London: Sweet & Maxwell. Turner, S. (1987). Practical Sponsorship. London, Kogan Page. Varadarajan, P., and A. Menon. (1988), Cause-Related Marketing: A ...
SPORTS AND ARTS SPONSORS: INVESTIGATING THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Francis J. Farrelly, Monash University Pascale G. Quester, The University of Adelaide ABSTRACT This study relies on a survey of arts and sports sponsorship decision-makers in Australia and presents a number of findings relating to management of the two sponsorship types. Similarities and differences in management practices are considered as are their implications. Directions for future research in this area are also outlined. INTRODUCTION Research into sponsorship reveals differences in the way it is managed, including variance in the way it is initiated, planned for, and executed. While there is some evidence of stringent planning criteria directing the selection and ultimate implementation process (Farrelly, Quester, Burton, 1997; Marshall and Cook, 1992, Mintel, 1992; Abratt and Grobler, 1989), there is also evidence of decisions driven by non-commercial factors or based on vague commercial objectives (McDonald, 1991; Meenaghan, 1991a). The purpose of this study is to compare the management of sport and art sponsorship in Australia today. Consideration is given to the current level of attention and aptitude directed toward the management of arts and sports sponsorship and the identification and clarification of the commercial factors that drive decision making relating to them. The study seeks to establish, and substantiate empirically, the similarities and differences that exist in the management of the two sponsorship types. While there is some suggestion in the literature that differences do exist, this has rarely been measured. The analysis focuses upon areas of assumed differences between arts and sports sponsorship such as objectives, audience type, evaluation process, locus of responsibility within the organisation, and industry type. A key aim of the study will be to confirm these differences and consider whether this precludes a transfer of skills and expertise between the two sponsorship types. To date, researchers have inadvertently focussed on sports sponsorship often ignoring any other type, to such an extent that most sponsorship knowledge is now derived from sports. In fact, sports sponsorship has become the benchmark for sponsorship research and management (Witcher et al., 1991), despite suggested differences in the commercial makeup of the two sponsorship categories (Witcher et al., 1991) and the potential differences in the way they are presently managed (Thwaites, 1995; Crowley, 1991).
SPORTS AND ARTS SPONSORSHIP INVESTMENT TRENDS Interestingly, the history of sponsorship dates back to ancient times and the word sponsorship is derived from the Greek word "horigia" which is a combination of the words "horos” (the dance) and “iigoumai" (I direct or I lead). The individual who led or paid for the festival/dance was the "horigos" or sponsor (Dalakas, 1996). Sponsorship has recently experienced significant growth and companies have diversified their sponsorship activities, yet sports still dominate sponsorship investment, commanding between 75-80% of total investments, with the next most popular area of investment, the arts, accounting for only 10 to 15% (Thwaites, 1995). Worldwide sponsorship expenditures now currently exceed US$10 billion and are expected to exceed US$15 billion by 1997 (IEG 1996), while in the Australian market the Commercial Economic Advisory Service of Australia (CEASA) states that spending grew from $100 million in 1987 to $253 million in 1991 (Quester, 1993), growing to $600 million in 1996 (Skildum- Reid, 1996). Finding an enduring definition for commercial sponsorship has proven difficult, yet there is consensus that it does not represent patronage or philanthropy (Cornwell 1995, Turner 1987, Townley and Grayson 1984). Meenaghan (1991a) provided a clear and concise definition of commercial sponsorship and its commercial motivation as "...an investment, in cash or in kind, in an activity, person or event (sponsee), in return for access to the exploitable commercial potential associated with that activity, person or event by the investor (sponsor)." Meenaghan’s definition seemingly applies to the sponsorship of both sports and arts. But whilst few would argue with such commercial intent in the case of sports sponsorship, the same might not necessarily be true for the arts, where corporate giving has been more commonplace in the past (Gross, Traylor and Shuman, 1986). However, a shift in terminology - from patronage to commercial sponsorship or even cause-related marketing has been deemed more appropriate by researchers and practitioners alike in recent times. Marketing driven sponsorship, or at the least, philanthropy aligned with profit motive, is now clearly what characterises corporate intent in relation to the arts (Carter, 1996; Nealon, 1996; Shanklin and Kuzma, 1992; Varadarajan and Menon, 1988; Witcher et al., 1988). Sponsorship investment has been directed toward sport primarily because of its flexibility as a communication vehicle, and because of the opportunity it affords for association with the increasingly commercially driven phenomena of sport and sports heroes. Importantly, consumers the world over are enthralled by sports, as they increasingly seek leisure activities as a diversion from daily work routine (Meenaghan, 1991; Burridge, 1989; Townley and Grayson, 1984). Sport is a vehicle that enables narrow or broad band electronic media exposure, including the increasingly accessible communication technologies such as cable, satellite and microwave, and it can be employed to entice niche or multi segment audiences spanning a range of demographic and psychographic profiles (Thwaites, 1995; Meenaghan, 1991b; Meerabeau et al., 1991).
Sports sponsorship can also be used to transcend cultural, lingual and geographic boundaries to reach international audiences. It can be a catalyst for building corporate image and brand prominence on a global scale (Marshall and Cook, 1992). The arts, on the other hand, enjoy a significantly lesser public profile and a smaller share of the sponsorship dollar as they are perceived as less lucrative, deemed “exclusivist” and “inaccessible” by some corporates, and thought to preclude mass participation (Witcher et al., 1991). Arts audiences are distinct from sports audiences. They consist of different demographic and socioeconomic groups that are typically older and more affluent, and on aggregate, a great deal smaller than sport audiences overall. As such, arts events generally attract less media coverage and publicity than sports events, and while they can be attractive as a niche vehicle, they appeal less to the mainstream commercial sponsor striving to persuade larger mass market segments. Some, however, have predicted that arts sponsorship investment will grow as a result of the increasing saturation of sports properties and the burgeoning cost of larger events and bigger sporting heroes (Meerabeau et al., 1991). Other reasons may include the belief by some arts sponsors that their consumer appeal is growing. Toshiba, a major sponsor of the arts around the world, carries out regular market research as part of its sponsorship investment. A major piece of this research carried out in the United Kingdom revealed that in 1995 more than four times as many people visited museums and galleries (110 million) than attended league football matches (Carter, 1996). INVESTIGATING SPORTS AND ARTS SPONSORSHIP MANAGEMENT The limited research performed on arts sponsorship has found differences between arts and sports in relation to objectives sought, evaluation processes, audiences targeted, and responsibility centres within the organisational hierarchy (Thwaites, 1995; Witcher et al., 1991). Arts sponsors are felt to pursue image rather than market objectives and are believed to manage the process differently, with a more specific Public Relation perspective, due to arts sponsors’ focus on relationships and a strong desire to enhance corporate stature in the community. As a result, arts sponsors have been found to rate community relations and hospitality as their most important objectives (Witcher et al., 1991). Sports sponsors, on the other hand are said to aim more for audience reach, and brand and product awareness, and to actively seek media exposure in their sponsorship efforts (Sparks, 1995; Marshall and Cook, 1991; Abratt and Grobler, 1989; Abratt et al., 1987). Interestingly, sponsors of the arts are also said to carry out more frequent evaluations than sports sponsors (Thwaites, 1995; Witcher et al., 1991). This may be due to the fact that arts sponsorship expenditure is usually smaller than that of sports (Meenaghan, 1991b), leaving additional funds within the budget to undertake some performance evaluation. Moreover, arts sponsorship may be the single form of communication for some organisations such as legal institutions, making effects easier to isolate, measure and respond to.
Arts sponsors have more commonly centred the sponsorship function in the public relations department, whereas sports sponsors conduct their programs (at least more recently) from within the marketing department. This has been deemed an important indication, as the closer sponsorship is to the marketing function, the more effective is its management (Witcher et al., 1991). Despite these differences, arts sponsorship research and management techniques have been largely borrowed from those of sports sponsorship (Witcher et al., 1991). Furthermore, the differences discussed to date in the literature have not yet been established, or tested, in any comparative studies. To the authors’ knowledge, such data has never yet been collected in Australia. Therefore, the validity of such claims are both tenuous and uncertain. The investigation and testing of these assumed differences is important, and will fill a gap in current sponsorship research. METHODOLOGY In an initial exploratory phase of this research, ten in-depth interviews provided the foundation for a draft questionnaire which was developed and further tested with five sponsoring companies. Minor amendments were made, based on this feedback, and a 21item questionnaire was finalised and mailed, along with a personally addressed cover letter, to a total of 575 Australian companies (375 arts sponsors and 200 sports sponsors). The questionnaire probed into sponsorship management responsibility, selection and review process, planning procedures, and objective setting and evaluation. The study examines the fully completed responses from a total of 185 companies, made up of 80 organisations involved in sports sponsorship and 105 organisations involved in arts sponsorship, representing a response rate of 32.2 %. Table I shows the breakdown of respondents by sector of operation, with the majority of respondents in the arts sample deriving from business or financial services, and for the sports sample from the fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) sector eg. beverage, food and confectionary manufacturers Table I: Sample description Sector FMCG Financial Services/Banks Hospitality Airlines or Other Services Motor Vehicle/Automotive Non Profit/Government Business Services Other Total
Number Sports 23 10 8 10 8 5 0 8
Number Arts 4 26 16 4 5 2 29 15
Percentage Sports 32.0 13.9 11.1 13.9 11.1 6.9 0.0 11.1
Percentage Arts 4.0 25.6 15.8 4.0 5.0 2.0 28.7 14.9
72*
101*
100.0
100.0
*8 companies in the sports sample, and 4 companies in the arts sample did not provide this information.
FINDINGS Sponsorship Management Experience
The extent of management experience was investigated by examining the incidence of expenditure-related decision-making at various levels of the organisational hierarchy, as well as the nature of the management task. The results are set out in Table II. Table II: Degree of Expenditure Related Decision Making Across Management Levels According to Nature of Management Task. Management levels
Senior Management Marketing Department Advertising Department Product/Brand Manager
Proposal assessment Sports 49.4 57.0 11.4 45.6
Arts 50.5 64.8 15.2 12.4
Agreement negotiations Sports 48.1 51.9 10.1 48.1
Arts 49.5 61.9 11.4 7.6
Implementation/ Evaluations Sports 26.6 55.7 15.2 48.1
Arts 29.5 62.9 17.1 15.2
Renewal decision Sports Arts 73.3 73.4 44.3 58.1 6.3 7.6 43.0 3.8
Independent sample t-tests showed statistically significant differences between the arts and sports samples in the level of involvement in expenditure-related decision making. The number of arts respondents indicating that the marketing department was involved in the renewal decision was significantly greater (t182 = -1.86; p = 0.064) than in the sports sample, but as indicated in Table II, the sports sample product/brand managers were more involved in every aspect of the expenditure related decision-making process than their Arts counterparts. Independent t-tests showed these differences to be statistically significant for every management task: proposal assessment (t127.29 = 5.11; p = 0.000); agreement negotiations (t110.76 = 6.50; p = 0.000); implementation/evaluations (t135.03 = 4.93; p = 0.000); and renewal decision (t95.57 = 6.64; p = 0.000). The increased involvement by the marketing department in the sports firms, in the form of product/brand managers, suggests a greater degree of delegation and decision empowerment to lower level management. Sponsorship Management and Integration : An indication of sponsors’ objectives for future sponsorship projects was examined by asking respondents to assess the relative importance of twelve criteria when determining the worth of a sponsorship proposal (See Appendix One for exact question wording). Figure 1 graphically illustrates the findings.
Figure I: Percentage of Respondents Ranking Assessment Criteria as Important or Very Important
Percentage of Respondents
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
Complement
Long Term
Exec Pref
Name
Exclusive
Coverage
Morale
Client
Strat Fit
Access
Differentiatio n
0
Budget
10
Assessment Criteria Arts
Sports
The criteria deemed important by respondents in assessing the worth of a sponsorship proposal were similar for arts and sports firms. For both samples, the strategic fit of the proposed sponsorship program with the brand or corporate image was the most important criteria (88.2% and 82.1% respectively), followed by access to specific target media or event audience (81.2% and 78.2% respectively). The sponsorship budget was considered the third most important evaluation criteria in determining the worth of a sponsorship proposal by 77.2% of the sports sample and 75.2% of the arts sample. A highly significant moderate correlation was found between strategic fit of the proposed sponsorship program with the brand or corporate image and access to specific target media or event audiences in both the sports and arts samples (r = 0.4712, p = 0.000; and r = 0.5787, p = 0.000). The sports sample also showed highly significant moderate correlations between the importance of the sponsorship budget and access to specific target media or event audience (r = 0.4862, p = 0.000), and between the importance of the sponsorship budget and the strategic fit of the proposed sponsorship program with the brand or corporate image (r = 0.4678, p = 0.000) The arts sample showed a statistically significant, albeit weak, correlation between sponsorship budget and strategic fit of the proposed sponsorship program with the brand or corporate image (r = 0.1705, p = 0.088). The importance placed on client entertainment value/client relations as a means of evaluating the worth of a sponsorship proposal was shown to be significantly different between the arts sample and the sports sample (t179 = 3.50, p = 0.001). Of the arts respondents, 55.3 percent ranked this criteria as being important or very important, while only 35.9 percent of sports respondents did so. This is consistent with the literature which suggests that the main reason organisations involve themselves in arts sponsorship is for the opportunity to create and build relationships with specific groups (Crowley, 1991; Witcher, Craigen, Culligan and Harvey, 1991; Meenaghan, 1991b).
In relation to sports companies, however, this result represents a departure from the findings of a previous Australian study of 132 sports sponsoring firms which found that client entertainment was considered the most important aspect of sponsorship, deemed to improve company and product awareness, and to bolster market share (Scott and Suchard, 1992). A statistically significant difference was also found between the arts and the sports samples in relation to the importance placed on employee morale, with the arts sponsors placing more importance on this criteria (21.2%) than their sports counterparts (15.4%) when determining the worth of a sponsorship proposal (t175 = 2.56, p = 0.011), illustrating a greater focus on the relationship benefits of sponsorship for the former group. Results also showed that in determining the worth of a sponsorship proposal, organisations involved in sports sponsorship placed more importance on media coverage than did respondents involved in arts sponsorship, 62.7% and 75.0% respectively, (t179.65 = -1.91, p = 0.058). This supports the findings of Thwaites (1995), Meenaghan (1991b) and Witcher et al. (1991). Media exposure has often been used as a “foundation” by sports sponsors to achieve other objectives, such as brand and product awareness (Thwaites,1995). Sponsorship Measurement and Review Sponsorship is a tool generally designed to achieve commercial objectives. This, coupled with the vast amounts of money invested in sponsorship programs (Quester, 1993; Meenaghan, 1991b), suggests the need for organisations involved in them to clearly measure the outcomes and performance indicators of such programs. Sports sponsors indicated greater frequency in their review activities than did the arts respondents, of whom 62.1 percent conducted yearly reviews. This contradicts former findings in the literature (Witcher et al. 1991). However, the results also showed that while the arts respondents conducted less frequent sponsorship reviews, they tended to devote a greater amount of money to measuring the performance of specific arts sponsorships per every dollar spent on sponsorship. The measures of sponsorship success favoured by the arts and sports samples are presented graphically in Figure II.
Figure II: Measures of Sponsorship Success (Percentage of Respondents)
80
Percentage of Respondents
70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Sponsee
Consultant
Ad Agency
Media Scan
Distributor Survey
Attendance Survey
Consumer Survey
Experts
Sales Records
Sales Reps
Customers
Employees
Senior Mgt
0
Measures of Sponsorship Success Arts
Sports
Independent samples t-tests showed that arts respondents made significantly greater use of customer feedback (t141.64 = -4.18, p = 0.000) and event attendee surveys (t170 = -1.89, p = 0.061) for the purpose of measuring the success of sponsorship. Sports respondents, on the other hand, placed significantly more emphasis on the use of distributor surveys (t115.49 = 2.78, p = 0.006), sales records (t155.97 = 2.49, p = 0.014), media scan (t170 = 1.99, p = 0.048), consumer surveys (t158.57 = 1.81, p = 0.072), and sales representative feedback (t145.05 = 1.79, p = 0.076), as measures of sponsorship success. A statistically significant but weak correlation was found in the sports sample between the use of distributor surveys and sales representative feedback as a measure of sponsorship success (r = 0.2397, p = 0.037). With respect to the validity of a number of measures of sponsorship performance, statistically significant differences were found between the two samples. 88.1 percent of arts sponsors favoured corporate/product exposure-related measures of success eg. company image (community, regional, national), 74.7 % chose target group’s corporate or brand awareness and 60% selected media time/space gained through sponsorship exposure. Sports sponsors had similar responses with the target group’s corporate or brand awareness selected as adequate or very adequate by 83.3% or respondents, company image (community, regional, national) by 79.5%, and sales volume after the event or over time selected by 74.7%. While both groups considered sales volume after the event or over time as an important measure, the sports respondents considered it to be significantly more valid than did arts respondents (t171.44 = -2.53, p = 0.012). Independent t-tests also showed that the target group’s product or brand trial (t167 = -3.88, p = 0.000), and market share (t174 = -2.89, p = 0.060), were considered to be more valid measures of performance by those companies
involved in sports sponsorship (56.6% and 54.5% respectively) than those involved in arts sponsorship (31.2% and 41.4% respectively). This is in line with the literature (Kohl & Otker, 1995; Marshall and Cook, 1992) and confirms that sports sponsors place greater importance on sponsorship’s ability to generate improved product and/or brand awareness, to increase sales volumes and market share, and to promote innovations. Companies involved in arts sponsorship considered the company’s image to be significantly more valid as a measure of sponsorship performance (t177 = 2.39, p = 0.018), than did their counterparts involved in sports sponsorship. Similarly, the feedback from sponsees and clients/customers were also considered valid measures of sponsorship performance by more arts respondents than by sports respondents, (respectively t173 = 2.11, p = 0.036; and t176 = 4.99, p = 0.000), further supporting Witcher et al. (1991)’s claim that arts sponsors are particularly concerned with the relationship building opportunities derived from sponsorship. CONCLUSION AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH There is little doubt that sponsorship is dominated by commercial considerations; arts sponsors are as aware of the need for budget and market-driven objectives as their sports sponsor counterparts. That the two most important factors in assessing the worth of a sponsorship were ‘strategic fit with the brand or corporate image’ and ‘access to specific target media and event audience’, indicates that both sponsor types are mindful of the important strategic contribution sponsorship can make to corporate and brand positioning. Sports sponsors were found to manage sponsorship activities from their marketing departments which confirms claims made in the literature (Welsh 1996l; Witcher et al., 1991). Contrary to the literature, however, arts sponsors also predominantly managed their sponsorship activities from marketing departments, even though product managers in the sports sponsor sample were generally more involved in the process, and appeared more empowered to make sponsorship decisions, including renewal. It is perhaps not surprising that sports sponsors attach greater importance to media coverage than arts sponsors, given the typically larger sums of money involved. What does appear somewhat surprising is that arts sponsors placed greater emphasis on using sponsorship to improve employee morale. If sports sponsors are, as suggested by our results, more reliant on lower level management to make important sponsorship decisions, then there is a great need for effective internal communication and this should enhance gains in morale. Therefore, this objective should receive greater attention and priority from sports sponsors. That arts sponsors placed greater value on client relations can be explained by the fact that the clients of arts sponsors can often be more clearly identified and targeted. It was noted that while arts respondents carry out less frequent reviews than their sports counterparts, they allocate a greater amount of money to measure performance per every sponsorship dollar spent. While it may be that sports sponsors are able to measure performance in a more cost effective manner, the results of another of the authors’ study, comparing the management techniques of Australian and North American sports sponsors, highlighted a lack of effort devoted to performance assessment (Farrelly, Quester &Burton, 1997), which
suggests that there is a need for sports sponsors to emulate their arts counterparts in this respect. Indeed, the similarities of the two sponsorship types in relation to the outcomes sought, and the priority given to objectives as a way of achieving these outcomes, indicate that there could be a beneficial transfer of knowledge and managerial skills between the two. Whilst there are distinctions, it is quite possible that mutually beneficial learning could take place through a blending of the managerial strengths that have developed over time in firms involved in either form of sponsorship. Expertise transfers could be particulary beneficial for sports sponsors if changes in consumer values impact the return-on-investment potential of sports sponsorship. Besides improving the effectiveness of the way they currently manage sports sponsorship, it may point to a better way to invest in sponsorship overall. If consumers, as suggested in the literature, continue to place an increasing value on the sponsor’s social contributions, they may begin to perceive the sports sponsor’s large investment as both mercenary and unwelcome (Simone, 1995; Meerabeau et al., 1991). To counter such sentiments, sponsors may need to balance their effort across a range of sponsorship vehicles, capitalising on the public relations benefits of a blend of sponsorship programs, including the arts as well as educational or community-based endeavours, in order to build a favourable corporate and/or brand image.
Future research should explore this issue of transferability as well as the opportunity for competitive benchmarking, possibly even within organisations that may carry out both types of sponsorship in independent internal and external environments. Directions for future investigations in this area could also involve the examination of the process and appropriateness of sponsorship-related communication, as this may differ between sponsorship types. Cornwell (1995) describes Sponsorship-Linked Marketing as the deliberate attempt to utilise sports sponsorship as the foundation for the selling proposition and the basis on which marketing activity is developed. Comparative examination of current and potential practices of sponsorship-linked marketing by both arts and sports sponsor firms could be beneficial and lead to further transfer. It may also be beneficial to study different types of arts and sports- for example, the sponsorship of ballet or football, as opposed to that of an art competition or polo, may need to be differently managed, especially with respect to sponsorship-linked activities. Finally, simialr studies to that reported in this paper could be condicted in other countries where cultural differences may influence both consumers and sponsors’ expectations and perceptions of sponsorship. As sports and arts are both strobgly culture-bound concepts, future studies may focus on the meanings associated with either form of sponosrship, allowing international marketers the capitalise further on this emerging marketing tool.
REFERENCES
Abratt, R., and Grobler P. (1989), The Evaluation of Sports Sponsorship, International Journal of Advertising, 8, 351-362. Burridge, M. (1989), The Fine Art of Sponsorship, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials Management, 19 (3), 19-23. Carter, M. (1996), Culture Club, Marketing Week, 19 (8): 64-65. Cornwell, B. (1995), Sponsorship Linked Marketing Development, Sport Marketing Quarterly, IV, 4, 13-24. Crowley, M. (1991), Prioritising the Sponsorship Audience, European Journal of Marketing, 25, 11, 11-21. Dalakas, Vassilis. (1996). Translation of Greek Etymology. Warsaw Sports Marketing Center, University of Oregon. Farrelly, F., Burton., R, Quester, P. (1997), Sports Sponsorship Integration Into The Corporate Marketing Function -An International Comparative Study, International Marketing Review, page details forthcoming. Gross, Andrew C., Traylor, Mark B., and Shuman, Philip J. (1987), Corporate Sponsorship of Arts and Sports Events, 40th ESOMAR Marketing Research Congress Proceedings, Montreux, Switzerland, 535-562. Hoek, J., Gendall, P., Saunders., J. (1993), Sponsorship Management and Evaluation: Are Managers` Assumptions Justified ?, Journal of Promotion Management, 1(4), 53-56. Meenaghan, T. (1991a), The Role of Sponsorship in the Marketing Communication Mix, International Journal of Advertising, 10 (1), 35-47. Meenaghan, T. (1991b), Sponsorship - Legitimising the Medium, European Journal of Marketing, 25 (11), 5-10. McDonald, C. (1991), Sponsorship and the Image of the Sponsor, European Journal of Marketing, 25, 11, 31-38. Meerabeau, E., R. Gillett, M. Kennedy, J. Adeoba, M. Byass and K. Tabi. (1991), Sponsorship and the Drinks Industry in the 1990s, European Journal of Marketing, 25, 11, 39-56. Nealon, T,. (1996), State of the Arts, Marketing, October, 38-41. Quester, P., (1993), The Sponsorship Spending Spree, Australian Professional Marketing, October, 30-32.
Scott, D. and Suchard, H. (1992), Motivations for Australian Expenditure on Sponsorships, International Journal of Advertising, 11, 4, 325-32. Shanklin, W and Kuzma, J. (1992), Buying that Sporting Image, Marketing Management, Spring, 59-67. Skilkum-Reid, K. (1996), Integration, Integration, Integration, Australian Professional Marketing, June, 26. Sparks, R. (1995), Rethinking Media Evaluation: Tobacco Sponsorship Messages and Narrative Conventions in Motorsport Telecasts. Proceedings of the 7th Bi-Annual World Marketing Congress, Melbourne, July. Townley, S. and Grayson, E. (1984). Sponsorship of Sport, Arts and Leisure: Law, Tax and Business Relationship. London: Sweet & Maxwell. Turner, S. (1987). Practical Sponsorship. London, Kogan Page. Varadarajan, P., and A. Menon. (1988), Cause-Related Marketing: A Coalignment of Marketing Strategy and Corporate Philanthropy, Journal of Marketing ,25, July, 58-74. Witcher, B., G. Craigen, D. Culligan and Harvey A. (1991), The Links Between Objectives and Function in Organisational Sponsorship, International Journal of Advertising, 10: 1333.
APPENDIX ONE
Q5 Please indicate in the following table the importance of the listed criteria in determining the worth of a sponsorship proposal using a scale from 1 (not important at all) to 5 ( very important). Criteria 1 Budget Opportunity for differentiation Access to specific target media or event audience Strategic fit with brand or corporate image Client entertainment value/client relations Employees’ morale Media coverage/ publicity opportunity Exclusivity Naming rights Executive’s personal preferences Opportunity for long term association Complementarity with other communication tools Other (specify):
Importance (please tick) 2 3 4 5
