student engagement among high-school students in

2016 International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Social Sciences (ICEPS 2016)

Table of Contents ISSN 2518-2498.........................................................................................................................viii Welcome from Conference Chair.............................................................................................. ix Committee..................................................................................................................................... x A content analysis on satirical news articles of the adobo chronicles from June 2013 – June 2014 Capule, Ma. Lourdes Jesil C., Orosa, Sheela U., Cherry C. Pebre, Dy, John Almerc T................1 Teaching in higher education - Course curricula for professional development Laila Niklasson..............................................................................................................................4 Bringing kantian ethics to global politics Suratha Kumar Malik.....................................................................................................................5 Interrogating the nexus between revealed truths, ideology and terrorism Innocent Oyibo...............................................................................................................................23 The influence of statistical versus narrative health claims on consumers' food product evaluation Hung-Chou Lin, Sheng-Hsien Lee................................................................................................24 Perceptual reasoning index and parents’ education in predicting extraversion type of personality Nazirah Hanim Sharipudin, Nasir Yusoff, Muhamad S. B. Yusoff................................................25 The effect of lecturers’ commitment measures on students’ academic performance: Survey evidence from parents’ satisfaction in north - central geo - political zone of Nigeria Bojuwon, Yusuf Bolaji, Bojuwon, Mustapha................................................................................34 Self - efficacy of teaching assistants in Hong Kong Liang Li, Liu Yan Tat, Lum Chun Wai, Lui Tze Leung, Sin Kuen Fung.......................................48 Coping strategies to climate change adopted by people living in semi - Arid regions in Zimbabwe: A case of Chiredzi District Simbarashe Emmanuel Basvi........................................................................................................49 Understanding the outcomes for chinese headteachers’ leadership of cross - Cultural training Zhicheng Ke...................................................................................................................................54

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A study of emotional intelligence in reference to the performance of college teachers Judith Lewis, Joachim D’Souza.....................................................................................................69 Self - report assessment to measure mindfulness in buddhist perspective Matsorn Kitbumrung......................................................................................................................70 Social influences of atmosphere: An east Asian idea? Youichi Ito......................................................................................................................................71 Netnography: A novel internet - Based approach to ethnographic research in psychology Aida Dehkhoda, R. Glynn Owens..................................................................................................73 Representativeness of panels in deliberative public opinion polls and participation invitation materials: Experimental surveys on the nuclear power debate Tsuneo Ogawa................................................................................................................................74 Scientific development and humanities: Pathological approach Ali Mohammad Haghighi, Mohammad Moazemi, Habib Zamani................................................76 Study on extraction of hiring or rejecting determinant the recruiter’s make much of than experience Hiromi Asano, Koji Tanaka, Kazuhiko Tsuda...............................................................................77 Financial markets integration - evidence from Egypt and Palestine stock markets Abdul Razak Abdul Hadi, Shadi Ali Hamad, Eddy Yap Tat Hiung...............................................91 Humor styles of faculty and academic performance of students in University of Rizal system Florencia V. Bautista......................................................................................................................109 Teacher and student experience of using flipped learning in a GCC economics classroom Gayathri Goonaratne, Gladson Chikwa.........................................................................................111 Innovative solutions supporting inclusive education Ilga Prudnikova, Ilona Bruveris, Velta Lubkina, Svetlana Usca....................................................112 Transformational and transactional leadership in a bank: UAE demographics Gantasala V. Prabhakar, Abdel Karim Mesk..................................................................................114 Development and validation of the meaning-making scale for coping with loss NaYeon Yang, Sang Min Lee.........................................................................................................130 Measurement invariance and latent mean differences of the reasons for academic procrastination among different student samples Ji Hae Lee, Sang Min Lee..............................................................................................................134 Effect of attitudes toward educational technology for prospective physical education teachers on their level of self - Directed learning using technology Yaprak Kalemoğlu Varol................................................................................................................136 iii


Human resourcesdevelopment and neuroscience - Basedlearning in insan kamil education foundation Sidoarjo – Indonesia Syarif Muhtarom............................................................................................................................137 The role of the principle as entrepreneur leadership in facing asean economic community Rino Indaru Kuswemi....................................................................................................................139 The impact of national standard of education based school programme on learning instruction improvement and student satisfaction Setyo Rini......................................................................................................................................141 Critical phenomenological study of educational leadership Nurul Faizah...................................................................................................................................143 Model of character education based on entrepreneurship in senior high school “selamat pagi Indonesia” batu Mufarrihul Hazin...........................................................................................................................144 Multicultural based leadership education in school Yulius Mataputun...........................................................................................................................145 Implementing curriculum ktsp at Pamekasan regency Ridwan...........................................................................................................................................146 Ambiguity leadership of islamic boarding house an unique leadership model in managing islamic boarding house (pondok pesantren) in Bangkalan, Madura Sirojul Umam.................................................................................................................................147 Learning standard process in ensuring the quality of graduates government senior high school in Pamekasan Hadaie Efendy................................................................................................................................148 Capacity building special elementary school for improving the education services program for children with special needs at Sidoarjo Lidia Tri Puryati.............................................................................................................................149 The effect of school - Based management on school climate and its impact on the teacher’s sustainable continuing professional development Eny Harijany..................................................................................................................................151 Academic supervision in Indonesia: Between culture and local politic Rustamhari.....................................................................................................................................153 The lecturer role in improving college quality of learning Antonio Guterres............................................................................................................................154 Educational leadership model towards a better education Abdul Muin....................................................................................................................................155 iv


The implementation of internal quality assurance system Subaidah.........................................................................................................................................160 Establishing quality assurance of graduates in islamic private elementary school in Indonesia through school improvement program (SIP) Shobikhul Qisom...........................................................................................................................171 The need for video learning to the process of learning and teaching at school Budi Winasis..................................................................................................................................172 The role of teachers in implementing learning instruction in inclusive elementary school Wahyu Nugroho.............................................................................................................................179 The role of leadership and decision making group Nurhalima......................................................................................................................................181 The establishment of the school committee Achmat Rosit.................................................................................................................................182 Effectiveness transformational leadership and role counselors in school effective determining the choice of career student sman city Madiun Hery Bagus Anggoro Wicaksono...................................................................................................183 Service quality effect student satisfaction and loyalty of postgraduate program at the State University of Surabaya H. Murtadlo, M.Pd.........................................................................................................................186 A design of situated game - Based learning platform to promote the knowledge of Chinese herbal medicine and its application Sung-Chiang Lin, Chun-Yi Lu, Li-Cyun Lin, Ming-Sin Chen, Yi-Syuan Chen, Jyun-Han Dai, JiaHua Lu...........................................................................................................................................191 Perceptions on differences of customer services between public universities (UAs) and private higher education institutions (IPTSs) in the Klang Valley, Malaysia Mohani Abdul, Azmawani Abdul Rahman, Bukar Ali Bularafa, Teh Kwai Wah..........................193 Some insights into the japanese junior high school english education from the student learning awareness perspective Giido Izuta, Tomoko Nishikawa....................................................................................................206 Assessment of anxiety and hurdle perceptions towards introductory computer literacy classes among japanese female college students Tomoko Nishikawa, Giido Izuta....................................................................................................218 Social support and academic stress among high-school students in Indonesia Ayu Dian Sari, Risa Mahara, Yola Tiaranita, Nanda Putri Roza, Chikal Handayani, Hazhira Qudsyi .......................................................................................................................................................229 v


Intercultural awareness: A study on students’ attitudes, social, and communication skills Malissa Maria Mahmud, Wong Shiau Foong................................................................................230 Study of students' perception of project - Based learning Henry Ma, Amelie Chan................................................................................................................231 Causality between foreign tourism revenue and economic growth in the decade of tourism promoting campaign in Thailand Bundit Chaivichayachat.................................................................................................................233 The effect of applicants' attractiveness on hiring decision Hind Eldaw Elnour, Alizi Alias......................................................................................................234 Psychometric properties of a Chinese version of 12 - Item teachers’ sense of efficacy scale for Hong Kong in - Service teachers Kim Hung Leung...........................................................................................................................236 Student engagement among high - School students in Indonesia: Prediction of family functioning and peer support Hazhira Qudsyi, Risa Mahara, Siti Kholidiyatus Sa'Diyah...........................................................247 A study for analyzing the team building process of IT students’ PBL using TEM Chikako Morimoto.........................................................................................................................267 Effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapies on hypertension stricken patients’ IU Alireza Islami, Bahram Mirzaian, Ramezan Hassanzadeh............................................................269 The impact of online social games on e-learning usage among female students Alaa Ibrahim Mahmood, Shafiz Affendi Mohd Yusof, Safaa Al-Nuaimi......................................276 On adolescent valuation of faith: Formulating sustainable ecclesiastical education for evangelical churches in the Philippine Deborah Villanueva-Lacas, Ed. D., Rpm.......................................................................................289 Factor analysis of the morality and ethical development instructional system of student teachers in the 21st century Tongluck Boontham, Arunee Hongsiriwat....................................................................................297 Improving students’ science process skills through implementing POE (Predict-Observe-Explain) model Ahmad Syawaludin, Peduk Rintayati, Heri Setyoko.....................................................................302 The effectivity of sap human capital management for human resources information system learning Annisaa Miranty Nurendra............................................................................................................308 Peer support and student engagement among high-school students in Indonesia Siti Kholidiyatus Sa’Diyah, Hazhira Qudsyi.................................................................................309 vi


Relationship between maternal parenting styles and preschooler's behavioral problems Manar I. Almaghraby.....................................................................................................................322

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ISSN 2518-2498 Proceedings of the International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Social Sciences August 3–5, 2016 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia http://iceps2016.globalconf.org/

Conference Organizer

University Kuala Lumpur Business School Knowledge Association of Taiwan University Kuala Lumpur National Taipei University of Technology Shih Chien University

Sponsored by

International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organization International Journal of Human Sciences International Journal of Education and Psychological Research International Journal of Cyber Society and Education International Journal of Electronic Commerce Studies International Journal of Business and Information Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Contemporary Management Review Journal of Renewable Energy and Environment Sustainability

Proceedings Editors Jung-Fa Tsai, National Taipei University of Technology (Taiwan) Chian-Son Yu, Shih Chien University (Taiwan)

viii

2016 International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Social Sciences

Welcome from Conference Chair

(ICEPS 2016)

On behalf of the organizing committee, we are honored and delighted to welcome you to the 2016 International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Social Sciences (ICEPS). With the advancement of education, psychology, and social science, these fields become more sophisticated and interacted. Accordingly, ICEPS aims to provide a space for researchers, practitioners, and Ph.D. students to exchange and share their experiences, new ideas, and research results about all aspects of Education, Psychology, and Social Sciences. Hopefully, beyond sharing the latest researches, case studies, and industry survey, all attendees are encouraged to seek opportunities of interdisciplinary collaboration. This year the conference received 141 manuscripts from 22 countries and accepted 119 papers. Approximate 57% of the accepted papers were registered and arranged into sessions. Given that this year ICEPS joints with international conference on Business, Information, and Tourism (ICBIT) and international conference on Biotechnology, Food Science, and Pharmaceutical Research (ICBFP) together, the program features 2 keynote speeches, one local tour, one welcome reception, and around 100 papers split into oral and poster sessions. We know the success of organizing an international conference fully depends on all attendees, sponsors, and committee members. Therefore, we would like to specially thank Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur Tourism Bureau, Prof. Dato’ Dr. Mohd Mazliham Su’ud (President of UniKL), Prof. Dato' Dr. Mohamad Azemi Mohd Noor (UniKL). Sincere thanks also go to Prof. Abdul Razak Abdul Hadi (UniKL), Prof. Dato’ Dr. Che Musa Che Omar (UniKL), Prof. Wachara Chantatub (Thailand), Prof. Aurelija Ulbinaite (Lithuania), Prof. Chian-Son Yu (Taiwan), and all of the authors, session chairs, reviewers and participants for their contribution to this conference. This year several journals have collaborated with the conference together to publish special issues. Therefore, we also like to take this opportunity to express our heartfelt thanks to these chief editors. We try our best to serve all attendees, but organizing an international conference may not caster to all people. Should you have comments or suggestions, please feel free to tell our staff so as to let the conference can be improving every year. Kuala Lumpur is one of the most noted cities in Asia, boasting skyscrapers, colonial architecture, charming locals, and a lot of natural attractions. We sincerely hope that all of you take the time to visit attractions in Kuala Lumpur. We wish all participants not only have a fruitful stay at the conference, but also an enjoyable stay in Kuala Lumpur.

Ibrahim Kamal Abdul Rahman Conference Chair, ICEPS 2016

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Committee Conference Chair 

Professor Dr. Ibrahim Kamal Abdul Rahman Dean and Professor of Accounting Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School Universiti Kuala Lumpur

Conference Co-Chairs   

Wachara Chantatub, Chulalongkom University (Thailand) Aurelija Ulbinaite, Vilnius University (Lithuania) Chian-Son Yu, Shih Chien University (Taiwan)

Local Committee Chair 

Professor Dato’ Dr. Che Musa Che Omar Professor of Management (Tourism) and Head of Research and Innovation Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School



Dr. Abdul Razak Abdul Hadi Head of Department (Professional Services & Internationalization) Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School

Advisory Committee Members     

Foo Wah Foong, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University (Japan) Yi-Chung Hu, Chung Yuan Christian University (Taiwan) Mark Runco, University of Georgia (USA) Robert J. Taormina, University of Macau (Macau) Andreas Veglis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece)

International Committee Members   

Preenon Bagchi, Subharati Niriksha Foundation (India) Antonia Darder, Loyola Marymount University (USA) Chien-Juh Gu, Western Michigan University (USA) x


       

Young Hae Lee, Hanyang University (South Korea) Eddy K.W. Li, University of Cambridge (UK) Akkarapon Nuemaihom, Buriram Rajabhat University (Thailand) Basak Mendi, Istanbul Bilim University (Turkey) Chikako Morimoto, Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan) Ichiko Shoji, Uuiversity of Tsukuba (Japan) Jung-Fa Tsai, National Taipei University of Technology (Taiwan) Pak Hui Wong, INTI International University (Malaysia)

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A Content Analysis on Satirical News Articles of the Adobo Chronicles From June 2013 – June 2014

Authors: Ma. Lourdes Jesil C. Capule, John Almerc T. Dy, Sheela U. Orosa, and Prof. Cherry C. Pebre, MC (Research Adviser) Polytechnic University of the Philippines Undergraduate Students – Manila City, Philippines [email protected]

Abstract The study analyzed how the most active Philippine satirical news website, ”The Adobo Chronicles” delivered satirical news given its place in journalism, and how it reaches the public. The researchers have sought the frequency of the website’s releases by finding out its number of published works per month during the researchers’ chosen observation period to verify its activity. The researchers used quantitative research approach and utilized a descriptive method as research design to maximize its focus on the details. The researchers picked 82 articles from the website to analyze by using purposive probability sampling. With the gathered data and by the use of coding materials, the researchers conclude that ‘The Adobo Chronicles’ website has these following characteristics: Almost 70 percent of the satirical news articles were written in a narrative style of writing, almost 50 percent of the satirical news articles were talking about celebrities, 50 percent of the satirical news articles mainly focusing on political themes, almost 70 percent of the satirical news articles were written straightforwardly, and almost 50 percent of the satirical news articles have a neutral tone. Moreover, the researchers also found that the satirical news from the Adobo Chronicles mimics the format of real news; basically from its style up to the way how real news is presented. Thus, with the overall result of the study, the researchers recommend the public to be very observant on the nature of what they’re reading, so they’re assured that they’re getting a reliable and credible source of information. Keywords: Social Sciences, Communication, Journalism, Satirical News, Social Media

References (References Used in the Full Paper) Book Sources: Adanza, E. (1995). Research Methods: Principles and Applications (p. 81). Rex Printing Company, Inc. 84-86 P. Florentino St., Sta. Mesa Heights, Quezon City Baym, G.,& Jones, J. (2013). News Parody and Political Satire Across the Globe (p.1). New York: Taylor and Francis Books Braund, S. (1996).Juvenal: Satires (pp. 17, 18). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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Campbell, J. (2001). Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies (p. 25). Santa Barbara, California: Praeger Publishers Carter, C. (2013). Mindscapes: Critical Reading Skills and Strategies (2nd ed.). Independence, Ky.: Heinle & Heinle ; Cram.(2012). E-Study Guide for Media of Mass Communication 9th Edition. Sage Publications Davis, A. (2000). REA's Testbuster for the GMAT CAT. Piscataway, N.J.: Research & Education Association. Ephraim, K. (2009). Reading Comprehension Instruction for Expository Text in Elementary Education Gowers, E. (2012) Horace: Satires (pp. 8, 9, 12). New York: Cambridge University Press Griffin, D. (1994). Satire: A Critical Reintroduction (pp. 1, 4, 8). Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. Gray, J., Jones, J., & Thompson, E. (2009).Satire TV: Politics and Comedy in the Post-Network Era (pp. 19, 20). New York: New York University Press. London, S. How the Media Frames Political Issues Macnamara, J. Media Content Analysis: Its uses; Benefits and Best Practice Methodology. University of Technology Sydney Mall, R. (2009). Fundamentals of Software Engineering (3rd ed. ; Eastern economy ed.). New Delhi: PHI Learning. Meer, S. (n.d.). Different Types of Writing Styles: Expository, Descriptive, Persuasive, and Narrative. Pernia, E. (2004). Communication Research in the Philippines: Issues and Methods. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. Rose, S., Spinks, N., Canhoto, A. (2015). Management Research: Applying the Principles Rozakis, L. (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style (Second ed.). New York: Alpha Books. Sterling, C. (2009). Encyclopedia of Journalism (p.1249). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc. Warner, C. (n.d.). 38. In Narrative Techniques in Writing: Definition, Types & Examples Wright, S. (2008). Binding Lights. California: California State Polytechnic Polytechnic University Internet Sources: American History USA.Yellow Journalism: Present and Past. Retrieved 2014,Fromhttp://www.americanhistoryusa.com/yellow-journalism-present-and-past/ Dictionary.com | Find the Meanings and Definitions of Words ... (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. Dictionary and Thesaurus | Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. Free Legal Forms & Law Dictionary | The 'Lectric Law Library. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015.

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Encyclopedia.com | Free Online Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. F, C. (n.d.). Why Filipinos Fail to Detect Satire. Get Real Post. Retrieved September 24, 2014, from http://getrealphilippines.com/blog/2014/03 Geertzen, J. (2012). Inter-Rater Agreement with multiple raters and variables. Retrieved September 9, 2015, from https://nlp-ml.io/jg/software/ira/ GMANetwork.com - Online Home of the Kapuso Network. (n.d.). Retrieved November 27, 2015, from http://www.gmanetwork.com/ Home | Libraries | Colorado State University. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. Home : Oxford English Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. Leon, M. d. (n.d.).Why can't many Filipinos tell truth from satire?.Rappler. Retrieved September 24, 2014, from http://www.rappler.com/move-ph/ispeak/43040-filipinos-satire-jinggoy Macmillan Dictionary | Free English Dictionary and Thesaurus ... (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. Realistic Fiction - Description of Story Elements and Quality Characteristics. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. Sterling, Christopher. Encyclopedia of Journalism. http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/journalism/n342.xml

Retrieved

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from

The Adobo Chronicles | About Us. (n.d.). The Adobo Chronicles. Retrieved March 9, 2015, from http://adobochronicles.com/about/ The Free Dictionary.YellowJournalism.Retrieved http://www.thefreedictionary.com/yellow+journalism The Onion - America's Finest Source.fromhttp://www.theonion.com/

News

The Philippine Trend.(n.d.).The Philippine http://www.thephilippinetrend.com/#sthash

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Source.(n.d.).The Trend.

Onion

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21, -

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America's

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from

Finest

News

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from

Vocabulary.com - Learn Words - English Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015. What is Realistic Fiction? - Definition, Characteristics & Examples | Study.com. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015 Why Can Narrative Texts be INTERPRETED in So Many Way?. (n.d). Retrieved September 23, 2015 from http://lib.oup.com.au/secondary/english/Big_Ideas_English/9/DUL_BIE9_02_77839_SPREADS.pdf 20 Evergreen Characteristics of Quality Content - Credible Content Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2015.

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Teaching in Higher Education - Course curricula for professional development Laila Niklasson

Mälardalen University, Sweden [email protected]

ABSTRACT The aim with this study is to increase our knowledge about how teachers in Higher Education get further education to increase their skills. It is not unusual that half the staff at a university are teachers. In many countries the recruitment of students increase as a consequence of longer and more extended education system. The students also have varied educational level and interest in learning. The background is demands for varied skills in teaching as one possibility to increase quality in Higher Education. These skills can be developed during introduction, induction and courses at a Higher Education institutions, as well as during informal learning by help of colleagues. The teachers are engaged in pedagogy in Higher Education but the definition of this concept varies. As a case study, one Centre for excellence is presented and critically discussed. The result showed that the design of the courses is aiming at meeting needs of teachers with a varied background. At the same time the courses have to create a common basis with knowledge of legal issues, ethics, the actual assignment as a servant of the state and the university, didactic issues concerning adult education, design of courses, ICT and insight in own development issues. An analysis shows that the content of the courses, aligns well with earlier research about teaching in Higher Education. During evaluations of the course the mentors have been mainly positive, especially concerning the possibility exchange experiences with each other. What can be questioned is the design with one track for all, irrespective of whether the teachers have a teacher exam or not. Another question can be raised about the alignment between the different courses. The conclusion is that the design of the courses could be developed concerning alignment with each other.

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Bringing Kantian Ethics to Global Politics Suratha Kumar Malik

Vidyasagar University, India Introduction In recent years there are lot of debates on the revival of virtue ethics of normative theories, whose primary focus is on persons rather than decision-making in problematic situations, agents and the sorts of lives they lead rather than discrete acts and rules for making choices, characters and their morally relevant traits rather than laws of obligation. Contemporary theorists are often motivated by a sense of the impoverishment of modern moral traditions, for in placing primary weight on the agent rather than the act. Virtue theorists set themselves off, against what are often viewed as the two options in modern ethics-utilitarianism and de-ontologism. The traditional whipping boy in the latter case is Kant, for he is widely regarded as deontology personified the first moral theorist to place a non-derivative conception of duty at the centre of the philosophical stage, the first to establish a non-consequentiality decision procedure through his universality test, etc. In addition, virtue theorists also seem to have more historical reasons for disapproving of Kant. For the rise of quandary ethics is often associated with Enlightenment efforts to escape from tradition and the pull of local communities, and a consequent yearning for an ahistorical and universalistic conception of morality. Kant, as spokesman for the Enlightenment, is a natural target of criticism here. On the above background, as for the relation between ethics and politics are concerned, here the paper intends to discuss the Kantian perspective as the oldest-important view on politics and ethics to mitigate the above tensions in the present era, where politics overrule ethics.

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The Categorical Imperative Kant’s ethics has traditionally been thought of as issuing in “categorical imperatives,” which take no account of individual situations, personal differences, or extenuating circumstances. Thus Kant has effectively been stereotyped as an “ethical absolutist”, or “ethical formalist”, one who holds that, for example, it is always wrong to lie, no matter what the circumstances or consequences. In this paper I shall attempt to show of Kant’s ethical views which have been thought most objectionable and have no essential connection with his first moral principle or categorical imperative. Moreover, his principle of universality can conflict with, and is therefore not equivalent to, his principle of treating “humanity” as an “end in itself”. But to show this, it will first be necessary to consider carefully the exact nature of the difference between a hypothetical and a categorical imperative.1 Kant’s distinction between hypothetical and categorical imperatives is one of the fundamental features of his ethics. Unfortunately it has been almost universally misunderstood. It is, basically, nothing more than the distinction between prudential and moral rules or judgments. As Sidgwick has pointed out, “It is important to take 1

The works of Immanuel Kant referred to in this paper will be cited as follows. Kant's Grundlegungzu r Metaphysikd er Sitten, the Groundwork(o r Funda-mental Principles) of the Metaphysic of Morals, is cited simply as "Grundlegung." The translation used is that of H. J. Paton, which is contained in his book entitled The Moral Law (London, 1947). The pages referred to are the ones given in the margin of Paton's book, which are those of the second edition of the Grundlegung. After the reference to Paton's translation, I have given the corresponding reference to the translation by T. K. Abbott, in Kant's Critique of Practical Reason and Other Works on the Theory of Ethics, 6th ed. (London, i909). The pages cited are those Abbott inserts in the body of the text (and in brackets at the top of each page), which refer to Rozenkranz and Schubert's edition of Kant's works. Kant's Critique of Practical Reason is cited simply as "Practical Reason." The translation used is Abbott's. Here also the pages referred to are those Abbott places in the body of the text. The translation used of Kant's Philosophyo f Law (Metaphysische Anfangsgrinde derR echtslehre) isthe one by W. Hastie (Edinburgh, i887). In the cases where the same passage appears in Abbott's edition, the corresponding reference is given to the regular pages of Abbott's book, not to the inserted page numbers. The regular page numbers of Abbott's work are also used in referring to the other writings of Kant included in it. The abbreviation used in such cases is simply "Abbott, p, -." Kant's Lectureso n Ethics were translated by Louis Infield (London, 1930).

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separately the two species of judgments.... distinguished as ‘moral’ and ‘prudential’ ... In ordinary thought we clearly distinguish cognitions or judgments of duty from cognitions or judgments as to what ‘is right’ or ‘ought to be done’ in view of the agent’s private interest or happiness.2A hypothetical imperative is a rule (or ‘counsel’) of prudence; a categorical imperative is a moral rule (or ‘law’). A categorical imperative is a moral imperative. It is not one from which we can escape by abandoning some purpose. For it is not conditional upon any purpose of the agent. As Kant says, “an unconditioned command does not leave it open to the will to do the opposite at its discretion....”3 But when Kant first speaks of a categorical imperative, he says that it is not conditioned by, or conditional upon, any purpose of the agent, and he distinguishes it from a hypothetical imperative precisely on the ground that the latter is conditional upon some purpose of the agent. Perhaps the most famous instance of Kant’s rigorism is his almost fanatical insistence that it is always wrong to lie, that one cannot lie even to save someone from being killed. Thus, Kant maintains that the precept “Obey the authority which has power over you, is a Categorical Imperative … which forbids investigating into how this power has been attained, at least with any view to undermining it” and says that “resistance on the part of the people to the supreme legislative power of the state, is in no case legitimate.... It is the duty of the people to bear any abuse of the Supreme Power, even though it should be considered to be unbearable.”4 My argument here is that, Kant’s ethical rigorism or absolutism is not only unwarranted by his fundamental moral principle, but is actually incompatible with it. It will be well to make this argument more explicit. Rigorism is the view that there are certain moral rules that hold in all 2

Henry Sidgwick, The Methods of Ethics, 7th ed. (I907), pp. 25-26. Grundlegung,Pa ton 50, Abbott 45. 4 Philosophy of Law, pp. 256-257. 3

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circumstances or under all conditions. On this view, then, certain actions are always wrong, no matter what the circumstances and no matter what their purposes. Thus Kant, in this mood, holds that lying is an action of this type. Now the categorical imperative is advanced as a principle for determining whether any act is right or wrong. But it cannot be applied to an action taken apart from any determinate context. It must always be applied to an action considered as taking place in certain circum-stances, or for a certain purpose. Thus Kant’s ethical rigorism is neither a consequence of, nor compatible with, his first moral principle. Rigorism is, therefore, purely arbitrary. The particular rules selected as holding absolutely are selected arbitrarily. There is no good reason for selecting this one instead of that, for saying that it is always wrong to lie but not always wrong to kill or to fail to help another human being in distress. Kant’s ethical rigorism is thus no argument against the validity of the categorical imperative as a moral principle. Ethics and politics Kant argues that ethics, or rather morality for him, and politics do not come into conflict because ethics places limits on what can be done in politics. Kant’s understanding of politics as bending its knee before ethics may suggest that, he has no conception of the reality of politics. Yet in some ways his view shows more awareness of the complexities of politics than Derrida’s. Kant notes that following ethical imperatives should be combined with political wisdom or an understanding of how best to institute or work toward perpetual peace. Furthermore, Kant sees it as important to explain why there is a perceived conflict between ethics and politics and to make some caveats and exceptions to his general view. First, adherence to political maxims must derive from the concept of the duty of right. Within states, these rights are to freedom, equality, and independence, which are the principles upon which states should be established. For morals in the form of right, to be applied in politics, Kant maintains that rights must be able to be made

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public. His transcendental formula of public right is ‘all actions relating to the rights of others are wrong if their maxim is incompatible with publicity’.in the words of Kant “The right of human beings must be held sacred, however great a sacrifice this may cost the ruling power”5. This principle is both ethical (part of the doctrine of virtue) and juridical (related to right), and Kant attempts to show how it is relevant to civil, international, and cosmopolitan right. On Kant’s account, politics can be made commensurable with morality only within a federative union of states that maintains peace: Thus the harmony of politics with morals is possible only within a federative union (which is therefore given a priori and is necessary by principles of right), and all political prudence has for its rightful basis the establishment of such a union in its greatest possible extent, without which end all its sub tilizing is unwisdom and veiled injustice.6 In the ‘Groundwork’ Kant contrasts an ethics of autonomy, in which the will is the basis of its own law, from the ethics of heteronomy, in which something independent of the will, such as happiness, is the basis of moral law. Freedom is the Basis of the State. There is only one innate 5

The second transcendental principle of public right is as follows: 'All maxims which need publicity (in order not to fail in their end) harmonize with right and pol itics combined' (ibid., 8:380). Kant's argument for this principle is that if maxims can only be successful through publicity, they must correspond to the universal public end, which is hap piness, and for him this is what politics must do. 6 Kant's examples of ethical constraints on politics between states include the non acquisition of existing states, the abolition of standing armies, no national debts with regard to external affairs, non-interference with the governments of other states, and not using duplic itous means in war; definitive articles recommend republicanism for all states, a federalism of free states, and the cosmopolitan right of hospitality. Kant examines three cases of apparent conflict between politics and morals in international right and presents their resolution: where one nation promises to aid another nation but decides to release itself from the promise because of the effects that keeping the promise would have on its own well-being, where lesser nations could not make public the idea that they intend to attack a greater power preemptively, and where a large nation could not make it known that it would absorb smaller nations if it thought that necessary to its preservation (Kant, Practical Philosophy, 8:385). Third, Kant says that cosmopolitan right's maxims work by analogy to those of international right. Cosmopolitan right is interesting since the power imbalance between individuals and states is enormous.

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right, says Kant, ‘Freedom’ (independence from being constrained by another’s choice), insofar as it can coexist with the freedom of every other in accordance with a universal law. Kant rejects any other basis for the state, in particular arguing that the welfare of citizens cannot be the basis of state power and argues that a state cannot legitimately impose any particular conception of happiness upon its citizens. Freedom is not the only basis for principles underlying the state. In ‘Theory and Practice’ Kant makes freedom the first of three principles: (i) the freedom of every member of the state as a human being (ii) The equality of each with every other as a subject (iii) The independence of every member of a commonwealth as a citizen. Furthermore Kant’s conception of morality (Moralität) as opposed to legality (Legalität), differs basically from the Aristotelian conception of ethos and its intimate relation with the written laws of the polis and (oral) ethical deliberation. For Kant there is a fundamental difference between the law in its relation with an external action (legality), and with the internal motivations of such actions (morality). In other words, the mediation between ethics and public policy is conceived as mainly a theoretical task to be achieved on the basis of censorship-free and printed diffusion of critical scientific thinking. On Kant’s account, politics can be made commensurable with morality only within a federative union of states that maintains peace. Thus the harmony of politics with morals is possible only within a federative union, and all political prudence has for its rightful basis, the establishment of such a union in its greatest possible extent, without which it is unwisdom and veiled injustice. Kant, as spokesman for the Enlightenment, is a natural target of criticism here. For conceptual as well as historical reasons then, Kantian ethics has suffered badly under the current revival of virtue campaign.

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Tensions between Ethics and Politics Kant understands of politics as bending its knee before ethics may suggest that he has no conception of the reality of politics. Yet in some ways his view shows more awareness of the complexities of politics than Derrida's. Kant notes that following ethical imperatives should be combined with political wisdom or an understanding of how best to institute or work toward perpetual peace.7 This is what it means to be as wise as a ser pent. Furthermore, Kant sees it as important to explain why there is a perceived conflict between ethics and politics and to make some caveats and exceptions to his general view. First, adherence to political maxims must derive from the concept of the duty of right. Within states, these rights are to freedom, equality, and independence, which are the principles upon which states should be established.8 For morals in the form of right to be applied in politics, Kant maintains that rights must be able to be made public. His transcendental formula of public right is 'All actions relating to the rights of others are wrong if their maxim is incompatible with publicity.'9 The key idea is that actions that affect the rights of others are unacceptable if they need to be kept secret. However, the reverse is not held to be true-actions that are consistent with publicity are not necessarily right, as Kant 7

Kant, Practical Philosophy, 8:377. In 'On the common saying: That may be correct in theory, but it is of no use in prac tice,' Kant defines the principles of a civil state as (1) the freedom of every member of the society as a human being, (2) his equality with every other as a subject, and (3) the indepen dence of every member of a commonwealth as a citizen (ibid., 8:290); and likewise in Immanuel Kant, The Metaphysics of Morals (in ibid., 6:314), and in Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace, Kant says that the principles of a Republican state are freedom, equality, and the dependence 'of all upon a single common legislation (as subjects)' (in ibid., 8:350). A comparison of Kant's republicanism with Derrida's idea of democracy is one I do not have the space to pursue here. 9 Ibid., 8:381. The second transcendental principle of public right is as follows: 'All maxims which need publicity (in order not to fail in their end) harmonize with right and pol itics combined' (ibid., 8:386). Kant's argument for this principle is that if maxims can only be successful through publicity, they must correspond to the universal public end, which is hap piness, and for him this is what politics must do. 8

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observes, because a very powerful state can be quite open about its maxims.10 The power of such a state means it does not have to be concerned about opposition or resistance to its maxims. Kant argues for this principle of public right as follows: For a maxim that I cannot divulge without thereby defeating my own pur pose, one that absolutely must be kept secret if it is to succeed and that I cannot publicly acknowledge without unavoidably arousing everyone's opposition to my project, can derive this necessary and universal, hence a priori foreseeable, resistance of everyone to me only from the injustice with which it threatens everyone.11 This principle is both ethical (part of the doctrine of virtue) and juridical (related to right), and Kant attempts to show how it is relevant to civil, international, and cosmopolitan right. First, civil right concerns right within a state. Kant upholds the right of human beings to respect by the state, saying, 'The right of human beings must be held sacred, however great a sacrifice this may cost the ruling power.'12 Nevertheless, with regard to the rights of people against the state, Kant argues that rebellion is shown to be wrong by the fact that publicly revealing a maxim of rebel lion would make it impossible, whereas a head of state can publicly declare their willingness to punish rebels.13 I will say more about this point further on. Kant's view is that systems of law are justified by their foundation. Once they are founded, however, they should not be overthrown. In contrast, Derrida believes that a system of law can only be justified by what comes after its institution. Second, international right is the right of nations. This right, Kant says, must be an enduring free

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Ibid., 8:385. Ibid., 8:381. 12 Ibid., 8:380. 13 There has been a great deal of interest in Kant's condemnation of rebellion here, par ticularly since he is a well-known supporter of the French Revolution; ibid., 6:320-23. See, for example, Kimberly Hutchings, Kant, Critique, and Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), 46; and Hannah Arendt, Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy, ed. Ronald Beiner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 44-51. 11

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association between states.14 Cosmopolitan right is the right to hospitality or the right to visit all the countries in the world. On Kant's account, politics can be made commensurable with morality only within a federative union of states that maintains peace: Thus the harmony of politics with morals is possible only within a federative union (which is therefore given a priori and is necessary by principles of right), and all political prudence has for its rightful basis the establishment of such a union in its greatest possible extent, without which end all its sub tilizing is un-wisdom and veiled injustice.15This point suggests, reasonably, that so long as states are at war or are not willing to pursue peace, political practice and morality are likely to conflict. Although Kant believes that politics can be made commensurable with morality, he concedes that practical circumstances or conditions can make it difficult to bring this ideal into effect and that it may be brought about gradually. For instance, states may have to wait to introduce reforms until it can be done peacefully.16In her book Kant's Politics, Elisabeth Ellis discusses the role that provisional right, or right that acknowledges the difficult circumstances under which we are 14

Kant's examples of ethical constraints on politics between states include the non acquisition of existing states, the abolition of standing armies, no national debts with regard to external affairs, non-interference with the governments of other states, and not using duplic itous means in war; definitive articles recommend republicanism for all states, a federalism of free states, and the cosmopolitan right of hospitality. Kant examines three cases of apparent conflict between politics and morals in international right and presents their resolution: where one nation promises to aid another nation but decides to release itself from the promise because of the effects that keeping the promise would have on its own well-being, where lesser nations could not make public the idea that they intend to attack a greater power preemptively, and where a large nation could not make it known that it would absorb smaller nations if it thought that necessary to its preservation (Kant, Practical Philosophy, 8:383-84). Third, Kant says that cosmopolitan right's maxims work by analogy to those of international right. Cosmopolitan right is interesting since the power imbalance between individuals and states is enormous. 15 Ibid., 8:385. 16 Another example Kant gives is that it cannot be demanded of a state that it give up its constitution even though this is a despotic one (which is, for all that, the stronger kind in relation to external enemies), so long as it runs the risk of being at once devoured by other states; hence, as for that resolution, it must also be permitted to postpone putting it into effect until a more favorable time. (Ibid., 8:373). Thus, it is reasonable to wait until the state is secure from invasion before rectifying injustice if that injustice is protecting the state.

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likely to be applying morals, plays in Kant's account of politics.17She notes that Kant recommends that even in the midst of war, for example, we should act 'in accordance with principles that always leave open the possibility of . . . entering a rightful condition.”18In this way, Kant provides guidance to those making decisions in less than ideal conditions. While Kant is confident about ethics and politics 'agreeing,' there are some complicated exceptions he mentions in the essay ‘on the common saying: that may be correct in theory but it is of no use in practice.'19 He observes that sometimes unconditional or perfect and conditional or imperfect duties might conflict. This sense of imperfection refers to the latitude allowed in fulfilling the duty rather than a state of imperfection in societies that are not yet governed ideally, which provisional right is concerned with. Kant defines a perfect duty as 'one that admits no exception in favor of inclination' (1996a, 4:422), whereas an imperfect duty is one that is virtu ous and worthy to fulfill but it is not culpable not to do so unless that is made into a principle (1996a, 6: 390). I should note here that this distinction between perfect and imperfect duties divides the virtues. Duties of the virtue of respect to others are perfect, whereas duties of love are not, or, in other words, we have discretion as to when we should follow them.20 Such duties may conflict if it is a matter of preventing some catastrophe to the state by betraying a man who might stand in the relationship to another of father and son. This prevention of trouble to the former is an unconditional duty, whereas preventing misfortune to the latter is only a conditional duty (namely, insofar as he has not made himself guilty of a crime against the state). One of the 17

Elisabeth Ellis, Kant's Politics: Provisional Theory for an Uncertain World (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005), 112-54. 18 Kant, Practical Philosophy, 6:347 19 Ibid. 20 Another way Kant puts this point is that although respect 'is a mere duty of virtue, it is regarded as narrow in comparison with a duty of love, and it is the latter that is considered a wide duty'; ibid., 6:450.

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relatives might report the other's plans to the authorities with the utmost reluctance, but he is compelled by necessity (namely, moral necessity).21 In this case, the duty to prevent catastrophe to the state clearly trumps the duty to prevent misfortune to a relative provided the relative is acting treacherously. In The Metaphysics of Morals, Kant says that “there is a categorical imperative, Obey the authority who has power over you (in whatever does not conflict with inner morality).”22 Morals can conflict with political practice if a leader demands we do something unethical, and when they do we must obey morals. However, here and elsewhere, as I noted, Kant con demns revolutions, a condemnation that seems counter to his own theory. It is rarely observed that Kant had an ingenious caveat to his view on revolutions. In his notes concerning the 'Doctrine of Right,' he comments, Force, which does not presuppose a judgment having the validity of law [,] is against the law; consequently the people cannot rebel except in the cases which cannot at all come forward in a civil union, e.g., the enforcement of a religion, compulsion to unnatural crimes, assassination, etc.23 The implication appears to be that if such acts were generally forced upon a people, they could not properly be in a civil union. Therefore, tyrannical and totalitarian regimes may well not count as civil unions for Kant. Then revolution could be ethical in the sense that such a revolution would be creating a civil union. Thus such examples of conflict between duties to the state and other duties that could be brought against Kant would be accounted for by this caveat. However, revolution for such reasons as poor government or inequity would still be excluded as they could occur in a civil union. Cases where the state tried 21

Ibid., 8:301. Ibid., 6:371. 23 Immanuel Kant, "Doctrine of Right," in The Metaphysics of Morals, ed. Mary Gregor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), XIX, 594-95, quoted in Robert J. Dostal, "Judging Human Action: Arendt's Appropriation of Kant," Review of Metaphysics 37 (1984): 732. 22

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to prevent philanthropy provide other examples of conflict between politics and morality, this time relevant to the doc trine of virtue. Kant also believes that politics and virtue should agree, but notes that philanthropy is an imperfect duty, or in other words that how it is fulfilled is to a great extent a matter of discretion. In any case, his view is that politics easily agrees with this sense of morality ‘in order to surrender the rights of human beings to their superiors.’24 What he has in mind here is that 'politics,' or rather those in power, like to pretend that perfect duties of right are imperfect duties that they bestow only as benevolence and so are very ready to claim they are moral in that sense. This distinction between perfect and imperfect duties, a distinction rejected by Derrida, is important to conceiving an ethical politics, I argue. Derrida’s view that we must negotiate between ethics and politics leaves us with the question of how far toward each we should tend in our negotiations. Ethics with its unconditional demands is impossible to satisfy for Derrida, and politics must be limited by ethics. They seem to act as constraints on each other such that the decision, and the action, will always lie somewhere between the two. There is an in-between position or many in-between positions that Levinas gestures toward in 'Politics After!’ He accepts with Kant and Hannah Arendt that a world government is not desirable, and yet believes we need to go beyond their views to think of a 'democracy to come' (la democratie a' venir) that will unite law and justice.25 Kant’s Regulative Ideals and the Categorical Imperative

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Kant, Practical Philosophy, 8:386. Ibid., 120.

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Kant discusses the notion of regulative ideas in the Critique of Pure Reason.26 These regulative ideas are that of the existence of the human soul, an independent world, and God. These ideas cannot be proven; nevertheless we should posit them as they play an important role in our thinking by directing our studies of psychology and physics in the case of our ideas of the soul and the world. The idea of God provides the sense that everything in the world is part of an organized unity-'as if all such connection had its source in one single all embracing being, as the supreme and all-sufficient cause.'27 At one point, Kant says that virtue 'is an ideal and unattainable, while yet constant approximation to it is a duty.'28 Derrida’s Criticism to Kant Derrida sees Kant as both irresponsible and totalitarian in prescribing rules for action as if we were nothing more than calculating machines. Furthermore, Derrida criticizes Kant for conflating right and virtue or assuming that politics can be deduced from ethics. One commentator, Olivia Custer, finds this reading of Kant as emerging most clearly in Derrida's discussion of hospitality, where Derrida criticizes Kant for imposing restrictions on hospitality, thereby turning an ethical concept into a juridical one.29 As I noted earlier, for Kant virtue is that part of morality or ethics that cannot be enforced or made part of politics. Thus, the accusation that Kant thinks one can deduce politics from ethics, understood as politics deduced from virtue, is inaccurate. Kant did not think that virtue and right were necessarily co-implicated but instead had a hope that people would live according to the virtues of love and respect once right 26

Immanuel Kant, The Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan, 1986), A669-704, B697-732. 27 Ibid.,A686,B714. 28 Kant, Practical Philosophy, 6:409. 29 Derrida, On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness, 21-22; and Olivia Custer, "Kant after Derrida: Inventing Oneself out of an Impossible Choice," in Rothfield, Kant after Derrida, 171-204.

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restrained politics. In fact, Derrida himself brings virtue into politics by emphasizing the importance of ethical concepts such as unconditional hospitality and forgiveness to polItics. Kant's further distinction between perfect and imperfect duties demon strates the problems with Derrida’s reading. For Kant, we are able to formulate moral laws for ourselves and act on them. He says that it takes only ‘common human reason' to work out our duty and that ‘I do not . . . need any penetrating acuteness to see what I have to do in order that my volition be morally good.’30 Kant notes, however, that we can never be completely sure that our motives are pure.31 In the next section I will show how Kant's account fares better in relation to human rights, as an example of true non-negotiability.

Reconstructing Human Rights On the issue of human rights, Kant's overall framework is more pro ductive than Derrida's even though he identifies inconsistencies in Kant's account. Kant's argument provides an important step toward an ethical politics, in spite of his unappealing condemnation of revolutions and lack of consideration of conflicts between human rights and duties to the state. Such a politics is one where at the very least certain human rights are respected. It should be noted that 30

Kant, Practical Philosophy, 4:403. Kant observed that even experts could lack judgment in his essay on theory and practice: [T]here can be theoreticians who can never in their lives become practical because they are lacking in judgment, for example, physicians or jurists who did well in their schooling but who are at a loss when they have to give an expert opinion. (Ibid., 8:275) He thinks that this is due to a lack of the ‘natural talent’ of judgment. But, as Kant makes clear, this difficulty in judgment applies to certain professional fields, not to ethics. 31 Ibid. 4:407-8.

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Derrida refers to the Declaration of Human Rights as a means of challenging the sovereignty of states.32 Certainly Kant’s account of the details of the principles of right leaves much to be desired particularly that of independence as a citizen, as he excludes women and non-property owners from the role of active citizens.33 Nevertheless, one could extend this principle in an inclusive way. Another problem I see in Kant's account of right is his acceptance of capital punishment for the crimes of high treason and murder.34 This acceptance appears to be in conflict with the categorical imperative to treat everyone as ends in themselves and with the whole tenor of the Kantian view that we should treat others with respect. However, as Nelson Potter argues, in both these cases Kant can be revised in a manner that makes his view more consistent, particularly since Kant himself was offering a critique of the contemporary cruel punishments often carried out as well as arguing for a limitation on the crimes capital punishment should be applied to.35 These are reconstructions that would be necessary for genuine compatibility between ethics and politics, in my view. Kant's ideas of rights need to be reconstructed in a number of ways, some of which they already have been in practice (at least widely), to include women as active citizens, and some of which they have not, to exclude capital punishment, for example. An ethical politics should make an explicit commitment to certain rights and work out how they can be established and upheld. Conclusion 32

Derrida, Rogues, 88. Ibid., 6:314-15. Kant makes a distinction between active citizens, who are independent and can vote, and passive ones, who he argues are dependent on the will of others. 34 Ibid., 6:320, 6:333. 35 Nelson Potter, "Kant and Capital Punishment Today," Journal of Value Inquiry 36, nos. 2/3 (2002): 267-82. 33

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Derrida’s demanding view of ethics highlights some of the gaps in Kant's vision. Derrida is right to claim that he goes beyond Kant. I contend that in raising the importance of virtue as well as right to politics, his view is an important advance on Kant's. Derrida's focus on unconditional ethics brings the imperfect duties of Kant to the forefront of politics. This insis tence on the importance of unconditional ethical demands to politics forces us to think more carefully about the role of these demands and about the responsibility of both ethics and politics to each other. Derrida's work reminds us how significant ethical virtues involved in hospitality, friend ship, and forgiveness, for example, are to public life. Nevertheless, although his account demonstrates the significance of ethics to politics, it does not clarify how important ethics should be or suggest what conditions would facilitate the negotiation between ethics and politics. Precisely because Derrida goes further than Kant by bringing up the importance of the virtues, he should have more to say about what would make them flourish. While Derrida goes beyond Kant in emphasizing the importance of virtue or imperfect duties, he does not advance beyond Kant by suggesting what kind of political structures would enable the flourishing of these virtues. While Kant was probably a little too confident about the ease with which we act ethically (although without being sure that we are doing so), ethical demands need to be within the realms of possibility for us to be able to cultivate ethical responses and to construct political structures that support the ethical life. Kant expresses a vision where one focuses on enforcing what needs to be enforced while leaving the other aspects of ethics to look after themselves, whereas I argue that we should also consider how to at least encourage virtue. These are the problems I believe need to be addressed in conceptualizing an ethical politics. What emerges is that the most credible conception of the relation between ethics and politics is one that considers both the norms of right that Kant outlines.

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What I mean is that the limits to action set up by Kant should be acknowledged (and in some instances extended) and that political organization should take account of the need for practical benevolence and ethical responses. Understanding the intersection of ethics and politics in this way requires a sense of what it is to act with respect and benevolence for others, so that all decisions have these ethical standards as touchstones to judgment. In order for Derrida's suggestion of an expansion of the ethical realm to make sense, political life would involve creating the best conditions for ethical relations to ourselves and to others, in addition to the constraints Kant believes ethics should place on politics. While we should acknowledge the special circumstances of politics, politics should be ethical in more than one sense. However, I disagree with Kant that we should simply hope that virtue follows in the wake of right or, to think of it another way, that love will follow respect because every aspect of our lives is affected by political decisions. These ethical considerations are relevant to the three spheres that Kant discusses-relations within states, between states, and between states and individuals. It is also relevant to relations between individuals. Thus, the complexities of including the virtues in an ethical politics would have to be carefully considered with regard to all these relations. These features of an ethical politics involve both basic human rights as advocated by Kant and the cultivation of virtues as suggested by Derrida. Furthermore, pursuit of the virtues itself can facilitate a transformation of politics and political conditions. Between Kant's possible ideals and Derrida's impossible real, there is a possibility of ethical and political action that is not simply ameliorative. Politics must be conceived in a way that makes negotiating with ethics a more promising affair. The theoretical model of Kantian perspective will help full for research purpose and the relevance of kantian theory of Universal Category (Categorical Imperative) is the need of the

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time to mitigate the tension between politics and ethics, as the politics of today’s world have no ethical values. Therefore this is the high time to look back Immanuel Kant. The article will help the researchers, academicians, not only of political science but philosophy, logic and literature. It will helpful for international theorist and human right domain.

Selected Bibliography Jeffrey W. Miller (Spring, 2009, “Kantian Ethics in a Connecticut Yankee”, American Literary Realism, Vol. 41, No. 3, Special Issue on Mark Twain, pp. 263-277Published by: University of Illinois Press. Marcus G. Singer, (1954)“the Categorical Imperative”, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 63, No. 4 , pp. 577-591. Marguerite La Caze, (2007)“At the Intersection: Kant, Derrida, and the Relation between Ethics and Politics”, Political Theory, Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 781-805. Radoslav A. Tsanoff (1910), Schopenhauer’s Criticism of Kant's Theory of Ethics, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 512-534. Robert B. Louden (1986), “Kant’s Virtue Ethics”, Philosophy, Vol. 61, No. 238, pp. 473-489, Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Institute of Philosophy.

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INTERROGATING THE NEXUS BETWEEN REVEALED TRUTHS, IDEOLOGY AND TERRORISM. Dr. Innocent Oyibo

Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies (Faculty Member), Kogi State University, P.M.B 1008, Ayangba, Kogi State Tel.: 00234 (0) 8032601227 Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT A core philosophical underpinning that characterizes radical groups like Al Shabbab, AlQaida and Boko Haram in contemporary times is the “divine mandate” to restore Islam to its pristine conditions and install an Islamic caliphate to replace secular political authority. The rise of western economic philosophy of capitalism and democracy seemed in the eyes of these radical groups to have impinged on the house of Islam as experienced in its idyllic form most especially during the Ottoman Empire. Embarking on a delineation between “us” and “the other” or "them", these radical Islamic groups, who generally subscribe to Salafi-Jihadists’ doctrines as it were consider the "other" either belongs to Ahl al-Sunnah (people of the prophetic tradition) or belong to Ahl al-Bid’ah (people of forbidden innovations). This has led to tragic consequences. Anyone perceived not to be in tandem with their own perspective of the truth is perceived an enemy, an apostate and becomes a target of elimination. Hence, this problematic has an epistemological, political as well as theological dimension. This paper sets itself a threefold fold task: firstly, to offer a framework of analysis for understanding of the concept of truth among Salafis. Secondly, to apply this model to the case of Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. And thirdly, drawing on observations in the first task, it will espouse the inherent relationship between dogmatic contents of the so-called revealed religions, ideology and terrorism. The question that undergirds this paper is this: what is the nexus between the concept of revealed truths, ideology and terrorism? How does the notion of truth among Salafi-Jihadists translate into the philosophical and theological foundation of an ideology and into acts of terrorism and violence? Keywords: Religious Terrorism, Violence, Salafism, Boko Haram

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The influence of statistical versus narrative health claims on consumers' food product evaluation Hung-Chou Lin, Sheng-Hsien Lee National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei City, Taiwan Yu Da University of Science and Technology, Miaoli County, Taiwan *Corresponding author email: [email protected] Abstract A number of studies have examined the comparative effects of narrative and statistical messages, however it remains unclear whether statistical or narrative messages may generate more persuasive effectiveness. Moreover, most of the previous studies with respect to message types mainly focus on the influences of statistical and narrative messages in advertising on consumers’ behavior, it is unknown how consumers evaluate different message types shown on the packages of food products. The present research aims at exploring the underlying mechanisms how consumers respond to statistical and narrative health claims when they evaluate food products. In addition, personality traits are also incorporated to discuss their effects on the relationship between message types and consumers’ food product evaluation. The results of the present research indicate that statistical health claims are more persuasive than narrative health claims. In addition, the results of this article show that individuals’ health knowledge and need for cognition (NFC) moderate the relationship between message types and product evaluation. It argues that individuals with limited health knowledge evaluate food product more favorably when statistical health claims are used, while individuals with more health knowledge evaluate food product more favorably when narrative health claims are used. Moreover, it reveals that individuals with high NFC evaluate food product more favorably when statistical health claims are used, while individuals with low NFC evaluate food product more favorably when narrative health claims are used. Finally, both theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Keywords: health claims; statistical messages; narrative messages; health knowledge; need for cognition

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PERCEPTUAL REASONING INDEX AND PARENTS’ EDUCATION IN PREDICTING EXTRAVERSION TYPE OF PERSONALITY Nazirah Hanim Sharipudin1, Nasir Yusoff1*, Muhamad S. B. Yusoff2

1. Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia 2. Medical Education Department, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia *Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE: This study aims to examine the combination factor of parents’ level of education and Perceptual Reasoning Index of intelligence in predicting personality of extraversion. METHODS: This is a quantitative study which used the cross-sectional design for data collection. The subjects consist of undergraduate medical students from School of Medical Sciences (PPSP), Universiti Sains Malaysia which fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) of intelligence was collected using Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). Meanwhile the Extraversion personality type was measured using the Universiti Sains Malaysia Personality Inventory (USMaP-i). RESULTS: The Multiple Linear Regression analysis indicated that the combination factor of parents’ education and PRI of intelligence are not significant in predicting extraversion. The regression model revealed that parents’ education and PRI of intelligence are able to explain only 1% of the variance for extraversion. CONCLUSION: Parents’ level of education and PRI of intelligence were unable to predict extraversion type of personality. Thus, other external factors should be considered as future research recommendation. KEYWORDS: Perceptual Reasoning Index, Intelligence, Personality, Extraversion, Ambivert, Parents’ education.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Many studies had examined the relation between intelligence and personality, however, the external factors which affect the relation of both variables were less considered. External factors such as age, lifestyles, jobs and environment may affect one’s personality development, as well as intelligence development. Family environment (refers to either the number of siblings, birth order, social status or the parents) indicated important external factor for personality and intelligence (Maltby, Day and Macaskill, 2007). Previous studies suggested that the social backgrounds of the children, indeed, depended on their parents’ education (Bradley and Corwyn, 2002). Thus, parents’ education was of importance for the academic success of the children as parents with high educational background prefers their children to be the same (Bourdieu, 2011; Steinmayr, Dinger and

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Spinath, 2010). Other studies also postulated parents’ educational background to be positively correlated with children’s intelligence (Strenze, (2007) and personality traits (Roskam, Vandenplas-Holper and Maere-Gaudissart, 2001; Gursoy and Biçakçi, 2007). Another study proposed that parents’ education would affect their parenting style and thus, influencing the child’s behavior (Gursoy and Biçakçi, 2007). Parents with positive traits such as supportive and nurturing were found to be associated with Extraversion type of personality (Metsapelto and Pulkkinen, 2003). Meanwhile, for intelligence, parents’ education was mentioned to have stronger effect on crystalized intelligence (Gc) compared to fluid intelligence (Gf) (Rindermann, Flores-Mendoza and Mansur-Alves, 2010). This is because Gc are based on experience thus the intellectual development since childhood depend highly on parent’s education. However, Gc was proposed as product of Gf. Therefore parents’ education might correlate with Gf. Thus, by correlating the relationship between personality, intelligence and external factors, this study decided to combine the effect of parents’ education with Gf by choosing Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) of intelligence, to predict the personality of Extraversion.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Subjects Cross-sectional data was collected and analyzed from undergraduate medical students from School of Medical Sciences (PPSP), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). This research was supported by USM Short Term Research Grant and had obtained the ethical approval from the USM Human Ethical Committee Board. Respondents were selected based on inclusion criteria, which were (1) Undergraduate medical students who were pursuing medical degree at PPSP, Health Campus, USM; (2) Year one until year five with age ranged from 18 to 24 years old; (3) regardless of gender and ethnicity (Malay, Chinese, Indian, others). However, those who have significant chronic psychiatric condition such as depression or taking any psychiatric medication were excluded from this study.

2.2 Measures Socio-demographic data The socio-demographic data that was collected in this study was age, date of birth, gender, ethnic, year of study, and parents’ educational background. The education background of the parent was categorized into different level of educations i.e. 1 = Not schooling, 2 = Primary school, 3 = Lower secondary school (Form 1 to 3), 4 = Higher

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secondary school (Form 4 to 5), 5 = Pre-university (Higher Certificate of Malaysian Education, Diploma, College Certificate) and 6 = University (Bachelor degree and above). For the purpose of regression analysis, parent’s education data was treated as continuous data which was based on years of education obtained. For parents who have never been to school, the years of education were given as zero. Year of education was calculated starting primary one, meanwhile, education at pre-school or kindergarten was not calculated. Years of education of the mother and father was summed up to give total years of parent education.

Extraversion Twelve items from the 66 items of the full version of Universiti Sains Malaysia Personality Inventory (USMaP-i) was used to measure extravert trait of personality (Yusoff, Rahim and Esa, 2010). These items are 2, 7, 10, 12, 18, 25, 27, 32, 36, 55, 57 and 62. Respondent responded to the extraversion items by using 4 rating scales i.e. 0 = Very Inaccurate, 1 = Moderately inaccurate, 2 = Neither inaccurate nor accurate, 3 = Moderately accurate, 4 = Very accurate. The USMaP-i indicates good psychometric properties for all domains of personality (i.e. Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness) and valid to be used for personality measurement (Yusoff, 2011; Yusoff, 2013). Score of 33 and above indicating a sign of extraversion, meanwhile, a range score of 17 to 32 indicating a sign of ambiversion. Introversion trait was detected by scores below seventeeth (Yusoff, Rahim and Esa, 2010).

Perceptual Reasoning Index of Intelligence Perceptual reasoning of the respondents was measured by the sub-test of Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI), taken from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth edition (WAIS-IV) (Wechsler, 2008). This PRI comprises of three main measures i.e. Block Design (BD), Matrix Reasoning (MR), and Visual Puzzles (VP) with the supplementary test such as Figure Weights (FW) and Picture Completion (PCm). The WAIS Version IV is a well-known intelligence scale introduced by David Wechsler in 1955. Each measure of PRI represents different area of intelligence. The BD represents non-verbal reasoning; visual perception and organization; and visual-motor coordination. In the meantime, MR represents fluid intelligence, visuospatial ability, simultaneous processing, and perceptual organization. Slightly different for VP, it represents visuospatial ability, analysis and synthesis, and simultaneous processing. The score for BD and VP was recorded based on the time allocated for each questions, meanwhile for the score of MR, it depends on the correct answer. The raw score accumulated from these three core subtests made up a total composite score of PRI. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 18 was utilized to perform the regression analysis, in which the dependent variable was Extraversion and the independent variables were PRI and parent’s education level.

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3.0 RESULTS The subjects consisted of 82 medical undergraduate students who fulfilled both the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the sample characteristics. Majority of the subjects were female, Malay, and year two students. The subjects’ personality types were equally obtained between extravert (N=41) and ambivert (N=41). In addition, data showed that majority of respondents’ mother had gone through higher secondary school (Form 4 to Form 5), meanwhile their fathers had university level of education. Table I shows the socio-demographic data of the study.

Gender

Table 1: Socio-demographic data of the respondents (N= 82) Variables Male Female

Ethnic

Year of study

Mother educational background

Father educational background

Malay Chinese Indian Others First Second Third Fourth Primary school Lower secondary school (F1-F3) Higher secondary school (F4-F5) Pre-University (e.g. F6, Diploma) University (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate) Not schooling Primary school Lower secondary school (F1-F3) Higher secondary school ( F4-F5) Pre-University (e.g. F6, Diploma) University (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate) Not schooling

Note: Age (M= 21.35; SD =1.058). M = mean, SD = standard deviation, F = Form.

n (%) 25 (30) 57 (70) 51 (62) 16 (20) 13 (16) 2 ( 2) 18 (22) 47 (57) 12 (15) 5 ( 6) 7 ( 9) 5 ( 6) 31 (38) 10 (12) 28 (34) 1 ( 1) 5 ( 6) 9 (11) 23 (28) 10 (12) 35 (43) 0 ( 0)

Table 2 displays the distribution of parent’s educational background and personality type of the respondents. Most extraverts and ambiverts had fathers with university educational background. For mother’s education, most extraverts had mother with higher secondary school background; while it was the same for Higher secondary and university

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educational background for ambiverts’ mother. There was only one ambivert subject with a mother who had no education experience. Table 2: Distribution of parents’ educational background across personality types of Extravert and Ambivert Type of personality Parents educational background Extravert Ambivert Mother Primary school 3 4 educational Lower secondary school (F1-F3) 4 1 background Higher secondary school (F4-F5) 17 14 Pre-University (e.g. F6, Diploma) 3 7 University (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate) 14 14 Not schooling 0 1 Father educational background

Primary school Lower secondary school (F1-F3) Higher secondary school (F4-F5) Pre-University (e.g. F6, Diploma) University (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate)

3 6 11 4 17

2 3 12 6 18

Note: F=Form.

There was a slight difference between number of years of education for fathers and mothers; while for parents’ education (combination of fathers’ and mothers’ education), the average number of years was 26.4. The average score of PRI tests for all subjects were 102.74 (Table 3). Table 3: Descriptive statistics for fathers’, mothers’ and parents’ years of education and PRI psychometric score. Variables Mean (SD) Fathers’ years of education 13.51 ( 4.019) Mothers’ years of education 12.89 ( 4.222) Parents’ years of education 26.40 ( 7.565) PRI psychometric score 102.74 ( 12.695)

Note: SD = standard deviation, Parents’ years of education = Fathers’ years of education + Mothers’ years of education

Multiple Linear Regression (with stepwise method) was used to determine the factors predictive of extraversion type of personality. In this regression model, extraversion was dependent variable; meanwhile parent’s education level and PRI were independent variable or predictors. Data fulfilled the assumption for regression analysis before all the variables were placed in the model. As indicated in Table 4, parent’s education and PRI were unable to predict extraversion [R2 = 0.01, F (2, 79) = 0.418, p= 0.66]. The regression model revealed that parents’ education and PRI of intelligence explain only 29


1% of the variance for extraversion, however, insignificant. Thus, the combination factor of parents’ education and PRI of intelligence do not predict the personality of extraversion. Table 4: Results of Multiple Linear Regression test for combination factor of parents’ education and PRI of intelligence towards Extraversion (N = 82). Independent variable b (95% CI of b) t-statistic (df) P value R2 Parents’ education -0.039 (-0.252, 0.174) -0.361 (79) 0.660 0.010 Psychometric PRI score -0.055 (-0.182, 0.072) -0.868 (79) Note: b = unstandardized coefficient, CI = confidence interval, df = degree of freedom, R2 = coefficient of determination.

4.0 DISCUSSION From the data analysis, it showed the combination factor of parents’ education and PRI of intelligence were unable to predict Extraversion. According to the regression model obtained, the remaining 99% of the variation in Extraversion is presumed to be due to factors other than parents’ education and PRI of intelligence. Previous study had proposed parents’ education were positively correlated with personality traits of children and how the children’s personalities were affected by the family background characteristic (Roskam, Vandenplas-Holper and Maere-Gaudissart, 2001; Gursoy and Biçakçi, 2007). However, there was yet any study which could correlate how the parents’ personality would be dependent on their education and affect the child’s personality. Nonetheless, it was suggested that since educations were related to certain type of personality, parents’ education might also represent their own personality and intelligence (Steinmayr, Dinger and Spinath, 2010). Assuming the personality of children was genetically inherited, the extravert subject probably had extraverted traits parents and the same applies to ambivert. This is supported by the theory that extraverted parents tend to be more adaptive and supportive of their children such as giving affection and motivation (Metsapelto and Pulkkinen, 2003; Losoya, Callor, Rowe and Goldsmith, 1997). Thus, the child grows having positive traits which leads to extraversion. Then, as they mature, other external factors are beginning to strongly influence personality stability such as age, length of schooling, or social environment (Laosa, 1982) and decreasing the effect of parents’ education; hence supporting the result of the study. Furthermore, literature had mentioned how non-shared family environment will have more impact on the individualities of adolescent’s personality (Plomin, DeFries, Craig, and McGuffin, 2003; Heiman, Stallings, Young and Hewitt, 2004), meaning the parents’ education were no longer robust enough to had

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effects on the personality as the person becomes more independent, hence providing these results. In terms of intelligence, previous study had postulated there were no correlation found between PRI of intelligence and personality types of extravert and ambivert (Yusoff, Sharipudin and Yusoff, 2015). Hence, this might be another factor why PRI of intelligence was also unable to predict Extraversion. Furthermore, previous study mentioned how personality can be a predictor to intelligence (Chapman, Duberstein, Tindle, Sink, Robbins, Tancredi, et al., 2012). but not how intelligence can predict personality. There was also similar study where the researchers tried to correlate intelligence with personality estimation and concluded intelligence was not suitable in determining a person’s estimation of their personality (Furnham and Chamorro‐ Premuzic, 2004). Therefore, using only one type of intelligence might not be a strong predictor for personality as there were not many variations in the characteristics of the intelligence test. Moreover, the type of personalities used in the present study also effect the prediction quality as the difference in degree of intelligence between extravert and ambivert were not very significant. In conclusion, the socio-demographic factor of parents’ educational background and PRI of intelligence are not suitable predictors for personality type of extravert.

5.0 CONCLUSION In conclusion, the combination factor of parents’ education and PRI of intelligence do not predict extraversion personality type. Previous study had mentioned how external factors and intelligence both had effects on personality; however parents’ education and PRI of intelligence do not strongly influence the personality of extraversion for this study. These variables are able to provide only a small probability in predicting extraversion as compared to other influential factors which could provide even more consistent and robust prediction. For future studies, it is recommended for these other external factors to be explored to increase further understanding of personality-based research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Author thanks Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia for the financial support (USM Short Term Research Grant – 304/PPSP/61312101) and research facilities.

REFERENCES 31


Bradley, R. H. & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development, Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 371-399. Bourdieu, P. (2011). The forms of capital. Malden, Mass: Wiley-Blackwell Chapman, B., Duberstein, P., Tindle, H. A., Sink, K. M., Robbins, J., Tancredi, D. J. & Franks, P. (2012). Personality predicts cognitive function over 7 years in older persons, Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 20(7), 612-21. Furnham, A. & Chamorro‐Premuzic, T. (2004). Estimating one's own personality and intelligence scores, British Journal of Psychology, 95(2), 149-160. Gursoy, F. & Biçakçi, M. Y. (2007). An investigation of self-image and aggressiveness in children, The Social Sciences, 2(4), 419-424. Heiman, N., Stallings, M. C., Young, S. E. & Hewitt, J. K. (2004). Investigating the genetic and environmental structure of Cloninger's personality dimensions in adolescence, Twin research, 7(05), 462-470. Laosa, L. M. (1982). School, occupation, culture, and family: The impact of parental schooling on the parent–child relationship, Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(6), 791. Losoya, S. H., Callor, S., Rowe, D. C., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1997). Origins of familial similarity in parenting: A study of twins and adoptive siblings, Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 1012. Maltby, J., Day, L. & Macaskill, A. (2007). Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence. United Kingdom: Pearson Education UK. Metsapelto, R. L. & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Personality traits and parenting: Neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience as discriminative factors, European Journal of Personality, 17(1), 59-78. Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Craig, I. W. & McGuffin, P. (2003). Behavioral genetics. In, Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era. Washington DC, US: American Psychological Association Roskam, I., Vandenplas-Holper, C. & De Maere-Gaudissart, A. (2001). Mothers' and teachers' ratings of children's personality: Children's age, gender, scholastic performance, mothers' educational level, and rater effects, European Review of Applied Psychology / Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée, 51(4), 289-303. Rindermann, H., Flores-Mendoza, C. & Mansur-Alves, M. (2010). Reciprocal effects between fluid and crystallized intelligence and their dependence on parents' socioeconomic status and education, Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 544-548. Steinmayr, R., Dinger, F. C. & Spinath, B. (2010). Parents' education and children's achievement: The role of personality, European Journal of Personality, 24 (6), 535550. Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research, Intelligence, 35(5), 401-426. Wechsler D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS–IV). Yusoff, M., Rahim, A. and Esa, A. R. (2010). The USM Personality Inventory (USMaPi) Manual. 2010. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/200640422_The_USM_Personality_Invent ory_%28USMaP-i%29_Manual (accessed May 2015). 32


Yusoff, M.S.B. (2011). The validity and reliability of the USM personality inventory (USMaP-i): Its use to identify personality of future medical students, International Medical Journal 18(4): 283-287. Yusoff, M. S. B. (2013). Stability of the USMaP-i in measuring the Big Five personality traits, International Medical Journal, 20 (1), 1-3. Yusoff, N., Sharipudin, N. H., & Yusoff, M. S. B. (2015). Comparison of Perceptual Reasoning Index of Intelligence between Personalities of Extravert and Ambivert, International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 6(3), 172-178.

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THE EFFECT OF LECTURERS’ COMMITMENT MEASURES ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: SURVEY EVIDENCE FROM PARENTS’ SATISFACTION IN NORTH-CENTRAL GEO-POLITICAL ZONE OF NIGERIA 1

Bojuwon Yusuf Bolaji (Ph.D)1, Bojuwon Mustapha (Ph.D)2

Department of Educational Foundation, Faculty of Education, Kogi State University, Anyigba. Kogi state, Nigeria. Email: [email protected] 2

Department of Accounting, College of Management and Social Sciences, Fountain University, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The commitment of lecturers is very crucial to the continuous excellent performance of students at all levels of academic engagements. However, there is a general belief that given the necessary facilities and environment, students of higher learning require minimal supervision, hence lower commitments on the part of their lecturers. Parents, on the other hand, express fear over the less checked freedom of the institutions of higher learning bequeath to their wards given incidences of nefarious activities that some innocent students find themselves entangled in which lower their performance. Parents blame these untoward attitudes on the level of commitments attached to the success of their wards by their lecturers. To address these challenges, many higher institutions of learning now pursue different strategies that will increase parents’ satisfaction through an enhanced lecturers’ commitment measure. This paper examines the lecturers’ commitment scale on students’ academic performance based on their parents’ satisfaction. The scope of this study is Higher Institutions in North-Central Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria. The four dimensions of lecturers’ commitment were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling Technique. The four dimensions specified were found to be both statistically significant and practically important measures of students’ performance. The implication of the paper is that the core, the enabling and the rational aspects of lecturers’ commitment must be taken care of by the higher institutions management to satisfy the parent in order to retain their loyalty to the institution. Keywords: Parents’ Satisfaction, Lecturers’ Commitment, Structural Equation modeling, Commitment to Student, Commitment to Institution and commitment to Lectures

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Introduction The unusual means of higher institution expanding the parents’ satisfaction is to enhance the level of lecturers’ commitment to sustaining the parent satisfaction with the students’ performance. Maintaining parents’ satisfaction is very crucial to higher institution's continuous existence, since no higher institution remains without the parents been satisfied with the students’ performance. Scholars have enumerated the benefits of parents’ loyalty as a result of their satisfaction with the institution of learning through the level of lecturers’ commitments to students’ performance (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, & Whitt, 2011; Samad & Thiyagarajan, 2015). Thus, it becomes the obligation of the management and lecturers of the higher institution of learning to bestow their strategies to accomplishments that best promotes the parents’ expectations. Bojuwon and Bojuwon (2015a) identified four dimensions of commitment which was commitment to lecture, commitment to students, commitment to schools, commitment to professions by using a confirmatory factor analysis as an assertion that has been strongly debated in literature (Adeyemi & Adeyemi, 2014; Bojuwon & Bojuwon, 2015b; Bokana & Tewari, 2014). However, there appears to be a common decision on the fact that the dimensions of lecturers’ commitment depend on the higher institutional setting and the academic environment with empirical and grounded theoretical evidence pointing out the rational factor as a universal dimension. The higher institution education sector in Nigeria comprises of Universities, Polytechnics and colleges of education with both federal, state and private owned that got a licensed to operate in the country. This creates a competitive academic environment which entails a lot of initiative from the lecturers to survive. Since it is difficult to differentiate the level of lecturers’ commitment by the parents to individual students, the probable option is to improve in general, the parents’ satisfaction level through improvement of quality academic environment and the student coming out with an excellent result. This paper, therefore, examined the dimensions generated from the commitment scale with the view to establishing those that determine parents’ satisfaction in the higher institutions of Learning in NorthCentral Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria. The survey data were collected from 500 parents of North-Central Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria higher institution, and the data obtained were analyzed using a statistical package to collect structural equation modeling. This paper confirmed the four dimensions of commitments scale in the context of Nigeria in determining to what extent parents are satisfied with the lecturers’ commitment to students performance in a higher institution of learning in Nigeria. The finding of this paper is expected to assist the higher institutions of learning management to know which of the aspect of commitment dimension should be given the highest priority. The remaining part of this paper is organized accordingly, starting with the literature review, which focused on the parents’ satisfaction with a level lecturers’ commitment to students’ academic success in the higher institution of learning. Emphasizing on the dimension of lecturers’ commitment are reviewed and cited from published papers in top journals to analyze the determinants of parents’ satisfaction as well the development of hypotheses in the conceptual framework. The literature review is followed by the materials used and the methodology of the paper which discusses the study area, questionnaire development, sample selection, instrumentation and scaling of measurement, data analysis, and hypothesis testing. The analysis section illustrates the demographic profile of the respondents’ measurement model, analysis of the structural equation modeling, result and hypothesis testing and discussion of results. The last part of the papers provides the conclusion with some policy implications in the real world point view as well as giving a suggestion for further study to achieve more accurate understanding of Nigeria’s higher institutions of learning. 35


Literature Review The importance of parent’ satisfaction both practically and theoretically in institutions of higher learning cannot be overemphasized (Pruett, McIntosh, & Kelly, 2014). The awareness of parent’ satisfaction refers to the fulfillment of parents’ expectation (Goetting, 1986). This is the perception of the parent after a particular semester result or academic year, which dimension may stem from either emotion or cognition of their performance (Miller, 2015; Wintre & Yaffe, 2000). The existing literature has highlighted lecturers’ commitment to students’ as an experience that can be seen in real life, the assessment of which is evaluated based on the students’ academic performance that more important to parents’ satisfaction (Harwood & Knight, 2015). Thus the level of lecturers’ commitment to students, whether it is effective or not has to be definitely put into the awareness of the parent. Therefore, it is imperative for every higher institution of learning to lay more emphasis on the students’ attitude in achieving an excellent academic performance. Lecturers’ Commitment is an important primary concern of every parent. This is because it is essential for a higher institution of learning to gain competitive advantage over other institutions (Legotlo, 2014). Commitment scale is the process by which individual agrees to the choice and effect of the decisive vision of the tertiary institution (Razak, Darmawan, & Keeves, 2009). Existing literatures have discovered the tremendous interest of researchers in exploring lecturer commitment in the area of school and profession (McInerney, Ganotice, King, Morin, & Marsh, 2014; Raaff, 2014; Rawls & Herman, 2009; Tuwei, 2014). Evidence has shown that commitment of lecturers has buttressed students’ academic success and the tertiary institution in achieving an excellent and productive students’ to the labor market in Nigeria (Adeyemi & Adeyemi, 2014; Olorunsola & Arogundade, 2014). The dimensions of commitment scale were conceptualized as multidimensional using a second-order confirmatory factor analysis (Bojuwon & Bojuwon, 2015a). The use of the four identified dimensions by the parents to assess the level of commitment of lecturers’ towards students’ academic performance is vital. The developed model and instruments used have been widely employed in studies conducted on commitment in different academic learning stages (Adeyemi & Adeyemi, 2014). Furthermore, looking at some of the existing literature on the determinant of parents’ satisfaction in the higher institution of learning Crede, Wirthwein, McElvany, and Steinmayr (2015) explain the determinant of parents’ teachers’ association satisfaction among adolescents in the elementary schools. Agbulu and Olaitan (2001) conducted a wide-ranging research on the determinant of parents’ satisfaction in primary schools by obtaining data from well-known nursery and primary schools and comparing them with the United States, Britain and Japan as a lesson for Nigeria. The study used a methodology that deviates from the traditional approach by confirming the non-linear and disproportions association among the characteristics of students’ academic performance and the overall parents’ satisfaction. In principle, their finding reveals the disparity between the finding obtained from the traditional approach and the use of revised methodology. Mathew and Panchanatham (2011) examined the determinants of parents’ satisfaction in academic training centers by randomly distributing questionnaires to women in Pakistan, where they were able to indicate the relationship between various dimensions of commitments scales. The relationship between profession and student, academic performance was not supported in their study. Osayawe Ehigie and Taylor (2009) studied how parent expectation on students’ academic performance predict their satisfaction and the loyalty to their institution of learning in Nigeria. The paper which uses a mixed method approach, focusing on the discussion made by the parent of 10 excellent performing students with an in-depth interview and 15 respondents to develop an instrument scale used for the study. The finding shows that both commitment determinant and parent satisfaction contribute more to student academic 36


performance. Bojuwon and Bojuwon (2015a) assess the determinants of lecturers’ commitment as a second order factor analysis in Nigeria. The study used confirmatory factor analysis (Measurement model). The finding indicates that the four classify variables of commitment scale are the significant underlying measure of commitment which can be used as a yardstick to predict the parents’ satisfaction on the students’ academic performance in Nigeria. As noted that using the identified dimension by Billingsley and Cross (1992) to measure commitment to determine parents’ satisfaction has received its own share of criticism in the literature. Specifically, it has been criticized on a number of grounds. The first is the actual number of dimensions identified and the stability of the instruments from one context and environment to another. The second criticism is the psychometric problem that may arise as a result of the calculation of the difference of score based on the parent expectation and their perception on the determinants (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Bokana & Tewari, 2014). This may result in parents overstating their prior expectation as a result of their previous experience with some higher institutions. Nevertheless, these criticisms have found wide usage among scholars since its development. This paper will not be an exception as it used the four dimensions which have also been validated using Rasch Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis to establish the determinants of parents’ satisfaction with students’ academic performance in Nigeria. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, there is a limited study conducted in Nigeria. Hence, the model and hypothesis of the paper are presented below. Conceptual Model and Hypothesis Development were developed based on the previous literatures that have employed commitment scale to predict the determinants of parents’ satisfaction. This paper tested four hypotheses that relate to the link between the four dimensions of lectures commitment and parents’ satisfaction in Nigeria using the 13 item measurement instruments. The model is shown in figure 1 which is followed by the hypothesis.

Lecturers’ commitment to students

Lecturers’ commitment to lecturing

Students’ academic performance

Lecturers’ commitment to profession Lecturers’ commitment to school

Figure 1: The Conceptual Model Q 1-4: Is there relationship between lecturers’ commitment to students’ Lecturing, Profession and school on the students’ academic performance in Nigeria? RO 1-4: To examine the relationship between lecturers’ commitment to students’ Lecturing, Profession and school on the students’ academic performance 37


Methodology Study Area This research is carried out in Nigeria with specific reference to some slected Higher Institutions in North-Central Geo-Political Zone. Nigeria is situated along the western coast of Africa. Geographically, it is made up of six geopolitical zones, the North-East, NorthCentral, North-West, South-South, South-East, and South-West. The Nigerian economy primarily relies on crude oil, which serves as the basis of its export. The country has efficient crude-oil and is one of the largest exporters of crude oil in the world. The educational sector in Nigeria is regulated by the Ministry of Education which promotes an efficient educational system in the country. Instrument for Data Collection Questionnaire was the instrument used for the study. It consists of three sections. The first section is on the demographic profile of the respondents. This section includes age, gender, and academic qualification. The second section contains questions on the determinant of commitment as a measure for parents’ satisfaction. This was adapted and modified from existing studies by (McInerney et al., 2014; Thien, Razak, and Ramayah 2014). This scale consists of 12 items that measure the four dimensions of commitment. The respondents are asked to give their perception of their satisfaction on a four - point Likert-scale. This scale were ranged from 1 –strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 - agreed and 4 – strongly agree. This type of scale is to allow the respondent some degree of flexibility when responding to the questionnaire administered. The third and final sections of the questionnaire is on the overall satisfaction of parents’ based on the level of students’ academic performance in the higher institutions. This section is adapted and modified from (Bojuwon & Bojuwon, 2015a; Jo, 2014) which is also based on a five-point Likert- scale. This section ranges from 4 – very satisfied, 3 – satisfied, 2 – dissatisfied and 1 – very dissatisfied. Sample This paper uses the purposive sampling method to select 500 respondents. Respondents for this paper were an individual parent who has a child in a higher institution of learning in Nigeria. Purposive sampling, a convenient sampling method, is a no - probability sample that is used in satisfying certain measures (Kothari, 2011; Schreuder, 1993). In total, 500 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents out of which 450 were returned making the effective response 70%. However, 30 of these questionnaires were removed from the further analysis as a result of non-conformity to the requirements and missing data related issues, following the suggestion given by (Hair, William, Babin, & Rolph, 2010). The final sample size used for the analysis are 420 cases. This number is adequate to run structural equation model since the minimum required sample size is 200 for a consistent result (Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Instrument and Scaling Measurement As initially stated above, this paper employs quantitative items from the existing study. Due to the context of the paper, we first conducted an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) on the collected data to make sure that the instrument loaded well on it specified construct with a very high-reliability value. According to Muthén and Muthén (2001), for a better structural model, there is need to first run the Exploratory Factor Analysis with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using Varimax Rotation to get the Maximum Variance with Eigen/value greater than 1. This is for an appropriate reduction in the number of items prior to the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Table 1 below shows the details of the Dimension Reliability, Indicators, Factor Loading Commonality and Cronbach alpha of the dimensions. 38


Table 1: Result of EFA on the Commitment Dimension and Parent Satisfaction Construct Commitment to Profession (IV) Commitment to School (IV) Commitment to Lectures Commitment to Students (IV) Students’ Academic Performance (DV)

Indicators Ctp1 Ctp2 Cth1 Cth2 Cth3 Ctl1 Ctl2 Ctl3 Cts1 Cts2 Cts3 Cts4 Sap1 Sap2 Sap3 Sap4 Sap5

Factor loading .872 .821 .830 .806 .775 .862 .853 .718 .852 .805 .699 .659 .731 .729 .720 .701 .696

Cronbach’s Alpha Eigenvalue .791 1.011 .785

1.053

.759

1.192

.873

2.058

.891

7.489

The sampling adequacy and reliability measure of the underlying construct are statistically significant with KMO value greater than 0.5, Bartlett’s test are also highly significant, and the factor loading of each item is presented in table 1 above. Going by the fact that the entire factor loading of the items must be greater than 0. 50 which indicates 25 percent of the total variance is accounted for if the criteria are met. The implication of this is that the loading of each item should be greater than 0.70 for it to account for 50 percent of the variance to measure in the construct. On the other hand, the loading value must not be too high which will also indicate singularity of the item. The loading of the items is between the value of 0.659 and 0.872 which is within the value recommended from the literature (Byrne, 2009). Data Analysis and Hypothesis Testing This paper starts by analyzing the demographic profile of the respondents using descriptive statistics to summarize the responses of cases in the sample. The mean and frequency distribution tables were employed to silent information of the data. Also, Structural Equation Modeling Techniques were used to test the hypotheses of this paper. This Structural Equation Modeling is a second generation Regression Analysis such as Multivariate Regression Technique. The SEM is a more rigorous statistical tool with more ability to handle more than one exogenous and endogenous variable at the same time. This application is chosen because of the presence of multiple observed variables and better understanding of the scientific inquiry (Schreuder, 1993). Also, the ability of SEM to combine both observed and unobserved variables together in one model in informs our choice (Byrne, Shavelson, & Muthen, 1989). Structural Equation Modeling, therefore, has become the grounded method for researchers in conforming theoretical models in utilizing a quantitative approach. Demographic Profile of the Respondents The demographic profile of the respondents is inferred in Table 2 below. The gender distribution of the respondents shows that 65.6% are Male while 34.4 percent are female. The age distribution of the respondents reveals that majority of them are between the ages of 45 and 55 years with 63.1 percent. The age above 55 years is 13.1 percent and those with age 39


below 45 years is 23.8 percent respectively. The percentage of married respondents take the majority of the respondent with 70.0 percent, the widow category is with 12.5 percent and the single parents are 17.5 percent of the respondents. Finally, the respondents are highly educated with an overwhelming majority of 55.9 percent having attended colleges, polytechnics and university 28.1 percent of the respondents have another form of qualification and 15.9 percent of them has just Primary School Certificate. Table 2: Demographic Distribution of Respondents Profile Demographic profile Gender Male Female Age Less than 45 years 45 to 55 years 55 years and Above Marital Status Single Father/Mother Widows Married Educational background Primary school certificate Other qualification Higher Education

Frequency

Percentage

210 110

65.6 34.4

76 202 42

23.8 63.1 13.1

56 40 224

17.5 12.5 70.0

51 90 179

15.9 28.1 55.9

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) The analysis of the study using structural equation modeling starts with the Confirmatory Factor Analysis to validate the construct of the hypothesized model. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted using AMOS (version 21) with the Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation as suggested by Byrne (2013). The measurement model of the four dimensions of commitments scale shows that the hypothesized model fits the data with χ2 (109) = 166.466, p =.000. The significance of p statistics of the model is an indication of misfit between the covariance matrix of the observed data and the implied covariance matrix of the model. Researchers of existing study have observed that the Chi-square is so sensitive to sample size and recommended the use of fit indices (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The use of at least one absolute fit index and one incremental fit index can justify the fit indices (Joseph, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1992). Hence, we select the use of Normed Chi-square (CMIN/DF), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) to evaluate the model with the data. The absolute fit index, i.e. CFI 0.980 is greater than the threshold of 0.9, the CMIN/DF of 1.529 which is within the recommended value of ≤ 3 and the RMSEA of 0.41 is ≤.0.08 recommended value by Joseph et al. (1992). The indicators loading values of the observed variable are all higher than the value of 0.60 and the minimum recommended threshold is 0.50, indicating that all the items are statistically significant. This prompts the researcher to assess the convergent and divergent and discriminant validity of the model. Thus, with the above value it can be concluded that our model fits the data and we can proceed to the Structural Model. On the convergent and discriminant validity, the Critical Ratio (CR) is ≤ 0.7, also the Average Variance Explained (AVE) is ≤ 0.5. The implication of this is that each item loaded 40


is defined in the administered questionnaire. However, each of the issues of divergent can be established as the AVE ≤ ASV and MSV. Table 3: Result of Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Convergent, and Divergent Validity Model fit χ2/df CFI RMSEA Variables ≤5 >0.9