Teaching Human Development: Current Theoretical

WHUM #412854, VOL 19, ISS 7

(September 17, 2009)

Teaching Human Development: Current Theoretical Deficits and a Theory-Enriched ‘‘Models, Metaphors, and Maps’’ Remedy JAMES A. FORTE

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WHUM #412854, VOL 19, ISS 7

(September 17, 2009)

Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19:1–23, 2009 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online DOI: 10.1080/10911350903126817

Teaching Human Development: Current Theoretical Deficits and a Theory-Enriched ‘‘Models, Metaphors, and Maps’’ Remedy JAMES A. FORTE Department of Social Work, Salisbury University, Salisbury, Maryland

Contemporary social work education in the area of human development is anemic. There is too little coverage of the theoretical frameworks, models, theorists, competencies, and functions necessary to prepare students for careers that apply developmental science. This premise is supported by a content analysis of 12 human development textbooks and 44 course outlines. Three major strategies—teaching by models, teaching by metaphors, and teaching by maps—are described as methods for enriching human development education. Four alternatives for including theoretical content are also offered.

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KEYWORDS Human development, theory, theorizing, human behavior and the social environment

There is some evidence that social work is a theoretically anemic profession (Cameron et al., 2008; Daley, Peters, Taylor, Hanson, & Hill, 2007; Decker et al., 2007; Forte, 2009; Gentile-Genitty et al., 2007; Ivry & Walter, 20 1992). Increasing the dosage of theory-based and theorizing knowledge can strengthen and fortify the profession’s body, mind, and heart. In this article, I will characterize optimal theories and theorizing content for human development courses, report on a content analysis of human development textbooks and syllabi that documents the current deficiency in theory vitamins, and 25 present a ‘‘models, metaphors, and maps’’ approach for enriching human behavior and the social environment (HBSE) courses and preparing students for work as applied developmental scientists. Thanks go to Kelly Bricker for her assistance with data entry and analysis tasks. Address correspondences to James A. Forte, Department of Social Work, Salisbury University, 1101 Camden Avenue, Salisbury, MD 21801, USA. E-mail: [email protected] 1

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Let’s begin with a few orienting definitions. Human development is ‘‘the phenomenon of continuity and change in the biopsychosocial characteris- 30 tics of human beings both as individuals and as groups. The phenomenon extends over the life course across successive generations and through historical time, both past and present’’ (Bronfenbrenner, 2005, p. 3). Theories of human development are the scientific perspectives and narratives that explain such continuities and changes in persons and groups across the 35 life course. Applied developmental science is an interdisciplinary and holistic orientation to the integration of developmental theory and research with programs and policy initiatives to promote the development and enhance the life chances of client systems (Lerner, 2005; Lerner, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2000). 40

ACHIEVING OPTIMAL HBSE HEALTH: THEORY AND THEORIZING VITAMINS Our health enhancement metaphor suggests the need for a new regimen of theory and theorizing vitamins and theoretical exercise. Our recommendations follow. 45

Theorizing Competencies Optimally, human development education will equip students with the theoretical frameworks and theorizing competencies necessary for scienceinformed practice (Council on Social Work Education [CSWE], 2008). Forte (2006) expanded on Bloom’s (Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956) classic typology of educational objectives to identify seven core competencies. First, human development education should enable students to master basic knowledge of development theories including central concepts, exemplary theorists, and historical highlights in theory refinement. Second, human development education should enhance student’s theoretical comprehension of the foundational assumptions and root metaphors of the major developmental theories. Third, human development education should prepare students for theory analysis. Competent users of developmental theories can identify the assumptions, concepts, propositions, and hypotheses of important theories and map the relationships of these theoretical elements for explanatory purposes. Fourth, human development education should prepare students for theory synthesis: the ability to appropriately combine two or more developmental theories for integrative application in policy, practice, or research arenas. Fifth, human development education should prepare students for theory evaluation. Expert theory users can judge any development theory by reference to conventional scientific standards and specific social work standards. Sixth, human development education should prepare students

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for theory application: the capacity to apply intentionally and skillfully multiple developmental theories to practice situations. Additionally, professional practice necessitates communication with members of professions, 70 disciplines, and other specializations that use diverse theories. Therefore, a seventh educational objective is required. Human development education should prepare students for theory communication: the fluent and articulate representation of the symbol systems of multiple developmental theories to colleagues. Healthy social work in the realm of applied developmental 75 science depends on the mastery of these theorizing competencies.

Human Developmental Theorists Role models are critical to the social work learning process in both the field and the classroom (Baretti, 2007). Mastery of human development content is enhanced by familiarity with exemplary theorists and their 80 contributions. Psychology educators, for example, teach psychology majors about numerous theorists (Mayo, 2004). These include Baltes, Bandura, Bertalanffy, Biddle, Bowlby, Bronfenbrenner, Bruner, Chomsky, Cooley, Darwin, Dewey, DuBois, Elder, Erikson, Fowler, Freud, Gesell, Gilligan, Habermas, Havighurst, Jung, Kohlberg, Lewin, Lorenz, Marx, Maslow, Mead, 85 Mendel, Montessori, Parsons, Pavlov, Piaget, Skinner, Vygotsky, Werner, White, Wilber, and Wilson. We grow strong as professionals thanks to the example, encouragement, inspiration, and support of our mentors, supervisors, teachers, and family. The educational use of development theorists as exemplary models can also contribute to the formation of healthy 90 social workers.

Theoretical Frameworks and Theoretical Models Human development is a complex process, one that transcends the many dimensions of human experience, reflects the particulars of historical and cultural context, and implicates social systems at different levels. No one 95 theoretical perspective or integrative meta-theory can explain all aspects of human development. Theoretical pluralists have urged social workers to embrace diverse sources of knowledge. Turner (1999), for example, asserts that the complexity of practice situations and the multidimensionality of client-system configu- 100 rations necessitate the use of multiple theories. Borden (1999) conceptualizes theories from a pragmatic philosophy as tools for thinking and argues that a large toolbox provides ‘‘deepened insight’’ and ‘‘technical flexibility.’’ Theoretical pluralism can enrich our understanding of the developing person and expand the range of ways that we intervene. Distinct developmental theories 105 differentially contribute content and methods of inquiry. Each examines an area of central concern different from other theories and provides a particular

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conceptualization of what develops, how development occurs, and why humans develop. Each major theory when used appropriately, selectively, accurately, and ethically can provide benefit (Turner). The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) expects that social work educators teach students ‘‘to apply theories and knowledge from the liberal arts to understand biological, social, cultural, psychological, and spiritual development’’ (CSWE, 2008, p. 6; emphasis added). The Association of Social Work Board’s (2007) identification of examination content for licensure explicitly uses the plural noun and refers to ‘‘theories’’ of human development. Nursing educators make great use of theoretical frameworks and theoretical middle-range models to ready nursing practitioners to serve in diverse settings with diverse clients (McEwen & Wills, 2006; Peterson & Bredow, 2008; Ziegler, 2005). Education for applied developmental science can be enriched then by the contributions of multiple theoretical frameworks and theoretical models, by the revision of older theories, by the creation of innovative conceptual systems, by knowledge generated by members of multiple disciplines, and by theoretical content reflective of the multiplicity of social work fields of practice and the diversity of social work clients. Social work educators might also help novices increase their immunity to professional setbacks by teaching novices middle-range models from diverse theoretical perspectives: attachment patterns and their contribution to later life problems; the acquisition during symbolic interaction of gender role identity; media influences on children’s social learning of aggression; and exchange processes related to elder care, for examples.

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Theorizing Content: Development, Elements, and Appraisal Most of the social work curriculum prepares students for doing: policy for 135 analyzing and influencing policy processes, practice for applying knowledge to helping processes, research for asking and answering scientific questions, and field for integrating knowledge and practice. The action component of the HBSE sequence is less apparent. The profession’s educational standards suggest that HBSE should prepare students to theorize. This involves 140 applying knowledge to understand person-environment configurations and how these configurations are related to the life course and using theoretical frameworks to guide processes of engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation. Therefore, human development education optimally teaches content on theorizing. 145 Our colleagues in nursing have pioneered the teaching of theorizingenriched courses. In addition to discussions of central concepts related to theory elements, theory scope, and theory forms, topics covered in nursing


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education relate to the mastery of theorizing. These include theory development by induction and deduction, formal theory analysis and diagramming, 150 theoretical and conceptual model building, meta-theorizing using borrowed theories, theory evaluation, theory application, and theory testing (Fawcett & Downs, 1986; McEwen & Wills, 2006; National League for Nursing, 1978; Tomey, 1998). Nursing educators assume that novice theory users need explicit instruction in many aspects of theorizing if they are to understand 155 and apply theoretical knowledge to practice. Theorizing content will increase the strength and efficacy of social work beginners, too.

Theorizing Content: Uses of Theories of Human Development Education about developmental theories and exercise in the use of theories for practical ends (information organization, categorization, explanation, prediction, and direction) can provide essential nourishment to HBSE students. Developmental theories can guide the processes of information organization necessary to assessment. Each theory provides a framework for assembling ‘‘person-in-environment-changing-over-time’’ data, for judging the relative importance of information collected during the assessment process, and for discerning developmental patterns. For example, Turton, McGauley, MarinAvellan, and Hughes (2001) employed an attachment theory–based tool to gather and organize information about adult offenders with personality disorders. Havighurst’s developmental stage theory with its delineation of stage tasks and normative behavior can facilitate the effective assessment of adolescents (Rubinstein, 1991). Development theories assist social workers in explaining client system challenges that have sources in developmental experiences. These theories can specify the key explanatory variables and the relationships between these variables. Smith-Osborne (2005) blended two development theories to explain shoplifting. Erikson’s ego psychological theory articulates how adolescents stole as a response to an identity crisis and an exploration of the attractive ‘‘thief’’ identity. The critical-feminist theory showed that female teens feeling alienated from the self and disempowered use shoplifting to voice a quest for power. Burton and Meezan (2004) used social learning theory to explain the behavioral patterns of sexually abusive male teenagers. Learning processes included the modeling of sexual abuse the teenagers experienced, learning sexual actions via pornography, learning rule breaking via observing family members, and learning aggression by imitating the father’s violence. Developmental theories can help social workers categorize data and contrast client systems in different categories. Social workers have made use of Olson’s Circumplex Model of Family Functioning (Olson, 1988) to categorize families by levels of adaptability and cohesion (healthy, moderately

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healthy, unhealthy) and to make judgments about the related stressors at various family stages. In one theory application, Mathis and Tanner (1991) showed the utility of this middle-range theory for helping later-life families. Development theories also assist social workers in predicting a future trajectory based on a developmental history. Stacy (2006) used attachment theory and information about childhood attachment experiences with parents and friends to predict delinquency, substance misuse, and high school performance of siblings. Forte (2006) reviewed the interactionist approach to gender that connects childhood socialization experiences to the development of later-life gender ideals and gender behavior preferences. Finally, developmental theories can direct social workers in decisionmaking processes and in the selection and implementation of developmentally sensitive intervention procedures. Cummings, Bride, & Rawlins-Shaw (2006) reported on the use of age-specific, cognitive-behavioral practice theory to guide work with elderly persons abusing alcohol. Drumm, Pittman, & Perry, (2003) employed Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theoretical approach to guide interventions in refugee camps for Kosovar refugees and thus minimize trauma. In summary, HBSE human development courses covering content related to theory competencies, theorists, developmental theories and theoretical models, theorizing, and the functions of theory can enhance social workers’ use of theory to guide practice. In the next section, we will examine whether the contemporary curriculum needs supplements.

CURRENT DIAGNOSIS: THEORETICAL AND THEORIZING DEFICIENCIES

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To appraise the health-promoting qualities of social work developmental education, we examined two sources of data: textbooks with a human development focus and human development course outlines. For each data source, we asked the same questions. First, what educational objectives related to developmental theories and theorizing are identified? Second, what 220 developmental theorists are covered? Third, what developmental theories are introduced? Fourth, what theorizing topics are taught including those related to the uses of theory for social work purposes? Fifth, what specific middlerange theoretical models are introduced? For each data source, we conducted a systematic content analysis. 225

Human Development Textbooks: Minimal Provision of Theory and Theorizing Content There is no sampling frame identifying HBSE textbooks. Therefore, a list of social work textbooks on human development available to social work edu-


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cators was generated in February 2008 by searching the extensive databases of Amazon.com and Barnes and Nobles, two online booksellers. The key words human behavior and the social environment, human development, and life span were used. Each book’s overview and table of contents were examined to confirm its relevance for our purposes. The list was checked against the set of HBSE course syllabi discussed later for inclusiveness. Several social work educators use textbooks written primarily for psychology audiences; these were eliminated. Several prominent textbooks familiar to the first author were added. The final sample included 12 textbooks (Appendix A). Each textbook was obtained from the first author’s professional library or purchased. A content analysis spreadsheet was created and used in the review of the introductory pages, the preface, the table of contents, the subject index, the author index, and the final reference list of each book. Using manifest content analyses, the reviewers marked, clipped, and entered abbreviated information relevant to the five research questions into the spreadsheet.

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FINDINGS Regarding the identification of educational objectives related to theorizing competencies, none was explicitly identified in any textbook. Twenty different human development theorists (n D 96) were covered as indicated in the table of contents and indices. In rank order, Erikson and Piaget were tied at first place (n D 12), followed by Freud (n D 10); Bandura and Levinson (n D 9); Kohlberg (n D 8); Gilligan (n D 6); Maslow, G. H. Mead, and Bronfenbrenner (n D 5); and Bowlby (n D 4). Fowler and White were tied with two appearances. Seven other theorists were each introduced to students one time. Eighteen different theories (n D 63) were identified in the HBSE human development book. In rank order of attention, social learning was in first place (n D 9); psychodynamic theory was second (n D 8); followed by Piaget’s cognitive development theory (n D 6); moral development theory and Erikson’s psychosocial theory (n D 5); social role theory (n D 4); a three-way tie between social constructionist, feminist, and symbolic interactionist theory (n D 3); and at the final rank, a tie between humanistic, faith development, and Gould’s adult development theory (n D 2). Six theoretical orientations appeared once each. There was minimal attention given to theorizing topics. Three textbooks focused on critical thinking about theory. Two textbooks explicitly introduced coverage related to applying theory. The topics ‘‘theory and ethics’’ and ‘‘the multidimensional approach to theory’’ appeared in one book each. The topic of ‘‘theory functions’’ appeared in only one book.

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There was also little coverage of middle-range theories and theoretical models. Aging and human development did best; activity theory, disengagement theory, and a theoretical model of retirement appeared once each. A theory of general identity formation and gender identity formation processes appeared once each. Theoretical models of parent-child bonding, role exit, sexual orientation development, and the developmental outcomes of care and love were also represented once each in the set of human developmental textbooks. In summary, the social work textbooks available to educators had some deficiencies in coverage of theory, theorizing, and theory use contents. Their authors didn’t identify any intentions to teach basic or advanced theorizing competencies. There was some attention to human development theorists but only a small set of the much larger pool of theoretical exemplars. As members of a profession that integrates knowledge from multiple sources, social work educators might also include wider representation from allied disciplines, especially sociology and biology, refer to more theorists of color such as W. E. B. DuBois, and refer to theorists from our own social work community, such as Carel Germain. In reference to this set of texts, educators can choose from a range of books and find coverage of a basic set of theoretical frameworks, but coverage of the biological theories developed by Gesell and Werner, the cultural theories of Vygotsky and others, critical and anthropological theories, and the contemporary interdisciplinary life course and human development theories would have to be provided as supplemental readings. The set of textbooks provided minimal coverage of theory use and theorizing topics especially related to the range of potential content identified by nursing educators. There was almost no reference to the standard functions of theories, and there was minimal coverage of the middle-range theories and theoretical models that explain selected aspects of the human experience across the life span.

Human Development Outlines: Minimal Coverage of Theory and Theorizing Content

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In May 2007, a convenient sample of 44 social work course syllabi were downloaded from the Web using the Google search engine. Each syllabus in this sample was designed for a social work course and clearly identified a human developmental focus in the title or overview. Of the 44 syllabi, 305 16 were for BSW-level courses, 25 were for MSW-level courses, and three did not identify the program level. The same five research questions used in the textbook analysis were asked, and a spreadsheet approach was used to record information from the course and catalog description, the course objectives, the outline of class topics, and the identified assignments. Each 310 syllabus was reviewed line by line using a manifest content approach, and theory-specific information was transferred to the spreadsheets and then


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summarized across the set of all outlines. The most frequently required textbooks were those by Ashford, LeCroy, and Lortie (n D 19), Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman (n D 12), Hutchison (n D 3), and Pillari (n D 2). There were 10 other textbooks identified in course syllabi but in only one syllabus each. The course syllabi identified 17 different theorizing objectives. There were slight differences in wording, but the objectives group into five major categories. An objective—learn to critically appraise theories and their strengths and limitations—was included on 18 syllabi. Learning ‘‘how to apply theories’’ (n D 11), increasing ‘‘knowledge of theories’’ (n D 8), learning to ‘‘judge theories in terms of social work ethics and values’’ (n D 6), and learning to ‘‘appraise the evidence supporting theories’’ (n D 4) were theorizing objectives that received multiple listings. Twelve more idiosyncratic theory-related objectives such as ‘‘learn how to relate theories to the person-in-environment framework’’ and ‘‘learn the historical development of theories’’ were identified one or two times. For the entire set of 44 syllabi, there were 17 distinctive theory-related objectives identified, but only 4 such objectives appeared on 6 or more syllabi, and no objective exceeded 18 identifications. Coverage of 18 different theorists was indicated in the course syllabi. Erikson was the most popular (n D 8) followed by Gilligan (n D 4). Bowlby, Freud, Kohlberg, Piaget, and Skinner each received three listings. Bandura, Levinson, Mahler, and Watson each received two listings. Seven other theorists considered relevant to human development education were noted. Eighteen different theories were taught in social work courses. In rank order, the theories identified included ecosystems theory (n D 21), social learning theory (n D 9), social systems theory (n D 8), attachment theory (n D 7), the social constructionist approach (n D 7), Piagetian theory (n D 6), Freudian theory and Erikson’s stage theory (n D 6 each), critical theory (n D 5), and moral development theory (n D 5). Cognitive-behavioral, family systems, learning, and humanistic theories were identified on two different syllabi each, and the biopsychosocial, ethological, life course, and spirituality theoretical approaches were identified on one syllabus each. Examination of the set of social work course syllabi revealed minimal coverage of materials related to theories and theorizing. The topic ‘‘understanding concepts and propositions’’ and the topic, ‘‘how theory shapes our understanding of human behavior’’ were included in one syllabus each. There was no coverage of developmental theories as related to theory functions (organize information, describe, explain, predict, communicate) or any indicated coverage of middle-range theories of human development phenomena. As with the analysis of textbooks, the review of HBSE human development syllabi suggests that social work HBSE students need more educational content and experiences if they are to build their theoretical prowess and to

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increase theorizing vitality. Theorizing competencies of analysis, synthesis, and communication received minimal or zero coverage. There was scarce evidence of intentional education in topics related to theory elements, theory development, and theory application. Middle-range theories and concep- 360 tual models didn’t appear as teaching tools or approaches to integrative assignments. The set of syllabi introduced students to few of the more than 38 theorists that receive attention in the ‘‘survey of human development theories’’ textbooks developed by other disciplines (Mayo, 2004), and the domination by theorists such as Erikson, Freud, and Piaget shows the pop- 365 ularity of these approaches but also a heavy use of theorists who are dead and have not theorized within the last 20 years. There was some coverage of theories and theorists but, excepting the ecosystems paradigm, there wasn’t much evidence of a consensus on the most important theories of human development and a surprising neglect of biological theories, symbolic 370 interactionist theories, and role theoretical frameworks.

TEACHING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: CURRENT CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS There is a limited but useful set of conceptual frameworks for human development education that educators might use to structure how they enrich their courses with theory and theorizing content. Federico (1979) provided an early conceptualization of how to teach life span courses. Human development is characterized as the continuous interaction of three forces: genetic inheritance, culture, and social influences. Each person is the result of a unique combination of these forces but also shares commonalities with others of similar ascribed memberships (race and gender) and achieved memberships (religious affiliation, marital status, and others). A human development course presents theoretical content explaining how similarity and difference are manifested in the definitions, experiences, and life chances associated with each stage. Crawford (2006) provides a reflective practitioner model for teaching development. Stage-by-stage examination considers the practitioner role, the relevant research-based concepts, the connections to personal life experiences, and the useful theoretical contributions. Vandsburger and her colleagues (2005) present a distinctive temporal lens. Human development is taught from the perspective of the older adult, and each life stage is studied with a focus on the factors (biological, psychological, social, and spiritual) that serve as buffers preventing adverse reactions to stress and contributing to long, productive, and healthy lives. Schuster, Francis-Connolly, AlfordTrewn, & Brooks (2003) use a life course and interdisciplinary meta-theory for organizing human development. The person actively chooses from multiple life pathways. Case studies and life histories document the diversity of trajectories and courses. The illustrative material is studied from the varied

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disciplinary lens—social work, occupational therapy, nursing, and dietetics and human nutrition—that share an interest in health and health care. Roer-Strier’s (2005) postmodern approach emphasizes critical thinking 400 and questioning the assumptions underlying claims to knowledge about development. Students learn to scrutinize theories asserting the universality of processes and patterns, to embrace poly-vocal and contextual views of the life span, and to consider the relationship of stakeholders (theorists but also social workers, parents, developing persons) and their particular 405 life experiences as these relate to the promotion of particular theoretical frameworks. Roer-Strier also teaches the appraisal of developmental theories in terms of their usefulness in fostering a more equitable society and serving as a knowledge base for anti-discriminatory, anti-oppressive practice.

THEORY AND THEORIZING ENRICHMENT: A MODELS, METAPHORS, AND MAPS APPROACH

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Using the standards of logical coherence and demonstrated effectiveness, human development education is at an early stage. The following section recommends a ‘‘models, metaphors, and maps’’ approach (Forte, 2002, 2006) as a theory-oriented conceptual framework to join those identified in the 415 literature review above as candidates for further development, replication, and testing.

Teaching by Exemplary Models Human development education can be enhanced by the classroom use of theorists. The introduction of biographies, writings, recorded words, public service histories, theoretical innovations, research studies, and practice application of the masters can increase student appreciation for and mastery of developmental theories and developmental theorizing. Baretti (2007); Forte (2006); Lengermann & Wallace (1981); RochbergHalton (1984); Ritzer (1991); Shalin (2007); and Thompson and Hogan (1996) have identified various benefits of teaching by exemplary models. Teaching by exemplar increases student identification with theorists and students’ use of theorists as role models. Teaching by models transmits the value of theory and theorizing, shows how a theory is related to the personality of a theorist and to the context for its development, helps students relate theorists to different schools of thought, and enhances student satisfaction with the learning experience. Teaching by biographical materials also helps socialize the student to social work as a science-based profession while presenting theorists and their ideas as resources for the private and public deliberations necessary to professional problem solving.

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There are many strategies that the social work educator can use to bring exemplary theorists into the classroom. The instructor or the students can present information that relates a theorist to his or her historical and social context, reports that examine theoretical excerpts from a theorist’s opus, presentations that summarize research extensions of the theorist’s concepts 440 and propositions, or lectures that compare and contrast different theorists’ approaches to developmental science and developmental topics. Students can impersonate various theorists and lecture the other students, role-play the parts of theorists in discussions of each theorist’s thinking on particular developmental topics, or debate diverse positions from the perspective of 445 multiple theorists. Students might keep journals in which they include their reflections on imagined consultations with theorists to understand better and apply more accurately developmental theories. Forte’s students have created ‘‘Theorist Cards.’’ These are like the baseball cards traded by fans. They summarize basic biographical information, concepts, and theories. They are 450 used for presentations and then shared with other students.

Teaching by Metaphors Teaching by metaphor involves the imaginative and educational use of comparisons between theoretical ideas and everyday events, objects, processes, people, and places. Root metaphors and conveyance metaphors are two 455 important tools. Root metaphors are basic comparisons that theorist uses to make sense of an overall theoretical framework or disciplinary stance toward human development (Pepper, 1942). Conveyance metaphors are comparisons of more limited scope that theorists use to make sense of a selective aspect of human development (MacCormac, 1976, 1985). 460 Q3 First, we will briefly summarize three of Pepper’s four root metaphors as related to developmental processes and practice. The fourth metaphor, ‘‘formism,’’ and its search for essences by which developing persons, processes, and outcomes should be categorized isn’t widely used by developmental scientists (Cooper, 1987). 465 THE

MECHANISTIC METAPHOR

Some theorists compare the developing person to a machine such as a car, a clock, or a computer (Goldhaber, 2000; Lerner, 1986; Straus, 1987). Mechanists assume that elements of the person like those of a machine exist independently of one another, define how the person operates, function 470 in exact and predetermined relationships to one another, and can be measured objectively. The developing person is relatively passive and free of intentionality. Environmental antecedents cause human action and change. Mechanists prefer the term behavior change to that of development and Q4 suggest that such changes are quantitative, lawful, predictable, and in accord 475


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with universal change processes. Developmental problems are responses learned in relationship to environmental contingencies. The mechanistically oriented developmental practitioner uses the language of variables, focuses on observable and measurable regularities in human development, identifies causes and effects, and explains developmental phenomena by re- 480 duction to elements and their coordinated action. Freudian conceptions of personality and its development; behavioral approaches to change across the life span pioneered by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner; Ellis’s model of the relationship between cognitions and troubling emotions and behaviors; and developmental behavioral genetics are trees sprung from the roots of 485 mechanism. THE

ORGANISM METAPHOR

Some development theorists compare the developing person to other living organisms and theorize by reference to commonalities among all organisms: the integration of parts into a complex system, the emergence of characteristics for the whole greater than a mathematical sum of the parts, the inherent and continuous process of change, and the progression through predictable phases of birth, growth, and decline (Lyddon, 1989; McCall, 1988; Goldhaber, 2000; Slee & Shute, 2003). The developing person, like other ‘‘organisms,’’ is a dynamic and changing whole characterized by a synergistic interaction of parts (body, mind, and context, for instance). Organism theorists characterize development as following universal patterns with a directional sequence. Development involves qualitative change initiated by motivational processes intrinsic to the human system, and change is a series of reorganizations at increasingly new and more complex levels of integration. Developmental problems are explained as the failures of the human organism to meet expected stage challenges. The developmental practitioner focuses holistically on system patterns, helps the system organize in new ways to address developmental obstacles, and takes a long-term view on the development milestones while relating these to commonalities for the human species. Erikson’s ego psychological stage theory, Gesell’s psychobiological maturation theory, Havighurst’s developmental task theory, Kohlberg’s moral development theory, Piaget’s cognitive development theory, and Wilber’s theory of spiritual consciousness development are best understood by examination of their metaphoric roots in ideas and images of the living organism. THE

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HISTORICAL ACT METAPHOR

Some developmental theorists compare the developing person to a historical act or process (Goldhaber, 2000; Lerner, 1986; Slee & Shute, 2003). Each moment is a unique and complex event situated in a historical timeline and 515

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a distinctive context. To interpret or accurately make sense of any developmental moment, we must appreciate both the context and the position in this context of the developing person and of the interpreter. Human development is a flow of continually changing person-place-time configurations with developmental influences and outcomes part of intricately connected activities. There is no one developmental path but numerous possible trajectories, and the developing person is an active participant and meaning maker in his or her life history and the history of the larger community; one capable of creative adjustment to contextual contingencies. Developmental change is both quantitative and qualitative but not necessarily directional. Developmental problems emerge when the person becomes ‘‘fixed’’ in a line of action and unresponsive to temporal and situational constraints and opportunities. The developmental practitioner committed to the metaphor of the historical act must immerse her- or himself in the client system’s context, formulate meanings specific to this context, appraise the quality of the interconnectedness of client system, temporal factors, and situational factors, and seek timely, culturally sensitive and practical solutions to free up ‘‘stuck’’ processes. Theories that make exemplary use of this root metaphor include Balte’s life span developmental psychology, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, Elder’s life course theory, Germain’s life model, the pragmatist-interactionist theories of Dewey, James, and Mead, and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. Conveyance metaphors are good ‘‘teaching by metaphor’’ tools also. Two developmental scientists provide illustrations of the educational use of conveyance metaphors. Scholnick (2000) discusses how the metaphors common to popular developmental theories reveal gender biases because they compare all developing persons to events and processes associated with masculinity and masculine symbols. Kohlberg’s conception of moral development by argument and dispute; Darwin’s bio-evolutionary theory of species advancement by competition where the fittest survived; and Piaget’s comparison of the developing person to a theoretician making a series of paradigm shifts are frameworks dependent on metaphors tied to the male experience. Students might use the feminist slant to examine how these developmental theorists had slighted the female experience. Students might also study recent theoretical corrections. These have been made by theorists such as Gilligan, who compare development processes to those associated with friendship and other reciprocal relationships, by symbolic interactionists who characterize development by using images of cooperation drawn from conversations and apprenticeships, and by narrative theorists who compare human development to a series of stories. Osborne (1995) argues that the metaphors inherent in theories of human development should differentially influence the approach developmental practitioners take toward practice with families. Humanistic theorists use images and ideas characterizing the developing person as naturally good

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and the parent as an affirming communicator. Behaviorists compare the developing person to a passive learner and the parent to an engineer designing an ideal educational environment, whereas Piaget, Erikson, and other stage theorists use comparisons to stages or levels and view the parent as like a travel guide anticipating challenges during life’s journey and directing the forward movement of the growing child. Family systems theorists use imagery characterizing the child as an element subject to multiple forces of energy and the parent to an electrician optimizing the flow of electric forces to the child. There are many benefits to teaching by root metaphors and conveyance metaphors. Root metaphors allow social work educators to teach various developmental theories as theory groups organized by similarities in foundational metaphors (Goldhaber, 2000). Root metaphors allow social work educators to differentiate theories of human development by examination of distinctive metaphorical underpinnings and associated basic assumptions (Lyddon, 1989). Root metaphors can be used to help students learn which theories of development can be blended or used sequentially during inquiry because each focuses on different aspects of the person-environment-time configuration and which theories are irreconcilable owing to fundamental incompatibilities (Goldhaber, 2000). Root and conveyance metaphors can prepare students for communicating within and across disciplinary and theoretical languages and for explaining theories to public audiences (Forte, 2006; Minton, 1992), and educators can help students learn to construct or modify theories for practice as exercises in the applied metaphorical imagination (Minton). There are also various strategies for using metaphors to teach human development theories. Positive comparison explores the linkages between theoretical concepts and everyday objects, processes, events, and places. Theory learners can develop analytic comparisons and explore how the root metaphor (person as system or machine, for examples) reveals information about the theory’s assumptions about the developing person, developmental processes, and developmental practice. Embellished comparisons can be used to elaborate on theory-based images and symbols (expanding the interactionist portrayal of human development as like an apprenticeship, for example) to characterize the developing person, the context of human development, and optimal developmental outcomes. Practical comparisons can be used to link the theory of human development to phases of the planned change process. For example, we recommend using the theatrical metaphors inherent in role socialization theory to articulate the engagement, data gathering, problem formulation, and intervention phases (Forte, 2006). Each theory has explanatory limitations. Negative comparisons can be used to investigate how the theory fails to fully describe the developing person or process. For example, the developing person differs from machines, according to critics of the mechanistic world view, because of her or

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his ability to transcend determining forces, mental and other covert psychic processes, and embeddedness in reciprocal relations with influential prox- 605 imate and distal contexts. The metaphor of a developing organism, critics of organism theorists contend, neglects the varied individual pathways of development and implies an inevitability, progressiveness, and universality to growth that is not supported by historical and cross-cultural research. The historical act metaphor is limited in that its theorists are unclear about 610 how developing persons differentially use social contexts, and its proponents don’t offer a typology of contexts for developments or principles differentiating those aspects of development that are plastic from those that are fixed.

Teaching by Maps Space limitations preclude a full discussion of the use of theory-based ecomaps and other mapping devices as ways to inject theory and theorizing vitamins into human development courses. A few illustrations must suffice. (See Forte, 2006, for a more detailed overview.) Social work educators can use theory-based eco-maps to display and summarize conceptualizations of the developing person across the life span (Forte, 2006). For example, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development might be translated into eight eco-maps: one for each stage. Each eco-map might place the client as the focal system and depict the potential ego strengths and limitations acquired at the stage. Large circles on the map would identify the stage-specific societal institution (religion in the first stage, for example). Medium-size circles could identify the significant relations presumed by Erikson to be relevant at the stage: sex partners, colleagues, and rivals during adolescence, for examples. Details could be drawn from cases familiar to the educator including the specific quality (degree of ego support and nurturing) of connections between the developing personality and significant relations and institutions. The top right of each map could identify the stage and include brief descriptors capturing the features of the stage’s ‘‘historical moment’’ (an economic downturn, the initiation of the Iraq war, or a technological innovation) that influence the person’s stage development. brook Or a social work educator might develop a theory-specific eco-map to identify the relevant characteristics and challenges of a particular stage. Dowd (1981) used exchange theory to understand interaction patterns of elderly persons. He theorized that changes in the amount of social interaction with older persons reflect changes in the resources that the older persons bring to an encounter, changes in the objective value of these resources, and changes in the perceived ‘‘worth’’ of the elderly. Associates, family members, and friends use communication processes to appraise the reputation of the elderly person as resource rich or resource poor. These calculations are influenced by the categorical memberships related to age, race, and gender

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of all parties to exchanges, and the bargaining is shaped by the elderly person’s command of financial resources and interpersonal resources like communication skills. As some older persons lessen their investments in social networks and the many exchanges occurring in these networks, they give up influence over the interpretation of their reputation. Decline in 650 the actual control of monetary resources and other forms of wealth also relate to reputations. Because of declining resources or the perception of declining resources, exchange partners revise their profit-loss calculations. The elderly person may be assessed as useless and without value, and social contacts decrease. Educators might map out with students the relation of an 655 elderly client to network others and characterize the quality of connections in exchange theory terms. Maps comparing middle life to later life patterns could be compared, and maps of actual person-environment configurations for an isolated and resource poor person could be contrasted to a map of an ideal person-environment configuration for a resource rich elderly person in 660 a network of generous partners.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCREASING THEORY AND THEORIZING CONTENT The next section provides four alternatives for integrating theoretical knowledge into the human development course. In option one, the social work educator presents the first fourth of the course covering theory elements, theory appraisal standards, and theorizing processes. This content serves as a foundation that is amplified during the conventional coverage in the remaining three-fourths of biological, psychological, and social-cultural features of the major stages of human development. In option two, the human development course is structured as two parallel tracks. One track covers knowledge appropriate to each stage of human development. The second track introduces selectively theorists, theoretical frameworks, theoretical root metaphors, and theoretical maps. ‘‘How to theorize’’ lessons would be included in each second track curriculum unit. In option three, the educator organizes the human development course by a three-dimensional grid. This grid relates stage, aspect of human functioning, and relevant theoretical content. The HBSE teacher could select a stage model or life course framework for slicing the life span into stages or phases. At each stage, content (basic information and research findings) on the biological, psychological, social-cultural and, perhaps, spiritual aspects of human development would be included. Theoretical material (theories and theorists) would be integrated across all stages organized by the aspects of human development. Biological content could be enriched by reference to Gesell’s maturational theory. Psychological content could be enriched by Piaget’s cognitive development and Erikson’s ego psychological theory.

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Social-cultural content could be enriched by Parson’s systems theory of role socialization, Mead’s symbolic interactionist theory of personality formation, and Gilligan’s feminist voice theory. Spiritual and ethical content could be enriched by Fowler’s spiritual development theory and Kohlberg’s moral development theories. Each stage might also be enriched by use of middlerange theoretical models explaining a stage-specific developmental process: Cahill’s interactionist model of the formation of gender identity during childhood or Scheff’s psychodynamic model of the adult management of grief. (See Forte, 2006, for extensive discussions of such models.) In option four, the human development course is structured as a survey of theories of human development. Theories might be grouped by root metaphors: mechanistic theories, organism theories, and contextualist theories, with a final unit on alternative approaches to integrating these theories (Lerner, 1986). Theories might be organized alternatively in relationship to stages of development (Austrian, 2008) or by micro-, mezzo-, and macrofocus (Forte, 2006). It is premature to recommend one option as the best. Empirical investigation of their relative effectiveness has not yet occurred, and there may be many other creative ways to enrich the human development course with theory and theorizing content and learning experiences.

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CONCLUSIONS This article has developed the argument that contemporary social work education in the area of human development is theoretically anemic. There is too little coverage of the theoretical frameworks, models, theorists, competencies, and functions useful in preparing social work students for careers that apply developmental science. This premise was supported by an analysis of social work human development textbooks and course syllabi. Three major strategies—teaching by models, teaching by metaphors, and teaching by maps—were described as methods of enriching human development education. Four alternative approaches to including theoretical content in a HBSE human development course were offered. Difficult questions related to justifications for the removal of non-theoretical content in HBSE courses to provide for greater attention to theories and theorizing weren’t addressed in this article. Several limitations of our research merit attention. The sample of HBSE textbooks and course syllabi may not represent fully the coverage of theory in social work schools. For example, several of the textbooks have been published in revised form in 2008, and these versions may include new or expanded theoretical material. Additionally, textbooks and syllabi may not validly indicate all that is taught in the classroom. Educators may be using learning activities, for instance, not identified in a syllabus that illustrate

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the relation of theory to human development knowledge, help students appraise the quality of human development theory, or show students how to apply developmental theories to practice. Classroom activities, discussion, and extemporaneous comments by the professor may also stimulate students to exercise their theory muscles in ways not captured in our data sources. Also, it is possible that some social work programs teach ‘‘how to theorize’’ content in the research sequence rather than the human behavior sequence. Future researchers might investigate the currency of theory-related knowledge used by social work educators. It is our impression that many social work educators are relying on dated theoretical material, especially knowledge derived from the work of Freud, Erikson, and Piaget, and not reporting the last decade’s advances in theorizing. The task of checking the dates of theory-specific citations for all the textbooks and outlines and judging their contemporary relevance remains undone but is worth doing. Future investigators might also attempt to summarize the literature on empirical support for the alternative theoretical orientations on human development. Students will become more excited about HBSE if exposed to cutting-edge theoretical developments with research validation. Our analysis finds little consensus about essential theoretical content. We need to explore educators’ perceptions of the most important human development theories and theorists and the grounds for making such decisions. Current classroom coverage of theorists appears to neglect social work knowledge builders, so we should develop profiles of social work developmental theorists and theory users. Our coverage of major theoretical frameworks is spotty, and we can better integrate theories especially biological theories, critical theories, and sociocultural theories into our human developmental courses. We recommend using this article as a stimulant to the profession’s self-healing activities and a prescription to generate new conceptual models for teaching human development—models responsive to theoretical pluralism, models offering correctives to dated or empirically questionable theories, models prizing theories that affirm the profession’s values, and models rectifying our deficiency in coverage of theorizing content. HBSE can be shorthand for a book or course named ‘‘Human Behavior and the Social Environment’’ or ‘‘Human Behavior in the Social Environment.’’ Both titles lack any verbs. HBSE can become a verb, not a noun. HBSE is an ideal place in the social work curriculum to teach theories, theorists, and theorizing. HBSE might become ‘‘practical theorizing,’’ and HBSE instructors might take the lead in preparing social workers to add multiple theories to their knowledge base, to add theorizing competencies to their skill base, and to add theories and theorizing to their conceptions of each phase of the planned change process. Such knowledge and tool expansion will help social workers better promote human growth and optimize the contexts for human development.

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REFERENCES Association of Social Work Boards. (2007). ASWB exam information. Retrieved June 4, 2007, from http://www.aswb.org/exam_info_NEW_content_outlines.shtml Austrian, S. G. (Ed.). (2008). Developmental theories through the life cycle (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Baretti, M. (2007). Teachers and field instructors as student role models: A neglected dimension in social work education. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 27(3/4), 215–239. Bloom, B. S. (Ed.), & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1. Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay. Borden, W. (1999). Pluralism, pragmatism, and the therapeutic endeavor in brief dynamic treatment. Psychoanalytic Social Work, 6(3/4), 7–42, Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005), The bioecological theory of human development. In U. Bronfenbrenner (Ed.), Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development (pp. 3–15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Burton, D. L., & Meezam, W. (2004). Revisiting research on social learning theory as an etiological proposition for sexually abusive male adolescents. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 1(1), 41–80. Cameron, M., Maltese, A., Michlin, M., Mindell, C., Rofuth, T., & Worden, B. (2008, October). Students’ integration of theory and practice in field education. Paper presented at the Fifty-Fourth Annual Program Meeting, Council on Social Work Education, Philadelphia, PA. Cha, T., Huo, E., & Marsh, J. (2006). Useful knowledge for social work practice. Social Work and Society, 4(1), 1–6. Retrieved May 24, 2009, from http://www.socwork. net/2006/1/debate/chakuomarch/index_html/?searchtermDCha Cooper, C. R. (1987). Conceptualizing research on adolescent development in the family: Four root metaphors. Journal of Adolescent Research, 2(3), 321–330. Council on Social Work Education. (2008). Educational policy and accreditation standards. Retrieved July 15, 2008, from http://www.cswe.org/CSWE/ accreditation/ Crawford, K. (2006). Reflective reader: Social work and human development. Albion Close, Great Britain: Learning Matters. Cummings, S. M., Bride, B., & Rawlins-Shaw (2006). Alcohol abuse treatment for older adults: A review of recent empirical research. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 3(1), 79–99. Daley, J. G., Peters, J., Taylor, R., Hanson, V., & Hill, D. (2007). Theory discussion in social work journals: A preliminary study. Advances in Social Work, 7(1), 1– 19. Decker, V. D., Suman, P. D., Burge, B. J., Deka, A., Harris, M., Hymans, D. J., et al. (2007). Analysis of social work theory progression published in 2004. Advances in Social Work, 8(1), 81–103. Dowd, J. J. (1981). Conversation and social exchange: Managing identities in old age. Human Relations 34, 541–553. Drumm, R. D., Pittman, S., & Perry, S. (2003). Social work interventions in refugee camps: An ecosystems approach. Journal of Social Service Research, 30(2), 67– 92.

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Fawcett, J., & Downs, F. S. (1986). The relationship of theory and research. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Federico, R. C. (1979). Human behavior and the social environment within a human diversity framework. In B. L. Baer & R. C. Federico (Eds.), Educating the baccalaureate social worker: A curriculum development resource guide (Vol. 1, pp. 181–208). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Forte, J. A. (2002). Mead, contemporary metatheory, and twenty-first-century interdisciplinary team work. Sociological Practice: A Journal of Clinical and Applied Sociology, 4(4), 315–334. Forte, J. A. (2006). Human behavior and the social environment: Models, metaphors, and maps for applying theoretical perspectives to practice. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Forte, J. A. (2009). The center cannot hold: A survey of field instructors’ theoretical preferences and propensities. Unpublished manuscript, Salisbury, Maryland. Gentle-Gennity, C. S., Gregory, V., Pfahler, C., Thomas, M., Lewis, L., Campbell, K., et al. (2007). A critical review of theory in social work journals: A replication study. Advances in Social Work, 8(1), 62–80. Goldhaber, D. E. (2000). Theories of human development: Integrative perspectives. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Ivry, P. W., & Walter, C. A. (19992). Current trends in teaching the human behavior and social environment course at the baccalaureate level. Arete, 17(2), 38–50. Lengermann, P. M., & Wallace, R. A. (1981). Making theory meaningful: The student as an active participant. Teaching Sociology, 8(2), 197–212. Lerner, R. M. (1986). Concepts and theories of human development (2nd ed.). New York: Random House. Lerner, R. M. (2005). Foreword. In U. Bronfenbrenner (Ed.), Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development (pp. ix–xxvi). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lerner, R. M., Fisher, C. B., & Weinberg, R. A. (2000). Applied developmental science in the 21st century: International scholarship for our times. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1), 24–29. Lyddon, W. J. (1989). Root metaphor theory: A philosophical framework for counseling and psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 67, 442– 448. MacCormac, E. R. 1985. A cognitive theory of metaphor. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Mathis, R. D., & Tanner, Z. (1991). Cohesion, adaptability, and satisfaction of family systems in later life. Family Therapy, 18(1), 47–60. Mayo, J. A. (2004). Repertory grid as a means to compare and contrast developmental theorists. Teaching of Psychology, 31(3), 178–180. McCall, G. J. (1988). The organizational life cycle of relationships. In S. W. Duck (Ed.), Handbook of personal relationships (pp. 467–484). Chichester, Great Britain: John Wiley and Sons. McEwen, M., & Wills, E. (2006). Theoretical basis for nursing (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Minton, H. J. (1992). Root metaphors and the evolution of American social psychology. Canadian Psychology, 33(3), 547–553.

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APPENDIX A: HBSE SW LIFE SPAN TEXTBOOKS Ashford, J. B., Lecroy, C. W., & Lortie, K. L. (2001). Human behavior in the social environment: A multidimensional perspective (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Crawford, K., & Walker, J. (2003). Social work and human development. United 920 Kingdom: Learning Matters. Furr, L. A. (1997). Exploring human behavior and the social environment. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Ganter, G., & Yeakel, M. (1980). Human behavior and the social environment: A perspective for social work practice. New York: Columbia University Press. 925 Haight, W. L., & Taylor, E. H. (2007). Human behavior for social work practice: A developmental-ecological framework. Chicago: Lyceum Books. Hutchison, E. D. (1999). Dimensions of human behavior: The life course. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Lesser, J. G., & Pope, D. S. (2007). Human behavior and the social environment: 930 Theory and practice. Boston: Pearson Education. Longres, J. F. (2000). Human behavior in the social environment (3rd ed.). Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers. Pillari, V. (1998). Human behavior in the social environment: The developing person in a holistic context. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 935 Rogers, A. T. (2006). Human behavior in the social environment. New York: McGrawHill. Specht, R., & Craig, G. J. (1987). Human development: A social work perspective (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Zastrow, C., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2007). Understanding human behavior and the 940 social environment (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

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