National education standards including the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), College and Career Readiness Standards (National Governors. Association ...
CONTENT/DISCIPLINE AREA LITERACIES
Talking the Talk Vocabulary Instruction Across the Disciplines (or what to Do Instead ) VIC TORIA GILLIS
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he connection between vocabulary and comprehension is well documented (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Nagy & Scott, 2000). National education standards including the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), College and Career Readiness Standards (National Governors Association, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010), and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) emphasize the importance of vocabulary knowledge. But vocabulary knowledge is not a simple thing. Knowing a word involves the degree to which a word is known, the dimensions of the word, and the interrelatedness of that knowledge. Some words have multiple meanings, which can be problematic. Research indicates that students need repeated exposure in several contexts as well as opportunities to develop multiple connections among vocabulary terms in order to develop deep vocabulary knowledge (Nagy & Scott, 2000). With all the other demands on their instructional time, how can content teachers develop this deep vocabulary knowledge? In the early years of my career, I had my science students look up 10 words each night and write the definition. I was not a sadist (though former students may beg to differ). I just didn’ t know what to do instead. Since I first began using literacy in the service of teaching science I have encountered many secondary content area teachers who, like me, just didn’ t know any other way to “do vocabulary.” In this month’s Disciplinary Literacy Department, I The department editor welcomes reader comments. Victoria Gillis is Professor and Wyoming Excellence in Higher Education Endowed Chair in Literacy Education at the University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA; e-mail vgillis@ uwyo.edu.
offer several strategies that I, and the teachers I have worked with over the years, have found particularly effective in providing students repeated exposure to vocabulary and opportunities to develop connections among them. The learning cycle is a useful way to organize instruction, including vocabulary instruction (Alvermann, Gillis, & Phelps, 2013). Learning cycles emerged independently in reading, science, and mathematics (Gillis & MacDougal, 2007; Marshall, Horton, & Smart, 2009). Although there are a variety of learning cycles described in the literature, they can all be summarized in a cycle composed of preactive, interactive, and reflective phases. In the preactive phase, teachers help students develop the concepts through exploratory activities, and then provide the label or technical term for students. This “experience first” approach is particularly important in science and mathematics. Once students have constructed the important concepts under consideration, they will need to refine their knowledge of the technical vocabulary terms associated with those concepts in the interactive phase. In the reflective phase, students need opportunities to deepen their knowledge by forming multiple connections among the technical terms (see Figure 1). In the following discussion, I present strategies to accomplish two important tasks involved in vocabulary instruction: refining knowledge and developing connections among the vocabulary terms in a conceptual domain.
Strategies for Refining Vocabulary Knowledge The online Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the word refine as “to improve or perfect by pruning or polishing” and “to make improvement by introducing subtleties or distinctions” (www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/refine). This is precisely what
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CONTENT/DISCIPLINE AREA LITERACIES FIGURE 1 The Learning Cycle and Vocabulary Instruction Preactive (explore and construct concepts)
Reϐlective (connect and personalize vocabulary knowledge)
Interactive (re ine vocabulary knowledge)
students need to do as they deepen their understanding of the technical vocabulary associated with concepts in English, mathematics, science, and social studies. Strategies that help students refine their vocabulary knowledge include four square, also known as vocabulary squares (Alvermann et al., 2013), and concept of definition word map (Schwartz & Raphael, 1985; Schwartz, 1988).
Four Square Four square is perhaps the most versatile vocabulary strategy available to teachers (Alvermann et al., 2013). Basically, four square consists of a square divided into four quadrants, each designated for a specific kind of information; examples could be word parts, definition in students’ own words, diagram, example, non- example, characteristics, illustration,
FIGURE 2 Four-Square English: Simile
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DEFINITION: TERM & CHARACTERISTIC A type of figurative language that compares two unlike things by Simile pointing out a way/ways Uses LIKE or AS they are alike -
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EXAMPLES
PURPOSE
She is pretty as a picture. He runs like a cheetah
Similes make language more colorful. Not to be confused with a metaphor!
Math: Slope VERBAL DEFINITION
ALGEBRAIC
Slope is rise over run, or the change in y divided by the change in x CONNECTIONS negative slope = down positive slope = up vertical line = undefined slope horizontal line = slope of 0
m=Δy/Δx
Science: Photosynthesis
DIAGRAM*
[*Pierce, R. (2014). Math is Fun. Retrieved 21 July 2014 from mathisfun.com/geometry/ slope.html]
Social Studies: Federalists
WORD PARTS
DEFINITION
DEFINITION
PEOPLE
• photo: light • synthesis: to make
photosynthesis: the way plants make their own food using energy from light
Federalists supported a strong central government
Alexander Hamilton George Washington John Adams
LOCATION
PROCESS Converts sunlight energy to chemical energy produces glucose with O2 as a by-product
EVENT
BELIEFS
Ratification of the Constitution
Saw the need to replace the Articles of Confederation with a federal form of government
Chloroplasts in green plant leaves, which are green because of the chlorophyll
etc. In Figure 2, note that each quadrant contains information that helps to refine and expand students’ vocabulary knowledge. Also notice that the information is different in each of the examples. Four square is appropriate for all disciplines because it is easily adapted. For example, in history/social studies, vocabulary tends to be people, places, and events (Harmon, Hedrick, & Wood, 2005). This characteristic is evident in the history example in Figure 2.
Concept of Definition Word Map Concept of definition word map (CD map) is flexible and displays information similar to that in four square, but in a different graphic format (Schwartz & Raphael, 1985; Schwartz, 1988). Figure 3 illustrates a CD map using vocabulary terms illustrated in the four square examples. As you can see, the CD map requires more than just a definition from a dictionary. It can be adapted to suit the needs of particular vocabulary terms.
FIGURE 3 Concept of Definition Map Examples
Figurative Language
Characteristics / Properties:
Compares two unlike things
Uses like or as in the comparison
Simile Contrasting concept: Metaphor
Talking the Talk: Vocabulary Instruction Across the Disciplines (or What to Do Instead )
Makes language more colorful
Examples: Pretty as a picture.
Eats like a pig.
Flat as a pancake.
Characteristics/ Properties
Gradient
Straight line
Slope
Rise over Run
M=
y/ x
Examples and illustrations
Line slants up = positive slope
Line slants down = negative slope
Horizontal line = 0 slope Vertical line = undefined slope
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CONTENT/DISCIPLINE AREA LITERACIES FIGURE 3 Continued Characteristics / Properties: Biochemical process Converts light energy to chemical energy
Photosynthesis Contrasting process: Respiration
Uses CO2 and H2O as raw materials
Produces glucose and O2 gas
Process occurs in: Green vascular seed producing plants
Green algae
Ferns: vascular spore producing plants
Characteristics / Beliefs
Political party
Supported a strong federal government
Federalists Contrasting party: Anti-federalists
Wanted to replace the Articles of Confederation
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First political party
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People: Alexander Hamilton
George Washington
Four square and CD word map are particularly effective when used to explore polysemous terms. Polysemous terms are uniquely difficult for students because they seem familiar, but are used in technical ways in the disciplines. For example, the most difficult term I had to teach in physical science was work. Students felt studying was work; however, to a physicist, work is only accomplished by moving an object through a distance. These strategies are easily completed on 3x5 or 5x8 index cards. I have worked with teachers who assigned students a few four squares or CD maps each night as homework. The next day, students compared their work with their peers, making changes and additions as necessary. Once created, the cards can
John Adams
be used in sorting activities, addressed in the next section.
Strategies for Reflecting on Vocabulary Providing time for students to reflect on vocabulary allows for elaboration and reinforcement of vocabulary knowledge. Levels of understanding, often applied to comprehension and questions, can also be applied to vocabulary knowledge (Alvermann et al., 2013) to differentiate the degree to which students understand vocabulary under study (see Table 1). In order to own a term, to be able to use it appropriately, students must develop relational knowledge,
TABLE 1 Levels of Comprehension Applied to Vocabulary Cognitive level
Comprehension
Vocabulary
Literal
Being able to “read the lines” to cite the text verbatim
Definitional knowledge—one definition per word
Interpretive
Being able to “read between the lines” and draw inferences
Relational knowledge—knowing how a word is related to other words in a conceptual domain
Application
Being able to “read beyond the lines” and apply information to a new situation
Use and ownership of vocabulary terms
Word Sorts Word sorts require little to no teacher preparation and engage students in fruitful discussion of terms under study. If students have completed four squares or CD maps of the words on index cards, they can use them in this exercise. If not, students write each term/phrase on a sticky note and bring them back to class. When first introducing word sorts, or with students who need extra support, use a closed sort. In a closed sort, a teacher specifies the group titles into which vocabulary terms are to be sorted, or specifies the number of groups. Teachers can also instruct students to sort into a range of groups, say three to five, or simply direct students to sort the terms into conceptually related groups. This activity engenders productive discussion among pairs or small groups of students. Because secondary students have been exposed to many different graphic organizers, teachers often assume students can create them independently. This is not always the case. Word sorts are perfect for teaching students how to create their own graphic organizers. Direct students to sort their vocabulary terms into a few (two to four) groups, then label each group with
an inclusive term. Students then take each group in turn and sort again, labeling the resulting groups. A third sort may be possible. The resulting tree diagram is a good study guide for students: portable, on one side of a sheet of paper.
Categories Categories take more time to create than do word sorts, but they are well worth the effort. A category exercise consists of three to four terms listed together. Students are directed to identify the term that does not belong in the group (exclusion exercise) and put a title to the group that explains the relationship among the remaining terms. You can also create groups of vocabulary terms and direct students to identify the term that includes all the others (inclusion exercise). Categories are excellent activities to promote student discussion, either working in pairs or in small groups. Note in Figure 4 how often terms or examples appear in different groups of terms. Students must determine relationships among the terms in order to complete the activity. Activities that promote refinement and reflection of vocabulary have multiple right answers. For example, in Figure 4, the second math example might be completed by circling the symbol for pi () because it is a symbol and the remaining terms are English words. Or students might circle the word slope because the remaining terms are related to circles (the intended answer). This is difficult for students and teachers alike to get comfortable with in view of the long history of literal questions posed and answered in classrooms. It is more important to have students provide a line of reasoning for their answers than to judge the correctness of a specific answer. Having students justify their responses to reflective activities such as word sorts and categories also provides opportunities to teach students about evidence and argument, two prominent expectations in the CCSS.
Talking the Talk: Vocabulary Instruction Across the Disciplines (or What to Do Instead )
that is, they must know multiple dimensions of a word’s meaning and how that word is related to other words in the conceptual domain. Until and unless we provide students opportunities to encounter vocabulary terms multiple times in meaningful contexts, discuss those terms with their peers, and consider vocabulary and how they relate to each other, students will “rent” the vocabulary words for the test then promptly forget them. Two strategies that are particularly helpful in providing opportunities for students to discuss terms and how they relate to each other are word sorts (also known as list-group-label) and categories. Students can be taught to use word sorts/list-group-label independently, but categories are teacher-driven.
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CONTENT/DISCIPLINE AREA LITERACIES FIGURE 4 Categories – Examples English: Circle the phrase or sentence that does not belong and provide a title for the remaining terms that indicates their relationship.
1. ______________________ fat as a pig as dry as a bone time is money like watching grass grow
2. ______________________ America is a melting pot. He has a heart of stone. She runs like the wind. You are my sunshine.
3. ______________________ opportunity knocked the sun greeted me dry as a bone the stars danced
Mathematics: Circle the term or phrase that does not belong and provide a title for the remaining terms that indicates their relationship.
1. ______________________ three equal angles three equal sides one 90° angle symmetrical
2. ______________________ slope diameter π circumference
3. ______________________ positive slope elevator indeterminate slope vertical line
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Science: Circle the term or phrase that does not belong and provide a title for the remaining terms that indicates their relationship
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1. ______________________ photoautotroph plants animals chemoautotrophs
2. ______________________ non-sulphur bacteria chemoautotrophs photoheterotrophs heterotrophs
3. ______________________ plants animals fungi chemoheterotrophs
Social Studies/History: Circle the term, name, or phrase that does not belong and provide a title for the remaining terms that indicates their relationship.
1. ______________________ Federalists John Adams First political party Anti-federalists
2. ______________________ Federalists Anti-federalists Alexander Hamilton John Adams
Conclusion Although these strategies have been in existence for many years, new (and experienced) content area teachers may not be aware of them. The connection between comprehension and vocabulary is one content teachers cannot afford to ignore. Nor can we leave vocabulary instruction only to the English teachers. Vocabulary is everyone’s responsibility. In
3. ______________________ Federalists Anti-federalists Thomas Jefferson Patrick Henry
the final analysis, because the vocabulary embodies the concepts to be learned, when we teach vocabulary, we teach the content. References Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp. 77–117). Newark, DE : International Reading Association.
Alvermann, D. E., Gillis, V. R., & Phelps, S. F. (2013). Content area reading and literacy: Succeeding in today’s diverse classrooms (7th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. Gillis , V. R., & MacDougal, G. (2007). The learning cycle: Reading to learn science as an active process. The Science Teacher, 74 (5), 45–50. Harmon, J.M., Hedrick, W.B., & Wood, K. D. (2005). Research on vocabulary instruction in the content areas: Implications for struggling readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 21, 261–280. Marshall, J.C., Horton, B., & Smart, J. (2009). 4E X 2 Instructional model: Uniting three learning constructs to improve praxis in science and mathematics classrooms. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20, 501–516. doi:10.1007/s10972-008-9114-7 Nagy, W.E., & Scott , J.A. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. 3, pp. 269 –284). New York, NY: Routledge.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers (2010 ). Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects, Appendix A . Washington, DC : National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. Accessed at http://www.corestandards.org/ ELA-Literacy/ June 10, 2014. NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC : The National Academies Press. Accessed at http://www.nextgenscience.org/ next-generation-science-standards June 10, 2014. Schwartz, R. (1988). Learning to learn vocabulary in content area textbooks. Journal of Reading, 32, 108 –118. Schwartz, R., & Raphael, T. (1985). Concept of definition: A key to improving students’ vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 39, 198 –205.
Inside Information Most teachers understand the importance of teaching children to read and write informational text. But how do they do it effectively—and in a way that is truly engaging? With this book, Nell K. Duke shows how to build skills in reading and writing informational text through project-based instruction. Packed with standards-aligned, classroom-tested teaching ideas, and the work of practicing teachers and their students, this book will become an essential resource for years to come.
