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Strategies & Tools of Mangrove Health Monitoring - An Approach for the Bay Island Roatán, Honduras Article · September 2014

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International Studies of Aquatic Tropical Ecology (ISATEC) 3rd semester 2014

Strategies & Tools of Mangrove Health Monitoring An approach for the Bay Island Roatán, Honduras

submitted by Verena Hoelzer in September 2014 Matr.Nr. 2502941

Mentor: Prof. Dr. Christian Wild, Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) & University of Bremen

Content

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 4 1.1 Defining Ecosystem Health 1.1.2 Monitoring Ecosystem Health 1.2 Mangrove Forest Ecosystems 1.2.1 Monitoring Mangrove Health 2. Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 8 2.1 Distant Monitoring 2.1.1 Satellite Monitoring 2.1.2 Remote Sensing 2.1.3 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) 2.2 In-Situ Monitoring 2.2.1 Monitoring Sites 2.2.2 Site Character 2.2.3 Plots & Transects 2.2.4 Long-term vs. Short-term Monitoring 2.3 Biophysical Monitoring 2.3.1 Sediments 2.3.2 Water Quality 2.3.3 Water Velocity 2.3.4 Mangrove Zonation 2.3.5 Mangrove Trees & Canopy 2.4 Ecological Monitoring 2.4.1 Leaf Litter Fall & Microbial Communities 2.4.2 Organic Carbon & Isotope Analysis 2.4.3 Phytoplankton 2.4.4 Carbon Pools 2.5 Biodiversity Monitoring 2.5.1 Mangrove Root Sessile Communities 2.5.2 Bird Populations -2-

2.5.3 Mangrove Crabs 2.5.4 Juvenile Fish Communities 2.6 Ecosystem Service Monitoring 2.7 Reforestation Monitoring

3. The Bay Island Roatán, Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 28 3.1 Geography & Climate 3.2 The Mangrove Controversy 3.3 Mangrove Rehabilitation & Ecosystem Services 3.4 First Monitoring Approaches

4. Conclusion & Future Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 32 4.1 Comparative Ecosystem Health Monitoring 4.2 Regional Cooperation

5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page 34

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1. Introduction

Present environmental problems at local, regional and global levels indicate that global marine ecosystems are in acute distress (Rapport et al. 1998). Human activities have resulted in pollution and eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems, as well as overharvesting of marine fisheries and tropical forests (Rapport et al. 1998). Cumulative impacts of anthropogenic stress are continuing to degrade marine ecosystems (Hildén & Rapport 1993), diminishing their biological diversity and reducing quality and quantity of services they provide to human populations (Rapport et al. 1998). In order to sustain functioning and integrity of the world’s marine ecosystems, we require more effective methods to monitor environmental changes, together with integrated approaches to respective management (Rapport et al. 1998).

1.1 Defining Ecosystem Health

The ecosystem health approach considers the functionality of a system and distinguishes between functional and dysfunctional system states (Somerville 1995). In order to assess health of a system as a whole, it is necessary to understand behaviour and dynamics of all its components in stressed and unstressed conditions. The idea of health is closely linked to the ability of the system to maintain structure during stress events (resilience) (Mageau et al. 1995). Evaluated health conditions can identify intervention steps, which are necessary to support the system’s self-maintenance and resilience. Diagnosis of stress in an ecosystem includes analyzing consequences of current human behaviour and finding options for changing courses, in order to prevent the degradation of ecosystems in the future (Rapport et al. 1998).

A healthy state of an ecosystem depends on the presence and condition of specific criteria, serving as measures for a desirable status (Mageau et al. 1995). Ecosystem health can be regarded in various dimensions, e.g. in socio-economical terms with regard to ecological services provided to humans and economic gross production rates (Rapport et al. 1998). An ecosystem can be viewed in dimensions of human health, with environmental changes directly

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harming human population, i.e. atmospheric ozone depletion leading to increased ultraviolet radiation and risk for skin cancer (Rapport et al. 1998). In most cases, ecosystem health is regarded from biophysical and ecological perspectives, including basic structures and functions of the system. The focus lies on system productivity and nutrient cycling, as well as species diversity and abundances. Associated measurements determine primary productivity and nutrient pools within the system, and species ratios and extinction numbers of the system’s flora and fauna (Rapport et al. 1998). Often, functioning of these components directly contributes to ecological services the system provides the adjacent human populations with. An unhealthy ecosystem may therefore severely affect socio-economy and living standards of local inhabitants (Rapport et al. 1998).

1.1.2 Monitoring Ecosystem Health Monitoring health of an ecosystem means to look for signs of early stress in the system and determine warning indicators that suggest a risk of environmental degradation. Human activities are closely linked to the well-being and state of an ecosystem, and therefore crucial for evaluating the health of an ecosystem (Cairns et al. 1993). As environmental degradation directly affects biological and socio-economic factors of a system, various indicators out of these fields can be used for assessing the well-being of an ecosystem. These indicators need to be effective, true measures of system components and have to be carefully selected, in order to serve as baseline measures for the system’s health (Holguin et al.2006). They can be used to diagnose causes of environmental stress and monitor trends over time, providing early warning signals for environmental degradation (Cairns et al. 1993). Furthermore, desirable indicators should be cost-efficient and not require high-specialised skills, in order to be measured by and compared between many observers (Cairns et al. 1993, Queensland Government 2014).

1.2 Mangrove Forest Ecosystems

Tropical mangrove forest ecosystems have been traditionally used by humans for timber and fisheries products over decades (Fig. 1a,c) (Alongi 2002). The forests canopies and extensive root systems host small bird, fish and invertebrate species, and represent an important nursery habitat for various juvenile fish and shrimp species (Fig 1a). As these species grow, they migrate in front of the shores, providing commercial fisheries and prawn landings. Inside

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mangrove estuaries, fishermen cultivate shell- and finfish, as well as mussels and crustaceans, selling them on local fish markets (Fig. 1b) (Alongi 2002).

Fig. 1 a) Fisherman in mangrove swamp of Thailand (The Atlantic webpage) b) Brazilian fisherman with mangrove crab catch (Clough 2013) c) construction of a port with mangrove wood in Lamu, Kenya (Diploma Blog webpage)

In many coastal human populations, mangrove trees serve as a major source for timber production and building of houses, while dense mangrove forests located on shorelines, protect coasts and adjacent human livelihoods from impacts of storm, waves and coastal erosion (Mazda et al. 2007). Mangroves possess a considerable value for tourism and recreation, as the forests structure and presence of certain species creates unique habitats and aesthetics (Barbier et al. 2011), and offers the possibilities for bird observations and recreational fishing. Mangroves can sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide and deposit carbon in surrounding soils over long time, therefore reducing global carbon emissions and atmospheric contamination considerably (Spalding et al. 2010). With this, a healthy mangrove ecosystem offers various valuable ecological and economic services and benefits to local human populations.

During the last 50 years of coastal urban development, mangrove forests all over the world have been extensively deforested and degraded. Clearing mangroves for creation of land fillings and aquaculture ponds, as well as overexploiting their fishery resources led to a loss of one-third of mangrove cover world-wide (Alongi 2002, Holguin et. al. 2006). If current rates of destruction will not be reduced, the world’s mangroves are predicted to have vanished before the year 2100 (Holguin et. al. 2006).

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1.2.1 Monitoring Mangrove Health Mangroves are disappearing fast and pressures from industrial development add upon impacts of global climate change, creating urgent need to protect and conserve mangrove estuaries world-wide (Spalding et al. 2010, Barbier 2007, McLeod & Salm 2006). Management of these coastal ecosystems is important for using their resources and sustainably developing respective habitats for the future.

The collection of accurate and reliable scientific data together can enable a holistic assessment of processes and changes occurring in a certain mangrove system, elucidating influences and drivers for habitat degradation (Ramachandran 1998). Management and conservation efforts seeking to mitigate environmental stress on mangroves require long-term monitoring and assessment of mangroves and adjacent ecosystems, including the use of defined biological and socio-economic indicators as essential tools (Linton & Warner 2003). Integrated coastal management brings together these aspects of ecosystem management, applying different biological indicators that estimate health condition of a marine coastal ecosystem and detect early signs of pollution and degradation (Linton & Warner 2003).

Within the frame of integrated costal management in the Caribbean, bioindicators were monitored in coastal mangrove, seagrass and coral reef ecosystem (Linton & Warner 2003). Indicators in the water column comprised monitoring phytoplankton biomass, abundances and community composition (Linton & Warner 2003). Coral reef indicators focused on coral growth rates, calcification and recruitment, measurements, as well as changes in macroalgal covers and reef fish abundances (Linton & Warner 2003). Among seagrass beds, changes in leaf productivity rates and total biomass were seen as indicators for eutrophication (Linton & Warner 2003). The majority of bioindicators responded generally to environmental stress, demanding upon further research for developing more specific and locally adapted detectors (Linton & Warner 2003).

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2. Methods

2.1 Distant (“Off-site”) Monitoring

In recent years techniques, which receive information about ecosystems from a distance became more and more important. Satellites and sensors located in the earth’s atmosphere can analyse its surface with increasingly high resolution and help to gain overall broad pictures of mangrove areas, which were not easily accessible for humans in the past (Ramachandran 1998).

2.1.1 Satellite Monitoring Satellites in the earth’s orbit enable continuous sensing of the certain areas of the world, and are equipped with various sensors that can obtain data from mangrove forests and canopies (Ramachandran 1998). The Landsat series of satellites, launched by the NASA first in 1972, carry electromagnetic, thermal and infrared sensors, in order to observe land and water surfaces. The satellites instruments can help to determine areal coverages of forests and differences in water qualities, in order to observe coastal-zones and respective changes in land-use (NASA webpage 2014). In 2014, researchers were able to determine large-scale deforestation in Indonesia with the help of Landsat surveys (Fig. 2). They found that over 6 million hectares of old-grown forest were cleared in lowland and wetland regions between 2000-2012 (Margono et al. 2014). As these forests are regarded as the world’s largest above-ground stores of soil and carbon, the forest loss was apprehended to have major implications for global carbon emissions and climate (NASA webpage 2014, Margono et al. 2014).

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Fig. 2 Indonesian landform, intact and degraded primary forest extent and loss, left to right subsets: Riau province, Sumatra (left); West Kalimantan province, Kalimantan (centre); and Papua province, Papua (right) (Margono et al. 2014)

2.1.2 Remote Sensing Remote sensing techniques make observations using sensors (cameras, scanners, radiometer, radar) mounted on platforms of aircrafts, drones, balloons or satellites. Systems irradiate the earth’s surface with electromagnetic radiation, which is reflected and recorded on photographic films, videotapes and digital media (Ramachandran 1998). Since each surface reflects characteristic wavelengths of the electromagnetic radiation, remote sensing can differentiate between various earth surfaces in high spatial and temporal resolution (Ramachandran 1998). Remote sensing techniques can be applied in wild field of disciplines, including geosciences, climatology and oceanography, and are a prominent tool for monitoring coral reefs, mangrove forests and nutrient rich waters in coastal zone management (NOAA webpage (b) 2014).

2.1.3 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) The information technology of GIS includes hardware, software, analysis, using geographical data for spatial analysis and mapping of ecosystems (Davis & Quinn 2004). It is applied for mapping locations, quantities and coverages of global and regional environments, and has been used in the past to map and monitor dynamics of mangrove communities (Chaudhury 1991, Hussain et al. 1999). Dense mangrove forests, with entangled undergrowth and large stilt roots are often hard to access for humans, which makes on-site data collection sometimes -9-

difficult. GIS, often combined with remote sensing imaginery, can facilitate field work and activities in mangrove environments (Davis & Quinn 2004), making it easier to re-locate certain sites and draw back on specific data. A study of human impact and land use on mangrove areas around the Suva peninsula of Fiji found signs of deforestation by interpreting data from remote sensing, but was unable to detect small-scale on-going human activities in the forests. For this, GIS technology was successfully proven to be useful for compiling and analysing significant small-scale user activities and social data, in addition to already present remotely sensed images (Davis & Quinn 2004).

2.2 In-Situ (“On-Site”) Monitoring

In-situ monitoring describes the process and activities measure and characterize monitoring parameters exactly in the place where they occur in an ecosystem. Ecosystem fauna and flora are observed and quantified in their natural environment, and are not moved to laboratory facilities. The advantage of monitoring species in the field is that responses of individuals and communities are not affected by artificial changes in the physical or chemical environment (Bartram & Balance 1996). Co-existence intra- and interspecies relationships of species in an ecosystem can be observed in non-disturbed, natural condition, and local human influence on degradation of ecosystems can be evaluated in place (Bartram & Balance 1996).

2.2.1 Monitoring Sites Monitoring of mangrove habitats can range from small-scale measurements on single mangrove individuals to large-scale national-wide forest assessments. In each case, respective monitoring sites should be bound to areas, which currently are or historically were colonized with mangroves (Kauffman & Donato 2012). It is helpful to document monitoring locations and date of visits with the help of Global Positioning Systems (GPS), recording coordinates and positions during each site visit (English et al. 1997).

2.2.2 Site Character Mangrove ecosystems are influenced by many environmental functions, which shape the abundance, diversity and productivity of each mangrove forest (English et. al. 1997). While climate, rainfall, topography and geomorphology of a site determine the pre-conditional setting for a mangrove forest to establish estuarine hydrology, freshwater input and tide - 10 -

characteristics influence the forests thriving and structure (Spalding 2010). Therefore it is important to consider regional site characteristics and descriptions in the baseline of each monitoring study (DEEDI 2011). Climatic conditions, such as annual temperatures, precipitation, rainy and wet seasons are documented, as well as the topography of study sites, their elevation, slope and distances to rivers and coastline (DEEDI 2011). The hydrology of the monitoring site is determined by the riverine or tidal flows, which drain the mangroves and shape the forest structure (Spalding 2010). It is therefore important to document presence of riverine or groundwater flows entering the mangrove habitat, as well as emerging tidal flooding and inundation patterns coming from coastline directions (DEEDI 2011). If tides are present, mangrove areas can be divided up into different inundation classes, from class 1 (inundated by all high tides) up to 4 (inundated by spring tides) and 5 (occasionally inundated by exceptional tides) (Watson 1928). Urbanization, agriculture and deforestation of upstream lands can influence the hydrology of the monitoring site vastly, and should be considered in the documentations. Historical data about the monitoring area can be useful, since it can provide information about former impacts, such as ancient land-use, storms and respective damage on the area focused (English et al. 1997).

2.2.3 Plots & Transects If mangrove composition and structure differ among a forest studied, it is necessary to stratify monitoring areas into subunits and smaller homogenous populations. Aerial photographs and vegetation maps from remote sensing can help to set up various monitoring plots, which are then sampled in each unit (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Plot designs can range from nested plots (Fig. 3 A,B) for large- and small-tree measurements, as well as clustered subplots spreading across a large proportion of a monitoring site (Fig 3 C). Plot number, size and shape are determined by the parameter monitored and the desired precision level of respective measurements (English et. al 1997). Plot size mainly depends on densities and largest sizes of trees, being advised to not exceed 10x10 m areas, with no more than 40-100 trees per plot (English et al. 1997). If small trees and seedlings are abundant, smaller, non-overlapping subplots of 5x5 or 2x2 m are recommended. Minimum numbers of subplots and range between 8-10, and can be considered as monitoring replicates at each site (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Plots can be selected randomly or systemically, being established permanently or temporarily (Kauffman & Donato 2012).

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Fig. 3 Examples of clustered plot designs used in different forest inventories. The plot is composed of a series of subplots. A and B are used for sampling overall, large-ground areas, while C is used for assessing directional gradients (Kauffman & Donato 2012)

Another monitoring approach consists of setting up a permanent transect lines, often between the main boundary of interests, e.g. perpendicular to the seaward and upland vegetation boundaries (Fig. 4a) (Schwarz et al. 2005). The length of the transect can be seen relative to the overall mangrove area and needs to cover all mangrove habitats which are of interest for the study (ca. 20-25m). Walking along the transect line, temporary rectangular plots (5x10 m) adjacent to the transect line are then observed for each monitoring parameter. Transects need to be marked, in order to be able to be revisited, and can be photo-documented from perspectives of transect markers (Fig. 4b) (Schwarz et al. 2005). Some monitoring setups require an additional mangrove site that can be considered as free of environmental or human disturbances, serving as a control (Schwarz et al. 2005).

Fig. 4 a) Permanent markers with (measuring) line laid between them along shoreline and fringing mangrove forest, with adjacent transect plot b) photo of transect plot from viewpoint of transect start marker (Schwarz et al. 2005)

2.2.4 Long-term vs. Short-term Monitoring Frequency and time intervals at which study sites are observed is usually a trade-off between monitoring costs and final benefits of sampling. Annual sampling is considered to obtain the - 12 -

best estimates, but can lead to multitudinous measures not necessarily recording changes (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Regarding the dynamics of overall forest processes, mangroves are in general measured in 5-year-intervals (Pearson et al. 2005). Sampling frequency also depends strongly on monitoring parameters measured. For investigation of carbon pools in mangrove soils, slow changing rates of carbon require sampling periods of more than 10-15 years (Kauffman & Donato 2012). While the advantage of short-term, monthly-sampled monitoring can capture possible microsite variation and changes, the disadvantage of long-term monitoring intervals is the risk of natural or anthropogenic perturbation (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Sudden storm events or land urbanization can appear within two large sampling intervals of an area and are therefore not recorded in time. Unexpected events like these can temporarily make a more frequent sampling necessary (Kauffman & Donato 2012).

2.3 Biophysical Monitoring

Since mangrove forests are successional systems, the growth of the trees themselves impacts their physical and chemical environment significantly (English et al. 1997). Present biophysical characteristics determining the presetting for basic sediment accumulation, soil elevation and nutrient cycling processes in mangrove surrounding sediments and waters (English et al. 1997, Lee 1995), often early indicating changes and disturbances in these processes. Ecology and health of mangrove stands is therefore strongly related to the interaction of these physical and biotic processes (Lee 1999).

2.3.1 Sediments Character and condition of sediments in mangrove habitats comprise descriptions and photodocumentation of sediment types, consistency, sediment layering and colors in different depths. Prominent rotten-egg smell is a typical feature of intact sediments, due to presence of anoxic processes (English et al. 1997). Sediment heights, as well as sediment bulk densities and porosities, show overall sediment accretion or loss between monitoring intervals (Schwarz et al. 2005) and hint at problematic sediment erosion in an estuary. Since sediments are permanently or frequently inundated with water, pore water analysis is used to determine acidity (pH) and redox potential (Eh) of the soils, indicating on-going oxygen-reduction and microbial processes (English et al. 1997). Pore water salinity has been shown to significantly affect growth and zonation of different mangrove species and is - 13 -

therefore an important monitoring parameter (Kathiresan 2014). Sediment particle and grain size analysis closer look at sediment compositions and can give information about abundance of benthic microalgae and biological productivity of respective mangrove sediments (Cahoon et al. 1999).

2.3.2 Water Quality Mangrove root systems lower water flow and enable fine sediment particles to settle down, binding and fixing nutrients on the ground of the water basin (Ewel et al. 1998b). The forests help to maintain overall coastal water quality by recycling nutrients and organic matter from land-based sources, retaining and filtering compounds in

the water, before they reach

seaward coral reefs and seagrass (Ewel et al. 1998a). Existence and health of offshore coral reefs are strongly dependent on this buffering capacity, as well as important input of recycled nutrients from mangroves into coral communities (Ellison 2004). A monitoring of mangrove ecosystems therefore needs to consider basic measures of water quality, indicating overall health conditions of inundated forests and adjacent coastal ecosystems. It is important to choose a set tide for the monitoring time: measurements during the outgoing tide will provide data on water travelling down from upland, while measurements of the incoming tide will more investigate the influence coming from marine offshore zones (New South Wales Government 2012). Weather, air temperature and wind directions are noted prior to subsequent in-situ measurements of basic water quality parameters (water temperature, salinity, and pH, dissolved oxygen concentration, water turbidity) in different water depths (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2002, Grasshoff et al. 1999). It is important to consider stratification and tidal flushing of respective estuaries and bays, since the processes control physical and chemical water parameters (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2002).

2.3.3 Water Velocity Mangrove roots are known for being able to reduce water velocity and impacts of waves entering an estuary. The complex, entangled root system attenuates incoming waves, and is able to bind and consolidate sediments on the ground (Spalding et al. 2010). Dense coastal mangrove forests therefore help to reduce sediment erosion and protect coast from storm impacts (Fig. 5a) (Spalding et al. 2010). Analysis of water flow velocities in mangrove environments can also help to assess the size and impacts of deforestation activities, which can affect overall water quality in the surrounding waters (MacDonald et al. 1991). Water - 14 -

flows and velocities can be measured directly with mechanical flow meters (Fig. 5b), pressure-based or optical meters, whereas indirect measurement methods (material dissolution in water streams over time) are often used to compare different sites to each other (NOAA webpage (a) 2014).

Fig. 5 a) Dense root systems of Rhizophora reduce energy of water inflow and trap muddy sediments (Universidad de Puerto Rico webpage 2014) b) usage of a current meter attached to wading rod to conduct water flow measurement (East Valley Tribune webpage 2014)

2.3.4 Mangrove Zonation Length and frequency of inundation are major factors influencing mangrove zonation, species distribution and abundances (Kathiresan 2014, Lugo & Snedaker 1974). Classification of mangrove stands is one first step to monitor a certain site, e.g. classifying the mangrove setting (fringing, riverine, overwash mangroves), as well as identifying the mangrove community composition and structure (English et al. 1997, Kathiresan 2014). This includes mangrove types (tall, small dwarf, shrub), species names and families (Rhizophoraceae, Avicenniaceae,

Combretaceae)

and

non-mangrove associated

flora (Combretaceae,

Pteridaceae) (Spalding 2010).

2.3.5 Mangrove Trees & Canopy Observations on mangrove trees and zonation are major indicators to determine the ecological condition and health of a mangrove forest. Effects of anthropogenic influence, such as landuse, deforestation and water pollution are directly affecting vegetation, zonation and growth of a forest (Kauffman & Donato 2012), which is expressed in abundance, biomass, growth rates and productivities in individual trees. In the frame of a mangrove health survey of a mangrove forests in Baja California Sur, Mexico, in 2005, the vegetation coverage, species

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composition and individual tree condition were used as health indicators for the system, in combination with microbial analysis of sediments and bird observations (Holguin et al. 2006). The authors found that poor states of mangroves, being located near urbanized areas, were characterized by low tree coverage and high amounts of dead trees, with sediments lacking important microbial fixation processes. They proved that the investigated combination of parameters were useful tools for assessing the system’s health and demanded for future research on indicators that can estimate ecological stress in impacted mangroves (Holguin et al. 2006).

Mangroves show a different composition and structure compared to upland forests, which is expressed by special features like pneumatophores and stilt roots in some species and nearly complete absence of understory vegetation and forest litter, due to efficient crab consumption (see 2.5.3) (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Therefore, methods and approaches to monitor mangrove trees and forests need to be particularly adapted. Mangrove tree surveys include the measurement of stem diameter of trees in permanent plots (Fig. 6), and the counting of young sapling and seedling individuals (Kauffman & Donato 2012), in order to determine the overall biomass of mangroves in a certain transect. Records of dead and living trees are taken, as well as decay statuses of individuals described (absence of leaves, broken branches, no branches). For shrub and dwarf mangroves, allometric equations help to calculate the aboveground biomass (Komiyama et al. 2005, Clough & Scott 1989).

Fig. 6 Measuring stem diameters at breast height a) of large Rhizophora apiculate above the highest stilt root (Indonesia) b) of Sonneratia alba using tree caliper (Palau) (Kauffman & Donato 2012)

The amount of dead and downed wood is a significant monitoring parameter in ecological mangrove surveys, since increased amounts can appear after storm events or destructive land- 16 -

use (Fig. 7a). Downed wood fulfills several important ecological functions, providing substrate for plants and animal habitat and influencing local small-scale nutrient cycles (Harmon et al. 1986, McMinn & Crossley 1993). Wood debris is usually sampled in certain transects, were any fallen and detached trunks or branches are counted and sorted into size classes (Fig. 7b) (Kauffman & Donato 2012).

Fig. 7 a) Accumulation of dead and downed wood in a mangrove forest following a severe typhoon in Yap, Micronesia b) Wood debris transect for sampling downed wood, using the line intersect technique (Kauffman & Donato 2012)

Canopy covers describe forest structures and can change over times, due tropical storm or long-term climate change effects. Estimations of canopy coverage are often used to refine images from remotely sensed data and interpreted forest condition, as well as to estimate the total leaf surface of a forest (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Indices of total leaf areas are used to approximate photosynthetic production taking place in the leaves of the trees, and allows for determining amounts and rates of primary production coming from a forest’s aboveground biomass (Rodríguez 2008). Canopy coverages are mostly monitored in the field, with the help of fish eye lenses, cameras, or spherical densitometers (Kauffman & Donato 2012). 2.4 Ecological Monitoring

Focusing the health of ecosystems, recent attention has been paid to a holistic monitoring approach, centering the importance of ecological parameters in environmental surveys (Wrona & Cash 1996). Ecological monitoring observes fauna and flora species and interactions in respective ecosystem, often focusing indicator species, which numbers and distributions can reflect the quality of the environment (Hart & Fuller 1974). Recent research findings suggested important influence of leaf litter recycling and carbon sequestration processes, sustained through microbial communities (see 2.4.1) and activities of - 17 -

mangrove crabs (see 2.5.3) in mangrove environments (Sweetman et al. 2010, Bouillon et al. 2003). Production of organic material and nutrients in mangrove waters has been assumed to be mainly driven by tidal import and export (Lee 1995), but recent findings revealed present planktonic algae (see 2.4.3), contributing majorly to production and export of organic carbon to adjacent habitats (Gocke et al. 2002). An ecological monitoring considers these unique interplay of physical and biotic agents in monitoring mangroves and is demanded for future studies (Lee 1999).

2.4.1 Leaf Litter Fall & Microbial Communities Mangrove communities are considered to be one of the most productive ecosystems, with high amounts of biological primary production (Heald 1971, Odum & Heald 1972). The high productivity results out of intense litter degradation appearing in mangrove sediments, with efficient cycling of nutrients coming from autochthonous inputs by mangrove trees, as well as allochthonous inputs from human sources (Lee 1990; Kazungu et al. 1993; Bouillon et al. 2002). Leaf litter designates all fallen, nonwoody and dead organic material being found on the surface of mangrove sediments, such as leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bark etc. In mangroves where crabs consume this detrital material highly-efficient, the amount of leaf litter fall can be negligible (Kauffman & Donato 2012). In other cases, leaf litter amounts and decay rates can be an important indicator for an intact mangrove ecological system, because detritus is being decomposed by various biological and chemical processes and as organic material subsequently enriched with nutrients by microbial activity (Odum & Heald 1975). Organic matter from mangroves, which is rapidly colonized by microbes, is being remineralized with nutrients and finally becomes available for primary production, forming the basis for benthic and pelagic food chains (e.g. copepods) in mangrove waters (Lee 1999).

2.4.2 Organic Carbon & Isotope Analysis In the last years, investigation of stable isotopes in mangrove environments have become a major tool for ecological monitoring in a variety of marine environments, helping to understand sources and links between estuarine food webs (Sweetman et al. 2010). The analysis of organic carbon content (Corg), elemental ratios of carbon and nitrogen (C:N) and carbon stable isotope δ13C

have been proved useful in quantifying benthic ecosystem

functioning. Different isotopes classify trophic levels of microbial species in mangrove sediments and identify important primary producers, essentially sustaining the adjacent

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macro-invertebrate community of gastropods and sesarmid crabs in mangrove habitats (Bouillon et al. 2002). In order to investigate the contribution of mangrove leaf litter and organic carbon among the invertebrate community, researchers analyzed carbon and nitrogen isotopes in sedimental primary producers and 22 invertebrate species from intertidal mangrove forests in India. The organic matter content and C:N ratios they found in the studied sediments indicated that organic matter coming from mangroves was not the only source of primary production (Bouillon et al. 2002). High amounts of phytodetritus, which were imported from near-by mangrove creeks and coastal bays, added a large part upon the sediment organic matter pool, suggesting that imported phytoplankton and marine algae are major sources for benthic invertebrate communities in mangroves (Bouillon et al. 2002). The way in which carbon and nitrogen are utilized by mangroves can give important evidence about mangrove vegetation patterns (Bouillon et al. 2002) and ecological relations between forests and their associated fauna.

2.4.3 Phytoplankton Plankton, epiphytic algae and microphytobenthos form an essential basis for the whole mangrove food web (Nagelkerken et. al. 2007). Experiences of water quality studies from Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, from over 30 years have shown that planktonic algae can serve as an indicator for water quality in ecological monitoring (Wade 1971, Goodbody 1970, Stevens 1966). Population dynamics and chlorophyll a contents of phytoplankton were analyzed, in order to receive information about trophic conditions in aquatic systems. The ecological monitoring enabled managers to detect overloads of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) in the waters, which indicated for eutrophication and deteriorating water quality. Eutrophication altered the planktonic community composition and changed species abundances and production rates (Linton & Warner 2003). In 2001, Hoilett & Webber were able to show that the abundance and biomass of particular types of copepods in zooplankton increased immensely during high nutrient levels in eutrophicated mangrove lagoons. Phytoplankton communities were suggested to be a useful indicators of water quality in mangrove environments (Linton & Warner 2003), complemented with biophysical measurements in respective waters (see 2.3) (Campbell et al. 2008).

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2.4.4 Carbon Pools Mangrove sediments show one of the highest storage amounts of carbon among all other world-wide forest types (Fig. 8, Kauffman & Donato 2012). A large amount of carbon is fixed below-ground in organic-rich soils and detritus, but also aboveground in actual tree and leaf biomass. Disturbance of these carbon stocks by large-scale land-use-change and mangrove deforestation can cause rapid release of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide into the earth’s atmosphere, intensifying negative impacts of global climate change (Kauffman & Donato 2012).

Fig. 8 Total ecosystem carbon pools (aboveground and belowground) for major land cover types of the world (Kauffman & Donato 2012)

During the last years, several projects were developed, that aim to reduce emissions of carbon and greenhouse gases. Programs, such as REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation & Enhancing Forest Carbon Stocks in Developing Countries) intend to create incentives for other countries to avoid deforestation and to promote conservation of existing forests. Forest losses are planned to be compensated with reforestation and sustainable management, enhancing carbon stocks and mitigating climate change (Kauffman & Donato 2012). Quantitative changes in mangrove carbon pools and alterations in forest composition are important measures for monitoring health of mangroves, as well as to analyze trends of global climate change and consequences for human population (Kauffman & Donato 2012).

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2.5 Biodiversity Monitoring

Biodiversity describes the variability among and within species in an ecosystem (IUCN webpage 2014). In the context of mangrove health it normally includes investigations of species richness and forest structure (Field 1999, Mace et al. 2012, OTA 1987). Mangrove forests stand out due to low tree species richness, with only about 70 tree taxa found in mangroves (Andradi-Brown et al. 2013). Despite this, mangrove trees host a high diversity of associated fauna. The entangled root system serves as substrate for rich epibiont communities, whereas mangrove waters provide a nursery and habitat for juvenile fish and prawn populations, which can hide between the root spaces. Mangrove sediments are bioturbated by large mangrove crab populations, whereas mangrove canopies host unique assemblages of birds, mammals and reptiles (Nagelkerken et. al. 2007). Monitoring biodiversity can help to assess how changes in status and trends of mangroves directly affect living species in the environment. It helps to develop specific targets for mangrove protection and conservation policies, especially in times of increasing environmental pressure of climate change (EuMon 2014). Biodiversity assessments can be related to complex time-consuming measurements and high costs, therefore focusing certain indicator species for biodiversity is often more effective and feasible (EuMon 2014). Biodiversity indices can help to determine overall species loss over periods and to elucidate population trends that can identify threatened species (Butchart et al 2004).

2.5.1 Mangrove Root Sessile Communities Inundated mangrove roots of established mangroves are overgrown by faunal epibiont communities, such as bryozoa, sponges, snails and barnacles (Farnsworth & Ellison 1996, Nagelkerken et al. 2007). Root fouling epibionts, herbivores and benthic predators occur in complex interactions and determine the growth and production of mangrove roots (Ellison & Farnsworth 1992). Species richness usually increases with the mangrove forest being located near to a barrier reefs, whereas richness is lower with varying water temperatures and salinities (Ellison & Farnsworth 1992). In most cases, epibiont communities are investigated along roots in 2cm intervals, from root caps to upper limits. Small plots of species are recorded and macro-photographed, taxonomically identified and percent coverages estimated with image software analysis (Farnsworth & Ellison 1996). Percent coverages and abundances can then be used to analyze biodiversity patterns.

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In the past, bryozoan communities growing on mangrove roots have been investigated in Jamaica (Creary 2003). Poor circulation and eutrophication of waters around Kingston Harbour were affecting bryozoan species composition and diversity, with more impacted sites showing lower species diversities (Creary 2003, Linton & Warner 2003). The study proved bryozoan communities to be useful indicators for water quality and respective environmental stress (Linton & Warner 2003). Epibiont sponges are often colonizing inundated mangroves root, usually with few species being widely distributed. Certain species of sponges have been proven to serve as bioindicators for mangrove health in the past, for example detecting pollution with oil and organic material in subtidal coral reefs (Alcolado & Herrera 1987, Muricy et al. 1989). In 2004, a study surveyed sponge communities on stilt roots in multiple mangrove transects along tidal channels in southern Belize (Diaz et al. 2004). Higher species richness of sponges was found at sites, which remained environmentally undisturbed during the former years. Oysters can be found on mangrove roots as sessile epibionts that are filter feeding on the surrounding waters. Studies on the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) and the tropical mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae) in 1997 have shown the organisms to react sensitively to aquatic carbon pollution (Jones-Williams 1997). This makes them also to potential indicators for environmental health monitoring in mangroves.

2.5.2 Bird Populations Mangroves are a habitat for various land and water birds, with some species being endangered and threatened. Rich feeding grounds of mud sediments and shallow coastal waters make them attractive for roosting and nesting areas, and serve as important stopover habitats for migratory species (Nagelkerken et al. 2007). Some bird species are specialized feeders and only restricted to mangrove environments (Fig. 9a,b). Bird species have been reported to serve as appropriate indicators for ecosystem health (Carignan & Villard 2002). They can respond to environmental changes over wide spatial scales (Temple & Wiens 1989) and are suitable for monitoring, because bird sounds and flights can be easily detected and identified (Carignan & Villard 2002). Bird occurrence, abundance and reproduction is strongly determined by environmental configuration of the surrounding ecosystem (Villard et al., 1995, Robbins et al. 1989, Mazerolle & Villard 1999). Birds are usually monitored based on census, using binoculars or telescopes to identify and count them (Fig. 9c). Special considerations are the survey of roost and nesting places, as well as seasonal monitoring during the end of migration periods (Wetlands International 2010). - 22 -

Fig. 9 a) Boat-billed heron yawning in San Blas mangrove swamps, Mexico ©Greg R. Homel (Natural Encounters Birding Tour webpage 2012) b) mangrove cuckoo in Manuel Antonio National Park, Costa Rica © Tom Friedel (Birdphotos webpage 2014) c) shorebird monitoring in tidal marshes of Northeast America © Jonathan Mays (RCN webpage 2014)

Information about bird diversity and abundance can be also used to assess status and trends of global biodiversity. Red List Indices (RLIs) focus the number of species threatened in respect to Red List categories and express changes within each category, assessing improvement or worsening of each species status (Butchart et al. 2004). Since 1988 the overall RLI for all bird species has been decreasing worldwide, with alarming rates of deterioration among IndoMalayan bird communities, due to large-scale deforestation tropical forests in South-east Asia (Butchart et al. 2004).

2.5.3 Mangrove Crabs The high abundances and activity of fiddler, grapsid and sesarmid crabs are a one of the most prominent features in ecological mangrove communities (Fig. 10a) (Golley et al. 1962, Jones 1984, Smith et al. 1991). They have an integral role in determining structure and functioning of the ecosystem, since they prey on mangrove propagules and alter seedling distribution and succession of forest species (Smith 1987, McGuinness 1997, Bosire et al. 2005). Furthermore, they consume tree litterfall and influence nutrient dynamics (Robertson 1986), as well as altering the sediment properties by their burrowing activities (Smith et al. 1991). Due to their crucial role in health and functioning of the ecosystem, sesarmid crabs are suggested to occupy a keystone position in shaping the ecology of a mangrove forests (Smith et al. 1991).

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Fig. 10 a) Fiddler crab Uca annulipes commonly seen on sandy mangrove substrate, with males having enlarged pink claws (Ong & Gong 2013) b) marking and counting mangrove crab holes of Uca species at Wee Wee Cays, Belize (Wikispace webpage 2014)

Since crabs are cryptic and burrowing animals, it can be difficult to monitor their abundance and diversity in a certain area (Kent & McGuiness 2006). Studies compared the efficiency and suitability of different observation methods (binocular observations, burrow counts and excavations) for Uca species (Skov & Hartnoll 2001), finding that visual and burrow counts estimated similar absolute numbers consistently (Skov et al 2002). Crab burrows and holes can be counted in 1x1m subplots along transects (Kent & McGuiness 2006), with size and imprints at the entrance of holes being referred to distinct crab species (Fig. 10b) (Micheli 1991). Additional excavation of crabs was used to determine sex, length and carapace width of different crab species (Emmerson 2000).

2.5.3 Juvenile Fish Communities A natural and economical important function of mangrove habitats is their crucial role as nursery habitats for juvenile fish and shrimp communities (Nagelkerken et al. 2007). Adult species of coastal fish and prawns spawn offshore, with the eggs and planktonic larvae being moved inside inshore waters by currents and tides. Many of these estuary-dependent larvae spend at least one part of their life cycle in mangroves (Cappo et al. 1998, Blaber et al. 1989; Nagelkerken et al. 2000a), developing through juvenile and subadult stages before migrating back towards offshore coastal waters and adjacent coral reefs (Nagelkerken et al. 2007). It is assumed that the structural complexity of mangrove root networks provides significant shelter and protection for small juvenile species to grow up (Chong et al. 1990). Monitoring and quantification of fish populations in mangroves is usually accomplished by underwater census, as well as video- and photo-documentation (Nagelkerken et al. 2000b, Jaxion-Harm 2010). Most visual census techniques estimate abundance and body length of the selected fish species by eye in permanent transects, sorting fish into different size classes - 24 -

(Nagelkerken et al. 2000b). Visual observations are usually rapid, inexpensive and can be applied to various monitoring habitats and sites, enabling researchers to re-survey sites after certain times. This is not possible with invasive catch methods, which consist of dropping nets to the sea bottom an identify fish after catching (Nagelkerken et al. 2000b). 2.6 Ecosystem Service Monitoring

A major part of economically important coastal fishery is dependent on the presence of intact mangrove environment (Turner 1977, Ya´n˜ez-Arancibia 1985, Pauly & Ingles 1986, Lee 2004, Manson et al. 2005) and directly correlated to the size and extends of the near-by mangrove area (Turner 1977, Staples et al. 1985, Pauly & Ingles 1986). This important fisheries-mangrove relationship presents the basis for economic valuation and appreciation of mangroves worldwide (Barbier & Strand 1998, Grasso 1998, Barbier 2000).

Mangrove ecosystems, their biomass, productivity and crucial role in fishery and coastal protection offer immense value to human population and livelihoods (Spalding et al. 2010). On-going mangrove deforestation and ecosystem degradation is sign that function and roles of mangroves in human society still remain underestimated. For the future it is critically important that the roles and values of mangroves are estimated and promoted in proper ways (Spalding et al. 2010).

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, initiated by the United Nations in 2000, was a first attempt to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being, and an important sign for science and policy makers to enhance actions for conservation and sustainable use of ecosystem services (UNEP webpage 2014). Social and natural scientists developed methods that monitor and assess the condition and trends in ecosystem services provided to humans (clean water, food, forest products, storm protection etc.), including possibilities to protect and use ecosystem benefits sustainably (UNEP webpage 2014). Ecosystems services help to ensure the social and economic well-being of a nation (Hartwick 1994, Asheim 1997, Costanza et al. 1997, Hamilton & Clemens 1999), and build part of the total wealth of a state (Alcamo & Bennett 2003). The Millennium Assessment therefore surveys the total economic value of each ecosystem service, measuring direct use values (harvesting of food products, timber for construction, hunting of animals for consumption) and indirect use values (water purification, waste assimilation, supply of clean air). Option - 25 -

values monitor benefits that include provisioning of ecological and cultural services for future (Alcamo & Bennett 2003).

2.7 Reforestation Monitoring

Coastal zones worldwide are among the most densely human populated areas, with increasing pressure from urban and industrial development resulting in mangrove loss and degradation. A substantial loss of over 36.000 km2, which are about 20% of global mangrove cover, has been estimated to have happened during last 20 years, exceeding annual loss rates from other threatened ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests and coral reefs (Spalding et al. 2010, Valiela et al. 2001). Highest net losses (more than 1.9 million hectares) can be found in South-east Asian regions (Fig. 11), due to changes in land use and expansion of aquaculture between 1980 and 1990 (FAO 2007). Efforts of economical valuation have raised growing awareness for healthy mangroves being valuable resources and sustaining vital economic activities in coastal areas (Hamilton & Snedaker 1984, Rönnbäck 1999).

Fig. 11 Decline in mangroves by region during years 1980–2005 (FAO 2007)

As a consequence, many countries initiated rehabilitation programs for degraded mangrove systems, including efforts to nurse and reforest young mangrove trees in deforested areas (Spalding et al. 2010). In many cases, restoration attempts have been done without considering an evaluation of the actual reforestation success (Bosire et al. 2008). New - 26 -

attempts to restore mangroves now include simultaneous monitoring of ecosystem recovery, using functional indicators, such as stem densities, rates of biomass increase and recruitment and biodiversity assessments (Bosire et al. 2008). Furthermore, studies accompany mangrove seedlings from rearing in nurseries, until replantation of seedlings in respective lagoons, monitoring growth and survival rates of transplants (Toledo et al. 2001).

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3. The Bay-Island Roatán, Honduras

3.1 Geography & Climate

The northern coast of Honduras is connected with the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef, with coastal zones containing mangroves and wetlands, especially around the offshore Bay Islands (Fig. 12) (Harborne et al. 2001, Spalding et al. 2010). The Bay Islands group consists of a number of smaller cays and is dominated by three islands: Utila, Roatán and Guanaja (Harborne et al. 2001). The largest island Roatán, has a surface area of 125 km2, harbouring about 800 ha mangroves on its north-eastern coastline (Bay Islands Voice 2006, Doiron & Weissenberger 2014). The tropical climate produces average temperatures ranging from 25 °C to 29 °C and annual rainfall over 2000mm (Doiron & Weissenberger 2014), with high rain periods from October to December.

Fig. 12 Map of the Bay Islands, with marked barrier reef (red) and the marine protected zones (blue), adapted from AMPEG/Pixabay (Doiron & Weissenberger 2014)

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3.2 The Mangrove Controversy

The island is confronted with a rapidly expanding tourism, accompanied by modification of coastal zones and degradation of marine ecosystems (RMP webpage, Doiron & Weissenberger 2014). Mangroves are being illegaly cut and removed, in order to build up houses, artificial beaches and improve the local infrastructure for expansion of tourism (Fig. 13, RMP webpage 2014). Although cutting is considered as a criminal act by Honduran law, most of the land owners expect their beach front to be more worth without muddy patches of mangroves and therefore accept payment of the diminutive fines (Bay Islands Voice 2006). This attitude of many Honduran inhabitants towards mangroves is expressed by the fact that the country shows one of the highest mangrove loss rates (over 40% from 1985 until 2005) in the world (Spalding et. al 2010).

Fig. 13 a) Construction of concrete roads and improvement of infrastructure with b) illegal cutting of mangroves in order to access bays and create artificial beaches (RMP webpage 2014)

3.3 Mangrove Rehabilitation & Ecosystem Services

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Roatan Marine Park (RMP), are helping to restore and rehabilitate mangrove habitats and initiated mangrove nurseries and reforestation at former deforested sites (Fig. 14a). Many of recent reforestation efforts intend to combine the rehabilitation of mangrove habitats with the re-establishment of respective ecosystem services for local communities and to bring back benefits with conservation of biodiversity (Andradi-Brown et al. 2013). Goals of mangrove ecosystem rehabilitation are primarily to conserve respective habitats and to profit from regaining part of their functions and benefits (Society for Ecological Restoration 2004, Andradi-Brown et al. 2013). For the case of Roatán, - 29 -

mangroves are important for coastal protection and fisheries. They trap sediments and reducing their runoff into the adjacent Mesoamerican reef, securing well-being of the shallow coral communities and supporting the islands extensive dive tourism business (RMP personal info 2014). Furthermore, juvenile fish are largely found among bays and lagoons fringed by mangroves and present the basis for Roatán´s artisanal fishery and tourist restaurant scene. RMP seeks to involve stakeholder communities and schools in reforestation events, hoping to create higher acceptance of replanted trees throughout inhabitants and land owners (Fig. 14b). Raising awareness and responsibility among participants is thought to increase survival rates of respective mangrove habitats in the future (RMP webpage & personal info 2014).

Fig. 14 a) RMP members counting mangrove saplings for subsequent replantation in Mangrove Bight, Roatán b) school students helping to replant mangrove seedlings together with RMP on Roatán (RMP webpage 2014)

Although many mangrove rehabilitation projects have been taken out all over the world in the past, evidence for the effectiveness of replantations is still missing. Previous studies found reforested mangrove forests having higher abundances of invertebrate fauna, but with modified community structures and compositions (Bosire et al. 2004). Roots of replanted mangroves in Kenya showed fast recovery in coverage with epibiotic communities, but with changes in community composition and algal diversities compared to the previous state (Crona et al. 2006). The case of Kenya showed also that people’s attitude towards newly established mangroves is often hesitant, considering established mangroves still more valuable than reforested ones (Rönnbäck et al. 2007). The findings emphasized communication of plantation goals to local stakeholder communities to be essential for a rehabilitation projects success and sustainability (Rönnbäck et al. 2007).

Compared to other ecosystem rehabilitation efforts, particularly mangrove restoration is assumed to be more effective, since trees show lower species diversities naturally compared - 30 -

to other tropical forests, presenting only few or sometimes a single species stand among the habitat (Ashton et al. 2003). Despite this potential mangrove rehabilitation offers, there is still lacking evaluation of effectiveness and success of mangrove reforestations throughout countries (Andradi-Brown et al. 2013). This counts for Roatán as well, since there’s little known about the status and health condition of replanted mangroves at the moment.

3.4 First Monitoring Approaches

With the recent focus on re-establishment of mangrove ecosystem services, especially for reducing global carbon emission, a quantification of carbon stocks of mangrove forests in Honduras was taken out in 2013. With the goals to improve policy decision-making in mitigation strategies for global climate change, the Sustainable Wetlands Adaptation and Mitigation Program (SWAMP) quantified carbon amounts of wetland and mangrove forests, including bay island Roatán in the assessment (Bhomia et al. 2013). Researchers determined composition, structure, biomass and carbon stocks of above- and belowground biomass of mangroves located around Roatáns north coast. Data generated from the sampling was supposed to provide information about the ecosystems carbon stocks and possible utilization for adaptation to climate change (Bhomia et al. 2013).

In 2001, the Coastal Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP) was started in the Caribbean, with the intention to assess nature and influence of land-sea interactions. As an integrated coastal management program CARICOMP tried to determine factors, which can indicate the productivity of the coastal marine ecosystems, such as mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs (UNESCO webpage 2014). A formulated protocol involves monitoring abundances and biomass of main species in each ecosystem, as well as their biomass increase and reproduction rates (Cortés et al. 2010). With this, the program seeked to be able to discriminate human disturbances from natural variation in systems and can distinguish healthy and diseased conditions, respectively (UNESCO webpage 2014).

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4. Conclusion & Future Recommendation

Rapid tourism expansion on Roatán is highly dependent on intact coral reef and mangrove habitats, emphasizing the need for ecosystem-centered development strategies, in order to preserve and protect coastal zones over long times (Doiron & Weissenberger 2014). An integrated coastal management approach focuses long-term strategies for sustainable tourism development, including mangrove rehabilitation and reforestation projects being supervised by local NGOs and governmental institutions. Reforestations often require large investment of time and labor and are connected with high organization and planning efforts (RMP personal info 2014), without being efficiently assessed for success and cost-benefit afterwards.

4.1 Comparative Ecosystem Health Monitoring

This underlines the importance to assess effectiveness of mangrove rehabilitation, using systematic, quantitative approaches in the frame of an ecosystem health monitoring (Walters 2000, Macintosh et al. 2002, Bosire et al. 2004, 2006). Bosire and colleagues (2008) proposed four different types of assessment for restored mangrove habitats, comprising vegetative and faunal succession and recruitment on replanted trees, as well as environmental factors and potential for sustainable explotitation. Especially the first three indicators can be monitored soon after plantation, being repeated in regular time intervals (Bosire et. al. 2008).

For the case of reforested mangroves on Roatán, monitoring and comparison of faunal succession on young mangrove trees can help to gain information about overall status of mangrove rehabilitation efforts. Settling of epibiont communities on inundated roots of young mangrove trees (see 2.5.1) can be surveyed on each individual replanted, being compared to the root fouling community fund on roots of already established mangroves. Juvenile fish communities (see 2.5.4) and mangrove crab assemblages are reported to enter mangrove waters rapidly after reforestation and can be surveyed through visual observation and counting of crab holes (see 2.5.3). Abundance and composition of epibiont, fish and mangrove crab populations have the potential to serve as health indicators for replanted mangroves, monitoring could be applied shortly after reforestation took place (Bosire et. al. - 32 -

2008). In addition, growth and survival rates of trees can be observed and analyzed (see 2.4.2), giving conclusion about status and thriving of young mangrove stands. Monitoring methods and results found during studies of young trees can then be compared to data from already established mangroves near reforested sites. The comparison is supposed to give conclusion about, in which extend replanted individuals have already reached status of health and thriving in respect to established mangrove trees. Monitoring for success of mangrove restoration can involve local stakeholders, helping to decide over locations for future reforestations and controlling replanted mangrove patches consistently that trees are not being harmed or pulled out.

4.2 Regional Cooperation For Roatán, regional cooperation can be of great importance, since the off-shore Mesoamerican reef connects the bay island group with Belize and Guatemala, presenting options for creating project networks and interchanging information in-between different rehabilitation efforts (Harborne et al. 2001). The Toledo Institute for Development and Environment (TIDE) in Belize manages various marine reserves and national parks along the Belizean Coast of the Caribbean, including coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves fringing the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef (TIDE webpage 2014). Rangers, scientist, educators and local communities help to research and monitor respective areas, promoting sustainable use and conservation. In addition, TIDE takes out research in mapping and health evaluation of established and rehabilitated mangroves, which presents a major opportunity for interchange of experience and knowledge for the case Roatán (TIDE personal info 2014). Learning from each other experiences eventually will help to preserve respective mangrove ecosystems on Roatán and to maintain economic and social benefits the island gains from its healthy marine ecosystems.

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