JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH, VOL. 58, NO. 3
The Freshman 15—A Closer Look Sareen S. Gropper, PhD; Karla P. Simmons, PhD; Alisha Gaines, MS; Kelly Drawdy, MS; Desiree Saunders, MS; Pamela Ulrich, PhD; Lenda Jo Connell, EdD
nationwide prevalence of overweight and obesity in 18- to 24-year-olds was 42.7%.4 Moreover, young adults (including college age individuals) have exhibited some of the greatest increases in the prevalence of overweight and obesity over the last few decades.5 The transition from high school to college is considered a critical period for some young adults and represents a time period in which changes in weight often occur.6 College students, especially freshmen, may be at a greater risk for weight gain than others due to the many life changes they experience throughout their college years. Stress and unhealthy eating, sleeping, and exercising habits, often exhibited by college students, may play roles in body weight changes.7–16 The “freshman 15,” referring to a 15-lb weight gain during the first year of college, is a commonly cited phenomenon in the popular press. Yet, relatively little scientific evidence supports this claim. Although many studies have found that college freshmen gain weight during their first year of school, the weight gained is typically well under 15 pounds.6,17–31 Further, few of the studies conducted have examined body composition, which is important because gains in body fat are usually more detrimental to health than gains in lean mass. Further, no studies to date have examined changes in body shape, which is important because weight gain in the abdominal area is associated with greater health risks than weight gain in other body regions such as the hips. This study examined the changes in body weight, composition, and shape (waist and hip circumferences) among first year college freshmen.
Abstract. Objectives and Participants: Changes in body weight, composition, and size were examined in college freshmen at the beginning (initial, n = 240) and end of fall semester 2007 (n = 214) and the end of spring semester 2008 (n = 205). Methods: Height, weight, body composition, and waist and hip measurements were assessed. Results: Mean weight, body mass index (BMI), absolute and percent body fat all increased significantly over fall semester and the academic year. About 31% of freshmen lost ≥5 lbs. Mean academic year weight gain was 2.6 lbs (entire group) and 6.0 lbs (weight gainers); body fat increased by 4.4 lbs in the weight gainers. A significant correlation (r = .509) was found between weight change and waist circumference change, but not between weight change and waist to hip ratio change. Conclusions: Freshmen weight gain is associated with increases in body fat and waist circumference, which may be troublesome should the trend continue throughout college. Keywords: body fat, body shape, college students, freshman 15, lean body mass, weight gain, weight loss
O
besity and being overweight are growing problems in the United States and are associated with increased risks for several health conditions, including hypertension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, stroke, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, and some cancers.1 According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) 2003–2004, nearly two thirds of adults living in the United States are overweight or obese.2 The obesity epidemic is affecting people of all ages including teenagers and young adults. Data from NHANES 2003–2006 showed that 34.1% of 12- to 19-year-olds had a body mass index (BMI) ≥85th percentile of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) growth charts.3 Data from the 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System found the
METHODS Participants Freshmen were recruited from Auburn University’s incoming freshman class via e-mail, fliers, and class announcements in introductory level courses typically taken by first year students at the beginning of fall semester 2007. Auburn University’s 2007 incoming freshman class (from which the subjects were recruited) consisted of 4,191 students (53%
Dr Gropper and Ms Saunders are with the Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Auburn University, Auburn Alabama. Ms Drawdy is with St. Vincent’s Hospital, Birmingham, Alabama. Ms Gaines is with the Department of Nutrition and Hospitality Management, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Dr Simmons, Dr Ulrich, and Dr Connell are with Consumer Affairs, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. Copyright © 2009 Heldref Publications 223
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female, 47% male) who were mostly Caucasian (81.7%), followed by African American (11.3%), Hispanic (2.9%), Asian (1.9%), and Native American (0.8%). Most Auburn University freshmen had permanent residences in Alabama (57%); 43% had permanent residences in other US states. For example, 18.3% of students came from Georgia, 6.1% from Florida, 3.8% from Tennessee, and 2.7% of students were from Texas. Freshman volunteers were excluded from participation if they were under 17 or over 19 years, pregnant, married, had children, or reported a diagnosed eating disorder. Freshmen were also excluded if they had been enrolled at the university in summer 2007, because they were not considered “true” first-semester freshmen. Study Design Participants were assessed at 3 points during their freshman year: at the beginning of the fall semester (2007), at the end of the fall semester (2007), and at the end of the spring semester (2008). All assessments were done between 8 AM and 11 AM. The subjects’ weights and body composition were measured at all 3 assessments; height and body shape were measured at the initial fall and end of spring semester assessments. Subjects also completed a questionnaire regarding environmental, behavioral, and lifestyle habits at each of the 3 assessments; however, only anthropometric findings are presented. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board for the Use of Human Subjects in Research at Auburn University. Informed consent and assent for subjects younger than 19 years or informed consent for those who were 19 years were obtained prior to participation in the study. Subjects received $25 compensation at the first and third visits and $20 at the second visit upon completion of assessments. Compensation was higher for the first and third visits due to the additional time required for the body shape assessment; body shape was not assessed at the second visit. Anthropometric Assessment Weight was measured to the nearest two tenths of a pound using a digital scale (Healthometer, model 500KL; Pelstar, Bridgeview, IL). Scale accuracy was checked with external weights. Scale precision was 10 lbs, and 66 students (32.2%) gained ≥5 lbs. About one third of the students gained weight both fall and spring semesters, whereas another third who gained weight fall semester lost weight spring semester. Weight gain over the academic year did not differ significantly based on initial BMI classification. Subjects initially classified as obese (n = 9) gained an average of 7.3 ± 13.8 lbs; subjects initially classified as overweight (n = 26) gained an average of 1.5 ± 10.3 lbs; subjects initially considered normal weight (n = 160) gained an average of 2.4 ± 5.7 lbs, and those initially classified as underweight (n = 10) gained an average of 2.7 ± 3.3 lbs. Twelve subjects (5.9%), 6 males and 6 females, who were initially classified as normal weight were classified as overweight by the end of spring. However, only 3 of 14 females classified as overweight at the end of spring semester had >31% body fat, and none of the males in the overweight category at the end of spring semester had >20% body fat. Body scan data marking the beginning of fall and end of spring semesters were available for 191 subjects (122 females and 69 males). Mean waist circumference measurements increased significantly by 0.40 ± 1.71 inches (females 0.35 ± 1.84 and males 0.53 ± 1.47 inches) and hip circumference measurements increased significantly by 0.46 ± 1.40 inches (females 0.37 ± 1.44 and males 0.58 ± 1.34 inches) over the academic year. Beginning of the year waist to hip ratios were 0.82 ± 0.04 for the males and 0.76 ± 0.05 for the females. End of year waist to hip ratios were 0.83 ± 0.05 for the males and 0.76 ± 0.05 for the females. The ratios differed significantly (p < .0001) between males and females at both JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
VOL 58, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2009 23.6 ± 4.1 24.1 ± 4.2∗ 22.8 ± 4.3 23.1 ± 4.5∗
164.4 ± 28.7 167.8 ± 29.6∗ 144.1 ± 32.6 146.7 ± 34.5∗
116.0 ± 25.0 115.9 ± 25.0
143.8 ± 18.0 143.7 ± 17.9
101.7 ± 13.3 101.5 ± 13.3
LBMa (lb)
body fat, and% body fat whereby n = 200 for all and n = 68 for males.
22.3 ± 4.3 22.6 ± 4.6∗
BMIa (kg/m2)
133.0 ± 29.0 135.1 ± 31.3∗
Weighta (lb)
aData are presented as mean ± SD. bn = 205 for all and n = 73 for males, except for lean body mass, absolute Note. ∗ Significantly (p < .05) different from the beginning of fall values.
Females (n = 132) Beginning of fall End of spring Males (n = 73)b Beginning of fall End of spring All (n = 205)b Beginning of fall End of spring
Gender/time
27.1 ± 18.6 29.8 ± 20.4∗
19.0 ± 16.4 22.7 ± 18.0∗
31.2 ± 18.4 33.5 ± 20.6∗
Absolute body fata (lb)
18.6 ± 7.9 20.0 ± 8.0∗
11.1 ± 5.2 13.0 ± 5.4∗
22.4 ± 6.1 23.6 ± 6.5∗
Body fata (%)
TABLE 1. Body Weight, Body Mass Index (BMI), Lean Body Mass (LBM), Absolute Body Fat, and Percent Body Fat of College Freshmen at the Beginning of Fall Semester and End of Spring Semester
Freshmen Weight Gain
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FIGURE 2. Changes in body weight, body mass index (BMI), lean body mass (LBM), absolute body fat, and percent body fat of 135 college freshmen who gained weight from beginning of fall semester to the end of spring semester. No significant differences between males and females were observed.
time points, but did not differ between the beginning of the year and the end of the year for the males or for the females. A significant (p < .0001) correlation (r = .509) was found between weight change and waist circumference change, but not between weight change and waist to hip ratio change over the academic year. For those that gained weight (74 females and 52 males), mean waist circumference measurements increased by 0.84 ± 1.48 inches (females 0.93 ± 1.62 inches and males 0.75 ± 1.28 inches) and mean hip circumference measurements increased by 0.84 ± 1.38 inches (females 0.85 ± 1.23 inches and males 0.81 ± 1.50 inches). No significant differences in changes in waist and hip measurements were found between males and females in this weight gain group. For those that lost weight (43 females and 16 males), mean waist circumference measurements decreased by −0.51 ± 1.77 inches (females −0.65 ± 1.73 inches and males −0.14 ± 1.90 inches) and mean hip measurements decreased by −0.31 ± 1.18 inches (females −0.33 ± 1.10 inches and males −0.25 ± 1.40 inches). No significant differences in changes in waist and hip measurements were found between males and females in this weight loss group. Six females initially had a waist circumference >35 inches. By the end of spring semester, 2 lost weight and had decreased their waist circumference to 35 and >40 inches, respectively, at the end of spring semester. COMMENT The “freshman 15” appears to be a myth for most college freshmen. Weight gain, however, is a problem for most students during the freshman year, especially the first semester. Almost 2/3 of freshmen in this study gained weight their first 228
year of college, and although the average gain was less than 3 lbs, about 9% gained >10 lbs and about one third gained ≥5 lbs. Only about 5% of students gained the legendary “freshman 15.” Several studies have examined first semester weight changes in college freshmen. The results from the first semester of this study, which found that about 69% of students gained weight the first semester of the freshman year and had an average weight gain of 2.1 lbs, are consistent with previous reports of Anderson and others,6 Gropper and coworkers,20 Hajhosseini and colleagues,22 and Levitsky and associates.28 These 4 studies6,20,22,28 (with sample sizes of about 27 to 135) reported that about 67% to 74% of freshmen gained weight during their first semester of college and that the average weight gain ranged from about 1.9 to 4.2 lbs. The finding that mean weight did not significantly differ between the end of fall and the end of spring in this study is similar to the findings of Anderson and others,6 who also reported no significant weight change during spring semester for a group of 46 college freshmen. The results for the academic year for this study, which showed about 66% of freshmen gained weight and that the average weight gain was 2.6 lbs for the group and 6.0 lbs for the weight gain group over the academic year, also are similar to the published literature. Five studies (with sample sizes of about 35 to 135 and which measured weight and did not use self-reported data) found that about 62% to 76% of freshmen gained weight during their first year of college; the average weight gain ranged from about 2.4 to 3.8 lbs for the group in these studies.6,20,24,26,29 If only the weight gainers are reported, then weight gain in other published studies20,24,26 ranges from about 5.8 to 7.5 lbs, which is consistent with the 6.0 lbs found in the present study. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
Freshmen Weight Gain
Weight loss by college freshmen has not been well publicized in the literature. In the present study, 28.5% of the students lost an average of −2.5 lbs fall semester, and 31.2% of students lost an average of −4.4 lbs for the academic year. These percentages are slightly higher than those reported in the literature; however, differences in reporting methods make direct comparisons difficult. For example, Anderson and others6 found that 20% of freshmen lost weight (defined as ≥0.5 lb loss), and Hajhosseini and coworkers22 found that 7% of freshmen lost more than one pound over the fall semester. Hodge and researchers23 found that 18% of female freshmen lost an average of −5.45 lbs weight over the first 6 months of the freshman year but defined loss as 4 lbs or more. Jung and colleagues26 reported that 34% of a sample of 101 freshmen lost weight during the first calendar (12 months) of college. Similarly, Hoffman and others24 showed that 27% of freshmen lost weight over the academic year. Of the published literature, only 2 other studies have examined body composition changes after 1 semester and another 2 studies reported changes for the year. Hajhosseini and others22 found for 27 college freshmen that, on average, percent body fat increased significantly by 2.1%, and percent lean body mass decreased significantly by 2.1% after 1 semester. Gropper and colleagues20 found that over the fall semester, percent body fat significantly increased by 1.0% and BMI significantly increased by 0.4 kg/m2 in a group of 35 college freshmen. The present study found that percent body fat, absolute body fat, and BMI increased significantly by 0.9%, 1.8 lbs, and 0.3 kg/m2, respectively, after 1 semester of college. Significant increases in percent body fat (1.4%), fat mass (2.8 lbs), and BMI (0.4 kg/m2) were also observed over the academic year in the present study. These findings are slightly higher than those of Hoffman and others24 and Jung and associates.26 Hoffman and coworkers24 found in a group of 67 freshmen significant increases in BMI (0.45 kg/m2), fat free mass (1.1 lbs), body fat (1.6 lbs), and percent body fat (0.7%) over an academic year. In contrast, Jung and associates26 found a 0.21% nonsignificant increase in body fat in a group of 101 freshmen after a year (12 months) of college; however, larger significant gains in body fat were observed in the weight gain group. These gains in body fat during the freshman year may be troublesome should the trend continue throughout the college period. The assessment of body composition in this group is important since weight gain in young adults may be significant during college, but percent body fat may remain within acceptable, healthy ranges. Circumference measurements also provide valuable information. During the year, the mean waist and hip measurements increased by equal or nearly equal values in the whole group and in the weight gain group. Female and male waistto-hip ratios were significantly different at the beginning and at the end of the year, representing a less indented male waist. Each of the 2 groups’ mean ratios, however, remained unchanged or nearly unchanged. Circumference measurement changes were not significantly different between males and females who gained weight or between those that lost weight. VOL 58, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2009
Weight change and waist circumference change were significantly related in this study. Waist circumference is thought to be one of the best indicators of obesity-related health risks.38 Waist circumference measurement, which reflects subcutaneous, visceral, and retroperitoneal fat in the abdominal region or central obesity, has been used to identify risk factors for type 2 diabetes and heart disease in both adults and children.39–44 This study also found that 6 freshmen had waist circumference measurements (>40 inches for men or >35 inches for women), suggesting critical accumulation of central adipose tissue and high risk for health problems.44 Studies in children and young adults have found significant associations between waist circumference and serum concentrations of glucose, insulin, triglycerides, and cholesterol, indicative of risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes.38–41 Given that the relationship between central obesity and disease develops at a relatively young age, early identification of individuals, including college students, at risk may help prevent the development of these obesity-related diseases.40 Weight loss in the present study resulted in significant losses of lean body mass but not body fat; in fact, percent body fat increased over the year in this group, suggesting unhealthy methods may have been used for weight loss. Few studies have examined and reported on weight loss and composition of weight lost in college students. Hoffman and associates24 noted a loss of body fat in the 27% of freshmen in their study that lost weight and Jung and coworkers26 similarly stated a significant decrease in body fat in the 34% of women who lost weight in their study, but neither study reported absolute changes in body fat or lean body mass. The shift in body composition observed in the present study (decreased lean body mass and increased body fat mass) could lead to decreases in metabolic rate and ultimately make it harder to maintain weight or to keep excess weight off. Further, because the distribution of fat and the absolute amount of fat are associated with risk for diseases, loss of lean mass coupled with gains in body fat especially in the abdominal region may be hazardous in spite of the absolute loss of weight. Limitations and Strengths The present study adds important findings about freshman weight and body composition changes to the literature. It shows that weight gained by freshmen attending a large public university in the South is similar to that gained by freshmen at other universities (note most other published studies were conducted at universities in the Midwest, Northeast, and West). In addition, it shows that both males and females gained weight and body fat, and exhibited an increase in BMI, especially during fall semester. A small percentage of freshmen also appeared to be at increased risk for health problems associated with weight gains in the abdominal region. Weight loss also appears to be a problem for some freshmen, and was associated with unhealthy changes in body composition. These findings, however, must be interpreted with caution because self-selection bias may have occurred, ie, only students who felt secure with their weight or were 229
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comfortable enough to be measured may have returned. In addition, spring break plans and weight goals were not controlled in this study and may have influenced the results. Conclusions and Recommendations Weight gain during the freshman year is a problem for most college students, but for only about 5% does it reach the notorious “freshman 15.” This weight gain is accompanied by unhealthy changes in waist circumference, absolute body fat, and BMI and, in some, an increased risk of health problems. These findings are of concern given the trends in obesity among Americans. Additional studies are needed to further examine changes in body weight and composition, and factors contributing to these changes, in the college population not only during the freshman year, but also during the sophomore, junior, and senior years. Health promotion and intervention programs on campus may be needed for all college students (not just the freshmen) in order to address some of the issues related to undesirable body weight and composition changes that may occur while in college. Given that in the midst of an obesity epidemic, most students in this study deemed their parents normal in weight, size perception also may need to be incorporated into intervention programs. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. The authors would like to thank K. Calloway, H. Castro, K. Clary, C. Conner, P. Harrington, S.P. McCurdy, J. Musgrove, A. Prichard, L. Sims, E. Weems, and L. Westbrook for their assistance with data collection. NOTE For comments and further information, address correspondence to Dr Sareen S. Gropper, 101 Poultry Science Bldg., 260 Lem Morrison Drive, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA (e-mail:
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