THE EFFECT OF MENTAL HEALTH PROGRAMS ON EMPLOYEE ...

Business and Management Review Vol. 2(1) pp. 27 – 38 March, 2012 Available online at http://www.businessjournalz.org/bmr

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THE EFFECT OF MENTAL HEALTH PROGRAMS ON EMPLOYEE SATISFCTION WITH BENEFIT PROGRAMS, JOBS AND, THE ORGANIZATION Yutaka Ueda (Corresponding author) Seikei University, Graduate School of Economics and Business Management 3-3-1, Kichijoji-kitamachi, Musashino-city, Tokyo 180-8633, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Hiroe Niino Seikei University, Graduate School of Economics and Business Management 3-3-1, Kichijoji-kitamachi, Musashino-city, Tokyo 180-8633, Japan E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Business organizations provide numerous mental health programs to address the various needs of their employees. This article examines whether or not these mental health programs influence employee satisfaction with benefit programs, their jobs, and the organization itself. Analysis of data collected from 2,972 Japanese employees reveals that different mental health programs have a significant positive effect on employee satisfaction. Simple t-tests reveal that employees whose organization has a medical health program or who use or are eligible to use these medical health programs have significantly higher satisfaction with their employee benefit programs, their jobs, and the organization. Further, a hierarchical regression analysis found significant direct and indirect effects of mental health programs on satisfaction measures. Keywords: mental health programs, satisfaction, Japanese employees. 1. INTRODUCTION Employee mental illness has been a recurring problem in modern organizations. According to a survey by the Japan Productivity Center, the rates of Japanese companies with more than one employee leaving a job for more than one month due a mental health issue increased from 58.5% in 2002 to 77.2% in 2008 (Japan Productivity Center, Mental Health Research Institute, 2009). Employee mental illness can cause serious harm to not only those afflicted employees but also to the organization that employs them. Many researchers have found that mental illness negatively impacts life satisfaction. For example, Guney, Kalafat, and Boysan (2010) revealed that life satisfaction had significantly negative correlations with depression, anxiety, and hopelessness scores. Rissanen et al. (2011) found the life satisfaction burden was significantly related to poor mental health. Mental illness also influences employee attitudes toward not only their personal life but also their job and the organization for which they are working. Thus, employee mental health likely influences performance and productivity. However, only a few studies to date have directly focused on the effect of mental health programs in an organization on employee work satisfaction. One exception to this is work by Tabatabaei, Hosseinian, and

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Gharanjiki (2011), who focused on interventions to improve employee mental health, identifying a positive effect of such programs on job satisfaction. This article aims to determine which employee mental health programs influence employee satisfaction with benefit programs, their job, and the organization, using data collected from Japanese employees. Although we expect to find effects of mental health programs similar to those by Tabatabaei et al., we also focus here on two further aspects of mental health and satisfaction not addressed by Tabatabaei et al. (2011). First, although organizations introduce various kinds of mental health programs, it is not yet known which mental health programs have the strongest effect on employee satisfaction. This article examines the effect of various kinds of programs associated with improving employee mental health. Secondly, not all mental health programs are open to all employees. In addition, employees do not always utilize the mental health programs available to them. Therefore, this article compares the effects of the presence of mental health programs, the availability of those programs, and the experience of using those programs on job satisfaction and satisfaction with the organization. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES As already described, few studies to date have examined the effect of mental health programs on employee satisfaction, although many studies have dealt with mental health (or mental illness) and worker satisfaction as dependent variables which are influenced by other factors. Taylor (2005) found that the relationship between job satisfaction and mental well-being was robust although both varied according to the day of the week on which respondents were interviewed. Wright and Bonett (1992) revealed that turnover had a positive effect on both work satisfaction and mental health. Payne, Jabri, and Pearson (1988) found that job demands had a complicated effect on both of mental health and job satisfaction. Neck and Manz (1996) observed that self-leadership training increased mental performance, enthusiasm, job satisfaction, and decreased nervousness. Wall and Clegg (1981) showed that group work redesign contributed to job satisfaction and mental health. Wong (2010) examined how the school culture in a kindergarten influenced teacher mental health and job satisfaction. He found that teachers in non-profit kindergartens in Hong Kong had higher job satisfaction and fewer mental health complaints than those in for-profit kindergartens. Miller (2005) also focused on the psychological well-being of minority ethnic teachers in UK, finding that they experienced poorer mental health and lower job satisfaction. Lim (2009) revealed that radiologists in the public hospital environment in New Zealand experience more work stress, a lower level of job satisfaction, and higher rates of burnout compared to those in private practice. Other researchers have considered the effect of job satisfaction on mental health. For example, Wiener, Vardi, and Muczyk (1981), Hesketh and Shouksmith (1986) and Miura et al. (2001) found that job satisfaction (and dissatisfaction) had an impact on employee mental health. Thus, even though the causal relationship between mental health and job satisfaction is not yet clear, company-sponsored mental health programs are nonetheless provided to increase employee mental health. It can be further assumed that these programs increase the psychological well-being of employees, which, in turn, leads to a positive attitude toward the job and organization-related factors. In this article, we assume that mental

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health programs will influence satisfaction with the benefit programs in the organization, job satisfaction, and satisfaction with the organization itself. Mental health programs are provided to employees as one form of benefit program in Japan, so it is easily assumed that effective mental health programs will increase employee satisfaction with the benefit programs (Otake, 2009). Mental health programs also have a positive effect on satisfaction with the organization. For example, employees perceive that their organization supports them if the organization has a sufficient mental health program, thereby signaling the organization’s concern for the employees (Eisenberger, Huntington, Huntington, & Sowa, 1986). Compared to the effect on satisfaction with benefit programs and the organization, the influence of mental health programs on job satisfaction appears to be somewhat complicated. Aside from the fact that mentally healthy employees tend to perceive situations positively, mental health programs are expected to facilitate psychological well-being. This improved psychological well-being can then improve job performance. If they perceive that they are good at performing the job, their job satisfaction would correspondingly be expected to increase. There are two kinds of effects that mental health programs are expected to have on employee attitude. First, it is expected that mental health programs will build a sense of ease even if employees have not actually taken advantage of the benefits. Second, utilizing mental health programs also confers the direct mental health benefits of the program. These different effects should be classified in an empirical study. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses regarding the effect of mental health programs on employee satisfaction. H1: The mental health programs in an organization will positively influence employee satisfaction with (H1-1) the benefit programs in the organization, (H1-2) their job, and (H1-3) the organization itself. H2: The mental health programs that employees are eligible to utilize in the organization will positively influence employee satisfaction with (H2-1) the benefit programs in the organization, (H2-2) their job, and (H2-3) the organization. H3: The experiences of utilizing mental health programs in the organization will positively influence employee satisfaction with (H3-1) the benefit programs in the organization, (H3-2) their job, and (H3-3) the organization. Before conducting an empirical study, we consider what programs contribute to employee mental health. One of the most common and effective approaches to mental health programs is to provide consultation and support for employees who suffer from mental health problems. However, employee mental health can be improved and maintained by a variety of other means. We then consider the following kinds of programs that directly or indirectly contribute to employee mental health. The examples of each category are those used for the present study (as described later): (1) Programs associated with medical support: mental health programs (in a narrow sense, consultation and other support), subsidies to cover medical costs beyond health insurance, subsidies to cover a medical checkup, and income indemnity for an injury; (2) Programs associated with temporary leave: extended leave for recuperation and long regular leave (more than one week); (3) Other individual support programs: subsidies for leisure facilities and educational programs for retirement preparation; (4) Programs associated with collectivism: subsidies for social activity, and holding or supporting company trips, company athletic festivals, and after-work parties. We contend that (1) and (2) are directly associated with employee

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mental health and that (3) and (4) are indirectly related to it. As described later, we then classify these programs into two categories, aggregating the scores in each category. 3. RESEARCH METHOD 3.1 Sample The data for this secondary analysis, Current Situation, Problems, and Direction of Benefit Programs of Japanese Companies by the Meiji Yasuda Institute of Life and Wellness, Inc. (MYILW) was provided by the Social Science Japan Data Archive, Center for Social Research and Data Archives, Institute of Social Science, The University of Tokyo in order to provide researchers opportunities to utilize the data. MYILW collected the data from permanent and part-time employees working in business organizations located in one of sixteen large, representative cities (e.g., Metropolitan Tokyo) in Japan in December 2006. These workers were randomly sampled from those registered in the database of the online research company, Macromill, based on the demographic distribution (by gender, areas, and employment status) in Japan. The final sample size was 2,972 workers (1,967 permanent workers and 1,005 part-time workers). 3.2 Measures Mental health programs. The respondents were presented 49 kinds of concrete benefit programs and asked whether or not their company had them, whether or not they were eligible to utilize them, and whether or not they had an experience using them. We identified twelve benefit programs as having a positive effect on mental health: (1) mental health programs (providing consultation for stress and distress), (2) subsidies to cover medical cost beyond health insurance, (3) subsidies to cover a medical checkup, (4) income indemnity for an injury, (5) extended leave for recuperation, (6) long regular leave (more than one week), (7) educational programs for retirement preparation, (8) subsidies to use leisure facilities, (9) subsidies for social activities, (10) holding or supporting a company trip, (11) holding or supporting company athletic festivals, and (12) holding or supporting after-work parties. Original responses regarding these benefit programs were binary ([0] “absent,” “unavailable,” or “no experience,” [1] “present,” “available,” or “experienced”). We combined these responses by category and standardized these combined values as measures of how well the companies provided each category of benefit program. Satisfaction. Three satisfaction measures were utilized for this study: satisfaction with the benefit programs, satisfaction with their job, and satisfaction with the organization itself. Satisfaction was measured with two independent items. One item was a five-point scale item ranging from [1] “unsatisfied” to [5] “satisfied.” The other items asked the respondents to rate their company programs, their job, or the organization from [0] to [100]. These items were used to provide different measures of the same aspects of respondent satisfaction. We regarded the averages of the first items and the variables divided by 20 as three satisfaction variables. The values of the Cronbach’s alphas were 0.876 for benefit program satisfaction, 0.870 for job satisfaction, and 0.877 for satisfaction with the organization. Demography variables: Information about respondent gender (male [1] or female [2]), age (real), organizational size (measured by the number of employees using seven categories ranging from [1] “less than 30” to [7]

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“10,000 or over”), and months of employment (real) was also collected. These variables were used as control variables in a hierarchical regression analysis to examine whether the remaining effect of mental health programs on satisfaction were still significant. 3.3 Analytic Process First, we conducted a two-sample t-test to examine whether the mental health programs of focus will produce significant mean differences in satisfaction measures. However, we expect comparatively high correlations between some mental health programs. We also used a hierarchical regression analysis. In this analysis, control variables such as gender, age, organizational size, and years of employment were compulsorily entered in the equation in the first step. The mental health program variables were then compulsorily entered into the equation at the second step. In the process of the hierarchical regression analysis, variables tied to mental programs were classified into two groups (see the result section for additional discussion). 4. RESULTS 4.1 The Percentages of Mental Health Programs Table 1 shows the percentages of employees who indicate that their organizations have each of the mental health programs (Present), that they are eligible to use each of them (Available), and have actually used each of them (Experienced). According to the “Present” column in Table 1, subsidies to cover a medical checkup are the most common programs (24.1%), while holding or supporting company athletic festivals is the least common (5.1%). Athletic festivals typically symbolize organizational coherence, although this is now somewhat outdated in contemporary Japanese society. Although a medical checkup is not subject to health insurance, it is included in the health examination as dictated by Japanese labor law. -------------------------Table 1 about here -------------------------4.2 Hypotheses Testing by t-test We first ignored correlations between two mental health programs and instead used t-tests to examine whether satisfaction would significantly differ by the presence/absence, availability, and direct experience with each of the mental health programs. Table 2 shows the effect of the presence of mental health programs on satisfaction measures. All the effects of mental health programs in this table are as expected. According to this table, the presence of each of the mental health programs significantly increases the mean satisfaction for benefit programs and the organization. Although the effects of three of the mental health programs on job satisfaction are not significant, the remaining nine effects are as expected. These results support H1-1 and H1-3 but only partially support H1-2. -------------------------Table 2 about here -------------------------Table 3 shows the effects of availability of mental health programs on satisfaction. All the effects of the availability of mental health programs on satisfaction with benefit programs and the organization were as predicted by the hypotheses. However, only seven of the effects on job satisfaction were significant. A mental health program that shows a non-significant result in Table 2 also shows a non-significant result in Table 3. When taken together, the results support H2-1 and H2-3 but only partially support H2-2.

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Table 4 exhibits the effects of experience with the mental health programs on satisfaction. Table 4 shows that experience with each of the mental health programs is associated with higher satisfaction with benefit programs. Experience with all but two of the mental health programs also produced higher satisfaction with the organization. However, only three of the mental health programs yielded significant effects on job satisfaction. Overall then, these results support H3-1. In contrast, H3-2 and H3-3 are only partially supported. -------------------------Table 3 about here --------------------------------------------------Table 4 about here -------------------------4.3 Hypotheses Testing by Hierarchical Regression Analyses Although t-tests show that experience with most of the mental health programs increased satisfaction, this simple method did not consider the possibility of the effect of other factors on satisfaction. For example, big organizations, which have many mental health programs, might initially employ many employees who are highly satisfied with the organization from the start. Therefore, we conducted hierarchical regression analyses to determine which mental health programs truly influence employee satisfaction. We classified the whole programs into two categories: direct mental health programs and indirect mental health programs. Direct mental health programs are directly associated with curing psychological problems and the support of such cures. Such programs include mental health programs (consultation), subsidies to cover medical costs beyond health insurance, subsidies to cover a medical checkup, income indemnity for an injury, extended leave for recuperation, and long regular leave (more than one week). Indirect mental health programs, on the other hand, indirectly improve employee mental health by instilling a sense of ease among the employees and improving human relationships in the organizations. These programs include educational programs for retirement preparation, subsidies to use leisure facilities, subsidies for social activities, holding or supporting company trips, holding or supporting company athletic festivals, and holding or supporting after-work parties. The original scores regarding mental health programs are binary, so the total scores of mental health programs in each of the two categories may be regarded as variables measuring the degree to which direct or indirect programs are provided, available, or experienced. In the hierarchical regression analysis, gender, age, organizational size, and year of employment were used as control variables and compulsorily entered at the first step. Then, two variables regarding direct and indirect mental health programs were compulsorily entered at the second step. Table 5 shows the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations regarding dependent and independent variables. (P), (A), and (E) mean presence, available, and experienced, respectively. Tables 6, 7, and 8 display the betas (standardized partial regression coefficients) of the control and independent variables, changes in the coefficients of determination, and the adjusted coefficients of determination for each of the regression equations. According to Table 5, the correlations between the direct and indirect mental health programs are relatively high. To assess the multi-collinearity between the variables, we examined the tolerance and the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF); all the VIF were under 2.00.

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Table 6 displays the effect of the presence of mental health programs. First, all three results show significant positive effects of direct and indirect mental health programs on satisfaction, although the explanatory power of the regression equations varied. Table 7, which shows the results regarding the availability of mental health programs, and Table 8, which depicts that of experience with the mental health programs, are similar to Table 6. The betas for the mental health programs are significant and positive in all of the regression equations. Taken together, these results uniformly support H1, H2, and H3. -------------------------Table 5 about here --------------------------------------------------Tables 6–8 about here -------------------------5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This article focuses on the effect of mental health programs on employee satisfaction. As already described, many of the analyses support our hypotheses. Although many individual mental health programs do not influence job satisfaction, the aggregated scores regarding direct and indirect mental health programs do significantly impact job satisfaction, consistent with our hypotheses. These findings provide important insights into how these mental health programs influence employee perspectives. It is easy to imagine that the employees’ mental health would improve if they actually used these programs. However, even if they have not used the programs, they are still eligible for them and they may therefore feel relieved and have higher satisfaction with both their benefit programs and the organization. Further, even if they are not eligible to use the programs, the programs nonetheless symbolize the organization’s high status in society and represent its quality treatment of employees. Focusing on the large effect of “the presence” of mental health as this study has reveals that it is especially important to further pursue such considerations when it comes to mental health programs. The findings regarding the weaker influence of individual mental health programs on job satisfaction also suggest that further research should address how mental health programs affect employee attitudes. Some past studies have assumed that mental health programs contribute to the positive outlooks of employees, which in turn facilitate job satisfaction. If this assumption was correct, then employee satisfaction would increase consistently regardless of the various elements that employee are satisfied with. This is not the case however. We believe that this difference reflects the difference of perceived distance between mental health programs and the elements that employees are satisfied with. In fact, the perceived relatedness of mental health programs to the job might be more distant than that to the whole benefit programs and the organization. The effect of mental health programs as a symbol is stronger when satisfaction is more related to the objects of concern. Despite some important findings, this article has some limitations that should be mentioned and addressed in future research. First, the range of mental health programs was arbitrarily determined in this study. It will be important therefore to also consider a sufficiently wide range of mental health programs. The effects on employee mental health are of course complicated so the selections of the present research do not necessarily serve as the defining range of relevant programs. Second, each of the satisfaction measures was composed of

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only a two-item scale and is therefore too simple to truly measure employee satisfaction. More items should be used to address them comprehensively (Fields, 2002). Third, although the hierarchical regression analyses with the stepwise method do show some differences in the predictive powers of each of the mental health programs on employee satisfaction, this method is somewhat simplistic because it ignores potentially important mediators and moderators. As described above, the effect on job satisfaction might be more complicated and adequate mediators between the programs and job satisfaction will reveal how the former is, or is not, influential to the latter. In particular, some demographic variables like gender and age should be considered as moderators. For example, the importance of some mental health programs such as the educational program for retirement preparation may differ between young and old employees. REFERENCES Burke, R. J. (1969). Effect of aging on engineer’s satisfaction and mental health: Skill obsolescence, Academy of Management Journal, 12(4), 479-486. Dwyer, D. J., & Ganster, D. C. (1991). The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12(7), 595-608. doi: 10.1002/job.4030120704 Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Huntington, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support, Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500 –507. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.500 Fields, D. L. (2002). Taking the Measure of Work: A Guide to Validated Scales for Organizational Research and Diagnosis, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hesketh, B., & Shouksmith, G. (1986). Job and non-job activities, job satisfaction and mental health among veterinarians, Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 7(4), 325-339. doi: 10.1002/job.4030070406 Japan Productivity Center Mental Health Research Institute, ed., The White Paper on Mental Health for Workers, 2009, Japan Productivity Center, 2009. Miura, Y., Suzuki, N., Takeuchi, K., Takezawa, T., Yamamoto, M., and Yaguchi, K. (2001). Causal relationship between job satisfaction, job dissatisfaction and mental health state in office workers (in Japanese), Tokai University, School of Health Sciences Bulletin, 7, 59-66. Lim, R. C. H. (2009). Work stress, satisfaction and burnout in New Zealand radiologists: Comparison of public hospital and private practice in New Zealand, Journal of Medical Imaging & Radiation Oncology, 53(2), 194-199. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9485.2009.02063.x Miller, G. V. F. (2005). Ethnicity and the experience of work: Job stress and satisfaction of minority ethnic teachers in the UK, International Review of Psychiatry, 17(5), 317-327. Neck, C. P., & Manz, C. C. (1996). Thought self-leadership: The impact of mental strategies training on employee cognition, behavior, and affect, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17(5), 445-467. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199609)17:53.0.CO;2-N Otake, K. (2009). A review of studies on EAP (Employee Assistance Program) for workers with mental health problems : current status and issues of EAP in Japan (in Japanese), Doshisha University Policy & Management, 11(2), 137-148. Payne, R. L., Jabri, M. M., and Pearson, A. W. (1988). On the importance of knowing the affective meaning of job demands, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 9(2), 149-158. doi: 10.1002/job.4030090206 Rissanen, T., Viinamäki1, H., Honkalampi, K., Lehto1, S. M., Hintikka1, J., Saharinen, T., and Koivumaa-Honkanen, H. (2010). Long term life dissatisfaction and subsequent major depressive disorder and poor mental health, BMC Psychiatry, 11(140), 1-6. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-11-140. Taylor, M. P. (2006). Tell me why I don’t like Mondays: Investigating day of the week effects on job satisfaction and psychological well-being, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society), 169(1), 127-142. Wall, T. D., & Clegg, C. W. (1981). A longitudinal field study of group work redesign, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2(1), 31-49. doi: 10.1002/job.4030020104 Wiener, Y., Vardi, Y., and Muczyk, J. (1981). Antecedents of employees' mentalhealth: The role of career and work satisfaction, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 19, 50-60. doi: 10.1016/0001-8791(81)90049-X Wright, T. A., & Bonett, D. G. (1992). The effect of turnover on work satisfaction and mental health: support for a situational perspective, Journal of Organization Behavior, 13(6), 603-615. doi: 10.1002/job.4030130606 Wong, Y. H. P. (2010). Kindergarten teachers’ perceived school culture and well-being: a comparison of non-profit-making and profit-making kindergartens, Early Child Development & Care, 180(3), pp.271-278.

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Table 1. Presence, Availability, and Experience of Various Mental Health Programs

whole mental health programs

441 14.80%

Experienced 328 11.00% 85

2.90%

217

7.30%

141

4.70%

2.40%

715 220 317 473 194 550 293 552 153 803

24.10% 7.40% 10.70% 15.90% 6.50% 18.50% 9.90% 18.60% 5.10% 27.00%

527 119 189 380 102 407 160 399 104 685

17.70% 4.00% 6.40% 12.80% 3.40% 13.70% 5.40% 13.40% 3.50% 23.00%

Present

mental health program (consultation) subsidies to cover medical costs beyond health insurance subsidies to cover a medical checkup income indemnity for injury extended leave for recuperation long regular leave (more than one week) educational program for retirement preparation subsidies to use leisure facilities subsidies for social activities holding or support of company trips holding or support of company athletic festivals holding or support of after-work parties

%

Available

%

72

%

291 9.80% 27 0.90% 88 3.00% 319 10.70% 14 0.50% 221 7.40% 77 2.60% 330 11.10% 77 2.60% 596 20.10%

Table 2. Results of t-tests on the Effect of Presence of Mental Health Programs

mental health programs (present or absent) mental health program (consultation) subsidies to cover medical costs beyond health insurance subsidies to cover a medical checkup income indemnity for injury extended leave for recuperation long regular leave (more than one week) educational program for retirement preparation subsidies to use leisure facilities subsidies for social activities hold or support company trips hold or support company athletic festivals hold or support after-work parties n = 2,972, ***: p < 0.01, **: p < 0.05, *: p < 0.1

satisfaction with benefit organizatio job program n *** ns *** ***

**

***

*** *** *** ***

** *** ** ***

*** *** *** ***

***

ns

***

*** *** *** *** ***

** ** *** ns ***

*** *** *** *** ***

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Table 3. Results of t-tests on the Effect of Availability of Mental Health Programs

mental health programs (available or unavailable) mental health program (consultation) subsidies to cover medical costs beyond health insurance subsidies to cover a medical checkup income indemnity for injury extended leave for recuperation long regular leave (more than one week) educational program for retirement preparation subsidies to use leisure facilities subsidies for social activities hold or support company trips hold or support company athletic festivals hold or support after-work parties

satisfaction with benefit program ***

ns

organi -zation ***

***

ns

***

*** *** *** ***

** *** ns ***

*** *** *** ***

***

***

***

*** *** *** *** ***

** ns *** ns ***

*** *** *** *** ***

job

n = 2,326, ***: p < 0.01, **: p < 0.05, *: p < 0.1

Table 4. Results of t-tests on Effect of Experience with Mental Health Programs

mental health programs (experience or no-experience) mental health program (consultation) subsidies to cover medical cost beyond health insurance subsidies to cover a medical checkup income indemnity for injury extended leave for recuperation long regular leave (more than one week) educational program for retirement preparation subsidies to use leisure facilities subsidies for social activities hold or support company trips hold or support company athletic festivals hold or support after-work parties n = 2,123, ***: p < 0.01, **: p < 0.05, *: p < 0.1

satisfaction with benefit program ***

ns

organization ***

***

ns

***

*** ** ** ***

ns ns ns **

*** ns *** ***

**

ns

ns

*** *** *** *** ***

ns ns ** ns ***

*** * ** ** ***

job

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Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Variables variables means std dev 1 gender 1.44 0.496 2 age 38.74 10.507 3 num. of employees 2.99 1.864 4 months of employment 98.42 103.201 5 direct programs (P) .802 1.253 6 direct programs (A) .724 1.111 7 direct programs (E) .416 .724 8 indirect programs (P) .846 1.162 9 indirect programs (A) .799 1.082 10 indirect programs (E) .619 .885 11 benefit satisfaction 2.553 .974 12 job satisfaction 3.298 .939 13 organization satisfaction 2.796 1.033 **: p < .01, *: p < .05

N 2,972 2,972 2,972 2,945 2,972 2,326 2,123 2,972 2,326 2,123 2,702 2,931 2,881

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

–.044* –.135** –.249** –.128** –.150** –.127** –.109** –.073** –.032 –.024 .100** .031

.038* .501** .095** .097** .128** .054** .009 .016 –.019 .017 .039*

.282** .495** .417** .308** .317** .174** .044* .210** –.013 .046*

.352** .338** .349** .249** .156** .131** .103** .017 .032

.852** .682** .530** .364** .204** .366** .073** .209**

.765** .407** .429** .245** .342** .062** .220**

.279** .276** .227** .266** .040 .184**

.830** .691** .336** .103** .169**

.825** .278** .112** .179**

.185** .086** .139**

.269** .473**

.514**

Table 6. Results of Regression Analysis of Presence of Program by Independent Variables benefit program satisfaction job satisfaction organization satisfaction change in change in change in beta beta beta adj. R2 adj. R2 adj. R2 2 2 R R R2 gender .027 .111 *** .044 ** age –.074 *** –.003 .032 1 num. of employees .189 *** –.011 .047 ** *** ** months of employment .096 .050*** .049 .049 .012*** .011 .014 .005*** .004 gender .037 ** .115 *** 0.05 *** age –.048 ** .005 .047 ** num. of employees .031 –.061 *** –.067 *** 2 months of employment –.010 .015 –.058 ** *** ** direct programs (P) .261 .057 .213 *** indirect programs (P) .198 *** .117*** .165 .098 *** .014*** .024 .091 *** .052 .056 n = 2, 942 ***: p