Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex - Wiley Online Library

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SB, MS: The Australian National University; PK: The University of California at Berkeley .... tattooing methods among groups who used Lapita pottery.
Archaeology in Oceania, Vol. 53 (2018): 58–73 DOI: 10.1002/arco.5139

Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex ROBIN TORRENCE , NINA KONONENKO, PETER SHEPPARD, MELINDA S. ALLEN STUART BEDFORD , PATRICK KIRCH and MATTHEW SPRIGGS

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RT, NK: Australian Museum and University of Sydney; PS, MA: University of Auckland; SB, MS: The Australian National University; PK: The University of California at Berkeley

ABSTRACT A use-wear and residue study of 56 retouched obsidian flakes from seven Lapita sites in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu confirms that they had been used for tattooing. These specialised tools all bear one or more very small points formed by alternating retouch. A detailed comparison of use traces and pigments on these and 19 additional skin piercing tools analysed previously challenges the notion of homogeneity in cultural practices across the broad geographical range where Lapita pottery was used. The existence of shared innovations together with variation in the selection of pigments and the shape of the obsidian artefacts used for puncturing skin highlight a complex pattern of similarities and differences within this community of culture.

Keywords: tattooing, stone tools, obsidian, use-wear, residues, Lapita

´ ´ RESUM E Une e´ tude des r´esidus et de trac´eologie de 56 e´ clats retouch´es d’obsidienne provenant de sept sites Lapita en Papouasie-Nouvelle Guin´ee, ˆıles Salomon et Vanuatu a confirm´e qu’ils ont e´ t´e utilis´es pour tatouer. Ces outils sp´ecialis´es poss`edent tous un ou pluseurs tr`es petits points form´es par retouches crois´ees. Une comparaison d´etaill´ee des traces et pigments sur ces derniers et 19 outils additionnels ayant servi a` percer des peaux, analys´es pr´ec´edemment, conteste la notion d’homog´en´eit´e dans les pratiques culturelles a` travers l’´etendue g´eographique o`u la poterie Lapita a e´ t´e utilis´ee. L’existence d’innovations partag´ees ainsi que la variation dans la s´election des pigments et la forme des artefacts en obsidienne utilis´es pour perforer les peaux mettent en e´ vidence un sch´ema complexe de similarit´es et diff´erences au sein de cette communaut´e culturelle.

Mots-cl´es: tatouage, outils en pierre, obsidienne, trac´eologie, r´esidus, Lapita Correspondence: Robin Torrence, Anthropology, The Australian Museum, 1 William Street, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia. Email: [email protected] Accepted August 30, 2017

INTRODUCTION Homogeneity within the constellation of traits originally designated the “Lapita cultural complex” by Roger Green (e.g. 1976, 1991, 1992) has recently been questioned by a number of scholars. For example, Specht et al. (2014: 118; cf. Szab´o 2005) provide evidence to support the “spatially variable or patchy distributions of certain objects.” Focusing on Lapita ceramic production and exchange, Chiu (2012) also argues for significant degrees of variability, and notes that the meanings and roles of pottery decorated in the Lapita style varied across the vast geographical region in which it occurs, although she proposes that making and using ceramics bearing a recognisable style did provide an active means for groups to signal their inclusion within a

spatially dispersed Lapita community of practice. To examine whether Chiu’s hypothesis about diversity is also relevant to a wider range of artefact classes that co-occur with Lapita style pottery, we combine studies of artefact form with use-wear/residue analysis to assess variation in the way obsidian artefacts were used for tattooing, since this practice, and especially the designs made on the body, may have played a role in creating and maintaining social identities. The practice of tattooing is an especially useful indication of how identity is conceived and operationalised because these permanent markings actually become the “skin” of a person (Gorman 2000; Rainbird 2002; Turner 2012). The creation of cultural links across a large geographical region through shared practices could have helped strengthen networks among small groups dispersed  C

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Archaeology in Oceania widely within and beyond Near Oceania, similar to the use and exchange of obsidian and shell valuables, as proposed by Green (1987) and Kirch (1988; cf. Green & Kirch 1997). By far the majority of flaked stone tools recovered from sites with Lapita pottery consists of undiagnostic, unretouched artefacts (e.g. Sheppard 2010; Torrence 2011). A notable exception is a reoccurring form of retouched flake made from obsidian. First described by Sheppard (1992: 150-1; 1993: 133, fig. 13; cf. Sheppard 2010) and mistakenly given the designation “graver,” this tool form is characterised by one or more very small points (1–2 mm in length) usually situated on a lateral margin of a complete flake. The point or tip is created by striking a blow on one face and then turning the flake over and repeating the action on the opposite face of the flake; that is, alternating retouch (Figures 1 and 2). These pointed retouched flakes have been identified in assemblages spanning the region from Papua New Guinea through the Solomon Islands to Vanuatu and New Caledonia (Kononenko 2012; Kononenko et al. 2016; Reepmeyer et al. 2010; Sand & Sheppard 2000; Sheppard 1993, 2010) (Table 1 and Figure 3). The regularity in the way pointed flakes were made at the seven sites where they have been identified suggests a shared concept and perhaps a common pattern of use among communities who manufactured Lapita pottery. It is therefore useful to investigate to what extent the obsidian pointed flakes might fall within the assemblage of items designated by Green (e.g. 1991, 1992) as encapsulating the “Lapita cultural complex.” Sheppard (2010: 245) suggested that the points made by alternating retouch might have been used for “delicate cutting” such as “tattooing or the incision of human skin,” but noted that indicative residues had not been identified. In an extensive study employing high-power microscopic analysis of diagnostic use-wear traces and probable blood residues, Kononenko (2012; see also Kononenko & Torrence 2009) identified 43 stone artefacts from Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu used for piercing and cutting skin. Dating to both the mid- and late Holocene, the wide range of forms in the group included unretouched flakes as well as retouched blades and flakes. Among this large sample, however, were only two flakes from the Makue (Aore Island) and Vilavi (Uripiv Island) sites in Vanuatu that fit Shepard’s description of points made by alternating retouch (Kononenko 2012: 23). More recently, Kononenko et al. (2016) undertook an extensive set of 26 experiments to better define the use-wear traces associated with puncturing skin in the presence or absence of a range of potential pigment types, including clay, ochre and charcoal. Using the key indicators derived from the experiments, a group of 15 retouched pointed flakes with alternating retouch from the Nanggu site (SE-SZ-8) on Santa Cruz Island in the Solomon Islands were examined and found to bear the same diagnostic use-wear and residues (blood, ochre and charcoal) as occurred on the experimental tattooing tools (Kononenko et al. 2016: fig. 3). Despite the solid results obtained to date, it is still useful to consider a broad range of likely alternative functions for  C

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59 the retouched pointed flakes. Green (1979) and Kirch (1997: 142-3) suggested that the concept of dentation as well as the design repertoire of Lapita pottery may have been inspired by the practice of tattooing. Others, including Bedford and Sand (2007: 3), Sand (2007: 267) and Ambrose (2012), argue that this hypothesis is unlikely. As a way to address this question, an additional experiment was conducted in which obsidian flakes were used to make punctures and incisions on damp clay pots. The resulting use-wear traces are then compared to those formed on the obsidian tools with points formed by alternating retouch. Having strengthened the methodology through additional experimentation, the main aim of this study is to evaluate the degree of homogeneity in tattooing methods among groups who made Lapita pottery. We determine whether a standardised tool, in the form of a flake bearing one or more small points made with alternating retouch, was adopted for this practice, examine variations in the way it was used and, finally, consider the larger body of contemporary stone tools associated with cutting and piercing of skin. To achieve as comprehensive a sample as possible, we conducted a new use-wear/residue study of 37 tools from four sites. The resulting comprehensive set of use-wear results makes it possible to assess variation in tattooing methods among groups who used Lapita pottery. Ethnographic and historical records show that tattooing techniques in the Pacific involved two principal modes: cutting and piercing (see experiments in Figure S1). In the simplest case, a series of very small cuts (2–4 mm long) was made to create a line (e.g. Ambrose 2012; Buckland 1888; Comrie 1877: 110; Kononenko 2012) and then pigment was rubbed into the open wound (e.g. Buckland 1888; Poon 2008: 16), or the design pattern was first sketched on the skin with charcoal or ochre pigments followed by the incisions (Davenport 2002). The second tattooing technique was made by piercing and puncturing the skin (e.g. Ambrose 2012; Buckland 1888; Kononenko 2012). In this case, a sharp point was either dipped into a prepared pigment and then used to pierce the skin or the pigment was first rubbed onto the surface of the skin and then inserted by pricking with a pointed tool. Sometimes pigment was also rubbed into the pierced skin (e.g. Ambrose 2012; Barton 1918: 26; Buckland 1888: 319; Gorman 2000: 70; Krieger 1932: 16; Kononenko 2012: 26; Poon 2008: 12-16). Although sharp tools were used for other purposes, such as blood-letting to relieve pain or puncturing earlobes, tattooing and scarification are reasonably distinctive activities that involve the use of relatively specialised tools (Kononenko et al. 2016: 162).

THE ANALYTICAL SAMPLE The complete sample of 75 artefacts derived from sites with Lapita pottery is summarised in Table 1. It comprises 56 examples of flakes bearing 69 intentionally retouched tips formed by alternating retouch and, for comparison, 19 flakes with points shaped with simple, direct unifacial

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Figure 1. Flakes with points made by alternating retouch: (a) SE-RF-2, #391; (b) SE-RF-2; #271; (c) SE-RF-2, #567; (d) SE-RF-2, #74; (e) SE-RF-2, #96; (f) SE-SZ-8, #752; (g) Vilavi, #1552; (h) Makue, #3887; (i) ECA-B, #152; (j) Makekur, #605; (k) Teouma, #6.855. Scales 1 cm. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

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Figure 2. Flakes with points made by alternating retouch: (a) SE-RF-2, #271; (b) SE-SZ-8, #752; (c) SE-SZ-8, #656; (d) SE-RF-2, #109; (e) SE-RF-2, #504; (f) SE-RF-2, #82. Scale 1 cm.

retouch or lacking any modifications. All but one of the tools are made from obsidian. Our fairly comprehensive sample is obtained from the Vilavi site (Kononenko 2012; Kononenko et al. 2010) and five of the eight archaeological sites reported by Sheppard (2010: 245) as having pointed flakes with alternating, unifacial retouch. Among these, 37 tools from Teouma on Efate Island in Vanuatu (Reepmeyer et al. 2010: 215), SE-RF-2 on the Reef Islands in the Solomon Islands (Sheppard 1992, 1993, 2010; Sheppard et al. 2015), Talepakemalai (ECA-B) in the Mussau Islands, in New Ireland, Papua New Guinea (Kirch 2001a) and Makekur (FOH) on Adwe in the Arawe Islands, West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea1 (Gosden 1989; Gosden & Webb 1984; Halsey 1995; Specht 2015; Summerhayes 2004) had not been analysed previously (Figure 3). Unfortunately, we were unable to access the  C

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retouched flakes with points previously reported from the Lapita (WKO13A) and Vatcha (KVO003) sites in New Caledonia (Sand & Sheppard 2000). For comparative purposes, 20 artefacts with different forms, but previously shown to have been used in skin working, were included from Kononenko’s (2012; see also Kononenko et al. 2010) initial studies. These include two pointed flakes shaped by direct, unifacial retouch, 12 pointed flakes lacking retouch and five stemmed prismatic blades with distal points formed by direct, unifacial retouch types (Table 1). METHODOLOGY The experimental and archaeological artefacts were scanned carefully at magnifications ranging from ×100 to ×1000 with an Olympus BX60M metallurgical microscope,

62 Figure 3.

Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex Sites where skin-piercing tools have been reported.

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Archaeology in Oceania Table 1.

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Late Holocene skin-piercing tools.

Site

Sample size

Unifacial, alternating retouch SE-SZ-8, Santa Cruz Islands, Solomon Islands SE-RF-2, Reef Islands, Solomon Islands ECA-B, Mussau, PNG FOH, Makekur, Arawe Islands, PNG Teouma, Vanuatu Makue, Vanuatu Vilavi, Vanuatu Total Unifacial retouch SDP, Duke of York Islands, PNG FABD, West New Britain, PNG Total Stemmed, various retouch FSZ, Garua Island, PNG Pointed, no retouch FAO, Garua Island, PNG FADB, West New Britain, PNG Makue, Vanuatu Mota Lava, Vanuatu Vanua Lava, Vanuatu Vilavi, Vanuatu Total Grand total

15 30 5 2 2 1 1 56 1 1 2 5 4 1 3 2 1 1 12 75

results in recent studies on skin puncturing using obsidian blades (Stemp 2016a, 2016b). In order to test the possibility that the tools were used to incise or puncture pottery, two hand-made, unfired pots were constructed from clay extracted from the shore of Crystal Bay, near Newport, NSW, Australia and decorated by punctuation and incision with obsidian flakes (Figure S5). The pots were air-dried for 4 h and then decorated using two unretouched obsidian flakes. In the first case, a pot was pierced repeatedly over a period of 30 min. An additional flake was used for 15 min to make incisions on the wall of the second pot. The possibility that retouched pointed flakes were used in the decoration of Lapita pottery can be categorically discounted, because the use-wear traces created on the fragile obsidian edges as a consequence of incising or piercing semi-dry clay are highly diagnostic and bear no resemblance to those on the archaeological sample as described below. Contact with abrasive particles within the clay during the puncturing and incision dramatically alters the natural surface of obsidian, creating intensive rounding and rough polish as well as dense, deep and long striations (Figure S5c,f). This distinctive use-wear was not observed on any of the artefacts in our study sample.

RESULTS

equipped with vertical incident and transmitted light, bright- and dark-field illuminations and cross-polarising filters. An extensive photographic record was made using an Olympus DP72 camera and the GmbH Soft Imaging System. The analysis included observation and documentation of edge-damage (types and incidence of scars and microscars), degree of edge rounding, abundance and direction of striations, degree of polish and description of the residues using criteria defined in Kononenko (2011: 7-9). The presumptive test, Hemastix , was used to test for the presence of blood residues where sample size permitted (cf. Garling 1998; Loy 1983). Careful observation of the surfaces is required because they have undergone various degrees of physical and chemical alteration that can mask or destroy use-wear patterns. Chemical damage of obsidian surfaces through pitting (Hurcombe 1992: 24) was recorded as slight, moderate or heavy. Recent physical damage to the edges and surfaces was clearly distinguished from use-wear by the presence of a sporadic distribution of scars with irregular shapes and sizes, freshly flaked surfaces of the scars and a non-patterned distribution of striations and abrasion (e.g. Hurcombe 1992: 24; Kononenko 2011: 9-10). Interpretation of the use-wear patterns was based on comparisons with a comprehensive set of experiments conducted in Papua New Guinea and Australia during the past 10 years (Kononenko 2011). The most recent extensive set of experiments, in which pig skin was used as a proxy for human skin, produced a wealth of invaluable data (Kononenko et al. 2016). Additional confidence is merited due to the successful replication of these experimental C

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The measurements, residues and use-wear characteristics for each of the 56 pointed flakes with alternating retouch, including the SE-SZ-8 assemblage published recently (Kononenko et al. 2016), are presented in Table S1 and summarised in Table 2. Morphology The morphology of the tools is reasonably similar across all the sites (Figures 1 and 2), although the two artefacts from Makekur are notably larger (Table 2 and Table S1). The retouched alternating flakes were primarily made on complete flakes (82%) that are generally square or rectangular in shape. Most tips were formed on a lateral margin of the flake (Figures 1 and 2), but there are a few exceptions (Figure S2a). Artefacts bearing multiple tips mainly occur in the larger samples, where they comprise 7% and 13% at SE-SZ-8 (e.g. Kononenko et al. 2016: fig. 2e) and SE-RF-2 respectively (e.g. Figure 4). However, double retouched points make up 60% of the small group from ECA-B and 50% at Makekur (e.g. Figure S3). In contrast, the two tools bearing three small points are both from the large group at SE-SZ-8. They are illustrated in Kononenko et al. (2016: Supplementary Material S11). Variation in the configuration of the distal end of the retouched points suggests possible differences in the way the tools were used. The majority of the tips have two surfaces that are triangular in plan view, as would be expected for use in a puncturing motion (84%), but eight tools at SE-RF-2 (e.g. Figures 1e and 5), along with single tools at SE-SZ-8 (Kononenko et al. 2016: fig. 2f) and Makekur (Figure S3), are rectangular and bear straight

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Figure 4. SE-RF-2, #504. Wear patterns observed on the dorsal and ventral faces of the tool. Scale 1 cm. (a) The dorsal and ventral faces of the tool, with tips A and B indicated by arrows. (b) The dorsal face of tip A, showing scars, intensive edge rounding, polish and relatively numerous fine perpendicular striations (×100), indicated by the arrows. (c) The ventral face of tip A, showing microscars, intensive edge rounding, developed polish and relatively numerous long, fine, perpendicular striations (×100), indicated by the arrows. (d) The dorsal face of tip B, showing scars, intensive edge rounding and relatively numerous fine perpendicular, slightly diagonal and a few crossed striations (×100), indicated by the arrows. (e) The ventral face of tip B, showing scars, intensive edge rounding, developed polish and relatively numerous, fine perpendicular and slightly diagonal striations (×100): the arrows indicate edge rounding and striations. (f) Scars on tip B with embedded ochre and blood-like residues (×500, dark field): the arrow indicates ochre residues.

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Figure 5. SE-RF-2, #109. Wear patterns observed on the dorsal and ventral faces of the tool. Scale 1 cm. (a) The dorsal and ventral faces of the tool: the arrow indicates the tip. (b) The dorsal face of the tip (×40). (c) The ventral face of the tip (×40). (d) The dorsal face of the tip, showing scars and parallel and diagonal striations (×100), indicated by the arrows. (e) The ventral face of the tip, with continuous microscars containing embedded residues (×100) indicated by the arrows. (f) Fatty tissue, charcoal and blood-like residues (×500, polarised light): the arrow indicates charcoal residues. (g) Fatty tissue, blood-like and charcoal residues (×1000): the arrow indicates charcoal residues. (h) Blood-like residues and fatty tissue (×1000, dark field): the arrow indicates fatty tissue.

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66 Table 2.

Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex A summary of use-wear traces and residue characteristics for pointed flakes with alternating retouch. Total

Metrics Sample size Number of tips Mean length (SD) Mean width (SD) Mean thickness (SD) Mean tip length (SD) Blank form Complete flake Proximal flake fragment Medial flake fragment Distal flake fragment Non-flake fragment Tip profile Triangular Rectangular Broken Surface pitting Absent Light Moderate Heavy Striation distribution Absent Single face Both faces Striation abundance Absent Few, isolated Relatively dense Dense Striation orientationa Absent Perpendicular and slightly diagonal Perpendicular, few parallel and crossed Slightly diagonal, few parallel and crossed Edge rounding None Very slight/slight Light/moderate Moderate Moderate/intensive Intensive Polish Absent Very light Light Light/developed Developed Developed/well-developed Well-developed Residues Absent Blood Blood/ochre Blood/fatty tissue/ochre Blood/fatty tissue/collagen fibre/ochre Blood/charcoal Blood/fatty tissue/charcoal Fatty tissue/charcoal

%

56 69 20 20 5 2

Makekur

SE-SZ-8

SE-RF-2

ECA-B

Teouma

Makue

Vilavi

2 3 32 (2) 34 (2) 9 (2) 2 (2)

15 19 20 (6) 19 (5) 6 (2) 2 (1)

30 35 19 (7) 19 (6) 5 (2) 2 (0.5)

5 8 25 (3) 16 (4) 6 (1) 1 (0.5)

2 2 17 23 4 2

1 1 14 17 4 1

1 1 19 13 7 1

46 2 4 3 1

82 4 7 5 2

2 0 0 0 0

13 0 1 1 0

25 1 2 2 0

4 1 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

58 10 1

84 15 1

2 1

18 1

27 8

7

2

1

1

1 23 26 6

2 41 46 11

0 1 1 0

0 7 7 1

0 12 16 2

0 2 0 3

0 1 1 0

0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0

6 4 46

11 7 82

0 0 2

2 0 13

3 0 27

1 4 0

0 0 2

0 0 1

0 0 1

6 24 10 16

11 43 18 28

0 2 0 0

2 7 2 4

3 8 8 11

1 4 0 0

0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0

6 41 2 7

11 73 4 12

0 1 0 1

2 12 0 1

3 20 2 5

1 4 0 0

0 2 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0

9 5 18 10 10 4

16 9 32 18 18 7

0 1 1 0 0 0

2 1 7 4 1 0

3 2 7 5 9 4

1 4 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

14 2 16 11 7 2 4

25 3 28 20 13 4 7

2 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 1 6 4 2 0 0

4 1 9 6 4 2 4

5 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0

10 3 19 7 1 9 1 1

18 5 34 12 2 16 2 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 1 5 1 1 4 0 0

6 0 14 6 0 1 1 1

0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

1

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Archaeology in Oceania Table 2.

Continued. Total

Charcoal Unknown Contact material Unknown Skin Mode of use (tips) Unknown Piercing Cutting, piercing Intensity of use Unknown Moderate Intensive a

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%

Makekur

SE-SZ-8

SE-RF-2

ECA-B

Teouma

Makue

Vilavi

2 3

4 5

0 2

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

12 44

21 79

2 0

2 13

3 27

0 5

0 2

0 1

0 1

5 53 11

7 77 16

0 1 2

2 16 1

3 24 8

0 8 0

0 2 0

0 1 0

0 1 0

12 12 32

21 21 57

0 2 0

2 6 7

4 5 21

0 5 0

0 0 2

0 0 1

0 0 1

Striation orientation is recorded in relation to the used edge; that is, the tip or cutting edge.

edges that are perpendicular to the long axis of the retouched point. This edge shape is normally associated with a cutting rather than a piercing action. Two examples, from SE-RF-2 (e.g. Figure 4) and Makekur (Figure S3), may represent multipurpose implements because one of two tips is pointed while the other has a straight edge. Preservation Preservation of the use-wear and residue traces was relatively good, as indicated by the low degree of surface pitting. As shown in Table 2, weathering scored as either “light” or “moderate” was observed for the majority of the artefacts (87%) (cf. Hurcombe 1992; Kononenko 2011: 24), but heavy weathering combined with recent edge damage did have a significant impact on two tools from SE SZ-8 (#554, #843), a further two from SE RF-2 (#123, #286) and particularly at ECA-B, where two of the five tools could not be interpreted (Table S1). Due to weathering and the presence of a thick black residue that could not be removed, interpretation of wear patterns on one Makekur tool was also problematic. Use-wear Results for the use-wear variables recorded are presented in full in Table S1 and are summarised in Table 2. The majority of the flakes with deliberately fashioned points that are triangular in plan view are characterised by well-preserved microscopic wear and residues comparable to those formed on obsidian tools used to pierce or cut pig skin for approximately 10–20 min when ochre pigment is used, or at least 60 min when charcoal pigment is used (Kononenko et al. 2016). Use on a soft, pliable material such as skin is commonly indicated by the presence of microflaking and tiny spalls. These form on the tip of obsidian tools in the first few minutes of use when the delicate edge is pushed into resistant skin (Kononenko 2011: 33, Kononenko et al. 2016; Stemp 2016a,b). The formation of microscopic wear traces (edge rounding, polish and striations), however, can vary and depend on the  C

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state of the material and the duration of use. As experimental data demonstrate, wear is very slow to form on tools used for cutting soft material such as meat and skin, but an identifiable set of traces is formed after about 30 min of use. These include light edge rounding, very light or light polish, and a few fine narrow striations (e.g. Aoyama 1995; Fullagar 1986: 186-7; Hurcombe 1992: 43-4; Kamminga 1982: 34-5; Kononenko et al. 2016; Stemp 2016a–c). A similar duration of use is required for the formation of a characteristic microscopic wear pattern on piercing tools used for puncturing skin in the presence of ochre pigments or with soft, non-abrasive charcoal (Kononenko et al. 2016; Stemp 2016b). This set of wear patterns includes light to moderate edge rounding, very light to light smoothed polish and a small number of fine striations that are orientated parallel to the long axis of the tip and perpendicular to the tip edge, indicating that the tip was pushed into a soft substance (Figure 4). The striations were created by abrasive particles initiated by the microchipping of the tip (Kononenko 2011: 32-3; Kononenko et al. 2016; Stemp 2016b). In contrast, piercing skin with highly abrasive ochre pigment produces microscopic wear traces much sooner. After about 30 min of use, the working edge displays identifiable moderate to intensive edge rounding, developed invasive polish and numerous distinctive, thin and long striations on both faces of the tip (Kononenko et al. 2016). Although the nature of the wear traces on the tips of the artefacts can vary somewhat, depending on the degree of post-depositional damage and the length of time the tool was used, three distinctive wear patterns can be identified. Two of these involve puncturing the skin, whereas the third results from a cutting action. A shared feature of both kinds of puncturing is the presence of edge damage comprising microflakes (e.g. Figures S2 and S5c) and small spalls (e.g. Figure S3e) that create a patchy distribution of edge rounding and polish on the used surfaces. The first wear pattern resulting from puncturing is characterised by slight (Figure S2) or slight to moderate (Figures 5 and S4) edge

68 rounding and absent (Figure S2) or very light to light polish (Figures 5 and S4). Isolated, fine, long and sometimes deep striations primarily occur on either one or both faces of the points, as expected for tools used for puncturing. The striations are mainly orientated in a perpendicular or slightly diagonal direction in relation to the edge of the tip. This patterns demonstrates that the tools were held in the hand in a slightly angled position and applied in a vertical, piercing motion (Figures S2 and S4). Tools with these wear patterns often preserve embedded charcoal residues (36%) (Figures 5, S2 and S4). This type of wear pattern is identified on the tools from all sites in our sample: SE-RF-2 (Figures 1e, 5 and S4); SE-SZ-8 (Figure 1f); Vilavi (Figure 1g); Makue (Figure 1h); ECA-B (Figures 1i and S2); Makekur (Figures 1j and S3); Teouma (Figure 1k); FAO (Figure S6a–d); FADB (Figure S6e); FSZ (Figure S6f–j); and SDP (Figure S6k). The second distinctive type of wear pattern on the tools was identified only within assemblages from sites SE-SZ-8 (Kononenko et al. 2016) and SE-RF-2 on the Reef Islands in the Solomon Islands. In addition to microdamage by scars and spalls, the edges of the tips of these tools commonly display moderate or intensive rounding and developed polish (Figure 4). Numerous thin, shallow as well as some deep, long striations with perpendicular or slightly diagonal orientations are also common and are observed on both faces of the tip (Figure 4; see also Kononenko et al. 2016: fig. 9). Embedded ochre residues mixed with blood and fatty tissue are often present (Figure 4). As experiments have shown, the presence of ochre, an abrasive substance, increases the intensity of the use-wear, especially with regard to edge rounding, polish and density of the striations (Kononenko et al. 2016: figs 5 and 6). Differences in the effects of the pigments on use-wear traces are particularly clear in Figure 4, where intensive edge rounding and developed polish combined with dense striations are associated with ochre residues, in comparison to Figures 5 and S4, where slight edge rounding, very light polish and few isolated striations is correlated with the presence of charcoal residues. A third pattern of use relates to the action of cutting. As shown by the presence of a few parallel and crossed striations that formed when the tool was held at a slight angle, it is clear that some points with a triangular profile were occasionally used for cutting as well as puncturing (Figure S3). In contrast, points with a rectangular profile and a straight edge have a specific set of wear patterns that indicate that they were used primarily for cutting rather than puncturing (Figure 5). Residues Residues are commonly preserved on the pointed flakes with alternating retouch. Since they are often embedded into the scars resulting from the retouch used to create the tip or within microscars formed during use (e.g. Figures 4 and S2), they are inferred to be directly associated with the use of the tools. Blood residues of various forms and combinations were observed on 71% of the tools (Tables 2

Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex and S1). The microscopic traces of residue range in colour from yellowish to dark red through to dark brown and black. Generally, they have a greasy, reflective appearance with a slightly smeared aspect. Collagen, fatty tissue and circular blood cells similar to those described by Robertson (2005) and Lombard and Wadley (2007, 2009) are also present (Figures 4, 5 and S2). The presumptive test using Hemastix provided positive reactions for all 16 artefacts that were analysed (Appendix S1). Whereas blood and other tissue residues are to be expected on tools used to puncture skin, the presence of ochre and charcoal indicates that colour was deliberately added to enhance marks made in the skin. The nature of the pigments used varies across the geographical range represented by the study sample, indicating variations in cultural practice and potentially the existence of localised meanings for the applied designs. Ochre is recognisable as a residue by its bright red colour and granular texture and is associated with use-wear traits resulting from contact with an abrasive substance. These include patches of moderate to intensive edge rounding, developed to well-developed polish and long, deep and often densely packed striations on both faces of the tool (Kononenko et al. 2016: figs 4 and 6). The ochre residues are commonly mixed with residues identified as blood, collagen and fatty tissues on the basis of their physical properties observed under polarised light and dark field. Ochre was only observed on tools from the Solomon Islands sites, where it occurred on 47% and 67% of the sample, respectively, at SE-SZ-8 and SE-RF-2 (Table 2). In contrast to the restricted distribution of ochre, a black substance resembling charred material, very similar to that described by Robertson (2005: 176), was commonly mixed in with the blood or fatty tissue residues, indicating that it had been deliberately applied. As shown in Table 2, charcoal was observed on tools from every site in our sample where residues were preserved, accounting for 24% of the total sample, but among the Reef/Santa Cruz group charcoal was recorded on only 13% of the tools, signalling significant regional variation in cultural practice. C

VARIATION IN TATOOING PRACTICES Within the recent past, tattooing and incision with or without pigments to inscribe permanent marks on the body was widely practiced across the geographical range of sites where Lapita pottery has been found, but for this period obsidian tools have only been recorded in the Bismarck Archipelago (e.g. Ambrose 2012: 13-14; Davenport 2002; Gell 1993; Kononenko 2012: 14; Parkinson 1999 [1908]: 48-50; Specht 1981). The very long history of tattooing in the region has only recently been recognised. Green (1979; cf. Kirch 1997: 142-3) first proposed that designs used on Lapita pottery were modelled after tattooing patterns, a practice that he hypothesised had been introduced to the region along with ceramics. Others have also noted that decorations on the nose, cheeks and forehead of stylised faces depicted on some Lapita pots resemble those of  C

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Archaeology in Oceania tattoos (Green 1979; Summerhayes 1998; Torrence & White 2001), providing support for the presence of this cultural practice at that time. Based on a program of experimentation to inform the use-wear/residue research, we now know that tattooing was practiced on the north coast of New Britain prior to the beginning of Lapita-style pottery. Kononenko and Torrence (2009) and Kononenko (2012) reported that 23 obsidian flakes obtained from excavated contexts on the Willaumez Peninsula that predate pottery preserve use-wear traces and blood residues identical to those produced during experiments in which pig skin was pierced (cf. Kononenko et al. 2016). Black residues inferred as charred plant material were also recorded on one third of the tools. Since cellular structures were not observed, it seems likely that the charcoal was pounded and/or ground before application. The presence of the charred material supports the inference that some had been used for tattooing. The majority of these tattooing implements are flakes on which direct, marginal retouch was applied to strengthen sharp points located on the perimeter of the original flake; that is, points not created by alternating retouch as in the case of the gravers. The retouch helps ensure that the person making the puncture can control the depth of penetration so that it does not reach below the upper dermal layer, because this could cause a harmful wound and would enable the colouring material to disperse (Figure S5) (see extended discussion in Kononenko et al. 2016). Stems were also added to nearly one half of the sample, possibly to assist hafting. Subsequently, during the time when Lapita pottery was used, tattooing practices were continued, but new forms, such as the flakes with points made by alternating retouch, were added to the assemblages. In the Willamez Peninsula, unretouched flakes with a pointed shape and marginally retouched flakes continued to be used for tattooing or cutting. The tradition of using stemmed tools, possibly suggesting the use of handles, was also maintained, but with the addition of marginal retouch applied to the distal end of prismatic blades to ensure that the tools did not penetrate beyond the dermis layer (cf. Kononenko 2012: figs 7 and 9; Kononenko et al. 2016: 148, 160-2). At the SDP site on the Duke of York Islands, a sharp flake with simple marginal retouch was also used for piercing and, less commonly, for cutting skin. Unretouched flakes with a pointed shape have also been recorded at five sites in Vanuatu on Uripiv Island, off Malakula, and on Vanua Lava and Mota Lava Islands in the Banks group (Kononenko 2012: fig. 8; Kononenko et al. 2010) (Table 1). Their presence indicates that practices of skin modification in use prior to Lapita-style pottery were transported by early colonisers into Remote Oceania. Innovations also occurred, however, as signified by the presence of ochre on two of the skin-working flakes from both Vanua Lava and Mota Lava Islands, a practice not yet observed in pre-Lapita New Britain (Kononenko 2012). The use of precise alternating retouch to form small points on the lateral edge(s) of flakes constitutes a further innovation during the time of Lapita pottery. The adoption of this practice might signify a new set of beliefs  C

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69 surrounding identity or simply represent an improved tool for marking skin. Tracing the origin of this practice is not yet possible, given the very small sample sizes, but the earliest tools of this type occur in zone C at ECA on Mussau dated to c.3250–3050 BP (Kirch 2001b: 213). Importantly, the tools preserve charcoal residues likely to have been used as a pigment to enhance the designs, and may reflect a significant change in ritual practice from scarring the skin with sharp tools to colouring it. Although inseparable in time from those on Mussau, the Makekur examples do not preserve evidence for pigment (Table 2 and see Specht 2015). The practices surrounding this specialised tattooing tool were expanded further by the populations who colonised the Reef/Santa Cruz sites, where ochre was added to the range of colours applied. It is notable that ochre is also present on two unretouched flakes used for skin working found in the adjacent island group of the Banks Islands (Kononenko 2012), from where some obsidian was obtained (Sheppard et al. 2010). It is also likely that the use of ochre was transferred to Teouma, which also has Banks Island obsidian (Reepmeyer et al. 2010). One retouched pointed flake (#6.855) preserves intensive edge rounding and developed polish together with dense perpendicular and slightly diagonal striations located on both sides of the point. These are identical to the wear traces that result when ochre is applied during skin piercing, as illustrated in recent experiments (Kononenko et al. 2016: figs 5 and 6). The current distribution pattern of flaked tattooing tools suggests a dichotomy between communities resident in the Bismarck Homeland and those that colonised new lands. The absence of pointed flakes made by alternating retouch within well-researched sites in the Willaumez Peninsula and the Duke of York Islands (White & Harris 1997),2 and their relative rarity at Makekur, Arawe Islands and at ECB on Mussau, is significant. It is also worth noting that they were not identified in Hanslip’s (2001) extensive survey of stone tools from Watom Island, New Ireland, and Nissan Island, Bougainville and are not mentioned in Swete Kelly’s (2001) study of obsidian assemblages from Anir Island. Presumably, all these groups were in contact with each other, as evidenced by the shared use of Lapita-style pottery as well as transported obsidian, but it seems possible that each area may have developed its own method of skin modification. The question that cannot be answered definitively at this stage is whether different techniques were used to replicate the same design repertoire or to what extent the variation in tattooing implements and pigments monitors heterogeneity in cultural practices and ideology.

CONCLUSIONS The results of use-wear and residue analyses of 56 artefacts from seven sites confirm Sheppard’s (2010) prediction that flakes with small points made by alternating retouch were used for puncturing or incising human skin. The majority of tools in this study with well-preserved wear traces were used solely for piercing (77%) (Table 2). The presence of charcoal

70 and ochre residues indicate that colour was intentionally introduced into the wounds to create a permanent mark on the skin. As noted in Kononenko et al. (2016: 149), the form of the tool – characterised by a square body and one or more retouched points in the order of 1–2 mm in length – was well designed to create a secure grip and ensure that the point would not penetrate beyond the upper dermis layer of the skin. Combining the use-wear and residue data together, it is highly likely that the flakes with tiny points formed by alternating retouch were primarily designed and used for tattooing. Certainly, as confirmed by our experiments, they were not used to decorate Lapita pots (Figure S5). The use of obsidian tools to modify human skin by puncturing and cutting was present in the Bismarck Archipelago from at least the mid-Holocene and diversified during the time of Lapita pottery (Kononenko 2012; Kononenko & Torrence 2009; Kononenko et al. 2016). Given the variety of tools used in tattooing together with the restricted geographical range of the flakes with alternating retouched points, it is difficult to envisage these as part of a standardised “Lapita cultural complex.” During this period within much of New Britain and probably New Ireland, tattooing was achieved with a broad range of tools, including both unretouched and unifacially retouched flakes as well as stemmed tools made on prismatic blades (Figure S6). In contrast, within the Arawe Islands, Mussau and the newly colonised areas in Reef/Santa Cruz Islands (Solomon Islands), Vanuatu and New Caledonia, a new form of tool was employed. These specialised obsidian flakes with points made by alternating retouch were mainly for piercing, but also less commonly for cutting skin. Since most of the tools were applied in association with charcoal, and to a lesser extent ochre, it seems highly likely that they were used for creating permanent marks in the skin; that is, tattooing. Whether the function of these tools was primarily for social, ceremonial, ideological or medical purposes is unknown, but the consistency in the form of the tools implies a body of shared concepts among the people who used them. In contrast, the absence of “gravers” in much of New Britain and New Ireland combined with variability across space in the use of different pigment types, point shapes and multiple pronged tools indicate that communities were actively experimenting with new forms of body modification. Given their use in making marks on bodies, the range of tools used indicates there may also have been a wide range of variability in social and religious practices across the region where Lapita pottery was used. Scholars have pointed out the importance of shared cultural features as a way to create social networks that can act to reduce risks during the potentially hazardous process of colonisation (e.g. Green 1987; Green & Kirch 1997; Kirch 1988). The designs created on bodies, pots and other items of material culture may have played a role in cementing social relationships among widely spaced communities, especially within Remote Oceania. At the same time, the form of the tools and the way they were used indicates a considerable measure of variation. Our results nicely mirror Chiu’s (2015) extensive study of variability

Tattooing tools and the Lapita cultural complex among Lapita ceramic designs. She describes how a “basic form was shared among the island groups, such as is the case for the zigzag and undulated motif themes, while each island group later developed its own special subcategories within each particular theme,” a pattern she feels represents “both a desire to be different while appearing to be the same” (Chiu 2015: 198). Likewise, variations in skin piercing tools track complex interactions combined with high levels of innovation during this dynamic time of change, particularly for the communities who were settling into novel environments. Tattooing or other forms of body modification using obsidian tools appear to have gone out of fashion in Remote Oceania about the same time as Lapita-style pottery, also when obsidian from the Bismarck Archipelago was no longer distributed to the Solomon Islands and beyond. It would have been possible to access raw material from the Banks Islands for this purpose, but people clearly made other choices and instead created a very different set of tattooing tools and techniques (e.g. Ambrose 2012). Back in New Britain, unretouched obsidian flakes have continued to be used for a broad range of skin cutting and piercing purposes up to the present day (Kononenko 2012: 26). How the history of tattooing is viewed depends on one’s theoretical perspective. An emphasis on similarity supports Chiu’s (2012, 2015) proposal that ceramic decoration, or in this case the creation of markings on bodies, was actively used to create and solidify the social relations that were fundamental to an emergent community potentially comprised of diverse “genetic, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds” (Chiu 2012: 1). On the other hand, a focus on variability would note that that shared practices of skin modification (unretouched and marginally retouched sharp flakes) were transported with the first colonisers of Remote Oceania, but as the communities became established, they began to innovate new patterns of behaviour and eventually differentiated themselves (see Earle & Spriggs 2015; Spriggs 1997). Clearly, the tools used for body modification described here represent only a small portion of the material culture and cultural practices of the many groups who occupied the Bismarck Archipelago and Remote Oceania. Yet their history and variability across space provide important data that contribute to a richer understanding of the nature of cultural links among small and widely spaced communities that existed in the mid- to late Holocene periods. Although our small sample needs to be enlarged by more comprehensive samples from a greater number of assemblages, the analyses demonstrate the potential benefits of painstaking and detailed use-wear and residue studies for addressing significant questions about social life in ancient Oceania.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding for the experimental and use-wear/residue studies was provided by the Australian Research Council  C

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(DP0986004) and the Australian Museum. We thank the late Roger Green, Glenn Summerhayes and Christopher Reepmeyer for making the Reef Santa Cruz, Makekur and Teouma collections available for research, respectively. Fieldwork responsible for the recovery of these artefacts was funded by multiple grants to the authors from the Australian Research Council, the National Geographic Society, the Pacific Biological Foundation, the Australian and Pacific Science Foundation, the Australian Museum and the University of Auckland Faculty Research Development Fund. We are also grateful to the following for assistance: the National Museum and Art Gallery of Papua New Guinea, the National Research Institute (PNG), the West New Britain Cultural Centre and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre. Information from and discussion with Christina Pavlides, Richard Fullagar, Jim Specht, Glenn Summerhayes, Peter White and a reviewer helped to improve the paper. NOTES 1. As Halsey’s laboratory notes were not available, Peter Sheppard re-examined the Makekur assemblage to find the retouched pointed flakes mentioned in passing in her Honours thesis (Halsey 1995: 70). 2. Both Peter White and Peter Sheppard have examined the obsidian assemblages from the Duke of York Islands (White and Harris 1997) and did not identify flaked points made by alternating retouch.

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SUPPORTING INFORMATION Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this paper at the publisher’s website: Table S1. Metrics and Use-wear/Residue Results for Pointed Flakes with Alternating Retouch. Figure S1. Methods of tattooing: a – piercing skin with a tip that has been dipped into a charcoal and water solution. b – piercing skin with a tip that has been dipped into an ochre and water solution. c – piercing skin on which ochre has been rubbed. d – piercing skin covered by clay. Derived from experiments reported in Kononenko et al. (2016). Figure S2. ECA-B, #256. Wear patterns on the dorsal and ventral faces of the tool: a – dorsal and ventral faces of the tool. The arrow indicates the tip. Scale 1 cm. b – dorsal face of the tip (× 35), c – ventral face of the tip (× 35), d – ventral face of the tip. Note the very light edge rounding and slightly diagonal isolated striations (× 100) indicate by the arrows. e – ventral face of the tip showing small scars, microscars, and isolated perpendicular striations (× 100) indicated by the arrows. f – ventral face of the tip with slightly diagonal and perpendicular isolated striations

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73 within scars (indicated by the arrows) and embedded residues (× 500). g – embedded, blood-like residues within scars on the tip (× 500, dark field). The arrow indicates residues. h – blood-like residues (× 1000, dark field). Figure S3. Makekur # 439. Wear patterns on the dorsal and ventral faces of the tool. a – dorsal and ventral faces of the tool with tips A and B. Scale 1 cm. b – tip A, dorsal face showing slight surface smoothing and parallel striations (× 100) indicated by the arrows. c – tip A, dorsal face showing microscars along with parallel and slightly diagonal striations within a scar (× 100) indicated by the arrow. d – tip A, ventral face showing slight surface smoothing and parallel and slightly diagonal striations (× 200) indicated by the arrows. e – tip B, dorsal face with scars, light to moderate edge rounding and perpendicular striations (× 100) indicated by the arrow. f – tip B, ventral face showing light edge rounding and perpendicular striations (× 100) indicated by the arrows. Figure S4. SE-RF-2 #43. Wear patterns on the dorsal and ventral faces of the tool. Scale 1 cm. a – dorsal and ventral faces of the tool. The arrow identifies the tip. b – dorsal face of the tip showing scars, slight to moderate edge rounding, slightly diagonal striations and charcoal residues (× 200). Black arrows point to striations whereas white arrows indicate embedded charcoal residues. c – dorsal face of the tip illustrating fatty tissue and charcoal residues (× 200, dark field). The arrows indicate charcoal residues. d – ventral face of the tip with scars and isolated diagonal striations (× 100) indicated by the arrow. e – ventral face of the tip with light to moderate edge rounding and isolated perpendicular and slightly diagonal striations (× 500) indicated by the arrows. f – ventral face of the tip showing embedded charcoal residues (× 500, polarised light). Figure S5. Experimental pottery decoration using obsidian flakes: a – dorsal and ventral faces of the unretouched flake used to make decoration by piercing; b – flake used for piercing and the resulting decoration; c – edge rounding, polish and striations on the tip of the tool after 30 minutes of piercing (× 100); d – dorsal and ventral faces of the unretouched flake used to make decoration by cutting; e – flake used for cutting and the resulting decoration; f – edge rounding, polish and striations on the edge of the tool after 30 minutes of cutting (× 100). Scales 1 cm. Figure S6. Piercing tools from sites in West New Britain: a – FAO 322; b – FAO 469; c – FAO 2104; d – FAO 2109; e – FADB 017; f – FSZ 374; g – FSZ 378; h – FSZ 295; i – FSZ 376; j – FSZ 379; k – SDP 1100. Scales 1 cm.