The Role of Expected Outcomes in the Formation of ...

This article was downloaded by: [Hong Kong Polytechnic University] On: 13 November 2011, At: 23:26 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wttm20

The Role of Expected Outcomes in the Formation of Behavioral Intentions in the Green-Hotel Industry a

b

Misung Lee , Heesup Han & Greg Willson

c

a

Department of Tourism Management, Dong-A University, Bumin-dong, Busan, Republic of South Korea b

Department of Tourism Management, Dong-A University, Bumin-dong, 2ga, 1bungi, Busan, Republic of South Korea c

School of Marketing, Tourism and Leisure, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

Available online: 11 Nov 2011

To cite this article: Misung Lee, Heesup Han & Greg Willson (2011): The Role of Expected Outcomes in the Formation of Behavioral Intentions in the Green-Hotel Industry, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28:8, 840-855 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2011.623049

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28:840–855, 2011 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1054-8408 print / 1540-7306 online DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2011.623049

Downloaded by [Hong Kong Polytechnic University] at 23:26 13 November 2011

THE ROLE OF EXPECTED OUTCOMES IN THE FORMATION OF BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS IN THE GREEN-HOTEL INDUSTRY Misung Lee Heesup Han Greg Willson

ABSTRACT. Despite customers’ increasing environmental concerns and demand for green products in the lodging industry, there has been a lack of research undertaken to identify critical factors in hotel consumers’ eco-friendly decision-making processes. The present study was designed to identify the expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel from a customer’s perspective and to examine the relationships between the identified factors and behavioral intentions (i.e., visit intention and word-of– mouth intention). To achieve these objectives, this study used both qualitative (a focus group) and quantitative (survey and regression analysis) methodological approaches. A total of seven expected outcomes were identified through the focus group. An online survey of U.S. hotel customers was conducted. The results of the regression analysis evidenced that hotel customers’ expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel had a positive influence on behavioral intentions, which demonstrated the role of expected outcomes as direct antecedents of behavioral intentions and as an immediate reason for choosing a green hotel over a non-conventional hotel. Findings from an additional analysis indicated that healthy guestrooms, eco-friendly practices, and reduced expenses were positively associated with visit intention. Further, healthy guestrooms, reduced expenses, organic foods, and environmental protection had a positive and significant impact on word-of-mouth intention.

KEYWORDS. Green hotel, expected outcomes, visit intention, word-of-mouth intention

INTRODUCTION Environmental concerns within the global community have become increasingly prevalent in the media and have generated shifts in both behaviors and attitudes of consumers.

The environmental awareness of consumers has rapidly increased and this has created a need to determine the impact and relevance of this awareness in related tourism industries (Donaton & Fitzgerald, 1992; Laroche, Bergeron, & Barbaro-Forleo, 2001; Roberts &

Misung Lee is part-time Lecturer in the Department of Tourism Management at Dong-A University, Bumin-dong, in Busan, Republic of South Korea (E-mail: [email protected]). Heesup Han is Assistant Professor in the Department of Tourism Management at Dong-A University, Bumin-dong, 2ga, 1bungi, Busan, Republic of South Korea (E-mail: [email protected]). Greg Willson is Lecturer in the School of Marketing, Tourism and Leisure at Edith Cowan University in Perth Australia (E-mail: [email protected]). This study was supported by research funds from Dong-A University. Address correspondence to: Heesup Han at the above address. 840


Lee, Han, and Willson

Bacon, 1997). Many of the large, major policy organizations including UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) have urged the entire tourism industry to develop strategies, policies, and action plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in tourist and touristrelated areas (World Tourism Organization, 2007). With the focus of these groups and the attention they receive, the attitudes and behaviors of the general population have been affected by the greater degree of concern and knowledge of environmental issues. The impact of changing attitudes with respect to the environment is represented by the fact that more than three-quarters of Americans believe themselves to be environmentalists (Mackoy, Roger, & Droge, 1995). Along with the change in consumer attitudes there is also an increase in social and political pressure on firms toward environmental responsibility. This has led to an increase in the number of businesses adopting environmentally friendly strategies in order to cater to this new market niche created by consumer attitudes (Allen & Ferrand, 1999; Bratt, 1999; Han, Hsu, & Lee, 2009; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007; Menon & Menon, 1997; Tzschentke, Kirk, & Lynch, 2004). Responding to the trend of “going green,” many lodging properties are seeking out and adopting innovative methods to attract consumers (Penny, 2007). This includes the creation of ISO 14001 Environmental Management for hotels worldwide, Green Globe 21 for global environmental standards including accommodation sector for the tourism industry, EarthCheck assessment tools for hotels in the Asia Pacific region, the expansion of the Green Hotels Association (GHA), and tourism offices’ guide for green hotels (Chan & Ho, 2006; EC3Global, n.d.; Han, Hsu, & Sheu, 2010; WWF, 2000). A “green hotel” in the lodging industry is determined by management’s desire to implement eco-friendly programs (GHA, 2008; Han et al., 2009). These programs include saving water, reducing energy usage, and reducing solid waste in order to protect the environment, while at the same time lowering operational costs. Some recent studies, however, determine that the overall results of lodging properties becoming

841

more environmentally aware, or “green,” has been mixed (Ginsberg & Bloom, 2004; Gupta & Ogden, 2009). In response to these mixed results, many hospitality industry researchers have begun to focus on determining the reasons for the discrepancies and variations in outcomes. While the early literature emphasized the importance of environmentally friendly strategies for lodging properties in order to attract customers, many researchers have stressed the importance of a deeper focus on consumers’ pro-environmental behavior patterns (Bendapudi, Singh, & Bendapudi, 1996; Han et al., 2009, 2010; Lee, Hsu, Han, & Kim, 2010; Menon & Menon, 1997). A few studies have examined characteristics, attitudes, and purchasing behavior of ecologically conscious consumers (Samdahl & Robertson, 1989; Zimmer, Stafford, & Stafford, 1994), but little attention has been paid to the identification of factors leading to why consumers choose green hotels. A thorough examination of such factors would be indispensable as it could allow the green hotel industry to develop a more effective marketing strategy within an increasingly competitive business environment. This study, in order to determine the utility of outcome expectations in green behavior (specifically those of lodgers), aims to: (a) identify consumers’ expected outcomes with respect to staying at a green hotel; and (b) test the relationship between identified expected outcomes and behavioral intentions, particularly visit intention (VI) and word-of-mouth intention (WOMI). This study will unfold with the following section providing a review of existing literature related to this study. A Methodology section describing the procedures used to identify expected outcomes, develop measurements, and collect data will be next. Following the Methodology section are the Results and, lastly, a discussion based on the implications of this study and suggestions for future research will be presented.

LITERATURE REVIEW Environmentally Friendly Behavior The increasing focus on environmental issues has created an equal growth in the concern paid by consumers to eco-friendly ideas


842

JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

and has resulted in positive Environmentally Friendly Purchasing Behaviors (EFPB; Han et al., 2009; Krause, 1993; Kalafatis, Pollard, East, & Tsogas, 1999; Laroche et al., 2001; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007; Ottman, 1993; Roberts, 1996). McCarty and Shrum (1994) investigated the values that influence consumers’ environmentally conscious behavior. Their results determined that while individualism and security value factors were not significantly related to environmentally conscious behavior, collectivism and fun/enjoyment were positively related to attitudes reflecting the importance of recycling and to recycling behavior. This demonstrates, along with other studies, that consumers with a high level of environmental concern will be more likely to display positive EFPB and actively engage in eco-friendly activities (Krause, 1993; Kalafatis et al., 1999; Laroche et al., 2001; Ottman, 1993; Roberts, 1996; Shabecoff, 1993). Laroche et al. (2001) note these characteristics are reflected in eco-friendly purchasing behavior and further determine that environmentally conscious consumers are more likely to stay at green hotels as opposed to regular accommodations (Han et al., 2009, 2010; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007). This behavior has created a niche market, an opportunity being seized upon by lodging operators through the development of eco-lodging facilities, procurement of green credentials, and self-promotion of these values through green marketing (Han et al., 2009; Morgan & Hunt, 1994; Tzschentke et al., 2004). However, to effectively fill this niche, a thorough understanding of the characteristics of green consumers and their purchasing behavior is fundamental for lasting success (Laroche et al., 2001; Ottman, 1993). In a study profiling consumers who pay more for green products, Laroche et al. (2001) found that while environmentally conscious consumers are willing to pay extra for green products, a customer who actively practices recycling activities is not necessarily inclined to make the same investment. Similarly, Han et al. (2009) argued that the degree of incorporation of green activities into a person’s daily life is an insignificant factor in predicting ecofriendly decision making of hotel customers. Instead, personal beliefs and the evaluation of

outcomes are important factors in deciding to stay at a green hotel. Therefore, consumers who use green hotels and associated products may or may not engage in green activities as part of their regular routines, but instead reflect environmental concerns through their purchasing behavior (Han et al., 2010; Laroche et al., 2001; McDaniel & Rylander, 1993; Schwartz, 1990). Building upon purchasing behaviors, further research has focused on the offering of material incentives to entice consumers to a more positive environmental behavior (Han et al., 2010; Laroche et al., 2001; Stern, 1999). Currently, there is a lack of empirical research in the area of consumer behavior literature as it relates to factors influencing proenvironmental behavior. Due to the current wave of eco-friendly concerns, a possible association exists between hotel customers’ EFPB and green hotel operators. This opportunity exists for the green industry to expand its consumer base through many different means—including developing and branding green hotel products, marketing strategies, and conservation programs among others.

Expected Outcomes and Behavioral Intentions Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) describe behavioral intentions as an individual’s likelihood of engaging in a specific behavior. In the context of the green industry, it is further defined as the intention to purchase certain products and/or services and to recommend them to others (Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993; Reichheld & Sasser, 1990). Specifically, behavioral intentions refer to a customer’s willingness to stay at a green hotel and, in addition, through word-of-mouth, spread positive experiences about their stay. The willingness of customers to purchase and then spread personal experiences contributes to a firm’s overall profit potential and the development of loyalty (Lewis & Chambers, 2000; Yesawich, 1997). Wordof-mouth value is particularly enhanced in the hospitality industry due to the special characteristics inherent within the nature of its services— such as intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity, and perishability (Berry & Parasuraman,



1991; Ennew & Binks, 1999). This study uses behavioral intentions as its primary determinant to correctly predict the actual purchasing behaviors of customers within the decision-making process. A strong relationship between behavioral intentions and actual behaviors is shown in previous empirical studies (Ajzen & Driver, 1992; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). This information underlines the importance of predicting consumers’ behavioral intentions in the current study setting and indentifying factors influencing behavioral intentions in determining a person’s behavior. According to Ajzen (1991), when determining a person’s behavioral intentions, the outcome expectation of salient beliefs held by the individual about the behavior or action usually dominates. The outcome expectation is the probability of future consequences derived from any source of information such as recommendations or referrals and advertising, knowledge, or prior experience, which can be adjusted to through a cognitive process using knowledge, thoughts or conscious process of information (Fishbein, 1963; Oliver, 1997). Given this, in the current study, it is critical to reveal what consumers expect to experience during their stay at a green hotel, as well as to determine the extent of the value placed by consumers on specific individual attributes in predicting consumers VI and WOMI (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). As an example, if customers expect to receive discounts or rewards for staying at a green hotel, then offering these types of compensations or reductions will meet expectations and in turn may influence intentions. This view is congruent with the applied expectancy theory to motivation and travel behavior by Witt and Wright (1993). In their study, the degree of attractiveness of specific attributes of a destination/activity and the ability of the destination/activity determines positive outcomes related to cost, access, or available time in influencing the travel decision-making process. Applying this to the current study, a green hotel’s attractiveness that brings positive outcomes of visiting a green hotel will influence customers’ VI and WOMI. Numerous researchers have investigated influencing factors forming a customer’s

843

positive intention, as well as the benefits resulting from a customer’s favorable behavioral intention (Bansal & Voyer, 2000; Berry & Parasuraman, 1991; Bone, 1995; Bowen & Shoemaker, 1998; Lewis & Chambers, 2000; Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). Some previous research has also found that prior evaluation of products and services effects consumers’ decision-making processes, intentions to purchase, and the possibility of further spreading their own evaluations (Kotler, 1997; Smith & Bolton, 1998, 2002). In sum, the discussion above further bolsters the idea that what consumers expected to experience during their stay at a green hotel may form a more favorable intention to VI and WOMI. Hence, it can be assumed that expected outcomes of services and products at a green hotel will factor in the decision-making process in visiting and potentially recommending a green hotel.

Role of Attributes in Accommodation Studies In order to predict a hotel customer’s behavioral intention, it is important to identify the key attributes in a hotel experience that influence expected outcomes, before the determination of intended behavior. In this regard, much research has examined attributes affecting hotel customers’ decision-making processes through various settings (i.e, Barsky & Labagh, 1992; Bowen & Shoemaker, 1998; Dube & Renaghan, 2000; Griffen, Shea, & Weaver, 1996; Gundersen, Heide, & Olsson, 1996; Lewis, 1984; McCleary, Weaver, & Hutchinson, 1993; Weaver & Oh, 1993). Dube and Renaghan (2000) broadly categorized hotel attributes that drive customers’ purchasing decisions into value for money, brand name and reputation, physical property (exterior and public space), guestrooms, meeting rooms, bathroom attributes, functional service, interpersonal service, food and beverage service, quality standards, and marketing. Dolnicar and Otter (2003), in a review of 21 previous studies conducted over the period of 1984–2000, extracted 173 attributes such as image, service, price/value, hotel, room, food and beverage, and security.


844


Among these various hotel attributes, guestrooms were the most studied attribute in the previous literature (Dolnicar & Otter, 2003), and generally are considered one of the most critical attributes in purchasing decisions with respect to accommodations (Dolnicar & Otter, 2003; Dube & Renaghan, 2000). Several of the various aspects of guestrooms—the standard of housekeeping (Callan, 1996), availability of non-smoking rooms (Shanahan & Hyman, 2007), guestroom design and amenities (Dube & Renaghan, 2000), and cleanliness— were the most important factors underlying the critical impact of guestrooms in choosing accommodation by guests (Lockyer, 2000, 2002, 2005; Shanahan & Hyman, 2007). Factors that can be considered strong attributes of positively viewed guestrooms in the context of a green hotel include: fresh air, freedom from secondhand smoke, biodegradable linens made of eco-friendly fabric, and locally made soaps and furnishings. These are environmentally sounded factors which reflect environmental concerns of hotel operators and care for hotel guests’ well-being. Using such eco-friendly and recyclable materials distinguishes green hotels from conventional hotels. GHA (2009) defined green guest rooms as those “exercising towel change options, use of refillable soap and shampoo dispensers, providing recycling bins for cans, bottles and newspapers in rooms, installing energy-efficient lighting fixtures, energy-efficient appliances, and clean rooms with environmental cleaners to improve indoor air quality and reduce emissions of volatile organic chemicals” (GHA, 2008). Some industry reviews show that a few leading international hotel companies are adopting an environmentally friendly design concept that is conducive to a guest’s well-being (HospitalityNet, 2010). Considering environmental and health impacts in designing guestrooms is recommended for benefits of owners and investors in the long run (Green Building Initiative [GBI], 2010). “Excellent food and beverage” is also identified as a purchase-driving factor and important in determining positive results in the decision-making process (Dube & Renaghan, 2000). Specifically, when a customer evaluates a restaurant experience, healthy food is

denoted as an important attribute (Johns & Tyas, 1996). Thus, healthy menu items have increased in availability, in response to this growing consumer interest based trend (Sulek & Hensley, 2004). Following this current trend, many green hotels serve food that is organically grown or natural and have positioned themselves within the niche for health conscious customers and eco-friendly consumers (Guthman, 2008). Considering the wave of increasingly environmentally aware consumers, this behavior is both expected and predicted. In a study examining the role of attributes of food quality in satisfaction and behavioral intentions, the availability of healthy options had a significant influence on behavioral intentions (Young & Jang, 2007). As with many industries, price is another increasingly influential factor in the accommodation selection process due to constantly changing economic conditions. Lockyer (2002) has argued that in the repeat accommodation business, price is the most influential factor for customers. He also indicated that since customer expenses tend to increase with more frequent stays, many hotels will try to influence customers to become price sensitive and provide discounts or rewards through repeated stays. Similarly, in the study of consumer attitudes and behavior toward green practices in the hotel industry, Manaktola and Jauhari (2007) found that respondents were sensitive to price, including increased costs in implementing green practices, and some respondents expected some form of reimbursement of the savings in operational costs. Reusing towels is seen as a costsaving practice for hotel operators, so a hotel customer expects some sort of compensation for their participation in these measures (Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskvicius, 2008). This required adoption by customers of cost-savings practices for a hotel, which will eventually lower direct costs for the customer, leads customers to expect a green hotel to offer lower prices. In investigating the role of expected outcomes in forming behavioral intentions in the green-hotel industry, it is assumed that a hotel customer will create expectations of a set of attributes (e.g., healthy green guestrooms, healthy amenities, fresh and healthy organic



foods, reduced expenses, recycling programs, donations to charities, green credentials, reusable service items, etc.) making up the green-hotel experience. Among the possible attributes of a green hotel, green practices, which can be seen as attributes that differentiate green hotels from non-green hotels, provide supplementary benefits and added-value (Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007). Green hotels should reflect quality, convenience, and price in developing products and services based on customers’ expectations (Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007; Ottman, 1995; Roy, 1999; Wong, Turner, & Stoneman, 1996). Following the thought created by these studies it is likely that various green-hotel attributes play a critical role in decision formation and thus behavioral intention. A review of the literature suggests that behavioral intention is affected by the expected outcomes held by potential customers. The expected outcomes are a reflection of attributes of green hotels and their environmental practices. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1: Expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel have a positive influence on VI. H2: Expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel have a positive influence on WOMI.

METHODOLOGY Measurement Development For the initial stage of this article, a focus group was utilized to identify the overall expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel. A focus group is believed to be an adequate qualitative method when drawing participants’ thoughts, opinions, insights, and ideas on a certain subject (Marshall & Rossman, 1999; Nachmais & Nachmais, 2008) and to discover customers’ expected outcomes with respect to purchasing a product/service (Ajzen, 1991). Indeed, in previous studies about sociopsychological theories, this qualitative approach has been widely utilized to explore individuals’ estimation of probability of achieving an attribute that links to the particular object—outcomes expectation (Ajzen, 1991; Cheng, Lam, & Hsu,

845

2006; Lam & Hsu, 2004, 2006). The main objective of the focus group in the present study was to identify the outcomes that customers possibly expect when staying at a green hotel. The group included hotel managers and hospitality academics who are experts in a hotel field and actual hotel customers. The focus group participants began by completing an open-ended question (What do you believe will be the benefits/outcomes for customers to stay at a green hotel?), and then discussed the possible outcomes of staying at a green hotel. Based on the responses for the open-ended question, the focus group participants generated seven categories. Specifically, each participant defined his/her sentences (answers) for the open-ended question as units using keywords. As a next step, all participants compared the units, and sorted the units into the categories through in-depth discussion. This process followed Bergadaa (1990) and Spiggle’s (1994) suggestion for qualitative open-ended research. The identified seven categories through this process were “environmental protection,” “social responsibility,” “healthy guestrooms,” “ecofriendly practices,” “eco-friendly amenities,” “organic foods,” and “reduced expenses.” The focus group participants believed that customers would realize these seven outcomes by staying at a green hotel. Hospitality academics and industry experts in the focus group then developed specific measurement items related to these seven outcomes through a thorough review of the previous literature about green hotels and a discussion. For instance, when hospitality academics proposed a measurement item for a particular identified category based on the previous studies, industry experts articulated and/or improved the item, expressing their ideas and opinions on it. The validated measurement items for visit and word-of-mouth intentions were adopted from the literature (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Maxham & Netemeyer, 2002; Morgan & Hunt, 1994) and modified for appropriateness in a green-hotel setting. All constructs were assessed using multi-items and 7-point Likerttype scales. The questionnaire was refined through pretesting and expert review. The findings from a pilot test with 40 hotel customers and hospitality academics showed that

846


the survey instrument had a satisfactory level of reliability as well as question clarity. All items are presented in the Appendix.

indicated that they had no prior green-hotel experience. Finally, 30.1% were not sure whether they had ever stayed at a green hotel.


Data Collection and Sample Profile This study utilized an online survey for data collection. The questionnaires were electronically delivered to 3,000 hotel customers randomly selected from the customer list of a market research company. Following the survey instructions, a detailed description of a green hotel was provided (see Appendix). A total of 428 complete responses were obtained for a response rate of 14.27%. The demographic characteristics indicated that the average age of the participants was 44.5 years; 48.8% were male, and 51.2% were female; and a majority was Caucasian/White (80.8%). In addition, most participants had a bachelor’s degree or higher (89.5%) and indicated that they stay at a hotel at least two to five times a year (50.7%). About one third of the participants reported an annual household income in excess of $70,000 (32.2%), while 35.1% described their yearly household income as less than $40,000. While 13.7% of the participants reported that they had previously stayed at a green hotel, 56.2%

RESULTS Tests for Measurement Quality Coefficient alpha was employed to assess internal consistency (reliability) among the multi-item scales for each variable in the present study. The alpha values for study constructs were .94 for expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel, .89 for VI, and .96 for WOMI, respectively (see Table 1). These values exceeded the suggested cut-off of .70, ensuring adequate internal consistency (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998; Nunnally, 1978). Hinkin (1998) indicated that examining between and within variable correlations helps us evaluate measurement quality involving construct validity. His indication is in line with Campbell and Fiske’s (1959) and Churchill’s (1979) studies. Thus, the construct validity was tested through the close examination of the correlation patterns among measurement items. Table 2 presents the correlation values among

TABLE 1. Reliability of the Measures Variables

Scale mean if item deleted

Expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel EOSGH1 EOSGH2 EOSGH3 EOSGH4 EOSGH5 EOSGH6 EOSGH7 Visit intention VI1 VI2 VI3 Word-of-mouth intention WOMI1 WOMI2 WOMI3

Coefficient alpha = .94

33.24 33.33 33.28 33.29 33.30 33.29 34.65 Coefficient alpha = .89 9.94 11.12 10.74 Coefficient alpha = .96 10.40 10.31 9.94

Scale variance if item deleted

Corrected item—Total correlation

Alpha if item deleted

61.39 62.18 61.93 61.52 61.28 62.54 66.47

.88 .84 .89 .89 .91 .82 .79

.92 .93 .92 .92 .92 .93 .96

8.52 7.55 6.45

.71 .79 .85

.90 .83 .77

9.73 9.64 10.94

.94 .95 .87

.93 .92 .98

Note. EOSGH = Expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel; VI = Visit intention; and WOMI = Word-of-mouth intention.

847

1.00 .84 .84 .87 .85 .73 .45 .56 .48 .54 .52 .55 .57 5.84 1.49

EOSGH1

1.00 .81 .83 .81 .71 .42 .53 .40 .48 .47 .49 .51 5.75 1.49

EOSGH2

1.00 .87 .88 .77 .44 .58 .48 .56 .54 .56 .57 5.80 1.44

EOSGH3

1.00 .88 .74 .43 .57 .49 .56 .52 .54 .57 5.79 1.47

EOSGH4

1.00 .84 .46 .56 .49 .55 .55 .56 .58 5.78 1.46

EOSGH5

1.00 .52 .52 .44 .50 .55 .55 .56 5.69 1.49

EOSGH6

1.00 .30 .42 .41 .45 .43 .39 4.43 1.81

EOSGH7

1.00 .63 .72 .56 .56 .61 5.96 1.36

VI1

1.00 .82 .68 .69 .64 4.78 1.46

VI2

Note. EOSGH = Expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel; VI = Visit intention; and WOMI = Word-of-mouth intention.

EOSGH1 EOSGH2 EOSGH3 EOSGH4 EOSGH5 EOSGH6 EOSGH7 VI1 VI2 VI3 WOMI1 WOMI2 WOMI3 Mean: SD:

Item

TABLE 2. Correlations Among Measurement Items

1.00 .75 .74 .71 5.16 1.60

VI3


1.00 .96 .85 4.92 1.67

WOMI1

1.00 .88 5.01 1.67

WOMI2

1.00 5.39 1.55

WOMI3


848


the items for study constructs. The measurement items for expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel, VI, and WOMI were highly correlated (convergent validity). In addition, the Table shows that the correlation patterns within the study constructs differ from the patterns between constructs (discriminant validity). Specifically, the correlations among the items within a construct are generally greater than the correlations among the items between constructs. Although relatively high correlations in the relationship between items for VI and items for WOMI were found, the values were below the problematic level of .80, showing no presence of a multicollinearity problem (Hair et al., 1998). The between construct correlations ranged from .39 to .75. Overall, these findings provided an evidence of both convergent and discriminant validity (Campbell & Fiske, 1959; Churchill, 1979; Hinkin, 1998).

Hypotheses Testing and Additional Analysis To test the relations between expected outcomes and behavioral intentions (i.e., visit and word-of-mouth intention), a series of regression analyses were performed using SPSS 16.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Hypothesis 1 was assessed by regressing

visit intention on expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel. The result showed that expected outcomes had a significant and positive influence on visit intention (Equation 1: β = .632, t = 16.83, p < .01). Thus, Hypothesis 1 was supported. Hypothesis 2 suggested that expected outcomes positively affect word-ofmouth intention. As foreseen, expected outcomes were found to be a positive predictor of word-of-mouth intention (Equation 2: β = .627, t = 16.63, p < .01). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. The results of the two hypotheses’ testing and the regression equations used in the present study are presented and summarized in Figure 1 and Table 3. Expected outcomes explained about 40% of the total variance in VI and 39% in WOMI. An additional analysis using a stepwise multiple regression was conducted to assess the relative importance of the items for expected outcomes that lead to intentions to visit and word-of-mouth. Regression equations and the findings from the additional analysis are shown in Table 4. First, the effect of the components of expected outcomes on VI was assessed. The mean value of the three measurement items for VI was used as the dependent variable. The results showed that eco-friendly practices (β = .28, t = 3.65, p < .01), healthy guestrooms (β = .28, t = 3.55, p < .01), and reduced

FIGURE 1. Path Coefficients for the Proposed Relationships Behavioral Intentions

Visit Intention H1: .632**(16.83) Expected Outcomes of Staying at a Green Hotel H2: .627**(16.63) Word-ofMouth Intention


849

TABLE 3. Summary of the Results Independent variable

Dependent variable

Regression coefficients Unstandardized

t value

Standardized

Hypotheses testing


Equation 1: VI = β 0 + β 1 EOSGH + Expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel R 2 (adjusted R 2 ) = .40 (.40) Equation 2: WOMI = β 0 + β 1 EOSGH + Expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel R 2 (adjusted R 2 ) = .39 (.39)

Visit intention

.64

.632

16.83∗∗

Word-of-mouth intention

.75

.627

16.63∗∗

Note. EOSGH = Expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel; VI = Visit intention; WOMI = Word-of-mouth intention. ∗∗ p < .01.

TABLE 4. Summary of the Results for Additional Analysis Independent variables

Dependent variable

Regression coefficients Unstandardized

Additional analysis The effects of the components of expected outcomes on visit intention Eco-friendly practices Visit intention Healthy guestroom Visit intention Reduced expenses Visit intention R 2 (adjusted R 2 ) = .405 (.401)

.26 .25 .13

The effects of the components of expected outcomes on word-of-mouth intention Healthy guestroom Word-of-mouth intention .22 Reduced expenses Word-of-mouth intention .15 Organic foods Word-of-mouth intention .21 Environmental protection Word-of-mouth intention .18 R 2 (adjusted R 2 ) = .402 (.397) ∗p

t value

Standardized

.28 .28 .18

3.65∗∗ 3.55∗∗ 4.20∗∗

.21 −.17 .20 .17

2.65∗∗ 3.83∗∗ 3.17∗∗ 2.31∗

< .05, ∗∗ p < .01.

expenses (β = .18, t = 4.20, p < .01) exerted a significant positive impact on VI. The R2 value of .401 in the model indicated that 40.1% of the variance in visit intention was explained by these variables. When comparing the strength of the paths, eco-friendly practices and healthy guestrooms emerged as the most important contributors to VI. A reduction in expenses was another important determinant of intention to visit a green hotel. Second, the influence of the components of expected outcomes on WOMI was examined. The mean value of the three measurement items for word-of-mouth intention was used as the dependent variable. The findings indicated that healthy guestrooms (β = .21, t = 2.65, p < .01), reduced expenses (β = .17, t = 3.83, p < .01), organic foods (β = .20, t = 3.17,

p < .01), and environmental protection (β = .17, t = 2.31, p < .05) had a significant and positive impact on word-of-mouth intention. This model accounted for 39.7% of the total variance in word-of-mouth intention (R2 = 397). Based on the magnitude of standardized coefficients, the paths from healthy guestrooms and organic food to word-of-mouth intention were slightly stronger than the paths from reduced expenses and environmental protection to wordof-mouth intention. It should be noted that healthy guestrooms and reduced expenses were significant predictors of both visit and wordof-mouth intentions. When compared to other variables, healthy guestrooms proved to be the most influential determinant of both visit and word-of-mouth intentions.

850



DISCUSSION The present study empirically tested a model that outlines the impact of expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel on behavioral intentions. To test the proposed model, this study identified hotel customers’ expected outcomes for staying at a green hotel through a focus group study and an open-ended questionnaire, and examined the relationships between expected outcomes and behavioral intentions through a series of regression analyses. Our findings indicated that the components of the expected outcomes for potential green-hotel customers were environmental protection, social responsibility, healthy guestrooms, eco-friendly practices, eco-friendly amenities, organic foods, and reduced expenses. As hypothesized, expected outcomes had a positive relationship with VI (Equation 1: β = .632, t = 16.83, p < .01) and WOMI (Equation 2: β = .627, t = 16.63, p < .01). In particular, the results of the stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that eco-friendly practices, healthy guestrooms, and reduced expenses demonstrated a significant and positive impact on VI; while organic foods, healthy guestroom, environmental protection, and reduced expenses positively affected WOMI. This study provides both theoretical and managerial implications. First, unlike other studies (Han et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2010), this study examined the particular association between each expected outcome component with behavioral intentions (VI & WOMI), and investigated the relative importance among the components of expected outcomes in forming behavioral intentions. One important finding of this study showed that the identified expected outcomes were what potential green-hotel customers believed that they would experience and correspond to reasons for customers to visit and recommend a green hotel. Further, this unfolds the role of expected outcomes as a direct antecedent to behavioral intentions in predicting customers’ decision formation in a green-hotel setting. This justifies the role of expected outcomes as independent variables on dependent variables in predicting green-hotel decision making. This finding implies that individuals’ expected

outcomes play a critical role in their ecofriendly purchasing decision-making process. Thus, green-hotel marketers should understand the importance of the identified expected outcomes, which lead directly to the generation of customers’ intention to visit and recommend a green hotel. Specifically, to increase positive behavioral intentions, marketers and managers of green hotels are encouraged to establish conditions and procedures that will satisfy a customer’s expectations for staying at a green hotel. Second, the results of the stepwise regression analysis evidenced that a healthy guestroom was the major determinant of the intention to visit and to recommend a green hotel. This indicates that customers would prefer to stay in a green hotel which features healthy green guestrooms and willingly spread positive word-of-mouth about such rooms. Green-hotel industry practitioners and marketers should pay special attention to create attractive healthy guestrooms and develop an active marketing strategy about advertising their rooms through various channels (e.g., Internet, hotel welcoming videos, and brochures). Further, in order to effectively provide healthy guestrooms, hotel managers should ensure standard operation procedures are in place and train staff in preparing healthy guestrooms at every level of service. For instance, The Inn Marin has implemented chemical-free healthy guestrooms (Suite 101, 2008). Additionally, investors and owners should find encouragement to invest in environmentally friendly designed guestrooms and hotel facilities that contribute to guests’ wellbeing as well as environments that can lead to long-term benefits and contribute to sustainable improvements. For example, Westin hotels adopts environmentally sound room designs to enhance the brand identity and wellness strategy by using eco-friendly materials such as energy-conserving LED and CFL lights, water conserving low flow plumbing and recyclable carpet pads, low VOC finishes for case goods, and Green Guard certified solar shades (HospitalityNet, 2010). Investors and owners are also encouraged to obtain official green credentials. This would raise the business’s profile via the awarding of the credentials by unveiling



a commitment to environmental practices and could add a competitive advantage (Gustin & Weaver, 1996). Third, the positive contribution of reduced expenses in increasing VI and generating positive WOMI implies that customers expect their costs to be reduced when staying at a green hotel. These findings denote that reduced expenses are an important element of marketing and can be a feature of a green hotel that provides a competitive advantage over non-green hotels within the same rating range. Thus, practitioners in the green-hotel industry should be encouraged to actively develop recycling initiatives and implement point card systems (e.g., a green-club membership that would allow the customer to earn points based on energy-use reduction, recycling and reuse programs, and other green initiatives that represent operatingcost savings for the hotel). In addition, offering compensation and discounts as material incentives are suggested as influential attributes in formulating intention to purchase and to spread positive word-of-mouth (e.g., Maxham & Netemeyer, 2002; Stern, 1999). Moreover, as a part of yield management, marketers could develop a dynamic price policy for repeated green business and price-sensitive hotel customers. As a result, this would lead to a positive impact on increasing repeat business and achieving the ultimate business goals. Fourth, it was found that organic foods were an expected outcome that influenced the willingness of potential customers to spread positive word-of-mouth about a green hotel. According to Young and Jang (2007), healthy options are significant factors in forming customers’ favorable intentions. Our result implied that a potential green customer highly values organic food as a healthy option. Accordingly, green-hotel operators should endeavor to provide organically grown food in order to increase favorable WOMI about their hotels. Finding a local supplier would be one way to provide quality organic foods and lower the cost of raw food supply. Fifth, among the survey respondents, 56.2% had no previous experience in staying at a green hotel, and 30.1% were uncertain whether or not they had ever stayed at a green hotel. This

851

finding implies that without a prior experience of staying at a green hotel, potential customers still form a willingness to visit green hotels and to engage in word-of-mouth behaviors. This willingness, in the absence of experience, may be the result of a reflection based on increased public awareness of environmental issues in relation to eco-friendly hotel-consumer behaviors (e.g., Han et al., 2009; Kirk, 1998; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007). Hence, to increase hotel customers’ eco-friendly decisions, it is recommended that managers conduct ongoing campaigns stressing environmental protection and the green initiatives implemented in their green hotels, as these can be distinctive contributors to the enhancement of consumer environmental awareness.

LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH This study had several limitations that provide opportunities for future research. First, to enhance the external validity of the study results, an online survey was utilized to collect data in the present study. Although the use of online surveys is an effective way to reach a broad range of U.S. hotel customers, this sampling method might have limited internal validity. Thus, the use of the data collected within an actual hotel product consumption situation is recommended for future research. Second, this study examined the effects of expected outcomes on potential green-hotel customers’ behavioral intentions (VI and WOMI). A few researchers have noted that not all consumers perform actions as per their intentions due to unforeseen variables that have an influence upon them. Such a notion possibly suggests that a longitudinal approach should be considered for a future study, which will provide more insight into the delicate relationship between consumers’ behavioral intentions and their actual behavior within the green-hotel context. Employing a longitudinal approach would allow us to more clearly comprehend the associations between behavioral intentions (VI and WOMI) of potential hotel customers


852


and their actual eco-friendly purchasing behavior, and to identify other possible causal factors that may influence consumers’ behaviors. Third, healthy guestroom was identified to be the most influential factor in a green-hotel decision making in this study. It is possible that this result may have resulted through potential bias in the questionnaire design, which included the items “healthy room” and “environmentally friendly guestroom”; survey respondents may have wished to answer favorably by selecting these questionnaire options. Thus, in future studies, separation of healthy guestroom and environmentally friendly guestroom should be considered. Finally, an extension of this study should be undertaken in other countries to see whether different factors such as region, culture, and ethnicity impact a customer’s green-hotel decisionmaking process.

REFERENCES Ajzen, I. (1991). A theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavioral and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. Ajzen, I., & Driver, B. L. (1992). Application of the theory of planned behavior to leisure choice. Journal of Leisure Research, 24(3), 207–224. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Allen, J. B., & Ferrand, L. J. (1999). Environmental locus of control, sympathy and pro-environmental behavior: A test of Geller’s actively caring hypothesis. Environment and Behavior, 31(3), 338–353. Bansal, H. S., & Voyer, P. A. (2000). World-of-mouth processes within a services purchase decision context. Journal of Service Research, 3(2), 166–177. Barsky, J. D., & Labagh, R. (1992). A strategy for customer satisfaction. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 33(5), 32–40. Bendapudi, N., Singh, S. N., & Bendapudi, V. (1996). Enhancing helping behavior: An integrative framework for promotional planning. Journal of Marketing, 60, 33–49. Bergadaa, M. M. (1990). The role of time in the action of the consumer. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(3), 289–302. Berry, L. L., & Parasuraman, A. (1991). Marketing services—Competing of the results through quality. New York, NY: Free Press.

Bone, P. F. (1995). Word-of-mouth effects on short-term and long-term product judgments. Journal of Business Research, 32(3), 213–223. Boulding, W., Kalra, A., Staelin, R., & Zeithaml, V. A. (1993). A dynamic process model of service quality: From expectations to behavioral intentions. Journal of Marketing Research, 30, 7–27. Bowen, J. T., & Shoemaker, S. (1998). Loyalty: A strategic commitment. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 12–25. Bratt, C. (1999). Consumers’ environmental behavior: Generalized, sector-based, or compensatory? Environment and Behavior, 31(1), 28–34. Callan, R. J. (1996). An appraisement of UK business travelers’ perceptions of important hotel attributes. Hospitality Research Journal, 19(4), 113–127. Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105. Chan, W. W., & Ho, K. (2006). Hotels’ environmental management systems (ISO 14001): Creative financing strategy. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(4), 302–316. Cheng, S., Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2006). Negative word-of-mouth communication intention: An application of the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 30(1), 95–116. Churchill, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 64–73. Dolnicar, S., & Otter, T. (2003). Which hotel attributes matter? A review of previous and a framework for further research. In T. Griffin & R. Harris (Eds.), Asia Pacific Tourism Association Ninth Annual Conference, Sydney, Australia (pp. 176–188). Donaton, S., & Fitzgerald, K. (1992). Polls show ecological concern is strong. Advertising Age, 63, 3. Dube, L., & Renaghan, L. M. (2000). Creating visible customer value—How customers view bestpractice champions. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 41(1), 62–72. EC3Global. (n.d.). EarthCheck. Retrieved from http:// www.earthcheck.org/ Ennew, C. T., & Binks, M. R. (1999). Impact of participative service relationships on quality, satisfaction and retention: An exploratory study. Journal of Business Research, 46(2), 121–132. Fishbein, M. (1963). An investigation of the relationships between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward that object. Human Relation, 16, 233–240. Ginsberg, J. M., & Bloom, P. N. (2004). Choosing the right green marketing strategy. MIT Sloan Management Review, 46(1), 79–84. Goldstein, N. J., Cialdini, R. B., & Griskvicius, V. (2008). A room with a viewpoint: Using social norms to motivate environmental conservation in hotels. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 472–482.



Green Building Initiative. (2010). LEED. Retrieved from http://www.thegbi.org/green-globes/green-globes-leedgreen-building-certification.shtml Green Hotels Association. (2008). What are green hotels? Retrieved from http://greenhotels.com/index.php Griffin, R., Shea, L., & Weaver, P. (1996). How business travelers discriminate between mid-priced and luxury hotels: An analysis using a longitudinal sample. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 4, 64–75. Gundersen, M. G., Heide, M., & Olsson, U. H. (1996). Hotel guest satisfaction among business travelers: What are the important factors? The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 37(2), 72–81. Gupta, S., & Ogden, D. T. (2009). To buy or not to buy? A social dilemma perspective on green buying. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 26(6), 376–391. Gustin, M., & Weaver, P. (1996). Are hotels prepared for the environmental consumer? The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 20(2), 1–14. Guthman, J. (2008). Bringing good food to others: Investigating the subjects of alternative food. Cultural Geographies, 15(4), 431–447. Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Han, H., Hsu, J., & Lee, J. (2009). Empirical investigation of the roles of attitudes toward green behaviors, overall image, gender, and age in hotel customers’ eco-friendly decision-making process. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(4), 519–528. Han, H., Hsu J., & Sheu, C. (2010). Application of the theory of planned behavior to green hotel choice: Testing the effect of environmental friendly activities. Tourism Management, 31(3), 325–334. Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1(1), 104–121. HospitalityNet. (2010). Westin Hotels new eco-friendly guestrooms embrace natural elements. Retrieved from http://www.hospitalitynet.org/news/154000320/ 4048626.html Johns, N., & Tyas, P. (1996). Investigating of the perceived components of the meal experience, using perceptual gap methodology. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(1), 15–26. Kalafatis, S. P., Pollard, M., East, E., & Tsogas, M. H. (1999). Green marketing and Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior: A cross-market examination. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(5), 441–460. Kirk, D. (1998). Attitudes to environmental management held by a group of hotel managers in Edinburgh. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 17(1), 33–47. Kotler, P. (1997). Marketing management: Analysis, planning, implantation, and control (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

853

Krause, D. (1993). Environmental consciousness: An empirical study. Journal of Environment and Behavior, 25(1), 126–142. Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2004). Theory of planned behavior: Potential travelers from China. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 28(4), 463–482. Lam, T., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2006). Predicting behavioral intention of choosing a travel destination. Tourism Management, 27(4), 589–599. Laroche, M., Bergeron, J., & Barbaro-Forleo, G. (2001). Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(6), 503–520. Lee, J., Hsu, L., Han, H., & Kim, Y. (2010). Understanding how consumers view green hotels: How a hotel’s green image can influence behavioural intentions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(7), 901–914. Lewis, R. (1984). The basis of hotel selection. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 25(1), 64–77. Lewis, R. C., & Chambers, R. E. (2000). Marketing leadership in hospitality (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. Lockyer T. (2000). A New Zealand investigation into the factors influencing consumers’ selection of business hotel accommodation. Australian Journal of Hospitality Management, 7(2), 11–23. Lockyer, T. (2002). Business guests’ accommodation selection: The view from both sides. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 6(14), 294–300. Lockyer, T. (2005). The perceived importance of price as one hotel selection dimension. Tourism Management, 26(4), 529–537. Mackoy, R. D., Roger, C., & Droge, C. (1995). Environmental marketing: Bridging the divide between the consumption culture and environmentalism. In M. J. Polonsky & A. T. Mintu-Winscatt (Eds.), Environmental marketing: Strategies, practice, theory and research (pp. 37–54). NewYork, NY: The Haworth Press. Manaktola, K., & Jauhari, V. (2007). Exploring consumer attitude and behavior towards green practices in the lodging industry in India. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(5), 364–377. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3rd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Sage. Maxham, J. G., & Netemeyer, R. G. (2002). Modeling customer perceptions of complaint handling over time: The effects of perceived justice on satisfaction and intent. Journal of Retailing, 78(4), 239–252. McCarty, J. A., & Shrum, L. J. (1994). The recycling of solid wastes: Personal values, value orientations, and attitudes about recycling as antecedents of recycling behavior. Journal of Business Research, 30(1), 53–62.


854


McCleary, K., Weaver, P., & Hutchinson, J. C. (1993). Hotel selection factors as they relate to business travel situations. Journal of Travel Research, 32, 42–48. McDaniel, S. W., & Rylander, D. H. (1993). Strategic green marketing. The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 10(3), 4–11. Menon A., & Menon A. (1997). Enviropreneurial marketing strategy: The emergence of corporate environmentalism as market strategy. Journal of Marketing, 61(1), 51–67. Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994). The commitmenttrust theory of relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 20–38. Nachmais, C. F., & Nachmais, D. (2008). Research methods in the social sciences (7th ed.). New York, NY: Worth. Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Oliver, R. L. (1997). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Ottman, J. (1993). Green marketing: Challenges and opportunities for the new marketing age. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business Press. Ottman, J. (1995). A little creativity could lead to a big advantage. Marketing News, 29(7), 11. Penny, W. Y. K. (2007). The use of environmental management as a facilities management tool in the Macao hotel sector. Facilities, 25, 286–295. Perugini, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2001). The role of desire and anticipated emotions in goal-directed behaviors: Broadening and deepening the theory of planned behavior. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 79–98. Reichheld, F., & Sasser, W. (1990). Zero defections: Quality comes to services. Harvard Business Review, 68(5), 105–111. Roberts, J. A. (1996). Green consumers in the 1990s: Profile and implications for advertising. Journal of Business Research, 36(3), 217–231. Roberts, J. A., & Bacon, D. R. (1997). Exploring the subtle relationships between environmental concern and ecologically conscious consumer behavior. Journal of Business Research, 40(1), 79–89. Roy, R. (1999). Designing and marketing greener products: The Hoover case. In M. Charter & M. J. Polonsky (Eds.), Greener marketing: A global perspective on greener marketing practice (pp. 126–144). Sheffield, United Kingdom: Greenleaf. Samdahl, D. M., & Robertson, R. (1989). Social determinants of environmental concern: Specification and test of the model. Environment and Behavior, 21, 57–81. Schwartz, J. (1990). Earth day today. American Demographics, 12(4), 40–41. Shabecoff, P. (1993). A fierce green fire: The American environmental movement. New York, NY: Hill and Wang.

Shanahan, K. J., & Hyman, M. R. (2007). An exploratory study of desired hotel attributes for American tourists vacationing in China and Ireland. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 13(2), 107–118. Smith, A. K., & Bolton, R. N. (1998). An experimental investigation of customer reactions to service failure and recovery encounters: Paradox or peril? Journal of Service Research, 1(1), 64–81. Smith, A. K., & Bolton, R. N. (2002). The effect of customers’ emotional responses to service failures on their recovery effort evaluations and satisfaction judgments. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30(1), 5–23. Spiggle, S. (1994). Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(3), 491–503. Stern, P. C. (1999). Information, incentives, and pro-environmental consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Policy, 22(4), 461–478. Suite 101. (2008). California hotel with healthy green guest rooms. Retrieved from http://www.suite101.com/ content/california-hotel-with-healthy-green-guestrooms-a63611 Sulek, J. M., & Hensley, R. L. (2004). The relative importance of food, atmosphere, and fairness of wait. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 45(3), 235–247. Tzschentke, N., Kirk, D., & Lynch, P. A. (2004). Reasons for going green in served accommodation establishments. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(2), 116–124. Weaver, P. A., & Oh, H. C. (1993). Do American business travellers have different hotel service requirements? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 5, 16–21. Witt, C., & Wright, P. (1993). Tourist motivation: Life after Maslow. In P. Hohson & B. Thomas, (Eds.), Choice and demand in tourism (pp. 33–55). London, United Kingdom: Mansell. Wong, V., Turner, W., & Stoneman, P. (1996). Market strategies and market prospects for environmentally friendly consumer products. British Journal of Management, 7(3), 263–281. World Tourism Organization. (2007). Climate change and tourism: Responding to global challenges. Retrieved from http://www.unwto.org/media/news/en/ pdf/davos_rep_advan_summ_26_09.pdf WWF. (2000). Tourism certification: An analysis of Green Globe 21 and other tourism certification programmes. Retrieved from http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/ tcr.pdf Yesawich, P. (1997). The myth of the loyal quest. Lodging Hospitality, 53(11), 18. Young, N, & Jang, S. (2007). Does food quality really matter in restaurants? Its impact on customer satisfaction


and behavioral intentions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31(3), 387–410. Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L., & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 60(2), 31–46. Zimmer, M. R., Stafford, T. F., & Stafford, M. R. (1994). Green issues: Dimensions of environmental concern. Journal of Business Research, 30(1), 63–74.

855

The wastewater from kitchens, bathrooms, or washing machines—where only non-polluting soaps are used— is recycled via using it to water gardens and landscaping. Finally, green hotels encourage staff and guests to practice their own environmentally friendly actions by teaching them why those actions are so important.

Measures of variables


APPENDIX Description of Green Hotels (GHA, 2008; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007) Green hotels are environmentally friendly properties (“Green” means environmentally friendly). Managers in green hotels are eager to institute programs that save water and energy and reduce solid waste to help protect our planet while saving money. In green hotels, durable/reusable service items (e.g., dishes, glasses, or tableware, etc.) are implemented in order to reduce the impact on the environment. The use of sensors/timers as well as computer-driven property management systems and energy efficient lighting/appliances to save electricity in intermittent-use areas is quite common. In addition, employees are well-trained for better environmental performance and frequently engaged in visible communication about green practices. Guests are encouraged to recycle materials, and multi-night guests are offered a choice to reuse towels/linens to save water and energy. Guests can also have various options to save money (e.g., a service fee for daily maid service or double-sided copying at a reduced rate). Their guestrooms commonly have live potted plants for healthy air (natural air freshener), cotton towels and unbleached linens, air cleaners with carbon filters, and energy-saving light bulbs. Guestrooms are also guaranteed to be free from secondhand smoke and pollution from tobacco smoking in all areas of a green hotel. Special containers are placed in rooms or around the property, so employees and guests can put their recyclable items there to be sorted, rather than sending those items to the landfill via the trash. Restaurant(s) in green hotels serve locally grown/made food, organically grown vegetables, or fruits without the application of pesticides or fertilizers rather than packaged produce. This not only cuts back on packaging, but reduces energy costs associated with transporting food from distance sources. Hotels practice environmental cleaning, approach housekeeping and laundry from the perspective of refraining from the use of harsh or harmful chemicals or cleaning styles. Green properties also source 100% natural, biodegradable, or non-chemical base amenities. Green properties actively participate in environmental partnerships, certifications, recycling programs, donation to charities, and do business with environmentally friendly providers. These environmental friendly properties have an active system to detect/repair water leakage in faucets, sinks, or tubs.

Variables

Measures

Expected outcomes Staying at a green hotel when traveling will enable me to: for staying at a green hotel Strongly disagree (1) / Strongly agree (7) • Environmental – protect our environment. protection • Social – be more socially responsible. responsibility • Healthy – experience a healthy, guestroom environmentally friendly guestroom. • Eco-friendly – perform environmentally friendly practices practices. • Eco-friendly – enjoy environmentally friendly amenities products and healthy amenities. • Organic foods – eat fresh and healthy foods. • Reduced – have reduced expenses. expenses Visit intention Strongly disagree (1) / Strongly agree (7) I am willing to stay at a green hotel when traveling. I plan to stay at a green hotel when traveling. I will make an effort to stay at a green hotel when traveling. Word-of-mouth Strongly disagree (1) / Strongly intention agree (7) I will encourage my friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling. If someone is looking for a hotel, I will suggest that he/she stay at a green hotel. I will say positive things about an environmentally friendly hotel.

SUBMITTED: March 8, 2011 FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED: August 1, 2011 ACCEPTED: August 15, 2011 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY