Athenian grain trade was a fairly wealthy man known as Demosthenes. Demosthenes ..... whole land of Babylon, like Egypt, is cut across by canals. The greatest ...
The Impact of Necessity: The Athenian Grain Trade: Politics, Economy and Sustenance
Jennifer Titus, 2011 Faculty Mentor: Dr. Stacey Davis
Introduction The ancient Athenian grain trade in the Mediterranean and Black seas during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE greatly affected Athenian politics, internal regulation, diplomacy and colonial expansion. Due to the society’s need to feed a large population during the height of its power, most of Athens’s political and colonial decisions were focused on securing a constant supply of grain into its harbor. Addressing this concept of necessity and its impact is important in understanding the drive behind Athens’s need to form alliances such as the Delian League and to colonize several areas around the Mediterranean and Black seas. Factors such as environment, geography, warfare, famine and disease also play an important part in Athens’s need to go outside of its borders in order to supply its populace with the much-needed subsistence. The most impactful of these explanations include the very mountainous terrain of the area, the lack of fertile fields, an arid climate and a very large population size that included male citizens, their families, slaves and metics, or foreigners. As Classical Athens developed and grew, these aspects combined to create a desperate and driving need for that which it could not provide itself: grain. In order to compensate for their lack, Ancient Athens traded with, taxed and colonized other areas of the Mediterranean world including Italy, Northern Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Northern Coast of the Black Sea. As this was a major undertaking, many laws and edicts as well as diplomatic and colonial policies were influenced by this need to obtain enough grain to feed a massive population that had overgrown the area’s carrying capacity. As we take a closer look at the conversations, primary and secondary evidence, environmental aspects environmental aspects and political state of the Mediterranean, it will become evident that necessity was the driving force behind the Athenian government’s actions during the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E.
Historical Background One of the main arguments about the Athenian grain trade seems to center on the traditional split down the middle of the Mediterranean Basin between Greco-Roman and Near Eastern/ Egyptian worlds, and how this split influenced trade and supply. Another
main question is how the grain trade was funded; whether it was from private loans of the rich, funded from the government’s coffers, or both. Some arguments revolve around the population and household size during the 4th and 5th centuries, including how many people Attica could support without outside supply and aid. Other aspects of concern include geographic factors, diplomacy and regulations, the honors and awards given to those citizens who contribute to the grain coffers, and also on who benefited the most from the Athenian grain trade. After taking a closer look at these conversations and the experts who are participating in them, it becomes evident that many aspects of the ancient civilization of Athens were greatly influenced by its inability to feed its massive population. One of the first things that need to be known about Ancient Greece, particularly Attica, is that the environment is fairly dry and arid. Its geography is mostly mountainous, with very few fertile fields. These geographic and climatic factors make it extremely hard to produce a large, abundant supply of crops such as wheat or barley. As these grains are a major food source in the Mediterranean, most of coastal Greece was required to trade with outside sources in order to feed their populations.1 During the height of its power, Athens was believed to have almost 200,000 people including citizens and their families. If this number is added to with the varying amounts of foreign traders, seamen, and workers that would travel in and out of the city at any given time, the population is staggering for the ancient world. When one considers that that the estimated amount of people that that the Athenian fields could supply food enough for is perhaps 60,000-70,000, it is easy to see that a very grave situation arose.2 The need to avoid the consequences of running out of grain to feed its massive population became a driving force in all of Athenian politics, diplomacy, trade and colonialism. It is believed that the city of Athens created the first form of government that resembles our modern democracy. Although the Athenian government was only made up of land-owning male citizens, it is considered a democracy because of the way it was run. Eligible men would be elected by those that were able to vote for set term periods. They 1
Churchill Semple, Ellen. “Geographic Factors in the Ancient Mediterranean Grain Trade.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 11 (1921): 47-74. Print. 2 Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis. Peter Garnsey. Pg. 90. Cambridge University Press. 1988. Print.
would hold elections for many different civil positions including such things as senators, magistrates and local government offices. Much as our legislature does today, these elected officials, especially those in the Senate would debate and pass various legislation including laws, taxes and edicts. The Athenian Law Courts would hear civil suits and interpret the passed legislation on an individual case basis3. Many of the cases, their outcomes and the public speeches that took place within the court were recorded on papyrus and stored away for archaeologists to find over 2,300 years later. There were many laws, edicts and taxes passed that were specifically in regards to the grain trade and the Athenian need to feed its very large population. As such, many of the recorded court cases can give us evidence to just how important full grain silos were. The Athenians traded with different peoples all over the Mediterranean and Black seas. The grain trade was perhaps the most important economic issue during the Classical era. Of all the commodities that came in and out of the Athenian harbor of Piraeus, grain was the only one that was officially government controlled. They monitored the price, the measurements, who could buy and sell at what time, and what the maximum amount a single person could possess was. They also monitored and enforced special grain related taxes and laws that were only applied to the grain dealers. All other trade goods were controlled by merchant guilds or organizations within the trader community. Large shipments of grain were funded by both government and private coffers and being a grain trader could be one of the most beneficial yet lethal trades during this period. Aside from the usual dangers of sailing across the Mediterranean and Black seas including storms, war, pirates and navigational errors, many of the laws that governed the grain trade could be lethal as well.4 However, there were many bonuses besides the profit to be had if a grain trader was successful. Athens often awarded public honors to those private citizens who donated a supply of either funds to obtain grain or even grain itself, especially during a shortage or famine.
3
Lecture on Classical Athens – The Classical World - Thomas Rainey – The Evergreen State College – Spring Quarter 2009-2010. th th Various speeches recorded in the law courts during the 5 and 4 Centuries B.C.E. such as Demosthenes, Lysias and the writings of Herodotus and Aristotle. 4
Participating in the Athenian grain trade was one of the most important, risky but rewarding occupations that a trader could undertake5.
The Primary Sources We have numerous forms of primary sources from the era of Classical Athens. Archaeologists and historians have uncovered recorded speeches, written treatises such as those by Aristotle and Herodotus, government documents, building structures, coins and artwork. These many sources provide us with an excellent view of the Mediterranean life, including the Athenian grain trade and its impact on the 5th and 4th century B.C.E. society. One of the most numerous primary sources that we have from this era of time is inscribed public speeches, especially those from the courts of law. Originally recorded in Greek and transcribed onto clay tablets or papyrus sheets, these speeches have survived, mostly in bits and pieces, throughout the ages. Luckily enough for this research project, the Athenian grain trade seems to have been a prominent subject in the courts as well as public speeches. Many of these speeches were given in front of either a court or senate and thus were recorded and preserved as government information. Considering how prominent a topic the grain trade and the laws that are associated with it is within these speeches we learn how important a driving force it was for the Athenian government’s policies. Perhaps one of the most prominent voices from this era that we have on the Athenian grain trade was a fairly wealthy man known as Demosthenes. Demosthenes addresses several aspects of the grain trade in his speeches before the jury and often mentions the laws of Athens regarding the subject, sometimes quoting it verbatim. In his speech “Against Lacritus”, recorded around 351-338 B.C.E., he quotes a law regarding the illegality to either ship or lend money for grain going to another port other than Athens’ harbor, the Piraeus: “It shall be unlawful for any Athenian or any alien residing at Athens or for any person over whom they have control, to lend money on any vessel which is not going to bring to 5
Engen, Darel. Honor and profit: Athenian trade policy and the economy and society of Greece, 415-307 B.C.E. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010. Print.
Athens grain or the other articles specifically mentioned. And if any man lends out money contrary to this decree, information and an account of the money shall be laid before the harbor-masters in the same manner as is provided in regard to the ship and the grain. And he shall have no right to bring action for the money which he has lent for a voyage to any other place than to Athens, and no magistrate shall bring any such suit to trial.” 6
This quoted law gives us a hint as to how important it was for the Athenian government to keep all shipments of grain and money provided for them headed for the Piraeus harbor. Demosthenes gives us another hint into the laws covering the Athenian grain trade in his speech “Against Phormio” during which he discusses the crimes of a man for transporting grain to any other port than Athens. “...the laws have prescribed the severest penalties if anyone resident at Athens should transport grain to any other place than to the Athenian market; besides, he did this at a critical time, when those of you who dwelt in the city were having their barley-meal measured out to them in the Odeum, and those who dwelt in Peiraeus were receiving their loaves at an obol each in the dockyard and in the longporch, having their meal measured out to them a gallon at a time, and being nearly trampled to death.” 7 This quote also paints a very dramatic picture of Athenian life when the grain was in short supply, even for the men in the Council and on the Jury. It is occurrences such as the one mentioned above that helped to create the very direct Athenian grain laws and the severe punishments associated with them. Perhaps the most interesting piece of information that Demosthenes gives us is a personal story about a grain trader and his partner who defied both of the aforementioned laws at once. In his speech, “Against Dionysodorus”, Demosthenes tells a tale of how he and several other money lenders made a loan to one Dionysodorus to obtain grain from Egypt and bring it back to the harbor during a time of shortage. However, the deal did 6
“Against Lacritus” Section 51 -Demosthenes. Demosthenes with an English translation by A. T. Murray, Ph.D., LL.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1939. 7 “Against Phormio” Section 37 - Demosthenes. Demosthenes with an English translation by A. T. Murray, Ph.D., LL.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1939.
not go as planned and the two culprits involved ended up breaking the moneylending deal as well as several of the most severe laws that governed the Athenian grain trade. A quotation from sections 9 and 10 of this speech can give us an idea of just how appalled Demosthenes is over the whole situation. “[9] Well then, when these men despatched their ship from Athens, they left the price of grain here pretty high, and for this reason they submitted to have the clause written in the agreement binding them to sail to Athens and to no other port. Afterwards, however, men of the jury, when the ships from Sicily had arrived, and the prices of grain here were falling, and their ship had reached Egypt, the defendant straightway sent a man to Rhodes to inform his partner Parmeniscus of the state of things here, well knowing that his ship would be forced to touch at Rhodes. [10] The outcome was that Parmeniscus, the defendant's partner, when he had received the letter sent by him and had learned the price of grain prevailing here, discharged his cargo of grain at Rhodes and sold it there in defiance of the agreement, men of the jury, and of the penalties to which they had of their own will bound themselves, in case they should commit any breach of the agreement, and in contempt also of your laws which ordain that shipowners and supercargoes shall sail to the port to which they have agreed to sail or else be liable to the severest penalties.” 8
The words that Demosthenes uses such as “contempt”, “severest” and “defiance” as well as the overall underlying tone shows that the culprits had done something extremely illegal as well as immoral to the Athenian society’s point of view. Due to his participation in both the grain trade and the courts of law, Demosthenes is an excellent primary source for information on how they were intertwined as well as how large an influence the need for grain had on Athenian law and trade. Another public speaker that emerges in the Ancient Athenian law courts regarding the grain trade is a man by the name of Lysias. In his speech “Against the GrainDealers”, Lysias portrays an excellent picture of the state of the grain trade, its influence on the people and the law and the corruptness that can be found in any business. For example, in Section 2 of his speech, Lysias mentions, 8
“Against Dionysodorus” Sections 9 & 10 - Demosthenes. Demosthenes with an English translation by Norman W. DeWitt, Ph.D., and Norman J. DeWitt, Ph.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1949.
“…the anger felt against them (grain dealers) was such that some of the orators said that they ought to be handed over without trial to the Eleven, for the penalty of death.” 9
This line is strong evidence towards the feeling that the grain dealers had become corrupt and were extremely disliked amongst the Athenian population. There was most likely good reason for this resentment; however it may not have been only the grain traders themselves who were at fault. In Section 5, Lysias questions a metic grain trader, who was on trial for breaking an important grain law, “Tell me, sir, are you a resident alien? Yes. Do you reside as an alien to obey the city's laws, or to do just as you please? To obey. Must you not, then, expect to be put to death, if you have committed a breach of the laws for which death is the penalty? I must. Then answer me: do you acknowledge that you bought up (grain) in excess of the fifty measures which the law sets as the limit? I bought it up on an order from the magistrates.” 10 This small tidbit provides us with information on how the Athenian law prevented any one person from hoarding massive amounts of grain to sell later at extorted prices in a time of need. This quote also offers us a look into the severe penalties that were associated with dealing corruptly in such an important aspect of life. It also tells us that the magistrates in charge of the grain trade held an enormous amount of power, allowing men to break the law on their order. Further proof of this can be found in the next section when Lysias tells the court “if he proves that there is a law which orders the (grain)dealers to buy up the (grain) on an order from the magistrates, acquit him: if not, it is just that you should condemn him.” 11 As the court case continues and more evidence and testimony is revealed, it becomes apparent that the grain dealers were not acting on an order from the magistrates but instead were out to make an enormous profit on the city’s woes.
9
“Against the Grain Dealers” Section 2 - Lysias. Lysias with an English translation by W.R.M. Lamb, M.A. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1930. 10 “Against the Grain-Dealers” Section 5 - Lysias. Lysias with an English translation by W.R.M. Lamb, M.A. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1930. 11 “Against the Grain-Dealers” Section 6 - Lysias. Lysias with an English translation by W.R.M. Lamb, M.A. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1930.
“[12] If they were doing this for your benefit, they ought to have been found selling it at the same price for a number of days, until the stock that they had bought up was exhausted. But in fact they were selling at a profit of a drachma several times in the same day, as though they were buying by the medimnus at a time.” 12 As further evidence of this, Section 14 of Lysias speech gives us a hint as to the extent that these corrupted grain dealers would go to influence the grain prices. “[14] For their interests are the opposite of other men's: they make most profit when, on some bad news reaching the city, they sell their (grain) at a high price. And they are so delighted to see your disasters that they either get news of them in advance of anyone else, or fabricate the rumor themselves; now it is the loss of your ships in the Black Sea, now the capture of vessels on their outward voyage by the Lacedaemonians, now the blockade of your trading ports, or the impending rupture of the truce; and they have carried their enmity to such lengths that they choose the same critical moments as your foes to overreach you.” 13
Not only does this section give us a taste of the grain market and those who deal within it, it also offers us a lot more information about the Athenian grain trade and its influence on the local laws and regulations as well as outside diplomacy, trade and colonialism. Just this small portion alone tells us that they received grain from the Black Sea area, that those shipments were vulnerable to pirate attacks, that the harbor itself was susceptible to blockades and that there was a precarious balance to the treaties that Athens held with other areas. Lysias gives us further hints on the importance of the grain trade in Section 16 where he mentions, “…while for the sale of all other commodities you have appointed the market-clerks as controllers, for this trade alone you elect special (grain)-controllers by lot; and often you have been known to inflict the extreme penalty on those officials, who were citizens, for having failed to defeat the villainy of these men.” 14 12
“Against the Grain-Dealers” Section 12 - Lysias. Lysias with an English translation by W.R.M. Lamb, M.A. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1930. 13 ebenda 14 ebenda
As Lysias brings his accusations to a close, he reminds the Jury that “suits of this kind are of the closest concern to the people of our city; and hence they will inquire what view you take of such matters.” 15 The entirety of Lysias’s speech “Against the Grain Dealers” is an outstanding window into the 5th and 4th century B.C.E. grain trade, its laws, the people who dealt with them and how they were influenced by the drive that providing their population with enough grain created. Another documented instance that is worth mentioning is Andocides speech, “On his Return”, most likely delivered before the Athenian Council. In Section’s 20 and 21, Andocides gives us another hint as to how important the grain trade was to the prosperity of Athens and also how vulnerable the city was to outside plots against them. “[20] I need not remind you, I imagine, how you received news that no grain was to be exported to Athens from Cyprus. Now I was able to handle the situation with such effect that the persons who had formed the plot and put it into execution were frustrated. [21] It is of no importance that you should know how this was done; what I do wish you to know is that the ships on the point of putting in to the Peiraeus at this moment with a cargo of grain number no less than fourteen; while the remainder of the convoy which sailed from Cyprus will arrive in a body shortly after them.” 16 In this speech, it is obvious that Andocides expects to be taken in as a hero for his efforts to bring the grain shipment in from the island of Cyprus and for foiling the plots of the city’s enemies. It also gives us an idea of the number of grain ships that it took in a single shipment to feed the Athenian population of almost 200,000 people17 and that Cyprus was another location from where the city received regular shipments of grain. The public speeches made before the Ancient Athenian Councils and courts tell us much about the society during the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E. Their recorded text mentions many different aspects of the Athenian grain trade. These speeches mention laws and regulations such as the law against transporting grain purchased with Athenian 15
“Against the Grain-Dealers” Section 19 - Lysias. Lysias with an English translation by W.R.M. Lamb, M.A. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1930. 16 “On His Return” Sections 20 & 21 - Andocides. Minor Attic Orators in two volumes 1, Antiphon Andocides, with an English translation by K. J. Maidment, M.A. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1968. 17 Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis. Peter Garnsey. Pg. 90. Cambridge University Press. 1988. Print.
funds to any other port other than the Piraeus or the death penalty for anyone who hoarded more than the maximum allotted amount of grain. They also tell us locations where grain was obtained on a regular basis such as Cyprus, Egypt, and colonial areas along the northern coast of the Black Sea. The speeches given in front of the courts and other public venues also mention costs of grain, market measurements, shipment sizes, voyage durations, the names of grain traders, and much more. By analyzing these speeches we can begin to understand the extent that the need for grain had on the many different aspects of Athenian politics, diplomacy and colonialism. Another form of primary documents that is extremely useful when analyzing the era of Classical Athens are the famous writings from those such as Herodotus and Aristotle as well as the little known ones from those such as Diodorus Siculus. Written on papyrus parchment and preserved by various means combined with sheer luck, these documents provide us with an enormous amount of information about the past. In Herodotus’ Histories, he makes several comments about the grain trade, Athens and foreign suppliers. In Book 1, Chapter 193, Herodotus describes the grain rich foreign lands and the environments that make them so fertile. In just this one short chapter we learn a great deal about the lands where the Greeks received much of their grain supply, “[1] There is little rain in Assyria. This nourishes the roots of the grain; but it is irrigation from the river that ripens the crop and brings the grain to fullness. In Egypt, the river itself rises and floods the fields; in Assyria, they are watered by hand and by swinging beams.1 [2] For the whole land of Babylon, like Egypt, is cut across by canals. The greatest of these is navigable: it runs towards where the sun rises in winter, from the Euphrates to another river, the Tigris, on which stood the city of Ninus. This land is by far the most fertile in grain which we know. [3] It does not even try to bear trees, fig, vine, or olive, but Demeter's grain is so abundant there that it yields for the most part two hundred fold, and even three hundred fold when the harvest is best. The blades of the wheat and barley there are easily four fingers broad; [4] and for millet and sesame, I will not say to what height they grow, though it is known to me; for I am well aware that even what I have said
regarding grain is wholly disbelieved by those who have never visited Babylonia.” 18
From this chapter learn that areas of Assyria, Egypt and Babylon are three very important grain rich areas. We now know that in Assyria the crops were irrigated by hand while in Egypt the Nile River provided the much needed irrigation water. We have also learned that Babylonia is the richest in grain producing areas to the extent where those from Greece disbelieve that such a fertile land and harvest could exist. The information that Babylon is so fertile that it does not even bother with the more arid crops such as olives or figs but cultivates the much more water intensive grain crop instead is also provided. Herodotus even goes to the extent of describing the width of the grain blades and the height of the millet and sesame plants. By his description and the words that he chooses to use, Herodotus implies that while many of the Eastern Mediterranean countries with which Greece trades are fertile and abundant, the lands of Greece are very much less so, to the extent that the majority of the populace cannot even conceive of such prosperity. Another source that is worth mentioning is the Library accumulated by Diodorus Siculus. In this rather large collection, Diodorus Siculus describes in great detail many battles and the happenings before and after. In these descriptions the writer includes many instances of armies preparing for siege, movement, battle and the spoils afterwards. In almost all of these cases when the supplies needed for these endeavors are mentioned, grain is the foremost of importance. For example, in Book 14, Chapter 63 Diodorus writes, “…into them he brought wine and grain and all other provisions, believing that the siege would continue a long time. [4] He also dispatched merchant ships to Sardinia and Libya to secure grain and every kind of food.” 19
We now know that Sardinia and Libya are two more places with which Greece received the ever important grain supply. We also receive another hint as to just how 18
The Histories – Chapter 193 - Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Library Book 14 Chapter 63 - Diodorus Siculus. Diodorus of Sicily in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation by C. H. Oldfather. Vol. 4-8. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. 19
important grain is when it comes to survival as close analysis shows that it is consistently and specifically mentioned over other types of food and provisions. Another excellent tidbit we receive from Diodorus is in Book 15, Chapter 34 where he describes a naval battle which began over a shipment of grain, “Pollis, the admiral of the Lacedaemonians, learning that a large shipment of grain was on its way to Athens in freighters, lay in wait watching for the grain fleet as it put in to port, intending to attack the freighters. The Athenian people, being informed of this, sent out a convoy to guard the grain in transit, which in fact brought it safe to the Peiraeus.” 20
From this section, we learn that the Lacedaemonians once again were attempting piracy of a grain fleet and in response the Athenian’s sent out a military convoy in order to thwart that attempt. This gives us further evidence that grain was an extremely important commodity during this era considering that the Lacedaemonians would risk attacking such a large merchant convoy and that the Athenians would risk their military vessels in order to protect it. The importance of and need for grain is also mentioned by Aristotle in his famous book, Economics. In Book 2, Section 1348b, Aristotle mentions an incident where a certain city traded a large quantity of oil, a commodity they had in abundance, in order to receive the grain it needed to survive, “The people of Clazomenae, suffering from dearth of grain and scarcity of funds, passed a resolution that any private citizens who had stores of oil should lend it to the State at interest; [20] this being a produce which their land bears in abundance. The loan arranged, they hired vessels and sent them to the depots whence they obtained their grain, [and bought a consignment] on security of the value of the oil.” 21
20
Library Book 15 Chapter 34 - Diodorus Siculus. Diodorus of Sicily in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation by C. H. Oldfather. Vol. 4-8. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. 21 Economics Section 1348b - Aristotle. Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 18, translated by G.C. Armstrong. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1935.
A very telling section of Aristotle’s Economics begins further on in Book 2, Section 1348b, and continues into Section 1349a, where he mentions the economics of the grain trade during certain instances, “The people of Selybria had a law, passed in time of famine, which forbade the export of grain. On one occasion, however, they were in need of funds; and as they possessed large stores of grain, they passed a resolution that citizens should deliver up their grain to the state at the regular fixed price, [1349a] [1] each retaining for himself a year's supply. They then granted right of export to any who desired it, fixing what they deemed a suitable price.” 22 Another instance that Aristotle mentions the necessity of grain and the economics connected with it is in Book 2 Section 1351a where he mentions an aspect of the grain tax, “and when grain was sold, buyer and seller were each to contribute, apart from the price, one obol per artabe1”. 23 By implementing such a specific tax only on the grain trade gives evidence that grain had a significant importance to Athenian society that no other commodity had during this era. Written documents such as those by Herodotus, Aristotle and Diodorus are excellent primary sources for information about the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E. Not only do they give us the details on such things as the grain trade, they also provide us with a taste of how such things influenced the societal and public train of thought. By mining these treasures of historical text, we can learn so much about the ancient cultures, and the influences that the need for grain had which formed Athenian political and regulatory policies, foreign relations and the colonization of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Building structures and city plans can also provide us with much information on the ancient Athenian society. Architectural structures such as grain silos and interior storage rooms can give us an idea on not only the importance of grain as a form of sustenance, but also city population size, the size of neighborhoods and city sections as well as household or villa sizes. By taking a look at the layout of the buildings and the location of certain aspects within them, we can decipher quite a bit of information about the necessity of an adequate grain supply and what that entails. 22
Economics Section 1348b & 1349a - Aristotle. Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 18, translated by G.C. Armstrong. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1935. 23 Economics Section 1351a - Aristotle. Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 18, translated by G.C. Armstrong. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1935.
As an example of the typical grain silo that could be found around the Attica area is the Eleusis, Peisistratid Grain Silo24 that can be found near the Greater Propylon section of Athens. Built between ca. 550 BC - 510 BC this silo is typical of many that can be found around the Mediterranean and Black Seas during this era. A simple oblong shaped building measuring about almost 10 meters in width and nearly 30 meters in length was extremely easy to build and use. By taking a look at this uncomplicated building plan we can see that the storage of grain was an everyday mundane occurrence that did not necessarily require a complex or sophisticated building. On the other hand we can compare it to the Eleusis, Hypostyle Silo also known as the Siori, which was located east of the Telesterion and within the Periclean wall of the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore.25 Built by Pericles between 450 and 425 B.C.E., this triangular shaped silo would be used to hold the very first of the grain harvested within the few local Athenian fields. This is significant because it shows the honor and sacrifice that the Greeks believed was due the Gods, their temples and their priests and priestesses. By supplying the temple stores with the first acquisition of grain, they not only ensured the approval of their Gods they also provided many of the less fortunate with a sure supply of food as the temples were often generous when it came to feeding the poor and destitute.26 Another excellent example of building structures where smaller amounts of grain were stored is within the private homes of citizens. Many public houses are very similar to those exist throughout the more crowded areas of Athens. These buildings typically had smaller apartment style living areas surrounding central court close and were enough together to have a shared wall. The fact that these houses had individual storage areas for grain and other supplies also gives us an idea of the amount of sustenance needed to feed the average household. Another aspect of architecture that has been discovered is similar to this stone standard for grain measure found at the East Propylaea in Labraunda, 24 Plan, Eleusis, Peisistratid Grain Silo - C. H. Smith 1989, based on Travlos (artist), in L.D. Loukopoulos 1973 overleaf Telesterion phases based on J. Travlos, The Palace at Eleusis, ArchEph 1950-51 fig. 10, in A.W. Lawrence1983 335 fig.328 25 Plan, Eleusis, Hypostyle Silo - C. H. Smith 1989, based on Travlos (artist), in L.D. Loukopoulos 1973 overleaf Telesterion phases based on J. Travlos, The Palace at Eleusis, ArchEph 1950-51 fig. 10, in A.W. Lawrence1983 335 fig.328 26 Odysseus, Oedipus and Antigone.
Turkey.27 These measuring blocks were used all across the Ancient Mediterranean grain routes. Finding these kinds of tools can give us a hint to the extent of the grain trade routes and also that the amounts were standardized across the board. The ancient building designs of the storage facilities can tell us a great deal about the need for grain in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E. The information provided by analyzing the size, shape and location of these grain storage facilities can tell us about the importance of a given area or portion of the harvest, the amount of grain that was needed to feed the population and the amount needed to feed a household. These numbers can indicate just how many grain shipments were required in order to keep the supply of subsistence at a healthy level by comparing the amount of square footage of storage space within the silos with the square footage available on the average grain ship. Analyzing the images that a government body chooses to display on their coinage is another excellent way for us to gage the importance of certain aspects of the economy or society. Athens does not seem to have displayed grain images upon their coins. Instead the olive branch, crown or tree appears quite frequently. In other areas of the Mediterranean, however, the image of grain kernels, sheaves and decorative crowns or wreaths can be found in abundance. Other regions of Greece such as Thessaly, Boeotia and the Argolid featured the use of grain in several different ways. This coin from Thessaly features a kernel of grain in the center of the reverse side.28 It was minted in silver around 465 B.C.E. and was issued by the Thessalian League which was a constant competitor of Athens. Another example of grain featuring prominently on a Greek coin is from the Boeotia area. This coin is from the Argolid region and was minted in silver around 350 B.C.E. It features the head of the goddess Demeter crowned in a wreath of grain on the obverse side and a wreath of grain surrounding an *E symbol on the reverse.29 Coins from other areas include some from Sicily, Crete, Egypt and the Pontus region of the Black Sea all featuring different aspects of the grain harvest. By taking a 27
Stone standard for grain measure at East Propylaea, Labraunda - Photograph by Don Keller, summer 1991 28 Photograph by Maria Daniels, courtesy of the Dewing Greek Numismatic Foundation, September 1990 29 Head of Demeter, profile to the left, wearing grain wreath - Photograph by Maria Daniels, courtesy of the Dewing Greek Numismatic Foundation, September 1990. *E within grain wreath - Photograph by Maria Daniels, courtesy of the Dewing Greek Numismatic Foundation, September 1990
look at the various regions that display grain on their coin’s faces we can get an idea of those areas where it was an important cash crop. Areas within Greece such as Thessaly did not have quite as large a population as Athens and had more fertile fields. Regions such as Sicily and Crete also had smaller populations and a more climatic environment for grain. In places such as Egypt and Tripoli along the North African coast, rivers kept the grain fields fertile and abundant. Similar conditions existed in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea Areas. The fact that many of these regions portrayed either Demeter or the grain itself on their coinage gives evidence to the importance of one of their major exports, grain. Artwork is another important area for analysis when researching the importance of a certain aspect on a society. The images of grain appear on vases, sculptures and building freezes from the Attica region. This Attic Red Figure vase from Athens around 440 – 430 B.C.E. depicts the Goddess Demeter gifting grain and agriculture to the Greek Triptolemos. This scene is a popular one and can be found in several different renditions during the Classical period. There are many other vases done in the Attic Red Figure style used in the classical period of Athens that show a depiction of this much needed sustenance. Images of grain feature prominently in scenes of festivals, feasts, religious celebrations, court gifts and in images of the Goddess Demeter. There were also many building freezes where the Goddess Demeter is portrayed either gifting grain to the Greeks or crowned in a wreath of grain stalks. Images of festivals or other public gatherings where grain is depicted in various forms can be found on this type of Attic artwork from the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E giving further evidence as to the importance and influence that grain had on their society. Many of these building freezes are similar to this one displayed in the Athens Museum. The small girl depicted to the left of the image holds a stalk of grain in her hand that is as tall as she is. There are many other freezes that find their home within museums across the world however the images of them are not available to the public. The many diverse and extensive primary sources that can be found all over the Mediterranean paint a colorful and clear picture of the importance and the impact that the ancient grain trade had on cities and societies, such as that of Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E. The grain trade was a necessary burden on Athens and its people, as
evidenced by the corruption and greed of the traders, as well as the generosity of Athens’ richest citizens in time of need. By analyzing the primary sources closely, one can trace the path that Athens took from a smaller city to a huge Empire with hundreds of thousands of people to feed in its capital city alone.
Conclusions There can be several major conclusions drawn from the primary sources combined with the previous research done on the Athenian grain trade in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E. These conclusions are based on the evidence provided by years of previous research and the efforts at excavation and archiving by universities and museums around the world. They are also based on information gathered from the writings and records of the Classical Athenian era by those such as Herodotus, Aristotle, and the many court reports that were gathered on papyrus paper over the stretch of 200 years. With this pool of information, the research into how the necessity of feeding a large population with grain impacted such things as internal regulation and law, diplomacy, trade and colonialism can be possible. The first conclusion that can be made by analyzing the vast amounts of information is that sometime within the early 5th century B.C.E., Athens population grew to a point that the surrounding fields could no longer provide for. From the research of those such as Peter Garnsey and Joseph Manning we learn that the population of the Attica proper area could have been as many as 250,000 individuals at the height of its power. That does not include the outlying areas of Attica or the harbor at the Piraeus. It is possible to decipher how many small farms that the fertile fields of Athens was divided into by taking a look at how many registered hoplites were recorded at any given time. In order to become a hoplite, a man needed to be a self-sufficient farmer of his own land and be able to purchase his own armor, weapons and equipment. By taking a look at this number and the amount of land that surrounds Athens, we can discover how many farms were producing grain at any given time. We know for a fact that these farms were inadequate to feed even half of the population that was living in Attica. The second conclusion that we can derive from the evidence is that Athens began to establish diplomatic relationships with other areas of the Mediterranean world in an
alliance known to us as the Delian League. Over time, Athens became what could easily be called an Empire and began to lean towards the tyrannical side. It began to demand taxes and contributions to its city with the excuse of supplying the Navy that protected the entire League. These taxes and contributions were usually in the form of coin, however, every area within the alliance was also required to provide a certain amount of grain each year. This fact is very good evidence that Athens was unable to supply itself with the much needed food supply and was willing to go to drastic measures in order to secure it. Yet a third conclusion is that sometime during the middle of the 5th century B.C.E. Athens began to pass harsh laws and punishments in order to ensure that the grain supply rarely fell to levels of famine and starvation. In the recorded public speeches of Demosthenes and Lysias we learn that the sentence to any who hoarded grain in time of need, bought more than the Athenian law dictates possible or in any other way withheld the much needed grain supply from the people was death. Those traders who broke agreements for shipping and payment of grain from other ports would receive extreme penalties in money, jail time and even be exiled from Athens altogether. Athenian grain law dictated who could have how much, when, and how much they were able to sell it back to either the people or the state for. Such strict control over this single commodity that was run by government officials, when all other commodities were governed by traders unions shows just how important the importation of grain was to the survival of Athens. The fourth conclusion that can be deduced from the primary and secondary sources is the many diverse and exotic lands with which Athens traded for grain. From the public speeches of Demosthenes, Lysias and Andocides combined with the writings of Herodotus, Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus we receive a very large list of places such as Egypt, Sicily, Crete, North and South coasts of the Black Sea, Tripoli, the Pontus area, Babylon and Assyria. There is also evidence that the grain fleets that sailed from these areas into the Piraeus harbor were extremely large and could easily number into the 20’s or 30’s per fleet. Thanks to several instances in both Lysias’ speeches and the writings of Diodorus Siculus, we learn that the trading routes for grain were not always safe and that the Lacedaemonians were extremely dangerous in their piracy of the grain merchants.
The primary and secondary sources regarding the Athenian grain trade are diverse and extensive in their evidence. When one considers the lack of grain supply, the laws and regulations that the Athenian government created, the extent and range of the grain trading routes, the massive population and the large trading fleets that were mentioned in the primary sources, it is obvious that the grain trade had an extreme impact on the Athenian people and their society. These conclusions and the evidence which supports them makes it a strong argument that the impact of necessity that the lack of grain caused was a driving force behind Athens’ diplomacy, regulation and colonialism during the height of its power in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C.E.
Bibliography Monographs Austin, M, and P. Vidal-Naquet. Economic and social history of ancient Greece: an introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Bascom, Willard. Deep water, ancient ships: the treasure vault of the Mediterranean. 1st ed. Garden City N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Biers, William R. The Archaeology of Greece. Second. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1996. Print. Braudel, Fernand. Memory and the Mediterranean. 1st Ed. New York: A.A. Knopf, 2001. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Cartledge, Paul. Ancient Greece: A History in Eleven Cities. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print. Curtin, Philip D. Cross-cultural trade in world history. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Engen, Darel. Honor and profit: Athenian trade policy and the economy and society of Greece, 415-307 B.C.E. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010. Print. Finley, Moses. The Ancient economy: updated edition. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California press, 1999. Print. Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece, and Rome: civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean. Oxford;; New York;: Oxford University Press, 1996. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Garnsey, Peter. Trade in the ancient economy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Print. Garnsey, Peter. Famine and food supply in the Graeco-Roman world: responses to risk and crisis. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire];; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Print. Greene, Kevin. The archaeology of the Roman economy. 1st ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Print. Hasebroek, Johannes. Trade and Politics in Ancient Greece. New York, NY: Biblo and Tannen, 1965. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Manning, Joseph. The ancient economy: evidence and models. Stanford Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005. Print. Rouge, Jean. Ships and Fleets of the Ancient Mediterranean. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1981. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Scheidel, Walter. The Cambridge economic history of the Greco-Roman world. Cambridge UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print. Winks, Robin, and Susan P. Mattern-Parkes. The ancient Mediterranean world: from the Stone Age to A.D. 600. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print. 30 Dec. 2010. Whitley, James. The Archaeology of Ancient Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Print.
Journal Articles Dunham, Wayne. “Cold Case Files: The Athenian Grain Merchants, 386 B.C.E.” CATO Journal 28.3 (2008): 495-514. Print. Churchill Semple, Ellen. “Geographic Factors in the Ancient Mediterranean Grain Trade.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 11 (1921): 47-74. Print. Krotscheck, Ulrike. “Going with the Grain: Athenian State Formation and the Question of Subsistence in the 5th and 4th Centuries BCE.” Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics (2006): n. page. Print. 12 Jan. 2011. Milne, J.G. “Trade between Greece and Egypt before Alexander the Great.” The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 25.2 (1939): 177-183. Print. Noonan, Thomas S. “The Grain Trade of the Northern Black Sea in Antiquity.” The American Journal of Philology 94.3 (1973): 231-242. Print. Roebuck, Carl. “The Grain Trade between Greece and Egypt.” Classical Philology 45.4 (1950): 236-247. Print.
