Tybout 1989; Meyers-Levy, Louie, and Curren 1994). However, this literature ...... stage of research life cycle by many researchers. - Received: February 7, 2018.
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruityincongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning* 1)
Lee, Sungho**
Brand extension studies appeared to have passed through the heyday of research interest, focusing on the role of prior brand knowledge (e.g., fit) based on categorization theory. Since then, major studies found that detailed attribute information attenuates the brand effect in extension evaluations. Based on the heuristic-systematic model of information processing, however, we examine when the attribute attenuating effect or the additive effect of prior brand attitude and attribute information would occur in study one. In addition, based on the relevant evidence, this research investigates the effect of attribute congruity-incongruity on extension evaluations along with the degree of utilitarian and hedonic information combination, attempting to identify the moderate incongruity effect in study two and three. Given the results of three experiments, we, first, contribute to the extension literature by finding not only the effect of attribute information attenuating the brand but the additive effect along with the relevant conditions of attribute congruity-incongruity and consumer motivations. The second contribution lies in identifying the boundary condition pertaining to the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute combination under which the moderate incongruity effect can be found in the domain of brand extensions. The results provide rich implications for the desirable positioning directions of brand extensions for the more vis-à-vis the less favorable parent brands. Theoretical and managerial implications, limitations and future research directions are discussed.
* This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2015S1A5A2A01011412). ** Professor, Department of Business Administration, University of Seoul, E-mail: [email protected]
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상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
I. Introduction
research streams on brand extensions have turned to understanding the effects of promotional strategies such as strong advertising and promotional support (Reddy, Holak, and Bhat 1994; Völckner and Sattler
Brand extensions refer to the use of an established brand name in one
2006), the effects of ad repetition, advertising message, and changing the
product class to enter another product class, e.g., Listerine toothpaste.
prominence of the parent brand name in marketing communications
This strategy has become a very popular option in firms' search for
(Bottomley and Holden 2001; Klink and Smith 2001; Lane 2000; Lehmann,
growth, reduction of marketing expenses, and increase of success
Stuart, Johar, and Thozhur 2007; Martin and Stewart 2001; Martin et al.
potential of new products (e.g., Lane and Jacobson 1995; Loken, Joiner,
2005), or the role of a new but trivial attribute (e.g., pro-vitamin ingredients
and Houston 2010; Morrin 1999; Tauber 1988). Accordingly, many
in shampoo; Broniarczyk and Gershoff 2003). These studies, however,
studies have examined to explain and understand the reasons why
predominantly focused on the role of this information in affecting
brand extensions may be successful. Especially, beginning in the late
consumers’ perceptions of brand extension fit, not getting beyond the limit
1980s, brand extension studies have passed through the heyday of
of categorization theory-driven studies of brand extensions.
research interest, yielding meaningful and interesting results on the
On the other hand, some studies have shown that providing
effect of prior brand knowledge on extension evaluations. Despite many
information unique to the extension (e.g., Klink and Smith 2001) or
studies, the main discovery can be simply summarized. Prior attitudes
increasing people’s knowledge of the product category of the extension
(or affect, commitment, trust, liking, experience) of parent brands
(e.g., McCarthy, Heath, and Milberg 2001) increases the prominence of
transfer to extension products if consumers perceive fit (e.g., Aaker and
extension information and reduces the importance of brand name. Based
Keller 1990; Bhat and Reddy 2001; Boush et al. 1987; Boush and Loken
on the cue-interaction model of learning and memory, Van Osselaer and
1991; Broniarczyk and Alba 1994; Herr et al. 1996; Park, Milberg, and
Alba (2003) systematically show that the relevant (diagnostic) attribute of
Lawson 1991; Randall, Ulrich, and Reibstein 1998; Reddy, Holak, and
extension product influences extension evaluations, but attenuating the
Bhat 1994; Smith and Park 1992; Swaminathan, Fox, and Reddy 2001;
brand effect. The finding is provocative and the opposite of the prevailing
Völckner and Sattler 2006). Further, perceptions of fit are dynamic based
wisdom such that the positioning of extensions by using attribute
on various bases such as brand concepts or brand-specific knowledge
information to promote a product can shift the locus of equity from brand
(e.g., functional wristwatch being extended to kitchen watch; prestige in
to attribute, thereby reducing the attractiveness of extension products.
the case of Rolex watches being extended to Rolex rings), which
However, it is probable that a rather complex condition of attribute
coincides well with the interests of flexible themes of categorization
information, posited by the cue-interaction model, may not represent the
theory (Loken 2006; Loken, Barsalou, and Joiner 2008). Nevertheless, as
whole substantive field of extension evaluations. In addition, based on
Klink and Smith (2001) pointed out, these studies were criticized for lack
considerable research in social cognitive psychology and consumer
of relevance or external validity due to over-reliance on rigor. That is, the
behavior (e.g., dual processing model of persuasion such as the
set of information in the evaluation context appeared to be limited to
heuristic-systematic model; Chaiken 1980, 1987), our research began to
parent brand names and extension product categories (e.g., What if Crest
examine
introduces a mouthwash versus a bicycle?). During the launch of a new
under
what
conditions
extension
evaluations
may
be
determined mostly by specific extension attribute information, mostly by
extension in the real setting, however, a firm can affect evaluation of an
parent brand attitudes, or by both (Study 1). In other words, we
extension by providing specific information about the extension product
examined when the attribute attenuating effect or the additive effect of
through advertising and other marketing mix activities.
the prior brand attitude and the attribute information would occur.
Naturally, quite a few studies examined the role of information
As per the type of extension attribute information, we considered the
prominence and accessibility in consumer evaluations of extensions (e.g.,
effect of congruity-incongruity of attribute information (e.g., Fiske 1982;
Ahluwalia and Gürhan-Canli 2000; Bottomley and Holden 2001; Boush
Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989; Sujan 1985). Given that almost all
1993; Briges et al. 2000; Cutright, Bettman, and Fitzsimons 2013; Klink and
competing brands emphasize the relevant attributes, the degree of
Smith 2001; Lane 2000; Mariadoss, Echambadi, Arnold, and Bindroo 2010;
incongruent attributes would refer to the extent of difference or
Martin and Stewart 2001; Martin, Stewart, and Matta 2005; McCarthy,
differentiation. Managerially, the congruity-incongruity of attribute
Heath, and Milberg 2001; Monga and John 2010; Parker, Lehmann, Keller,
information constitutes the positioning of brand extensions (Keller 2013;
and Schleicher 2018; Pryor and Brodie 1998; Reddy et al. 1994; Sheinin and
Viswanathan and Childers 1999), i.e., the extent of combining POP
Schmitt 1994; Sichtmann and Diamantopoulos 2013; Van Osselaer and Alba
(points of parity) and POD (points of difference). For example, relying
2003; Völckner and Sattler 2006; Yorkston, Nunes, and Matta 2010). Indeed,
upon the strength of a parent brand name and resource capacity, a
2
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning certain company may attempt to position its brand extension on the basis
(extremely incongruent) positioning, the position of utilitarian-dominant
of the attributes typically regarded as important (relevant) in the
attribute information is desirable, while the position of hedonic-dominant
extension product category (e.g., scientific functions in the hand-held
information is not desirable. In this case, since the attribute information
calculator). Or a firm may attempt to change the structure of
attenuates the brand effect in the extension evaluation, the gap of the
decision-making that consumers may face in the extension product
parent brand strength disappears in the extension product category. In
category by providing consumers with new criteria to consider (e.g.,
other words, this finding is judged as an option to revitalize the brand in
address-book functions in the hand-held calculator). That is, schema
the extension product category for the weak parent brand. Second, the
incongruity occurs when the total configuration of product attributes is
moderately different (incongruent) positioning, composed of utilitarian
not represented in people’s activated schema. People will make more or
and hedonic attribute balance, is better than the extremely incongruent
less efforts to resolve the conflict with their product schema. That is,
positioning of hedonic-dominant attributes. In this case, the gap of parent
incongruent attribute information can be divided between moderate and
brand strength is maintained in the extension product category.
extreme levels (e.g., Fiske 1982; Sujan 1985).
The first contribution of this research is to find not only the effect of
It is then summarized that in study 1, we examined how parent brand
attribute information attenuating brand information but the additive
attitudes and extension attribute information would interactively affect
effect in extension evaluations with the relevant conditions of attribute
extension
or
congruity and consumer motivations. The second contribution lies in
attenuation effect in detail, we manipulated consumer motivation to
identifying the boundary condition under which the moderate
process incoming information. Specifically, we examine how consumer
incongruity effect can or cannot be found in terms of utilitarian and
motivations, prior attitudes of parent brands, and extension attribute
hedonic information combination in the domain of brand extensions.
information of different congruity-incongruity levels would influence
Next are delineated the details of the respective studies. And then,
consumer evaluations of extensions.
theoretical and managerial implications, limitations and future research
evaluations.
Further,
to
investigate
the
additivity
Study 1 found the conditions under which the additive effect or the attenuation effect
would be
identified:
the
directions are discussed.
high motivation and
congruent/moderately incongruent attribute conditions for the additive
II. Study 1
effect and the extremely incongruent attribute condition regardless of motivation levels for the attenuation effect. However, regarding extension evaluation patterns, the moderate incongruity effect (i.e., the inverted U
In study 1, we conceptualized and empirically examined how consumer
shape of evaluation patterns) was not consistently found (e.g., Mandler 1982;
motivations, prior attitudes of parent brands, and extension attribute
Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989). The post-hoc reasoning suggested that
information of different congruity-incongruity levels would influence
extension evaluations for congruity-incongruity of attribute information may
consumer evaluations of extensions.
differ depending upon the extent of utilitarian and hedonic information combination (e.g., Chaudhuri and Holbrook 2001). Finding the relevant evidence
on
how utilitarian (functional)
positioning
1. Conceptualization and Hypotheses
and hedonic
(experiential) positioning lead to consumer evaluations of product
The heuristic-systematic (H-S, from now on) theory of information
incongruity (Noseworthy and Trudel 2011), we conducted the additional
processing postulates two mediational paths to persuasion (Chaiken 1980,
experiments to investigate how the extremely incongruent attribute
1987; Chaiken, Liberman, and Eagly 1989; Eagly and Chaiken 1993).
condition, differently composed of the degree of utilitarian and hedonic
Systematic processing is a path of comprehensive and analytic orientation to
attribute combination (i.e., the utilitarian-dominant condition versus the
information processing. Perceivers are presumed to scrutinize persuasive
hedonic-dominant condition), would influence extension evaluations for
argumentation and to think about this information in relation to other
smart phone category (Study 2) and toothpaste category (Study 3). Study 2
information they may possess about the object or issue. On the other hand,
and 3 helped to find the boundary condition pertaining to the degree of
heuristic processing is a more limited mode of information processing that
utilitarian and hedonic attribute information combination under which the
requires less cognitive effort and resources. People focus on the subset of
moderate incongruity effect can be identified in extension evaluations.
available information that enables them to use simple decision rules or
The integrative results of this research, based on three experiments,
cognitive heuristics to form their judgments. In the context of brand
would help to derive the desirable positioning directions for the more
extension evaluations, knowledge structures of brand names can provide
vis-à-vis the less favorable parent brands. First, in the case of very different
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상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
heuristic cues regarding the product’s likely quality (e.g., Maheswaran,
when two types of information are inconsistent or have different
Mackie, and Chaiken 1992; Park and Lessig 1981; Rao and Monroe 1989).
attention strengths, their influence on evaluations is largely a zero-sum
Indeed, in many of previous extension studies, people must have processed
game, producing the attenuation effect.
their extension evaluations in a heuristic mode, using their prior knowledge
Hence, the sufficiency principle of the H-S model implies in our
of brands and products. Next, two major mechanisms of the model are
context that high motivation induces consumers’ processing efforts since
examined,
from which our hypotheses are derived.1)
it raises the level of confidence they want when evaluating extensions.
Building on Simon’s (1976) notion of “satisficing,” the sufficiency
Moreover, systematic processing can be facilitated even in low
principle, as the first mechanism of the H-S model, embodies the idea that
motivations if people find relying on the heuristic cues for their
efficient information processors (i.e., experts in specific subject domains)
extension evaluations insufficient. When incoming attribute information
must strike a balance between satisfying motivational concerns and
is extremely incongruent, people can easily detect the incongruity
minimizing processing efforts (Chaiken et al. 1989). In general, people
between this information and their prior knowledge of extension
will exert efforts to the extent that they attain a “sufficient” degree of
product. Then, they may feel insufficient using just their prior
confidence in accomplishing their processing goals (Park and Hastak
impressions of the parent brand to evaluate the extension. Hence, they
1994; Wyer and Srull 1989). Specifically, Chaiken et al. (1989) define the
will increase their efforts to process extremely incongruent attribute
sufficiency threshold in terms of desired judgmental confidence: the
information. Based on this reasoning, we derive the first hypothesis.
degree of confidence a person aspires to attain in a given judgmental setting. It is, then, held that processing effort is a function of the
H1: When consumer motivation is high, systematic processing occurs.
discrepancy between actual and desired levels of confidence. In other
When consumer motivation is low, heuristic processing occurs in
words, processing efforts should cease when actual confidence equals or
the congruent and moderately incongruent attribute conditions
exceeds a person’s sufficiency threshold, but should continue (if capacity
whereas
is adequate) when actual confidence is below this threshold.
incongruent attribute condition.
systematic
processing
occurs
in
the
extremely
Empirically, systematic processing can be facilitated in at least two ways. First, high motivations can facilitate systematic processing by
In the heuristic processing route, extension evaluations are affected
increasing people’s sufficiency thresholds: desired confidence in the
only by prior attitudes of parent brands, since people would not
judgments (Chaiken and Maheswaran 1994; Maheswaran and Chaiken
systematically process extension attribute information. As the result of
1991; Maheswaran et al. 1992). Secondly, when actual confidence in
expected processing, differences in attitudes of the parent brands would
judgments made by heuristic cues decreases, systematic processing
be maintained in the extension product category, because parent brand
could also occur even in low motivation settings (Maheswaran and
attitudes are a major determinant of extension evaluations. Thus, we
Chaiken 1991). According to empirical studies of the H-S model, easily
derive the second hypothesis as follows.
detected (extreme) incongruity between heuristic cues and specific product information decreased actual confidence in judgments made
H2a: When heuristic processing occurs, only prior attitudes of parent
only by heuristic cues, in which the low task importance subjects used
systematic processing (Maheswaran et al. 1992). Indeed, this explanatory
H2b: When heuristic processing occurs, the extension from the more
mechanism, i.e., occurrence of systematic processing in low motivation
favorable parent brand is more positively evaluated than the
settings, is very consistent with that of the cue-interaction model of
extension from the less favorable one.
learning and memory which assumes that strengthening and weakening of association strengths is directed toward eliminating any discrepancy
The unique aspect of the H-S model resides in the definition of
between the predicted and actual levels of a consumption outcome (Van
systematic processing. That is, the systematic processing presupposes
Osselaer and Alba 2000; Van Osselaer and Janiszewski 2001; Van
co-occurrence of heuristic processing, which is the second mechanism of
Osselaer and Alba 2003). In other words, when consumers have both
the H-S model, i.e., the concurrent processing principle (Chaiken et al.
predictive brand information and predictive attribute information and
1989). Heuristic cues are almost always considered, but these cues may
1) In the social psychology and persuasion literature, not only the H-S model but also other models such as the elaboration likelihood model (ELM: e.g., Petty and Cacioppo 1986) have similarly proposed dual processing modes. Examining in detail, there are differences in the specific mechanisms of the respective models. While ELM has been applied in the domain of marketing more frequently than other models, we use the H-S model because the model’s mechanisms help to derive the hypotheses on this research’s main objectives.
4
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning or may not affect judgments depending upon how the output of
attribute information dominates relative to the alternative type of
heuristic processing is related to the output of systematic processing
information, that is, parent brand impressions. In other words, systematic
(e.g., Chaiken and Maheswaran 1994; Maheswaran and Chaiken 1991).
processing yields information that would grab the attention relative to
When the two modes of processing yield consistent outputs, the
heuristic processing as in the cue-interaction model (Anderson 1981; Van
heuristic cue and the output of systematic processing will independently
Osselaer and Alba 2003). Therefore, we propose that processing extremely
influence attitude judgments. This independent effect is termed the
incongruent attribute information attenuates the possible effects of parent
‘additivity’ effect (see also Anderson 1981).
brand attitudes on extension evaluations. Accordingly, the difference that
In contrast, one common interactive effect is called the ‘attenuation’
existed between brand attitudes in the parent product category may
effect. Consumers may process the heuristic cue, but systematic
disappear in the extension category, because evaluations are based mostly
processing of the communication content may substantially reduce the
on attribute information. In other words, how the extension attribute
weight of the heuristic cue on the judgment. The attenuation effect is
information is accepted and yielded may largely determine extension
most likely to occur when systematic processing yields information that
evaluations. Thus, we derive the fourth hypothesis as follows.
either contradicts heuristic processing (Maheswaran and Chaiken 1991) or grabs the attention relative to heuristic processing as in the
H4a: In the extremely incongruent attribute condition, only attribute
cue-interaction model (e.g., Anderson 1981; Van Osselaer and Alba 2003). According
to
the
concurrent
processing
principle,
information affects extension evaluations.
heuristic
H4b: In the extremely incongruent attribute condition, extension
impressions and the result of systematic processing affect consumer
evaluations of the more favorable parent brand are not different
evaluations either additively or interactively in a systematic processing
from those of the less favorable one.
mode where these two types of information processing results are available for judgments. When people systematically process congruent
Heretofore, we presented the main hypotheses for study 1. The
or moderately incongruent attribute information, they do not find a
hypotheses focused on consumer information processing of extension
discrepancy between extension attribute information and their prior
evaluations in which the additivity effect or the attenuation effect would
knowledge of extension product knowledge. Then, heuristic impressions
occur. Regarding the results of extension evaluations, the hypotheses examine
of parent brands and systematic processing would produce fairly
whether or not the differences in evaluations are maintained in the extension
consistent evaluations. Thus, parent brand attitudes and the extension
category for the more or less favorable parent brands in the respective
attribute
evaluations.
conditions of attribute congruity-incongruity. However, we did not present
Accordingly, differences in attitudes of the parent brands are kept in the
the hypothesis on how extension evaluation pattern would appear by the
extension product category due to consumers’ use of prior attitudes of
levels of attribute congruity-incongruity. Indeed, there is the literature on the
parent brands. Thus, we derive the third hypothesis as follows.
moderate incongruity effect which has shown an inverted-U-shaped pattern
information
additively
affect
extension
of evaluations for schema congruent-incongruent information (congruity, H3a: When systematic processing occurs in the congruent and
moderate incongruity, extreme incongruity) based on Mandler’s (1982)
moderately incongruent attribute conditions, prior attitudes of
assertion about the structure of value and preference (e.g., Meyers-Levy and
parent brands and attribute information additively affect
Tybout 1989; Meyers-Levy, Louie, and Curren 1994). However, this literature
extension evaluations.
is not robust conceptually or empirically. For example, some categorization
H3b: When systematic processing occurs in the congruent and
theory-based studies show typicality or representativeness-based preferences
moderately incongruent attribute conditions, the extension
(e.g., Sujan and Bettman 1989). Likewise, in other vein, Noseworthy and
from the more favorable parent brand is positively evaluated
Trudel (2011) cast a question of ecological validity when it comes to the claim
than the extension from the less favorable one.
of moderate incongruity enhancing product evaluations, given that the moderate incongruity effect has been moderated by numerous contextual
In the extremely incongruent attribute condition, the occurrence of
factors, such as dogmatism (Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989), prior knowledge
systematic processing is predicted regardless of consumers’ initial
(Peracchio and Tybout 1996), prior category affect/processing goals
motivational levels. Systematic processing of extremely incongruent
(Goodstein 1993), and so on. In other words, we could not find a strong
attribute information produces an inconsistency with expectations based
theoretical or empirical foothold to derive the relevant prediction on how
on consumer knowledge of the extension product. Provided that
extension
consumers’ cognitive capacity is limited, deeply processing this type of
congruity-incongruity when study 1 was conducted.
5
evaluations
would
appear
for
the
levels
of
attribute
상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
2. Method
developed based on previous studies (Chaiken and Maheswaran 1994; Maheswaran and Chaiken 1991; Maheswaran et al. 1992; Sujan 1985).
1) Independent Variables
The respective thoughts were classified into attribute-oriented thoughts (AOT, from now on), parent brand attitude-oriented thoughts (BOT,
Consumer motivations are desires to develop an accurate evaluation
from now on), product congruity/incongruity-related thoughts, or
of the stimulus object (Chaiken et al. 1989), corresponding to the desire
others. From the coded thoughts, AOT and BOT were used to examine
to process incoming information of extensions (e.g., MacInnis and
heuristic and systematic processes. Furthermore, the AOT and BOT were
Jaworski 1989; MacInnis, Moorman, and Jaworski 1991). Specifically, the
also classified as either positive, negative, or neutral in order to
high-motivation subjects were told that the extension product would be
determine the effects of processing on evaluations.
available in the area where the study was conducted within the next six
Second, we used subjects’ free recall of attribute information
months (Maheswaran and Sternthal 1990). They were also informed that
(Goodstein 1993; Maheswaran et al. 1992; Sujan, Bettman, and Sujan 1986).
their opinions would be weighed heavily by the manufacturers and that
The proportion of items correctly recalled out of the total information
they had a chance to win $30 in cash prizes. In contrast, the
recalled was used. Note that for the proportion measures such as thoughts
low-motivation subjects were told that they were being surveyed as a
-1
and recall, we made an arcsin transformation (x=sin root(p)), as suggested
part of a large opinion survey exploring the possibilities of marketing the
for standardizing variances (Bagozzi and Silk 1983).
product in another part of country. They were also told that their
Third, we measured attribute belief evaluation and attribute
opinions would be averaged with all other respondents participating in
importance to use in the correlation analyses related to parent brand
the study. Further, no “cash prize” was offered to this group of subjects.
attitudes (Lee 1994; Pavelchak 1989). The attribute belief evaluation was
Next, prior attitudes toward parent brands refer to global evaluations
obtained using a 7-point scale anchored by very favorable/very
consumers have formed for retrieval and use in later situations. We were
unfavorable. The importance of each attribute was measured by a
interested in whether global evaluations associated with real brand names
7-point scale anchored by not at all important/very important (Sujan
would be retrieved and used (e.g., Aaker and Keller 1990; Broniarczyk and
and Bettman 1989). Attribute belief evaluation and attribute importance
Alba 1994; Sheinin and Schmitt 1994). Real brand names were used to
were integrated to develop an index of attribute evaluations by a
represent two levels (more or less favorable) of existing brand attitudes.
weighted average rule,
The congruent attribute condition presented attributes typically
product
knowledge.
We
operationalized
two
levels
(attribute belief evaluation) x (attribute
importance). This index was used in the correlation analyses to identify
associated with the product category which were likely to be in people’s activated
∑
systematic process, whereas the correlation between parent brand
of
attitudes and extension evaluations helped us to find heuristic process.
incongruent attribute information based on the ease with which consumers
Consumer evaluations of brand extensions were measured by consumer
could resolve incongruent attribute information with their existing product
judgments of multiple-item scales (e.g., Aaker and Keller 1990; Park et al.
knowledge (Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989). The moderately incongruent
1991). Five 9-point semantic differential scales were used. The scales were
attribute condition delivered a few congruent attributes and a new
anchored by very good/very bad, very positive/very negative, very
attribute, which people were still likely to easily recognize and
favorable/very unfavorable, superior quality/inferior quality, and like
comprehend based on their current product knowledge. The extremely
very much/do not like at all (Cronbach’s alpha= .94 and .96 for two
incongruent attribute condition presented a few congruent attributes and
products used).
new attributes that people were not likely to easily recognize and comprehend without changing their current product knowledge.
3) Pretests 2) Dependent Variables
Two phases of pre-tests were conducted. Phase 1 included three tests, the objective of which was to select extension product categories and two
The dependent variables are the measures that identify heuristic and
parent brand names. Phase 2 involved two tests, the goal of which was
systematic processes and extension evaluations. To distinguish the
to decide on attribute information. Moreover, a test for checking the
different types of processes while considering construct validity, we
motivation manipulation was conducted and found significant.
used three types of complementary measures. First, concurrent verbal
Phase 1 Pretests. The two parent brands must be perceived to be
protocols were obtained since these had been asserted to be an accurate
plausible as an extension to the new product category. In addition,
reflection of the contents of working memory during the processing of
consumers should have differences in prior attitudes toward the two
information (Ericsson and Simon 1993). The coding scheme was
6
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning parent brands. In other words, we selected an extension product
University. In total, 287 students participated in the experiment. 263
category to which the more favorable parent brand as well as the less
students’ responses were included in our analyses with cell sizes ranging
favorable parent brand could be equally plausible entrants (i.e., high fit).
from 21 to 23. Twenty-four respondents were excluded. Five people
Considering the possibility of extension ideas and the relevance of
were found to have participated in previous pre-tests, while 19 people
products to student subjects, three pre-tests helped to choose the extension
were not aware of the parent brands such as C., P. B., S., and/or P.
product categories and the parent brands, checking product relevance,
5) Procedures
product knowledge, and the importance of brand names. We selected two extension product categories such that students have at least a moderate
The data was collected using a paper-and-pencil method. For each
level of product knowledge and that variances in their product knowledge
category, a stimulus information booklet and a questionnaire were used.
were low. The two extension product categories and two parent brands to
Four to six students per session were invited to the site for the
be extended into each category were selected. First, in the hand-held
experiment. Participants were greeted and randomly assigned to seats.
calculator category, the scenario was decided such that C. and P. B. were
The treatment conditions were randomly assigned to the seats. When the
extended from personal computers (prior attitudes toward brands: C.
participants were ready, the researchers briefly introduced the task and
(6.73) > P. B. (5.86); n=65; 9-point scale; p< .01). Second, we chose the
explained that the subject should form an impression of a new product.
toothpaste category. S. and P. were extended from mouthwash (prior
Then, a stimulus information booklet was distributed to the subjects. The
attitudes toward brands: S. (7.08) > P. (6.14); n=70; p< .01).2)
booklet included a one-page statement of the motivation condition and a
Phase 2 Pretests. Twenty potential attributes for each category were
page for the product stimulus information which included brand name
developed based on students’ listing of congruent, moderately
and extension attribute information. We gave the high-motivation
incongruent, and extremely incongruent attributes, special reports of
subjects the cash prize information, and they recorded their personal
Consumer Reports magazine, and information on product packages. In
information so that they could be considered for cash prizes.
the pre-test, we measured congruity of each attribute with 9-point scale
When subjects were ready, the questionnaires were given. In the
(very typical/not at all typical) to decide the pool of attributes (12 and 14
questionnaire, the subjects reported their verbal protocols, responded to
attributes for calculators and toothpaste, respectively) from which
the evaluation scale and confidence measures, and recorded their free
different types of attribute information could be devised. Based on the
recall of product attributes. Next, we collected the additional measures
results, different types of attribute information were prepared: 22 and 18
for checking the manipulations: congruity, parent brand attitudes,
for calculators and toothpaste respectively. We compared the congruity
attribute belief evaluation and attribute importance, motivation, and fit.
and typicality ratings of many different product concepts. The product
Then, some supplementary questions were asked regarding purchase
concepts were selected such that both congruity and typicality ratings
experience and a subjective knowledge scale. Finally, the subjects were
decreased steadily from congruent to extremely incongruent attribute
debriefed and excused.
conditions. The attribute information is presented in the Appendix 1.
3. Analysis and Result
4) Design and Sample of the Main Experiment
1) Preliminary Analysis: Inter-judge Reliability for
A 2 (motivation) x 2 (parent brand attitudes) x 3 (attribute congruity
Protocols
levels) factorial between-subjects design was used for two product categories. The product category was a within-subjects factor. For the
First, the protocols were divided into idea units by two judges (Srull
two product categories, each subject received the same conditions of
1984). An idea unit represents a word or a group of words that convey
motivation, parent brand attitudes, and attribute congruity levels. The
one specific meaning. For example, mention of an attribute or a prior
order of administering two product categories was counterbalanced and
brand attitude was treated as an idea unit. After the protocols were
no order effect was found. Power analysis suggested that to attain .80
unitized, individual thoughts were coded by two independent judges.
power at α= .05, a minimum of 19 subjects per cell were needed (Cohen
The percentage of agreements was 89%. Moreover, Perreault and Leigh’s
1988). The subjects were recruited from the subject pool maintained by
(1989) reliability index (Ir) was .94. They suggest that Ir > .80 is
the department of business administration at a large Midwestern
satisfactory while Ir > .90 is considered high reliability. Hence,
2) Please keep in mind that the specific brand names are disguised, given that study one was conducted sometimes ago in the U. S. and that the real brand names may raise any misunderstanding.
7
상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
inter-judge reliability for the protocols was deemed satisfactory. The
ANOVAs. Again, the main effect of attribute congruity was the only
disagreement thoughts were resolved through discussion.
significant effect in each analysis. Hence, these analyses indicate that respondents perceived the product attribute information as we intended.
2) Preliminary Analysis: Manipulation Checks 3) Analysis of Hypothesis 1
First, perceived importance of the task was used to check the manipulation of motivations. Four 9-point scales were used (alpha = .94 for
H1 concerned the respondents’ evaluation processes. We predicted
calculator and .91 for toothpaste): e.g., how carefully did you read and
consumers’ motivation by attribute congruity interaction effects on the
evaluate the previous description of the new product (Maheswaran and
dependent measures of heuristic and systematic processes. First,
Chaiken 1991). The effect of motivation conditions on perceived task
MANOVA was performed on two types of processing measures: recall
importance
M(high
and protocols.3) The results supported these interaction effects (Pillais
motivation)=7.47 > 4.69(low motivation); F(1, 261)=144.51; p= .00 for
4) Analyses of Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 H2a, 3a, and 4a predicted how heuristic and systematic processes would affect evaluations. The correlation analyses conducted for H1 supported H2a, 3a, and 4a (see Table 2). In order to confirm these mediating hypotheses more sufficiently, the subjects’ protocols were used in the regression analyses of processing effects on evaluations (Baron and Kenny 1986). Three separate regressions were run for each product category. First, for the congruent and moderately incongruent attribute
correlation analyses. If systematic processing
conditions of low motivation (heuristic processing route), the evaluations
occurred, the correlation between extension evaluation and the index of
were regressed on valenced AOT and valenced BOT. As predicted, only
attribute evaluation would be significantly positive. In contrast, this
the effect of valenced BOT was significant: beta coefficient= .79 (p< .01) for
correlation would not be significant if heuristic processing occurred. The
calculators and .86 (p= .00) for toothpaste. Thus, H2a was supported.
results of our correlation analyses generally supported these predictions
Second, for the congruent and moderately incongruent attribute
(see Table 2). Next, the correlation between extension evaluation and
conditions of high motivation (systematic processing route & additive
parent brand attitude would be significant, not only if heuristic
9
상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
effect), both types of thoughts had significant effects: beta coefficients of
relevant literature did not provide a robust evidence conceptually or
valenced AOT and valenced BOT= .85 (p< .01) and .68 (p< .05) for
empirically. In fact, as shown in Table 3, the moderate incongruity effect
calculators; .83 (p< .01) and .76 (p< .01) for toothpaste. In other words,
appeared to be found in toothpaste, but not in calculator. Investigating the
H3a was supported: the additivity effect was confirmed.
participants’ protocol responses, especially in the extreme incongruent
Third, for the extremely incongruent attribute conditions, systematic
condition, suggested that they seemed to welcome the calculator with
processing occurred regardless of motivation conditions. As predicted,
built-in sound instructions and a color screen whereas they may not like a
only the effect of valenced AOT was significant: beta coefficient of
lemon flavor or devalue the vitamin information since vitamins should be
valenced AOT= .93 (p= .00) for calculators and .96 (p= .00) for
eaten and absorbed. It may, then, be plausible that incongruity of attribute
toothpaste. In other words, H4a was supported: the extremely
information as well as hedonic vs. utilitarian information content would
incongruent attribute information was found to attenuate the effect of
have affected extension evaluations. Specifically, in the case of calculator,
brand names on evaluations.
people may have given value to meaningful functional and hedonic
For H2b, 3b, and 4b, the brand by attribute congruity interaction
information. For toothpaste, people may give more weight to hedonic
effects were analyzed using the ANOVA of extension evaluations. The
information because of meaningless functional information, in which they
effects were significant for both categories (F (2,251)=3.11; p= .05 for
feel quite uncertain of evaluations. In other words, the effect of attribute
calculators; F(2, 249)=3.35; p< .05 for toothpaste). That is, as per the
incongruity on extension evaluations may be examined better along with
results of planned comparisons, the extension from the more favorable
the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute combination. At last,
parent brand was more positive than the extension from the less
Noseworthy and Trudel (2011) nicely conceptualized and empirically
favorable parent brand in the congruent and moderately incongruent
showed how incongruent information affects evaluations along with
conditions. On the other hand, in the extremely incongruent attribute
functional (utilitarian) and experiential (hedonic) positioning, which can
condition, evaluations were not different between brands (see Table 3).
be applied in our context of extension evaluations. Therefore, we
Hence, H2b, 3b, and 4b were supported.
conducted two experiments to examine how congruity-incongruity of utilitarian and hedonic attribute information affect extension evaluations.
III. Study 2 & 3 We conceptualized and empirically examined how extension attribute
∥
congruity-incongruity, along with the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute combination, would influence consumer evaluations of extensions in study 2 (smart phones) and study 3 (toothpaste).
12
1. Conceptualization and Hypotheses
∥
P. (the less 5.863 6.344 5.0011 6.037 6.388 4.9112 favorable (1.08) (1.04) (1.14) (1.41) (1.38) (1.03) parent brand) The extension evaluation means are represented by the average of five 9-point scales. The numbers in parentheses are standard deviations. 1: F(1, 44)=14.88; p< .01. 2: F(1, 42)=14.03; p< .01. 3: F(1, 43)=6.68; p< .05. 4: F(1, 41)=6.33; p< .05. 5: F(1, 41)=8.74; p< .01. 6: F(1, 41)=5.17; p< .05 7: F(1, 41)=9.30; p< .01. 8: F(1, 40)=6.15; p< .05. 9: F(1, 42)=1.15; p= .29. 10: F(1, 40)= .40; p= .53. 11: F(1, 42)= .50; p= .49. 12: F(1, 40)= .04; p= .84.
Noseworthy and Trudel’s (2011) main proposition is based on the fundamental idea and evidence that people must first understand the functionality (utilitarian aspects) of a product before engaging in the hedonic dimensions (Chitturi, Raghunathan, and Mahajan 2007; Kivetz and Simonson 2002). Moreover, they suggested that the most common feature among the studies that support the moderate incongruity effect was the practice of explicitly communicating the functional characteristics
4. Discussion
of the product. They continued to present the important re-interpretation Earlier we did not present the hypothesis on how extension evaluation
of Mandler’s (1982) original arguments. The very act of discovery in
pattern would appear by the levels of attribute congruity-incongruity.
resolving incongruent information is fundamental to the moderate
While the moderate incongruity effect could have been predicted, the
incongruity effect: i.e., understanding what the product is or does.
10
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning Noseworthy and Trudel (2011) proved that incongruent product form
Moreover, study 2 was administered with computerized questionnaires
(hedonic stimuli) led to more favorable product evaluations with
in Korea with 168 respondents, while study 3 was performed in the U. S.
functional (or utilitarian) positioning as opposed to experiential (or
with 163 participants (paper-and-pencil questionnaires),
hedonic) positioning, in which the moderate incongruity effect was found.
noteworthy in terms of the efforts of improving external as well as internal
This result is construed to be very robust in terms of internal as well as
validities. The experimental procedures were consistent with but simpler
external validity since five studies were analyzed with a single
than those of study one, given the participants responded to the questions
meta-analytic framework. Applying this rationale, we derive the following
pertaining to only one product. The used attribute information is
hypotheses regarding how extension attribute congruity-incongruity,
presented in the Appendix 2.
which is
along with the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute combination,
3. Analysis and Result
would influence consumer evaluations of extensions.
1) Manipulation Checks
H5a: Brand extension evaluations will be more favorable in the moderate incongruent attribute condition (balanced utilitarian-hedonic info.)
First, although only the high motivation condition was administered
as opposed to the congruent condition (balanced info.) and the
in study 2 and 3, perceived importance of the task was assessed to be
extreme incongruent condition of hedonic-dominant info.
compared with that of study 1. As in study 1, four 9-point scales were
H5b: For the extreme incongruent attribute condition, brand extension
used (alpha = .92 for smart phone and .93 for toothpaste). Perceived task
evaluations with the utilitarian-dominant information will be more
importance was not significantly different among studies (M=7.47 (study
favorable as opposed to the hedonic-dominant information.
1: calculator)=7.26 (study 1: toothpaste)=7.52 (study 2: smart phone)=7. 35 (study 3: toothpaste)). Hence, the motivation was not supposed to
2. Method
play the role of demand artifacts in study 2 and 3 (Allen 2004). Prior attitudes toward the parent brands, measured by five 9-point
The independent variables were used similarly as in study 1 except
scales, were used to check the brand attitude condition (alpha= .93 and
for two aspects. First, we only examined the high motivation condition
.92 for study 2 - smart phones and study 3 - toothpaste). The main effect
since the hypotheses of main interests could be tested on the premise
of brand was significant in the ANOVA of attitudes toward the parent
that respondents process attribute information. Second, the attribute
brands (M=7.29 (Samsung) > 5.88 (LG); F (1, 166)=79.15; p= .00 for study
information constituting congruity-incongruity levels was decided with
2; M=7.22 (S.) > 6.14 (P.); F(1, 161)=41.07; p= .00 for study 3). Therefore,
considering the amount of utilitarian and hedonic information.
the conditions of two parent brands were successfully manipulated.
Specifically, utilitarian and hedonic attributes were composed in balance
The perceived congruity of the new product, measured by four 9-point
for the congruent and moderately incongruent attribute conditions.
scales, was used to check the manipulation of attribute congruity as in study
Meanwhile, the extremely incongruent attribute condition was devised
1: alpha= .91 for study 2 - calculators and .90 for study 3 - toothpaste. The
with either utilitarian-dominant or hedonic-dominant information. In
mean of perceived congruity was significantly different among three
other words, the attribute condition was composed of congruent, moderately
incongruent,
and
extremely
incongruent
attribute conditions, according to Bonferroni and Scheffe’s tests: M=2.32
Samsung 6.731 ＜ 7.432 ＝ 7.913 6.731 ＜ 7.432 ＝ LG 5.235 ＜ 6.456 ＜ 7.787 5.235 ＜ 6.456 ＝ The extension evaluation means are represented by the average of five 9-point scales. The results of planned comparisons: 1-2: F(1, 41)=7.83; p< .01. 2-3: F(1, 42)= .98; p= .37. 2-4: F(1, 40)= .45; p= .52. 5-6: F(1, 41)=17.02; p< .01. 6-7: F(1, 41)=20.78; p< .01. 6-8: F(1, 41)= .49; p= .48. 3-4: F(1, 40)=7.96; p< .01. 7-8: F(1, 41)=9.03; p< .01
the differences between parent brand attitudes (Samsung vs. LG; S. vs. P.) were maintained in extension evaluations for the congruent and moderate incongruent attribute conditions. On the other hand, these types of
7.214 6.898
differences disappeared in extension evaluations for the extreme incongruent conditions, where the extremely incongruent information composed of utilitarian-dominance, in general, helped to affect extension evaluations favorably, especially for the extension from the weaker parent brands.
S. (the more favorable parent 6.761 ＝ 7.192 ＝ 7.683 6.761 ＝ 7.192 ＞ brand) P. (the less favorable parent 5.745 ＝ 6.326 ＜ 7.407 5.745 ＜ 6.326 ≥ brand) The extension evaluation means are represented by the average of five 9-point scales. The results of planned comparisons: 1-2: F(1, 39)= .87; p= .39. 2-3: F(1, 39)= .99; p= .38. 2-4: F(1, 39)=23.52; p< .01. 5-6: F(1, 39)=1.31; p= .20. 6-7: F(1, 39)=14.97; p< .01. 6-8: F(1, 40)=4.02; p= .05. 3-4: F(1, 40)=38.23; p< .01. 7-8: F(1, 41)=29.97; p< .01
Based on the relevant evidence on how utilitarian (functional) positioning and hedonic (experiential) positioning lead to consumer
5.754
evaluations of product incongruity (Noseworthy and Trudel 2011), we conducted the additional experiments to investigate how the extremely
5.678
incongruent attribute condition, differently composed of the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute combination (i.e., the utilitarian-dominant condition versus the hedonic-dominant condition), would influence extension evaluations for smart phone category (study 2) and toothpaste category (study 3). Study 2 and 3 helped to find the boundary condition
As per H5a, when extremely incongruent attribute information is
pertaining to the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute information
composed of utilitarian-dominance, the moderate incongruity effect is
combination under which the moderate incongruity effect can be
not identified as expected, whereas incongruent functional information
identified in extension evaluations. That is, when the extremely
appears to lead to favorable extension evaluations (see Table 4 and 5
incongruent attribute information is composed of hedonic-dominance,
along with the planned comparison results). Meanwhile, when
extension evaluations would be lower as compared with the moderate
extremely incongruent information is composed of hedonic-dominance,
incongruent condition of utilitarian-hedonic balanced information.
12
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning It is meaningful to apply and confirm the theoretical proposition that
very unexpected, consumers could focus on comprehending this
people must first understand the functionality of a product before
information to construct their evaluations (attenuation effect; the
engaging in the hedonic dimensions (Chitturi et al. 2007; Kivetz and
cue-interaction model of Van Osselaer and Alba 2003). Meanwhile, if
Simonson 2002; Noseworthy and Trudel 2011) in the domain of extension
consumers are not motivated and at the same time incoming information
evaluations along with information congruity-incongruity. When people
could not attract their attention, people are likely to bypass specific product
are exposed to extremely incongruent attribute information of hedonic
information and simply form their evaluations using their prior attitudes of
dominance, they are so uncertain of product meaning not to resolve the
parent brands. In sum, study 1 found the conditions under which the
conflicts stemming from incongruent information (Mandler 1982).
additive effect or the attenuation effect would be identified: the high
Noseworthy and Trudel (2011) used incongruent product forms to
motivation and congruent/moderately incongruent attribute conditions for
identify the robust effects of the moderate incongruity. Indeed, it would
the additive effect and the extremely incongruent attribute condition
be an additional contribution for us to identify the proposition with
regardless of motivation levels for the attenuation effect.
verbal-oriented information, while our finding of moderate incongruity
Next, regarding extension evaluation patterns, the moderate incongruity
effect was not that strong as compared with theirs.
effect (i.e., the inverted U shape of evaluation patterns) was not consistently
Above all, study 2 and 3 appear to be fruitful in explaining why
found in study 1 (e.g., Mandler 1982; Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989). On
extension evaluation pattern could have appeared by the attribute
the basis of the recent evidence on how utilitarian (functional) positioning
congruity-incongruity levels in study 1. In study 1, the extremely
and hedonic (experiential) positioning lead to consumer evaluations of
incongruent condition may have been composed of utilitarian-dominant
product incongruity (Noseworthy and Trudel 2011), we conducted the
information for calculators, while the corresponding condition composed
additional experiments to investigate how the extremely incongruent
of hedonic-dominant information for toothpaste. Study 2 and 3 dealt with
attribute condition, differently composed of the degree of utilitarian and
the respective cases of utilitarian- and hedonic-dominant information of
hedonic attribute combination (i.e., the utilitarian-dominant condition
extreme incongruity for two product categories as well as in two different
versus the hedonic-dominant condition), would influence extension
countries of data collection efforts (Korea and U.S.), improving the
evaluations for smart phone category (study 2) and toothpaste category
research generalizability in terms of internal and external validities.
(study 3). Study 2 and 3 helped to find the boundary condition pertaining to the degree of utilitarian and hedonic attribute information combination under which the moderate incongruity effect can be identified in extension
IV. Integrated Discussion
evaluations. That is, when the extremely incongruent attribute information is composed of hedonic-dominance, extension evaluations would be lower as
1. Integrated Summary of Research Findings
compared
with
the
moderate
incongruent
condition
of
utilitarian-hedonic balanced information.
The findings of study 1 regarding the influences of consumer
2. Theoretical and Managerial Implications
motivations, parent brand attitudes, and attribute information of congruity-incongruity on extension evaluations supported the predictions
1) Theoretical Implications of the Research Findings
derived from the sufficiency principle and the concurrent processing principle of the H-S model. Specifically, consumers were more likely to
Overall, this research used important frameworks to enrich our
incorporate specific product information in their extension evaluations
understanding of consumer evaluations of brand extensions when
when they were highly motivated. Further, although consumers were
specific extension information is provided, which empirically led to three
initially not highly motivated, very unusual product information was
experimental studies. The first framework is the heuristic-systematic
likely to attract their attention, leading to systematic processing. Moreover,
model of information processing (e.g., Eagly and Chaiken 1993), and the
the extent to which product attribute information affects extension
second theoretical background is the proposition that people must first
evaluations may depend upon how unexpected the attribute information is
understand the functionality of a product before engaging in the hedonic
relative to consumers’ prior knowledge. That is, consumers are presumed
dimensions (Chitturi et al. 2007; Kivetz and Simonson 2002; Noseworthy
to integrate attribute information with prior brand attitudes to construct
and Trudel 2011).
extension evaluations if attribute information fairly matches their
First, importing the theories developed in other domains of marketing
expectations (additive effect). In contrast, if specific product information is
helped to enrich our understanding of extension evaluations. Using the
13
상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
H-S model of information processing, we could find not only the effect
desirable, but risky (see Figure 1). If the extremely different attribute
of attribute information attenuating brand information but the additive
information is likely to be believed and valued by consumers (i.e.,
effect in extension evaluations with the relevant conditions of attribute
utilitarian-dominance), positioning this way may be beneficial to stronger
congruity and consumer motivations. In other words, the H-S model
and weaker parent brands. However, it needs to be noted that this option
helped us to overview the whole substantive field of extension
would be valid for utilitarian-dominant product positioning. In other
evaluations, identifying additive effects in addition to attenuating effects
words, this option may not work for hedonic-centric product positioning.
which used to be the norm of understanding extension evaluations with incoming
product
information
with
the
theoretical
lens
Second, the positioning by moderate incongruity of utilitarian-hedonic
of
balance would be a safer option since this strategy may not only be
attribute-dominant effect and/or the cue-interaction model. Moreover,
almost always better than the positioning by congruity but also avoid the
the theoretical proposition on the primary role of functional/utilitarian
potential perils relating to extreme incongruity of hedonic-dominant
information and the secondary role of experiential/hedonic information
positioning. Our empirical findings (see Figure 1) are generally consistent
in consumer comprehensions and evaluations made a case to identifying
with the recommendations, made by famous brand management text
the boundary condition under which the moderate incongruity effect can
(Keller 2013), that power brands have associations of POP (points of
or cannot be found in relation to utilitarian and hedonic information
parity: congruent product information) and POD (points of difference:
combination in the domain of consumer evaluations of brand extensions.
incongruent product information)4) as well as ‘left-brain (rational)’ and
Second, our research findings of extension evaluations would imply
‘right-brain (emotional)’ associations.
some points of contributions to developing the original theories.
Third, weaker parent brands may well consider the positioning option
Whereas the H-S model in the original domain of persuasion predicted
of extreme incongruity to succeed in extensions since the effect of attribute
that the attenuation effect would be likely to occur when systematic
information is likely to be much greater than that of parent brand
processing yields information that contradicts heuristic processing
attitudes, which would work under one precondition. The necessary
(Maheswaren and Chaiken 1991), we found the attenuation effect when
corollary would be that the extremely different attribute information per
systematic processing yielded information that would grab the attention
se
relative to heuristic processing as in the cue-interaction model
utility-dominance). While the specific contents were different, prior
(Anderson 1981; Van Osselaer and Alba 2003). In other words, we
research on brand extensions had emphasized that weaker brands would
empirically showed that ‘the easily detected’ level of information
be worth trying innovative product positioning in order to make a new
incongruity would be needed to observe the occurrence of attenuation
momentum (e.g., to signal a break from the parent brand; the brand
effects, which may explain why the result of Maheswaran and Chaiken
needs to be revitalized; Aaker 2007; Boush et al. 1987; Brown and Dacin
(1991) may be different from that of Maheswaran et al. (1992).
1997; Kim 2006; Sinapuelas, Wang, and Bohlmann 2015; Wänke, Bless,
Furthermore, Noseworthy and Trudel (2011) used incongruent product
and Schwartz 1998), which is consistent with our recommendation of
forms to identify the robust effects of the moderate incongruity. Indeed,
weaker brands’ risky options. Furthermore, it is still the safe option for
it would be an additional contribution for us to identify the proposition
weaker parent brands to use the positioning option of the moderate
with verbal-oriented information, while our finding of moderate
incongruity of utilitarian and hedonic balanced information, although
incongruity effect was not that strong as compared with theirs. This
they have to acknowledge the relative disadvantage when stronger
finding yet implies the future research directions on various ways of
parent brands use the similar positioning option.
inducing incongruity by utilizing hedonic and functional cues and
is
likely
to
be
believed
and
valued
by
consumers
(i.e.,
Fourth, stronger parent brands must cautiously provide extremely
information (e.g., visual, verbal, other types of sensory cues).
incongruent information, since the transfer of parent brand attitudes is possible
2) Managerial Implications of the Research Findings
with
congruent
and
moderately
incongruent
attribute
information. In other words, for stronger brands to use extremely incongruent information, managers must assure that this type of
As per managerial implications, the integrative results of this research,
attribute information results in higher evaluations than the benefit from
based on three experiments, would help to derive the desirable positioning
parent brand attitudes. Moreover, it is a safer and probably the best
directions for the more vis-à-vis the less favorable parent brands. First,
option for stronger parent brands to utilize the positioning option of the
using extremely incongruent product information may sometimes be
4) In practical terms, this type of positioning is often called as ‘relevant differentiation’ since POP corresponds with ‘relevant’ part and POD refers to ‘differentiation’ part.
14
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning moderately incongruity of utilitarian-hedonic balanced information,
directly examined in this study but an important future research issue.
given that the parent brand attitudes and the extension product
For example, if there are already incumbent brands typifying the
information additively influence extension evaluations.
extension category, providing congruent attributes may not be an advisable strategy. That is, if an extension emphasizes congruent attributes in the extension category, it would face a strong competitor. Direct competition with a prototypical incumbent brand may be difficult, given that this brand has already captured a central position in consumer minds (Carpenter and Nakamoto 1989). In contrast, if an extension succeeds in achieving uniqueness in the extension product category, then consumers may consider the uniqueness, thus thinking less about the incumbent brand’s strength. This option is consistent with the ‘disrupt the agenda’ option suggested as an underdog strategy by Hoch and Deighton (1989). In this respect, the use of incongruent attributes may be beneficial. Of course, these unique attributes should have the potential to be positively believable and acceptable (primary role of utilitarian info. and secondary role of hedonic info). Furthermore, based on the results of our studies, the specific degree of uniqueness had better be decided depending upon where the product can be located on the utilitarian-hedonic dimensions of products. In sum, managers should make sure that consumers process attribute information, provided that this information is likely to be positively evaluated. For this, managers need to improve consumer motivations. The other option is to consider an extremely incongruent position since this option will likely attract consumers’ attention and processing, which is but a desirable option for utilitarian-centric product positioning. Simply considering the extension strategy as an easy means or an incremental way to enter a new product category (e.g., simply because there is a fit that can reduce the cost of introduction) seems very risky. How and where to position the product in the extension product category are the essential questions to answer before beginning brand extensions.
3. Limitations and Future Research Directions In terms of methodological issues, using student samples and artificial experimental
settings
are
usually
regarded
to
have
limited
generalizability (Wells 1993). However, we were most interested in testing the theoretical predictions of consumers’ general cognitive processes of extension evaluations (Calder, Philips, and Tybout 1981). In
Extension evaluations in study one (Table 3), study two (Table 4), and study three (Table 5) are represented in the above graphic formats.
order to tap these processes with student subjects, we attempted to make the product categories and brands as relevant as possible to them,
[Figure 1] Extension evaluation patterns in study one, two, and three
assisted by many pre-tests. Considering consistent and unique research findings across three product categories in three experimental studies, the
Fifth, which type of attribute information may constitute a desirable
objective of examining the general cognitive processes may have been
positioning option may well be considered along with how to compete
successful. Next, the data was collected using a paper-and-pencil method
with incumbent brands in the extension category, though the issue is not
(experiment 1 and 3) and a computerized data collection method (PC was
15
상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
used to deliver the manipulation information and collect the respondents’
products per se have expectations of intrinsic functionality. In other
responses in experiment 2). Although this research used different
words, separate from providing hedonic and utilitarian information, the
methods of data collection, the similarity of methods (i.e., experiments)
products by themselves could be classified into more hedonic/experiential
may have decreased the construct validity. Yet, we attempted to use
vs. more utilitarian/functional. To investigate the product-level effects of
multiple measures to identify processes. In addition, although the
utilitarian and hedonic dimensions separately from information-level
manipulated motivation levels significantly differed, the low motivation
effects in relation with information incongruity would be challenging but
condition seemed difficult to be considered a low motivation (e.g., M =
needed future research directions (see Sood and Dreze 2006 for consistent
4.69 and 5.26 for calculator and toothpaste in experiment 1). Inducing a
and inconsistent extensions of experiential brands such as movie sequels).
low motivation in an experimental setting was difficult. The question,
Many substantive issues remain for future research efforts. The first
then, arises whether similar results would be obtained in an ingenuously
issue originates from observing a few real cases of innovative extensions
low motivation setting. Future research should explore how to induce a
(e.g., Sinapuelas et al. 2015) which appear to be inconsistent or consistent
very low motivation as well as how the processing measures may differ
with core associations of parent brands such as Caliber by Timex (Timex
in this condition as opposed to this research setting.
bicycle with a unique gear system), Arm and Hammer Baking Soda
Conceptually, not only consumer motivation but also consumer
toothpaste, Jell-O Yogurt, EverFresh scented bath soap by Tide, etc. In this
knowledge (ability to process information) obtained through consumption
study, we controlled how attribute information matches with different
and ownership experiences may influence consumer evaluation processes
parent brands. However, differences in evaluations may exist between
of extension brands (Kirmani, Sood, and Bridges 1999). We attempted to
when the parent brand name already has associations that can be
control consumers’ product knowledge in our research. However, the
emphasized as new and unique attributes in the extension category and
subjective knowledge appeared to affect processing, implying that it is
when the parent brand name introduces new attributes. Or differences in
sometimes difficult to separate the effects of consumer knowledge and
extension evaluations may be identified depending on the use of different
motivation on their information processing. Hence, how consumer
branding options such as sub-branding. The branding options such as the
knowledge and motivation interactively influence information processing
use of sub-branding may help weaker brands to overcome the kinds of
of extension evaluations may be pursued in further research. Additionally,
disadvantages such as the low level of prior brand attitudes (e.g., Aaker
although we examined how parent brand-related cues and attribute
2007; Desai and Keller 2002; Sood and Dreze 2006). We need further
information influence extension evaluations individually or concurrently,
research to examine these differences. Second, although we considered
the brand names could influence interpretation of attribute information
consumer perceptions of incongruity driven by attribute information, there
per se, probably when attribute information is ambiguous (Hoch and Ha
may be different ways by which incongruent perceptions can be induced,
1986; Keller, Heckler, and Houston 1998). This effect of brand names on
e.g., use of different sensory modality, advertising, or price. Further
the interpretation of attributes may differ for consumers of different
research is needed to see how these types of variables influence consumers’
knowledge levels. Further research is needed to examine when and with
incongruent perceptions and extension evaluations. Related to this issue,
whom this type of interaction between attribute information and brand
the trichotomous congruity-incongruity continuum of our study may be
names may occur. Another consumer characteristics such as consumer
manipulated in more detail. For example, using the fuzzy set techniques,
innovativeness (i.e., consumers who prefer novelty and risk) may be
Viswanathan and Childers (1999) demonstrated that the degree of fitness
worth being further investigated in terms of how it may affect extension
of attributes between parent and extension categories can be systematically
evaluations (Klink and Smith 2001; Völckner and Sattler 2006; Yeo and
evaluated. Such a detailed degree of congruity-incongruity would be
Park 2006), given that Korean university student participants may have
inevitable to investigate the effect of congruity-incongruity levels more
been risk taker or novelty seeker, favoring the extremely incongruent
precisely and to manage the degree of congruity-incongruity of extension
information of smart phones in our study 2.
brands for optimal positioning.
As additional conceptual and methodological limitations, we did not check
the
of
information may affect the reciprocal effect of extensions on parent brand
utilitarian-hedonic balanced information in our studies since it was not
evaluations. Fourth, the evaluation settings of our studies were still in a
our theoretical concern, which may be investigated in future research.
concept-testing stage. Future studies may consider the performance
Furthermore, our study 2 was faced with the difficulty that it would
metrics of extensions such as consumer evaluations after consumption
hardly
and
experience with brand extensions, performance or the monetary value of
hedonic-dominant attribute information for the case of smart phones since
extensions (e.g., Caldieraro, Kao, and Cunha Jr. 2015; Carter and Curry
be
effect
possible
of
the
to
extremely
design
the
incongruent
extremely
condition
Third, it may be important to examine how extension product
incongruent
16
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning 2013; Heath, DelVecchio, and McCarthy 2011; Hennig-Thurau, Houston,
Artifact Assessment in Advertising Experiments,” Journal of
and Heitjans 2009). Fifth, while many extension studies have concerned
Advertising, 33(2), 63-73. Anderson, N. H. (1981), Foundations of Information Integration Theory, NY:
extension evaluations in a singular processing mode, it may be especially worth examining consumer evaluations of extensions in comparison with
Academic Press.
incumbent brands in the extension product category. That is, to further
Bagozzi, R. P. and A. J. Silk (1983), “Recall, Recognition, and the
examine how consumer choices among extension brands and incumbent
Measurement of Memory for Print Advertisement,” Marketing
brands may occur beyond the existing literature would produce greater
Science, 2(2), 95-134.
insights in the stream of brand extension research. Sixth, while our study
Baron, R. M. and D. A. Kenny (1986), “The Moderator-Mediator Variable
focused on horizontal brand extensions (i.e., extensions into new product
Distinction
in
Social
Psychological
Research:
Conceptual,
categories), future research needs to investigate vertical brand extensions
Strategic, and Statistical Considerations,” Journal of Personality
andSocial Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182.
(i.e., extensions into “up market” or “down market” of the same product category by differentiating the product quality levels). While vertical brand
Baumeister, C., A. Scherer, and F. V. Wangenheim (2015), “Branding
extensions have been studied (Caldieraro, Kao, and Cunha Jr. 2015; Heath,
Access Offers: The Importance of Product Brands, Ownership
DelVecchio, and McCarthy 2011; Randall, Ulrich, and Reibstein 1998), there
Status, and Spillover Effects to Parent Brands,” Journal of the
are conflicting results, so examining whether our theory also holds for
Academy of Marketing Science, 43(5), 574-588.
vertical brand extensions would provide valuable insights into brand
Bhat, S. and S. K. Reddy (2001), “The Impact of Parental Brand Attitude
management. Seventh, it is worth examining the effects of organizational
Associations and Affect on Brand Extension Evaluation,” Journal
of Business Research, 53(3), 111-122.
and/or marketing managers’ attitudes toward risk (risk-seeking vs. risk aversive orientation) on the use of brand extension positioning options,
Bottomley, P. and S. L. S Holden (2001), “Do We Really Know How
about which was discussed in the section of managerial implications.
Consumers
Lastly, a more managerial research may be in need of investigation such as
Generalizations Based on Secondary Analysis of Eight Studies,”
Evaluate
Brand
Extensions?
Empirical
the role of innovation (Sinapuelas et al. 2015), access/use versus ownership
Journal of Marketing Research, 38(4), 494-500.
(Baumeister, Scherer, and Wangenheim 2015), or other marketing mix
Boush, D. M. (1993), “How Advertising Slogans Can Prime Evaluations
variables such as price (DelVecchio and Smith 2005; Taylor and Bearden
of Brand Extensions,” Psychology & Marketing, 10(1), 67-78.
2002). We conclude our discussion by suggesting that many rigorous but
and B. Loken (1991), “A Process-Tracing Study of Brand Extension Evaluation,” Journal of Marketing Research, 28(1), 16-28.
more relevant research issues still await our efforts in the domain of brand extensions, which may be perceived to have entered into the declining
, S. Shipp, B. Loken, E. Gencturk, S. Crockett, E. Kennedy, B.
stage of research life cycle by many researchers.
Minshall, D. Misurell, L. Rockford, and J. Strobel [University of Minnesota
- Received: February 7, 2018
Consumer
Behavior
Seminar]
(1987),
“Affect
Generalization to Similar and Dissimilar Brand Extensions,”
Psychology & Marketing, 4(3), 225-237.
- Revised: March 2, 2018 - Accepted: March 20, 2018
Bridges, S., K. Keller, and S. Sood (2000), “Communication Strategies for Brand Extensions: Enhancing Perceived Fit by Establishing Explanatory Links,” Journal of Advertising, 29(4), 1-11.
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20
The Effects of Parent Brand Attitudes and Congruity-incongruity of Utilitarian and Hedonic Attributes on Extension Evaluations: Gaining Insights for the Desirable Positioning
Appendix 1: The Attribute Information Provided in Study 1 (Calculator) Congruent Attribute Condition
After some explanations……. The new (brand name) hand-held calculator (product number name) offers many different functions including algebra and calculus, as do other leading calculator brands. Scientific functions include: trigs and hyperbolic trigs, logs and natural logs, roots and power, reciprocals and factorials, fractions and fraction/decimal conversions ……. Like other leading calculator brands, the (brand name) hand-held calculator (product number name) provides three memories. Its three memories allow users to program and store various types of functions and calculations including hexadecimal, octal, and binary calculations. In addition, the (brand name) hand-held calculator (product number name) comes with an automatic turn-off system. Its power is solar energy operated with an included back-up lithium battery. It also comes with an
impact-resistant slide-on hard case.
Moderately Incongruent Condition
Appendix 2: The Attribute Information Provided in Study 2 (Smart phone)
After some explanations……. Once charged, the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) can be used sufficiently for one day. It also has additional multimedia features such as camera character recognition, auto attendant, face recognition and voice search. You can enjoy a convenient and affluent life with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) with these functions……. What a fun and delight your life would Congruent be! You can connect the contents quickly downloaded with the new (brand name) smart Attribute phone (product number name) to your TV and/or PC anytime and anywhere. Just imagine Condition the moments you can enjoy the music of ever-higher sound quality, videos and pictures of desired size with clearer picture quality! That’s not all! With enhanced tethering capabilities, you can connect and share mobile data on your new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) faster with USB or Wi-Fi hot spots. Featuring Qualcomm's powerful 1.5 GHz quad-core CPU and 2GB of
Extremely Incongruent Condition
After some explanations……. After some explanations……. The new (brand name) The new (brand name) hand-held calculator (product hand-held calculator (product number name) offers many number name) offers many different functions including functions including algebra and calculus, as do other dialgfferent ebra and calculus, as do other leading calculator brands. l e adi n g cal culator brands. Scientific functions include: trigs Scientific functi trigs and hyperbolic trigs, logs and and hyperbolicotrinsgs,incllougsde:and natural logs, roots and power, natural logs, roots and power, reciprocals and factorials, fractions reciprocals and factorials, fractions and fraction/decimal conversions and fraction/decimal conversions. ……. Its power is solar energy with an included Like other leading calculator operated back-up lithium battery. brands, the (brand name) hand-held calculator (product In addition, the (brand name) number name) provides three hand-hel d calculator (product memories. Its three memories number name) a function of allow users to program and store built-in sound inhas structions; if various types of functions and users push the “hel p” button, an calculations including hexadecimal, explanation wil be heard octal, and binary calculations. its internalized sound card,duewhitoch lable with most other In addition, the (brand name) ilseadinotngavai calculator brands. It also hand-held calculator (product with a unique color number name) provides functions comes screen.
DDR2 RAM, you can use your smart phone faster than ever with high-end applications that respond instantly to the user's touch.
After some explanations……. Once charged, the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) can be used sufficiently for one day. It also has additional multimedia features such as camera character recognition, auto attendant, face recognition and voice search. You can enjoy a convenient and affluent life with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) with these functions……. What a fun and delight your life would be! Moderately You can connect the contents quickly downloaded with the new (brand name) smart Incongruent phone (product number name) to your TV and/or PC anytime and anywhere. Just imagine Condition the moments you can enjoy the music of ever-higher sound quality, the videos and pictures of desired size with clearer picture quality! You can connect and share mobile data on your new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) faster with USB or Wi-Fi hot spots. That’s not all! As a security
of an address book, users can store names and phone numbers Like other leading calculator of other people, which is not the (brand name) available with most other leading brands, d calculator (product calculator brands. It also comes hand-hel number name) provides three with an automatic turn-off system. Its power is solar energy operated with an included back-up lithium battery.
device, it can be used as a key for home and car by using NFC function safely (for example, opening the door with 'beep' even if it is far away from the car) with fingerprint recognition function. It can function as a 12.5mm beam projector that can display up to 50-inch screen with 15 lumens brightness.
memories. Its three memories allow users to program and store various types of functions and calculations including hexadecimal, octal, and binary calculations. Extremely Incongruent Condition (UtilitarianDominance)
Appendix 1: The Attribute Information Provided in Study 1 (Toothpaste) Congruent Attribute Condition
Moderately Incongruent Condition
Extremely Incongruent Condition
After some explanations……. You can connect the contents quickly downloaded with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) to your TV and/or PC anytime and anywhere. Just imagine the moments you can enjoy the music of ever-higher sound quality, the videos and pictures of desired size with clearer picture quality! Once charged, the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) can be used sufficiently for about two days. Solar charging and wireless charging are possible, and power consumption is expected to be around 1W. It also has additional multimedia features such as camera character recognition, auto attendant, face recognition and voice search. You can connect and share mobile data on your new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) faster wirelessly. That’s not all! It has a full HD resolution, the material is strong at high temperature,
thinner than 1/3 of glass e-paper, and light weight of 14g. It has a function to control the screen size up to 260mm, so you can carry it with your favorite shape and you can enjoy e-book, movie, etc. anytime and anywhere more realistically. You can enjoy a convenient
After some explanations……. After some explanations……. After some explanations……. Like other leading toothpaste Like other leading toothpaste Like other leading toothpaste brands, the new (brand name) brands, the new (brand name) brands, the new (brand name) toothpaste (product number name) toothpaste (product number name) toothpaste (product number name) has an adequate amount of has an adequate amount of has an adequate amount of fluoride. Hence, it helps prevent fluoride. Hence, it helps prevent fluoride. Hence, it helps prevent cavities and tooth-decay. cavities and tooth-decay. cavities and tooth-decay. In addition, the (brand name) In addition, the (brand name) In addition, the (brand name) toothpaste (product number name) toothpaste (product number name) toothpaste (product number name) comes with ingredients that comes with ingredients that also has vitamin E and B6 for protect against the build-up of protect against the build-up of healthier teeth, which are not tartar as well as plaque. The tartar as well as plaque on your available in most other leading (brand name) toothpaste (product teeth. The (brand name) toothpaste brands. Hence, users number name) has a good- toothpaste (product number name) can maintain clean and tasting mint flavor. Hence, users also has calcium for healthier fresh-feeling teeth with the (brand can maintain clean and fresh- teeth, which is not available in name) toothpaste (product brand feeling teeth with the (brand most other leading toothpaste name). It also has a good-tasting name) toothpaste (product number brands. Hence, users can lemon flavor. name). maintain clean and fresh-feeling teeth with the (brand name) toothpaste (product number name).
and affluent life with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) with these functions……. What a fun and delight your life would be! After some explanations……. Just imagine the moments you can enjoy the music of ever-higher sound quality, the videos and pictures of desired size with clearer picture quality with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name)! You can connect the contents quickly downloaded with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) to your TV and/or PC anytime and anywhere. Not only that…….What a fun and delight your life would be! The new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) has unimaginable picture quality! Light weight, thin
screen, endurance to high temperatures, all made possible due to the material of dreams ……. You wil feel your heart is beating! You can enjoy a convenient and affluent life with the new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) with the functions liken to transformer: you can carry it with your favorite shape and you can enjoy e-book, movie, etc. anytime and anywhere more realistically. Your new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) has additional characteristics of powerful transformer: it can last due to solar and wireless charging and less consumption of electric power. What a wonderful transformer secretary it would be! Isn’t the phone too radical? Don’t worry too much! Your new (brand name) smart phone (product number name) has fundamental multimedia features such as camera character recognition, auto attendant, face recognition and voice search. You can connect and share mobile data on your new (brand name) smart phone (product number name).
상품학연구 제36권 2호(2018년 4월), 1~22
Appendix 2: The Attribute Information Provided in Study 3 (Toothpaste)
Major points: - From 10 days after use, it has improved gum nutrition, tooth decay prevention, bad breath suppression, whitening effect. - The toothpaste has been improved by using 3/4 compared to conventional products.
so, it uses environment-friendly material containers to further enhance the effectiveness of Congruent Altoothpaste. Attribute Condition - The pleasure of flavor (classic mint): A rich, creamy toothpaste tingles in your mouth and helps removing plaque for a sparkling white smile. Unmistakable classic “piperita” mint for intense pleasure and endless freshness.
- All of the above have been validated at ooo University Hospital Clinical Trials. Major points: - From 7 days after use, it has improved gum nutrition, tooth decay prevention, bad breath suppression, whitening effect. - The toothpaste is made of bubbles, so you can use a toothbrush when brushing teeth.
Or you can use a method of putting an appropriate amount (1 pumping) into the mouth
Moderately without water and frying for 30 seconds to 1 minute when you are in a hurry. Also, it uses Incongruent a transparent material container so that the amount of toothpaste can be visually observed. Condition - The pleasure of flavor (aquatic mint): A rich, creamy toothpaste tingles in your mouth and removes plaque and tartar for a sparkling white smile. Unmistakable “soft cold” mint
for a pleasant sea freshness.
- All of the above have been validated at ooo University Hospital Clinical Trials. Major points: - Functionally, containing blue cobalin, the use of toothpaste has immediate effects of improving gum nutrition, tooth decay prevention, bad breath suppression, and whitening. - After brushing this toothpaste, you can taste the unique taste of orange without bitter Extremely Incongruent Condition (UtilitarianDominance)
taste! - The toothpaste is made of bubbles, so you can use a toothbrush when brushing teeth. Or you can use a method of putting an appropriate amount (1 pumping) into the mouth without water and frying for 30 seconds to 1 minute when you are in a hurry. Also, the new transparent, environmentally friendly material container can be used without any remaining toothpaste, further enhancing the effectiveness of toothpaste. - The pleasure of flavor (whitening cinnamon power mint): Rich and creamy toothpaste giving an intense taste sensation. Removes plaque and tartar while whitening the tooth enamel to make your smile ever brighter and more beautiful. The icy shiver produced by the “cool power mint” leaves you with a lasting taste and unforgettable freshness. - All of the above have been validated at ooo University Hospital Clinical Trials. Major points: - The pleasure of flavor (whitening cinnamon power mint): Rich and creamy toothpaste giving an intense taste sensation. Removes plaque and tartar while whitening the tooth
enamel to make your smile ever brighter and more beautiful. The icy shiver produced by the “cool power mint” leaves you with a lasting taste and unforgettable freshness. - Containing blue cobalin, you can taste the unique taste of orange without bitter taste after brushing toothpaste! - Imagine yourself having a fun brushing this toothpaste! Why? The toothpaste is made of bubbles. Make your toothbrush a play by putting an appropriate amount (1 pumping) into the mouth without water and frying for 30 seconds to 1 minute! - Also, enjoy the new fancy transparent material container so that the amount of toothpaste can be visually appreciated. - Don’t worry about the functionality. It has the basic functions such as gum nutrition, tooth decay prevention, bad breath suppression, and whitening. - All of the above have been validated at ooo University Hospital Clinical Trials.
