, employers need to compete equally for qualified, motivated, and empowered candidates filled with hope, just as the job seekers tirelessly compete for the job opportunities. Hope is more than an optimistic, motivational state that represents one’s work readiness; it is a relentless, unceasing endeavor toward a positive outcome—long-term job retention and advancement—against all odds that may block the pathway toward ESS. It is essential for employers to participate in post-employment continuum of support for low-wage workers by investing in on-the-job hope sustaining retention strategies. In this sense, hope can serve as a bridge to restore trust in the economic structure for job seekers who have

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seen it historically disadvantage and trap low-wage workers and for employers who have not benefited by it feeding unqualified candidates, many of whom are overcome by their personal and structural barriers. Limitations

Our study’s limitations should be noted here, particularly the issue of generalizability. In keeping with the nonrandom sampling strategy, the results cannot be generalized to other populations of lowincome job seekers. For example, the study sample primarily consisted of African American clients, perhaps the most spiritual population in the nation (Newport, 2012). It is possible that different results would be obtained with different non–African American samples. Indeed, further research with other samples to replicate and extend this work is imperative. CONCLUSION

This may be the first study to examine the relationship between spirituality, hope, and SS among low-income job seekers. The results suggest that spirituality fosters hope and hope, in turn, fosters ESS. In other words, hope fully mediates the relationship between spirituality and ESS. As such, the study identifies one possible avenue through which ESS may be achieved. Given the importance of SS, the results indicate that research on this topic should be prioritized. REFERENCES Arbuckle, J. L. (2006). Amos (Version 7.0) [Computer program]. Chicago: SPSS. Arnau, R. C., Rosen, D. H., Finch, J. F., Rhudy, J. L., & Fortunato, V. J. (2007). Longitudinal effects of hope on depression and anxiety: A latent variable analysis. Journal of Personality, 75(1), 43–64. Bratt, R. G., & Keyes, L. C. (1998). Challenges confronting nonprofit housing organizations’ self-sufficiency programs. Housing Policy Debate, 9, 795–824. Braun, B., Olson, P. D., & Bauer, J. W. (2002). Welfare to well-being transition. Social Indicators Research, 60, 147–154. Canda, E. R., & Furman, L. D. (2010). Spiritual diversity in social work practice: The heart of helping (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Cheavens, J. S., Feldman, D. B., Woodward, J. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2006). Hope in cognitive psychotherapies: On working with client strengths. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20, 135–145. Clark, E. J. (2014). The changing mosaic of hope. In E. J. Clark & E. F. Hoffler (Eds.), Hope matters: The power of social work ( pp. 7–11). Washington, DC: NASW Press. Dufault, K., & Martocchio, B. C. (1985). Symposium on compassionate care and the dying experience. Hope: Its

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Avenue, Lewis Towers 1238, Chicago, IL 60611; phong@ luc.edu. David R. Hodge, PhD, is professor, School of Social Work, Arizona State University, Phoenix, and senior nonresident fellow, Program for Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Sangmi Choi, PhD, is assistant professor, Soongsil University, Seoul, South Korea. This research was supported by the Center for Urban Research and Learning at Loyola University Chicago. Additional support was provided by the University Partnership Research Grants for the Health Profession Opportunity Grants Program under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Grant #90PH0018, from the Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation of the Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Original manuscript received March 8, 2014 Final revision received August 5, 2014 Accepted August 18, 2014

Philip Young P. Hong, PhD, is associate professor, School of Social Work, Loyola University Chicago, 820 N. Michigan

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Social Work