Stewart Postharvest Review

Stewart Postharvest Review An international journal for reviews in postharvest biology and technology

Integrated pre-and postharvest management processes affecting fruit and vegetable quality

MO Oke, N Sobratee and TS Workneh* School of Engineering, Bioresources Engineering, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Scottsville, South Africa

Abstract Purpose of the review: This review explores the effects of agricultural management practices on the quality of fruits and vegetables. It also provides valuable information on the importance of pre- and postharvest management on fruit and vegetable quality. Findings: Integrated pre- and postharvest management practices, such as proper selection of production practices, prepackaging, packaging and cold chain management treatments were found to have a beneficial effect on the postharvest quality of produce. There is a need for producers, processors and retailers to strengthen the introduction of integrated applications of agrotechnology. Limitations/implications: Limited information is available on the effect of integrated agro-technology, combining pre-and postharvest treatments, on quality. However, some results show that both pre-and postharvest practices have a significant influence on produce quality. In this case, improving yield and quality without an integrated approach was found to be a limitation. Directions for future research: Future research should focus on using integrated, environmentally-friendly, agro-technology to improve the yield and quality of fruits and vegetables. Keywords: preharvest; postharvest; quality; management; integrated agro-technology; fruit; vegetables

Abbreviations Controlled Atmosphere Storage CAS Modified Atmosphere Packaging MAP Total Soluble Solids TSS *Correspondence to: TS Workneh, School of Engineering, Bioresources Engineering, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)33 260 6140, Fax: +27 (0) 33 260 6140. Email: [email protected] Stewart Postharvest Review 2013, 3:6 Published online October 2013 doi: 10.2212/spr.2013.3.6

© 2013 Stewart Postharvest Solutions (UK) Ltd. Online ISSN:1945-9656 www.stewartpostharvest.com

Introduction The fruit and vegetable industry has great potential worldwide. However, maintaining profitability of the industry and maintaining maximum satisfaction of processors and consumers are a challenge unless production and postharvest management practices are integrated and operated successfully. Although, several studies have been done on both aspects of production and postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables, the approach still seems to be more focused on specific steps of production or postharvest handling. The present review examines major production and postharvest management practices and their influence on fruit and vegetable quality. A review was also carried out on the use of integrated agro-technology for fruits and vegetables. The production management practices considered in this review include: genetic factors; plant nutrition; irrigation/water stress; soil factors; biological factors; climate factors and

Oke et al. / Stewart Postharvest Review 2013, 3:6

Table 1: Some preharvest factors affecting fruit and vegetable endquality. Physiological disorder Tomato blossom-end rot

Causative factor Calcium deficiency

References [90, 91]

Apple bitter pit

Calcium deficiency

[92, 93]

Apple cork spot

Calcium deficiency

[90, 94]

Black heart of celery (Apium graveolens)

Calcium deficiency

[90, 95]

Calcium deficiency and hormone levels

[96]

Apple and pear drought spot

Boron deficiency

[97]

Mango (Mangifera indica)

Calcium salt variant

[98]

Cracking tomato

Nutrition/water relation problem

[99, 100]

Cracking cherry fruit (Prunus avium)

Nutrition/water relation problem

[101, 102]

Hollow heart potato

Moisture and nutritional stress

[103, 104]

Tip burn in Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis)

Excess nitrogen fertilizer application

[105]

growth regulators. A review of postharvest management practices, including pre-packaging, packaging and storage environment treatments is also presented.

Preharvest factors affecting quality Physiological deterioration A lot of physiological deteriorations occur that can negatively affect the appearance of produce during the preharvest period. The most common physiological disorders include: tomato blossom-end rot; apple bitter pit; apple cork spot; black heart of celery; apple and pear drought spot; cracking tomato; cracking cherry fruit; hollow heart potato; and tip burn in chinese cabbage [1]. The causative factors identified are calcium deficiency, hormone levels, boron deficiency, calcium salt variant, nutrition/water relation problems, moisture and nutritional stress, and excess nitrogen fertilizer application [2]. Table 1 shows some preharvest factors affecting fruit and vegetable end quality. Genetic factors Cultivar selection in terms of shape, size and colour is essential for achieving the desired product appearance [2, 3]. Apart from genetic variation among cultivars, some of the products

exhibit genetic aberrations that make them unacceptable or substandard in appearance. These may be due to mutations (eg, colour mutations are common in sweet potato storage roots) or to stress conditions changing the developmental trend. Biochemical, chemical and microbiological qualities are also influenced by genetic factors [4, 5]. Plant nutrition There is lack of information in literature on the influence of plant nutrition on the susceptibility of fruits and vegetables to postharvest abiotic stress. The nitrogen nutrition of crops and its regulatory effects on metabolic pathways can be used to influence quality through: (1) protein metabolism; and (2) the carbohydrate status of the plants [6, 7]. Comparatively high preharvest nitrogen is mostly correlated with poor postharvest quality of many fruits and vegetables [6], and the effects on their vitamin C content were reported [8–11]. Lee and Kader [11] reported that nitrogen fertilizers at high rates tend to decrease the vitamin C content in many fruits and vegetables. This was attributed to the fact that plant growth is generally enhanced by nitrogen fertilization so that a relative dilution effect may occur in the plant tissues. Moreover, although light is not essential for the synthesis of vitamin C in plants, the amount and intensity of light during the growing season have a definite influence on the amount of vitamin C formed as its synthesis depends on the supply of sugars formed through photosynthesis. Therefore, high nitrogen fertilizer application rates increase plant foliage and, thus, may reduce the light intensity and accumulation of vitamin C in shaded parts. There were also documentations of calcium nutrition during production being associated with postharvest disorders [6, 12 –14]. Calcium deficiency is usually induced by fluctuations in the plant’s water supply. Calcium uptake into plant tissue is restricted to areas of water uptake such that any barrier to water is also a barrier to calcium. Since, this element is not a “mobile” element in the plant, even brief changes in the water supply can cause physiological disorders. Droughty soil or damage to the roots from excessive or improper cultivation (eg, severe root pruning) can restrict water intake, hence, preventing the plants from getting the calcium that they need [18]. The only practical methods of reducing the risks of calcium related postharvest disorders, such as bitter pit development in apples or blossom end rot in tomatoes, are by managing nutrition and plant vigour, and maximizing calcium levels in the fruit, eg, through the use of calcium sprays [14]. Potassium nutrition, on the other hand, has a few important positive effects on the postharvest abiotic stress susceptibility of vegetables. Shibairo et al. [15] showed that under a hydroponic system with rockwool as substrate, an increase in potassium concentrations in the nutrient medium of up to 1 Mm reduced postharvest moisture loss. This has also been shown to reduce internal bruising in potatoes [16]. In a recent study, Ganeshamurthy et al. [17] emphasised the importance of potassium nutrition on the yield and quality of grapes and 2


bananas under Indian agronomic practices. Potassium is one of the most important nutrients that play a key role in grapes following pruning to stimulate optimum bud differentiation, fixing and cane maturity of the vines. Thereafter, potassium is also required for translocation of sugars to the developing berries and to extend the appearance and shelf-life of the grapes. In banana, potassium is essential in the transport and accumulation of sugars in the plant, which is particularly important since these processes allow fruit fill and, therefore, yield accumulation. A decrease in shoot nitrate concentration was also found in barley, cotton, watermelon and wheat with accumulation and increase in Cl- uptake [18]. Irrigation/water stress Water stress has effects on tree fruits and root vegetables [19]. For example, reduced irrigation results in higher density of peaches surface trichomes and low weight losses during storage [20]. In addition, deficit irrigation of apples and pears reduced the water loss of these fruits in subsequent storage [20, 21], which was attributed to reduction in skin permeance of the deficit irrigated fruit [20]. A very important variable that determines the response of produce to postharvest abiotic stress response is the time of occurrence of the water stress event. ‘Kensington’ mango fruits are prone to postharvest chilling injury with exposure to water stress during the cell expansion phase of growth compared to when exposed to the stress during cell division [22]. Therefore, it is pivotal to avoid water stress until the fruit reaches maximum size. Development of black spot disorder at the tuber forming stage in potatoes is associated with water stress [23]. Hence, current understanding of the influence of water stress on postharvest quality maintenance during storage needs improvement. Soil factors Low soil nutrient caused by adverse soil chemical and physical constraints, including poor management practices, affect the production potential of many soils [24, 25]. Physical constraints, including low or high water holding capacity, increased bulk density layers, water logging and poor aeration, can also reduce the plant’s ability to use nutrients for optimum development in quality at harvest and beyond [24, 26]. Great changes in soil organic matters (SOM), soil quality and nutrients can be achieved through different tillage practices [27, 28]. The appearance of underground storage crops like sweet potato can be altered with a stress devoid of oxygen as a result of high soil density or poor drainage conditions [29]. Biological factors Changes in the physiology and morphology of roots and shoots can lead to reduction in the plant’s ability to absorb and use nutrients effectively due to pathogenic stress [30, 31]. Adequate practices such as biological, physical, chemical and cultural management, combined with crop rotation, can be adopted to reduce the stress [31, 32]. Climate factors Availability of plant nutrients and their assimilation depends

on climatic factors such as solar radiation, temperature and precipitation [24]. The rate of nutrient release from organic and inorganic reserves is influenced by soil temperature, while solar radiation has a direct effect on photosynthesis [30, 33]. Excess or insufficient light striking the plant or product can be traced to product quality and appearance alterations. Examples of crops in which sun scald is a significant problem are: persimmon [34]; tomato [35]; mandarin [36]; brambles [37]; pomegranate [38]; blueberry [39]; pineapple [40]; apple [41]; and banana [42]. Insufficient light typically results in smaller fruit [43]; for example in satsuma [44] and apple [45]. In strawberry, low light reduces the surface glossiness of the fruit [43], while, in red apple cultivars, low light intensity reduces colour development [46]. Cano et al. [47] showed that different climatic conditions and fruit variety had a significant effect on banana fruit size and shape. Growth regulators Growth regulators have been found to alter the appearance of fruits and vegetables [48–50]. Gibberellic acid altered grapefruit colour [51], decreased pear fruit size [52], and increased apricot fruit weight [53]. Dichloroprop on the other hand, altered fruit colouration and N-(2-chloro-4- pyridyl)-Nphenylurea application altered kiwifruit size [54]. In tomatoes, preharvest growth regulator treatment resulted in better keeping quality in terms of physiological weight loss, juice content, TSS and sugars, compared with untreated controls [55]. Bio-stimulants (ie, Phytagro, Benefit) have also been used to increase fruit size in kiwi [56]. De Souza Leão et al. [57] found that a combination of the bio-stimulant crop set, girdling and gibberillic acid as a management practice promoted higher bunch weight and berry size in seedless table grapes by 32%. More recently, Lovatt [58] described the beneficial effect of a natural metabolite with the potential to improve productivity and quality in avocado, tomato and citrus.

Postharvest management practices Pre-packaging treatments of stored fruit and vegetables Pre-packaging treatments combined with suitable packaging and storage conditions have the capacity to extend the shelf life and enhance fruit quality [59]. Some of the common prepackaging treatments applied to fruits and vegetables include: surface coating and waxing; heat treatments; application of 1methylcyclopropene; and low temperature conditioning. Waxes are used to tackle water loss problems by allowing higher turgidity, water retention and maintaining fruit weight for longer periods [60]. An example of a wax used on many perishable fruits, as an inhibitor to ethylene action, is 1methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) [61]. Heat treatment of avocados to 38°C for periods of 24, 48 and 72 hours improved appearance and reduced the effects of chilling injury compared with untreated fruits [62]. Furthermore, weight loss was reduced as the number of days of heating increased, leading to better quality maintenance and an improved shelf life [63]. The variation in temperatures and associated treat3


ment times differed among the studies depending on the heating medium, cultivar and preharvest environmental conditions, such as sun exposure, among other factors [64]. Packaging of stored fruit and vegetables Consumers expect “fresh” produce throughout the year and packaging fresh and unprocessed produce poses many challenges for packaging technologists. Unlike other chilled perishable foods, fresh produce continues to respire after harvest and, hence, packaging is required to suppress respiration and maintain produce quality for a reasonably long time. The following are some of the packaging technologies available for fruits and vegetables. Packaging films Packaging films have been established to extend the shelf life and maintain the quality of produce. It is often preferable to generate an atmosphere with lower O2 and/or higher CO2 to influence the metabolism of the product being packaged in order to increase storability [65]. Most individual films used in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) do not give all the required properties for a modified atmosphere pack. Therefore, they are combined via processes like lamination and co-extrusion in order to provide films with a wide range of physical properties. Polyethylene is the most commonly used film that provides a hermetic seal and a medium of control for properties. Thus, it is able to maintain the freshness quality of fruits and vegetables [66]. Modified atmosphere packaging MAP extends the shelf life of produce. The production of ethylene from the respiring produce aids ripening and softening of tissues, and the respiration rate has been established by researchers to increase for every 10oC increase in temperature by a factor of 3–4 [67, 68]. High CO2 and low O2 concentrations, combined with low temperature, reduces respiration in an atmosphere. If the O2 concentration is reduced above a critical level, anaerobic respiration results, which is associated with undesirable flavours, odours, and depends on the species and cultivars. However, high concentrations may damage some species and cultivars [66, 67]. Mehlhorn [68] reported an increase in ascorbate peroxidase activity in response to ethylene. In general, MAP is a highly commercialized technology proven to be effective in maintaining produce quality especially when combined with cooling. Controlled atmosphere storage A modified atmosphere is defined as one that provides an optimum atmosphere for extending the storage length and quality of food/produce by altering the normal composition of air [69, 70]. This can be achieved by using controlled atmosphere storage (CAS) and/or MAP. However, MAP is used on smaller quantities of produce and the atmosphere is only modified initially at the start of storage [71]. Workneh and Osthoff [72] reported that CAS is a capital intensive op-

eration and is suited for prolonged storage periods and bulk storage of produce [66, 68, 73–76]. CAS increases the postharvest life of crops but there has been concern that extended storage may adversely affect the eating quality of the fruits and vegetables in terms of their aroma and flavours [77]. Many experiments have been carried out to test the effects of CAS on fruit and vegetable quality and the results have been varied [68, 73–75]. O2 concentrations below 8% reduced the production of ethylene, a key element of the maturation and ripening process [78], as well as the potential for growth of foodborne pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum [79]. Therefore, according to United States Food and Drug Administration [80], the recommended percentage of O2 in a modified atmosphere for fruits and vegetables, for both safety and quality, falls between 1 and 5%.

Cooling of stored fruit and vegetables Each fruit or vegetable has an ideal temperature for storage. If this temperature is not used, deleterious results occur. For example, bananas and plantains will turn black when the cooling temperature is below 11oC, tomatoes will not ripen if cooled below 4oC and potatoes will develop a sweet flavour below 4oC. In addition, the heat generated by the respiration or metabolism of fruits and vegetables will be reduced by the introduction of cooling systems such as refrigeration. Spinach, sweet corn and a few other vegetables generate a heat energy of 15000–50000 Btu/ton/24 hours of storage at 15oC. When they are chilled at 0–4oC, they could still evolve 2500 –17000 Btu/ton/24 hours [77]. Therefore, this amount of heat must be taken into consideration in the design of refrigeration equipment.

Integrated pre- and postharvest management practices Globally, the postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are as high as 30–40% and are even much higher in some developing countries [76]. Reducing these losses is very important in order to have sufficient food, both in quantity and quality, for every person. There are also future concerns that the world’s population will increase to 8.3 billion in 2025 from the present (2013) 7.16 billion. In order to meet the needs of an increased population, integrated postharvest handling and storage management processes need to be established for fruits and vegetables. These include pre-packaging treatments, packaging, and cooling, and understanding the effects of pre-and postharvest treatments on the physiological, chemical and microbiological qualities of stored fruits and vegetables [76].

Effects of integrated pre- and postharvest treatments on weight loss of fruits and vegetables Worldwide production of vegetables in 2006 was about 486 million tons, while that of fruits reached 392 million [81]. Therefore, reduction of postharvest losses will in turn: reduce the cost 4


of production, trade and distribution; increase the farmers’ income; and lowers the price of the produce for the consumer [81]. Postharvest handling involves the practical application of engineering principles and knowledge of fruit and vegetable physiology to solve problems. An example is the use of calcium dips to reduce physiological disorders and maintain firmness in apples and cherries as observed by Seung and Adel [82]. Determinants that contribute to postharvest losses in produce are enormous; these include environmental conditions and controls. Efforts to control these determinants are often very successful in reducing the incidence of disease. For example, reducing mechanical damage during grading and packing greatly decreases the likelihood of postharvest disease. Some horticultural crops such as sweet potatoes, bananas and pineapples can suffer from chilling injury at low temperatures which causes accelerated losses in ascorbic acid content [82]. Barry-Ryan and O’Beirne [83] established that lettuce shredded using a sharp knife retained initially 18% less ascorbic acid than torn samples.

Effect of integrated pre- and postharvest treatments on chemical qualities of stored fruits and vegetables The chemical composition of the locular and pericarp tissues of tomato fruits was significantly affected by bruising. Vitamin C content was about 15% lower in bruised locular tissue than in unbruised ones [84]. Ascorbic acid retention in shredded iceberg lettuce was affected by the nature of the slicing method used and higher levels of ascorbic acid were retained in samples that had been prepared manually by tearing the lettuce into strips [83]. Excessive cutting of leafy vegetables resulted in loss of outer green leaves, which contain more vitamins, than inner leaves. Losses in vitamin C occur when vegetables are severely cut or shredded, as in the case of Chinese cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and other vegetables sold as salad mixes. Green peas and green lima beans retained more nutrients when left in the pods than when shelled [85, 86]. Workneh et al. [55, 87] reported that preharvest ComCat® treated tomatoes contained lower total soluble solids (TSS), reducing sugars and total sugars at harvest, and showed better keeping quality in terms of physiological weight loss, juice content, TSS and sugars, compared with untreated controls. Kiwifruit slices stored in ethylene-free air contained threefold more ascorbic acid than the controls did [88]. They also reported that when the kiwifruit slices were dipped in 1% CaCl2 after cutting and kept in an ethylene-free atmosphere, slices had slightly higher ascorbic acid content than those treated with 1% CaCl2 only.

Effect of integrated pre- and postharvest treatments on the microbiological qualities of stored fruits and vegetables Researchers and packaging technologists should be aware of several major pathogens as far as MAP of fresh produce is

concerned, in particular Listeria monocytogenes and Cl. Botulinum. These microorganisms are not only limited to spoilage of fruit and vegetables but are also pathogenic, which means they can lead to human diseases. Hence, the absence of these microorganisms is also an indicator of the quality of fresh produce in marketing systems. L. monocytogenes is not markedly inhibited by CO2 and can grow under reduced O2 levels. The use of MAP atmospheres may permit the growth of psychotropic protease-negative strains of Cl. botulinum. However, there is unlikely to be a problem with clostridia if the product packs are stored at 3oC or below for not more than 10 days [89]. Workneh et al. [60] reported that the numbers of aerobic bacteria in tomatoes disinfected in chlorinated water were reduced and remained low for only up to 8 days, but then increased during storage in refrigerated store. MAP plus storage temperature had negative effect on the estimated population of total aerobic bacteria during the storage of tomatoes in refrigerated stores [84]. When MAP is combined with low temperatures storage specific to each produces, the changes in physiological, biochemical, chemical and microbiological qualities remained low and hence leads to a significant extension in shelf life of commodities [60]. Workneh et al. [55] observed that the three-way interaction between the preharvest natural biocatalyst treatment and postharvest treatments had a significant effect on the changes in total aerobic bacteria during storage in the refrigerated store. The combinations of preharvest biocatalyst treatment of tomato plants, disinfecting and MAP storage in refrigerated store was shown to benefit the storage quality of tomatoes.

Conclusion The production management practices, which include genetic factors, plant nutrition, irrigation/water stress, etc, should be given prompt priorities. These practices encourage producers to grow their plants more efficiently, maintain and possibly raise the quality of their fruit and vegetable products. Prepackaged fruits and vegetables in MAP or CAS are safe to eat and should be stored at temperatures between 0 and 10°C, based on what is specific for each fruit or vegetable. Packaging and storage environments had significant effects on the shelf life and most of the physiological and chemical qualities of fruits. In summary, it was evident from literature that the influence of postharvest management practices enhanced some qualities of the products. Agricultural decision makers and stakeholders all over the world at different levels need an increasing amount of information because the food supply chain is a globalised entity. The application of process-oriented models is recommended in order to improve the communication and understanding of both the preharvest realm (food production) and the postharvest phase (distribution and processing). This approach will address the current knowledge gap as it concerns the effects of globalization, such as effects of different batches, 5


seasons, harvest maturity, and filed management conditions on post-harvest quality.

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