The Wild Wild Waste: e-Waste

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The Wild Wild Waste: e-Waste Scott E Hanselman

Mahmoud Pegah

Ringling College of Art and Design 2700 N Tamiami Trail Sarasota, FL 34234 1 - (941) 359-7633

Ringling College of Art and Design 2700 N Tamiami Trail Sarasota, FL 34234 1 - (941) 359-7633

[email protected]

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

E-Waste is a popular, informal name for discarded electronic products, such as computers, VCRs, and cameras, which have reached the end of their “useful life.” Discarded electronic products contain a stew of toxic metals and chemicals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, and PCBs. Based on the Gartner estimation over 133,000 PCs are discarded by U.S. homes and businesses each day. Less than 10 percent of all electronics are currently recycled. Most European countries and a growing number of countries around the world require electronic companies to finance and manage recycling programs for their products. There is no such federal law in the United States. Being environmentally responsible makes perfect sense for higher education institutions. Unfortunately, e-Waste, a dangerous byproduct of technology’s relentless expansion is one of the fastest growing segments of higher education institutions’ waste stream. We need to be strong advocates of “producer responsibility” and give companies an incentive to produce environmentally friendly products. In addition we must learn about and educate our campus communities about managing old electronics and associated materials. In this report, we attempt to answer the question “What should be done with old electronic products?”, discuss opportunities for waste prevention and reuse, and talk about regulatory issues.

The Ringling College of Art and Design is a fully accredited fouryear college of visual art and design with a student enrollment of approximately 1200. The Ringling College has achieved national recognition for its large-scale integration of technology into collegiate visual art and design education and maintains a student to institution owned computer ratio of better than two to one. With our hardware upgrade cycle of every two years, obsolete equipment and what to do with it has become a major concern. Our current paradigm is to re-use and recycle through donations and certified recycling companies but we can do better; we all can do better. The global problem of e-Waste is an issue facing all of us and is not going to magically go away. Part of the focus of this paper is to reduce e-Waste through tightly controlled product creation, both hardware and software, to limit the creation of eWaste in the first place. Less created means less to deal with. “Environmentally friendly,” “good citizens of the earth,” and “take the green approach,” are all examples of buzzwords and phrases used to elicit proper moral care of our planet. The fact is, we have ideas about what to do and things we would like to be able to do, but herein lies the problem: what is doable and how do we get others to do the same? We need manufacturers to become responsible in their production methods and focus more on their global responsibilities. We need to provide them with incentives so that environmental responsibility does not adversely affect their bottom line. We need software designers to take advantage of the current advances in hardware and software technologies to optimize their code. We should not design software that requires installation of a new video card or an additional 2 GB of memory to run properly. By taking advantage of current multi-core multiprocessor computers, the need for upgraded computers can be limited. We need to explore new methods of virtualization at both the server and desktop levels. We need to not only produce less waste, we need to consume less energy doing it, and we need to continue what we are doing now with our current waste: reduce, re-use, and recycle.

Categories and Subject Descriptors K.6.2 [Installation Management]: Benchmarks, Computer selection, Computing equipment management, Performance and usage measurement

General Terms Management, Design, Economics, Reliability, Human Factors, Legal Aspects.

Keywords E-Waste, Reduce, Re-use, Upgrade, Donate, Recycle, Hazardous Material, Ecology, Environment, Green Computing, Virtualization, Efficiency, Thin-Client

Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Conference’07, October 7-10, 2007, Orlando, FL, USA. Copyright 2007 ACM 1-58113-000-0/00/0004…$5.00.

2. WHAT’S THE PROBLEM? The problem is that we are a society driven by the here and now with little regard for later. This is evident in our everyday lives of instant gratification: we want it all, and we want it now. We need to change our mindset and think about the future ramifications of what we are doing today. In 1998, studies estimate about 20 million computers became obsolete in one year [1]. In 2005, some estimate that 130,000 computers were discarded in a single day [2]. In 2005, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that used or unwanted electronics amounted to approximately 1.9 to 2.2 million tons. Of that, about 1.5 to 1.9

million tons were primarily discarded in landfills, and only 345,000 to 379,000 tons were recycled [2]. Federal law regulates the disposal of electronics by businesses and government agencies, but it does not affect individual consumers, who account for more than half the e-Waste produced annually, according to the EPA [2]. Every old CRT computer monitor contains about four pounds of lead, and other parts are filled with heavy metals like mercury, arsenic, cadmium and chromium. They have toxins that hover in the air after incineration or leach into the water supply when buried in landfills [3]. A study conducted by Carnegie Mellon University's Green Design Initiative projected that last year, 55 million computers were thrown into garbage dumps [4]. Many machines are tossed long before their useful lives are over, simply discarded to make way for updated technology. According to John Passacantando, the executive director of Greenpeace USA, 50 million tons of e-Waste is generated globally each year [5]. While these numbers are all over the map and based on best guesses, it is undeniable that we have an issue of epidemic proportions on our hands. As educators and those who facilitate learning, it is our responsibility and in our best interest as citizens of this planet to promote new ideas and methods for green computing.

3. WHAT CAN BE DONE? 3.1 Hardware 3.1.1 Use Recycled Components The use of recycled components in the manufacturing process of electronics eliminates waste before it enters landfills. Recycled plastics can be used for display housings, CPU cases, keyboards, mice, etc. This plastic does not have to be limited to reuse in the electronics industry. As a matter of fact, the high quality of components used in electronics and computers is of great value in the open recycling market [6,15]. Electronics contain many components that can be harvested and reused, including gold, silver, palladium, copper, aluminum, steel, and glass.

3.1.2 Produce Upgradeable Equipment. Life cycles can be increased manyfold through the practice of upgrades. Expandable memory slots, bays for extra hard drives, and bays to expand the capabilities through added optical drives could also help to reduce e-Waste. The path to upgrades starts at the manufacturers’ level: they must produce upgradeable equipment. At Ringling, large portions of our lab computers are Macintosh, which are easily upgradeable. In an effort to expand the lifecycle of one particular model, we upgraded the processor from 733Mhz to 1.4Ghz and were able to use the machines for two more years. In this example, we lengthened the productive life of 50 computers with minimal expense and labor. This upgrade not only kept these machines out of the recycle loop but also negated the need for new machines and the waste involved with their production, delivery, etc. 3.1.3 Create More Energy Efficient Equipment. In the average home, 40% of all electricity used to power home electronics is consumed while the products are turned off, using energy to power features like clock displays and remote controls. Across the US, this equals the annual output of 17 power plants. Home electronics that have earned the ENERGY STAR label use as much as 50% less energy to perform these functions. The average home has roughly two TVs, a VCR, a DVD player and three telephones. If these items were replaced with ENERGY STAR models, it would save over 25 billion pounds of

greenhouse gas emissions, the equivalent to taking over 3 million cars off the road [7]. For the past three years, we have distributed updates to our Macintosh computers in the early morning when the laboratories and offices are closed. The computers remained powered on all night, every night, to accept these updates even though they were infrequent. This fall we plan to use the energy saving scheduling facility of OS X version 10.4 to shutdown the computers during most of these off hours. The computers will now be updated only during periodic scheduled blocks of time.

3.1.4 Thin Client/Server Based Computing Model Wikipedia defines the thin client as a client, in a client/server architecture network, that depends primarily on the central server for processing activities and mainly focuses on conveying input and output between the user and the remote server. In a thin client/server-based computing environment, applications are executed entirely on the server(s) and the client processes only user-interface events (keyboard, mouse, audio, and display). Many thin client devices run only web browsers or remote desktop software, meaning that all significant processing occurs on the server [8]. This methodology addresses the issue of eWaste from many angles. The thin client, due to its minimal nature, consumes fewer resources to produce. Since the processing power is at the server level, old, low-power hardware can be used as the client. Its lifespan will also be lengthened, as there are fewer components to malfunction and upgrades are mostly unnecessary. At Ringling, we use this technology in our library kiosks for searching images, literature, etc., and on administrative desktops utilizing Citrix servers to run most application software.

3.1.5 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle While reduction in the number of workstations is difficult for an educational institution to accomplish, we can reuse our current inventory through upgrades and cascading equipment from highend labs to less-compute-intensive labs and then to administrative users. Donations to worthy organizations such as local schools, museums, and libraries also fall into this re-use category. As a final step in our hardware lifecycle, we recycle obsolete equipment through certified electronics recyclers. At Ringling, we install newly acquired computers in the most heavily used labs using the highest end software. The cascade takes place as we move the machines replaced in the high-end labs to less frequented and less compute intensive locations such as our writing lab, where the main software used is Microsoft Word. The writing lab computers in turn can be moved to administrative offices where these machines, while not thin-clients per se, act as such and are used to access our Citrix server to run their software applications. Old administrative computers are then donated to local schools, libraries, charities, and other deserving organizations. Machines no longer viable at any level or broken beyond reasonable repair are then disposed of through certified recycling companies.

3.2 Software 3.2.1 Design With Current Technology in Mind and Green Our Software Development According to Ryan Martens in an article titled: “The Greening of the Software Industry”, historically, the industry creates major new "versions" of software to try and drive license revenues that force customers to upgrade. As a result, our industry became a direct accomplice to creating two million tons of e-Waste,

discarded computers and monitors, yearly in the United States, a waste stream that transfers hundreds of toxic chemicals into our environment. The picture gets worse when we consider that 60 percent of the software features we build are rarely or never used [9]. We need to encourage the development of software that does not require unnecessary hardware upgrades and packages that use current resources wisely such as memory and disk space.

select desktop computers, notebooks, and monitors based on their environmental attributes. EPEAT also provides a clear and consistent set of performance criteria for the design of products and provides an opportunity for manufacturers to secure market recognition for efforts to reduce the environmental impact of their products [14].

3.2.2 Virtualization and Consolidation

3.4.1 Reduce Energy Production Costs

A virtual machine is a logical representation of a physical server or a machine within a machine. Virtualization is an abstraction layer that decouples the physical hardware from the operating system to deliver greater IT resource utilization and flexibility [10]. Virtualization allows multiple virtual machines with heterogeneous operating systems to run in isolation, side-by-side on the same physical machine. Each virtual machine has its own set of virtual hardware (e.g., RAM, CPU, NIC, etc.) upon which an operating system and applications are loaded. The operating system sees a consistent, normalized set of hardware regardless of the actual physical hardware components. This virtualization is a common practice at the server level to make greater use of current hardware via software. We can quickly move workloads from one virtual workspace to another easily, prioritizing our needs while maximizing our hardware resources. Furthermore, flexibility in the allocation of computing capacity allows the consolidation of applications and workstations, easing IT management requirements and expenses. Server virtualization improves sharing, reduces server sprawl, saves power, cuts maintenance costs, and reduces the quantity of hardware and software to acquire. While these benefits have traditionally been considered valuable and compelling reasons for server virtualization, there is a paradigm shift in the foundation in which we are interested in virtualization technology. By consolidating servers into more energy-efficient virtual machine hosts, we can retire old hardware and optimize underutilized servers to achieve significant savings in power, heating, and cooling requirements, resulting in a greener data center. In addition, server virtualization dramatically reduces e-Waste by reducing the quantity of computer hardware and hardware components.

3.3 Consumer Responsibilities 3.3.1 Let Our Voices Be Heard About 18% of shoppers now say they're interested in buying organic, green, or eco-friendly products, up from 5% in 2000, according to a poll by market researcher NPD Group [11]. Retailers have woken up to the idea that not only is this going to be good from a public-relations perspective but also from a profitability perspective [12]. A thirteen percentage point increase in consumers looking for green manufacturers is an indicator of the growing concern for the health of our planet and should get the attention of retailers and producers of goods.

3.3.2 What Is in Those Machines? Many people simply do not know how things are produced and what sorts of materials are used in their production. Every old computer monitor contains about four pounds of lead, as does the average 27-inch television. Other harmful materials include heavy metals like mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and chromium as well as PVC plastics [13]. Educating the public on what they are throwing away and how it can harm us is paramount in the struggle with this waste. Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) is a procurement tool to help evaluate, compare, and

3.4 Manufacturer Accountability Creating green buildings with renewable energy sources such as solar power, wind power, and hydroelectric power is becoming more mainstream and less “out there.” Reduced packaging size can save in numerous ways. It reduces the resources used in production, warehousing, distribution, and eventual display on the shelves with its reduced footprint.

3.4.2 Design Better Hardware Sun Microsystems is conscious of this concept and is intent on becoming green. Their Eco Server Leadership is evident in the Sun Fire T1000 server where 7 of these servers replace 32 of the previous model at one third of the power consumption, one half the physical space, and twice the computing power [15]. Bernie Meyerson, chief technology officer of IBM's Systems and Technology Group, said that by 2007, many companies will be spending more on powering and cooling their data centers than on the technology they put into them [16]. Manufacturers need to follow Sun’s lead and produce more energy efficient machines while increasing their computing power.

3.4.3 Become More Energy Efficient Shippers Product shipping can become more energy efficient in many ways. The conversion of vehicles to bio-fuels or a more diligent maintenance program can help the environment by producing lower emissions and using less fuel. If a company can do these things to reduce waste and reconfigure packaging, there is a bottom-line benefit regardless of whether it wins them increased loyalty from the consumer. Simple things like proper tire inflation can dramatically affect fuel consumption and thereby realize great savings in costs through reduction.

3.4.4 Institute Take Back Programs Apple started recycling in 1994 and today operates recycling programs in countries where more than 82% of all Macs and iPods are sold. By the end of 2007, that figure will increase to 93% [17]. Currently, there is no industry standard way to measure the effectiveness of a company’s recycling programs. Dell has proposed a simple measure: assume a seven-year product lifetime, and measure the percentage of the total weight you recycle each year compared to the total weight of what you sold seven years earlier. This makes sense and has the added advantages of clarity and simplicity. Apple recycled 13 million pounds of e-Waste in 2006, which is equal to 9.5% of the weight of all products Apple sold seven years earlier. This percentage is expected to grow to 13% in 2007, and to 20% in 2008 [17]. By 2010, recycling is forecasted at 19 million pounds of e-Waste per year, nearly 30% of the product weight sold seven years earlier [17]. HP has many eco-friendly programs in place. They accept trade-ins, they will purchase your old equipment, and they recycle old print supplies. HP is also community minded and facilitates donations to the National Cristina Foundation, which provides computer technology and solutions to give people with disabilities, students at risk, and economically disadvantaged persons the opportunity, through training, to lead more independent and productive lives

[18]. Dell has provided asset recovery and system recycling services to business customers since 1991, recycling millions of units since that time. Dell offers an environmentally friendly method to dispose of outdated computers and will accept any brand of computer, keyboard, mouse, monitor, or printer and even pick it up at your home. Dell is also dedicated to meeting the requirements of the European Union's WEEE (Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment) Directive and is engaged in the development of country-specific implementation schemes to comply with the national WEEE laws. The directive aims to reduce the waste arising from electrical and electronic equipment and improve the environmental performance of everything involved in the life cycle of electrical and electronic equipment [19]. IBM recently announced its Big Green Innovations commitment to spend one billion dollars a year to promote greener computing. The initiative is a series of offerings that are available now, and some that are being developed around reducing the energy consumption and the carbon footprint of data centers. Those offerings include both the infrastructure of the data centers themselves and also the things you can do around server virtualization, server design, and so on, that make the servers themselves more efficient to run [20].

3.5 Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) According to Wikipedia, Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) is an architecture that relies on service-orientation as its fundamental design principle [21]. IT resources in an SOA environment are utilized as independent services without any knowledge of underlying back-office IT systems. SOA applications look and feel like most other web applications, and application delivery cycle improvements are seamless for the user. SOA benefits accrue for the organization at two different levels: the end user level and the IT level. From the IT point of view, SOA-based solutions require less hardware, simplify management of distributed resources across multiple platforms, are more reliable, are standards-based, and are less costly. From the end-user perspective, SOA enables development of a new generation of software tools addressing a number of concerns central to growth and productivity. By streamlining access to systems and information, end-users can focus on more important business processes and activities rather than dealing with the limitations of the underlying IT systems. While SOA provides IT with the benefit of being able to dramatically increase agility and productivity, the environmental benefits are often less obvious to business enterprises. The IT asset replacement cycle is fraught with costs, and e-Waste and must be managed carefully over time. SOA provides a paradigm for managing IT asset utilization to meet business goals. If asset utilization is to be managed, services must be designed for easy use and reuse. Enabling service reuse reduces the total cost of ownership and e-Waste by delivering SOA-based services to the desktop machine without installing the latest and greatest software at the desktop level. SOA has the potential to overcome the problem of the desktop refresh cycle, extending the computer’s useful life by taking advantage of the software infrastructure already in place and resulting in e-Waste reduction.

4. REGULATIONS 4.1 International 4.1.1 WEEE The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) is the European Community directive on waste

electrical and electronic equipment and became European Law in February 2003. The directive applying to the twenty-five EU member states imposes the responsibility for the disposal of waste electrical and electronic equipment on the manufacturers of such equipment. Producers will be responsible for taking back and recycling electrical and electronic equipment free of charge. This law provides incentives to design electrical and electronic equipment in an environmentally more efficient way, taking waste management aspects fully into account [22]. The regulations came into force on 2 January 2007. Producers had to join a compliance scheme by 15 March 2007 and mark electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) by 1 April 2007. Full responsibility for treating and recycling household WEEE began on 1 July 2007 [23].

4.1.2 RoHS The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS) regulations implement the provisions of the European Parliament and Council Directive by restricting the use of lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the manufacturing process of electronic equipment. RoHS complements WEEE and is designed protect human health and the environment [24].

4.2 National On 24 January 2007 President Bush signed Executive Order 13423, which mandates federal agencies to buy EPEAT-registered products and includes other green purchasing and environmental improvement requirements. A bill in Congress would add a recycling charge to the cost of laptop PCs, computer monitors, televisions and some other electronic devices, according to a story at Computerworld [25]. The effort to control e-Waste could lead to a national 'e-fee' that would be paid just like a sales tax. Nationwide, the cost could amount to $300 million per year. Already, California, Washington, Maryland, and Maine have approved electronics recycling laws, and another 21 states, plus Puerto Rico, are considering them. The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) recently released a consensus framework that paves the way for federal legislation establishing a national program for recycling household TVs and information technology products such as computers and computer monitors. The board of EIA's Environmental Issues Council, which includes companies such as HP, Lenovo, Panasonic, and Sharp, approved the plan and EIA officials have delivered copies to the Bush Administration, key lawmakers on Capitol Hill, state officials, industry stakeholders, and environmental advocacy organizations [26].

4.3 State California, Washington, Maryland, and Maine have approved electronics recycling laws, and another 21 states, plus Puerto Rico, are considering them. The Minnesota state legislature passed an innovative "producer responsibility" bill in early May 2007 which requires electronics manufacturers to pay for collection and recycling of electronic waste from households. This is the first bill in the country to set actual targets for how much equipment the manufacturers must take back and recycle measured as a percentage of the products they are selling in the state. The bill requires each manufacturer that sells TVs, computer monitors and laptops in Minnesota to collect and recycle an amount proportional to the weight of their products sold in the state during the previous year. The law will require manufacturers to collect 60 percent of the weight of their sales during the first

year of the program, and in subsequent years they will have to collect 80 percent of the waste. Hitting these goals will remove an anticipated 28 million pounds of e-Waste from Minnesota landfills in 2008 alone. "This is the most ambitious bill in the country to date, because it pushes the industry to find ways to encourage people to return their old electronics for recycling," said Ted Smith, chairman of the Computer Take Back Campaign. "This bill will also encourage electronics companies to improve their product design to make them easier to recycle. This is a very important step forward in addressing the mushrooming e-Waste problem.” [27] E-Waste bills were introduced in 23 states and in New York City for the 2007 legislative session; many of them are still under consideration, including bills in Oregon, Texas, Connecticut, Massachusetts, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, New York State, New York City, New Jersey, Michigan, and Vermont [27]. According to a recent EPA article, seven states have banned some electronics from landfills, four have instituted recovery programs, and many other states are considering legislation to manage used electronics [2]. California places the financial burden of dealing with the electronic waste on consumers, charging a $6 to $10 disposal fee on every computer and television purchased. Maine puts the onus on manufacturers, demanding they pay the full cost of recycling their computers or televisions and pick up a share of the recycling tab for products of unknown origin. Starting next year, Maryland will require manufacturers to offer free computer take-back programs or pay the state a fee.

7. REFERENCES

4.4 Local

[10] Intro to Virtualization, http://www.vmware.com/virtualization/

The same EPA article mentions that over 800 local municipalities have instituted eco-friendly electronics collection events to help manage obsolete electronics from households.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Apple, Sun Microsystems, Dell Computing, and Hewlett-Packard for their continued support in our efforts to educate the minds of the future. An integral part of any organization are the administrative assistants and in the Institutional Technology department at Ringling we have one of the best in Margie Jirak and the authors would like to thank her as well.

6. SITES TO SEE • • • • • •

•

http://www.raymond.com/ - providing info and analysis of global recycling policies since 1991 http://www.eiae.org/index.php - site for many recycling programs http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/recycle/ecycling/ind ex.htm - EPA e-cycling information http://www.greenercomputing.com/ Resources For Environmentally Responsible Computing http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/iportals - The world's leading professional association for the advancement of technology http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/toxics/el ectronics/how-the-companies-line-2 - Green Electronics Guide http://plasticsresource.com - Information on Plastics and the Environment

[1] Management of Electronic Waste in the United States, http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/recycle/ecycling/doc s/fact4-30-07.pdf [2] EPA_facts_4-30-07, http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/recycle/ecycling/doc s/fact4-30-07.pdf [3] Recycling Computers. November 13th, 2006http://technologyforexecutives.wordpress.com/tag/hard ware/ [4] Working Partnerships for a Sustainable Environment and Economy, http://gdi.ce.cmu.edu/ [5] Marc Gunther, Gore's (and Apple's) Inconvenient Truth. http://www.greenercomputing.com/news_third.cfm?NewsID =34964 [6] Recycling Used Electronics, http://www.pca.state.mn.us/oea/plugin/ElectronicsReport.pdf [7] Home Electronics, http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=find_a_pro duct.showProductCategory&pcw_code=HEF [8] Thin client, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-client [9] Ryan Martens, The Greening of the Software Industry. http://www.greenercomputing.com/news_third.cfm?NewsID =35104

[11] Innovative Identification Products Align with Brands' Latest Eco-Fashion Trends, http://phx.corporateir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=119108&p=irolnewsArticle&ID=1014980&highlight= [12] Angela Moore, May 25, 2007, Do You Have That in Green? http://finance.yahoo.com/family-home/article/103062/Howgreen-are-your-favorite-retailers [13] Electronic Recycling, FAQs, http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/waste/ewaste/faq.html [14] EPEAT, http://www.epeat.net [15] David Douglas; Sustainable computing: Why and How. http://www.sun.com/smi/Press/sunflash/200611/sunflash.20061110.2.xml [16] IBM unveils new Opteron Servers, http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1997233,00.asp [17] Steve Jobs A_Greener_Apple. http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:uTD0bL5yFwAJ:imag es.apple.com/hotnews/agreenerapple/docs/A_Greener_Apple .pdf+A_Greener_Apple.pdf&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us& client=safari [18] Product return and recycling, http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/globalcitizenship/environment/ret urn/index.html [19] Dell and the Environment, http://www.dell.com/content/topics/global.aspx/corp/environ ment/en/recycling_main?c=us&l=en&s=corp

[20] Behind the News: IBM's Big Green Innovations. http://www.greenercomputing.com/reviews_third.cfm?News ID=35135 [21] Service Oriented Architecture, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture [22] Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_Electrical_and_Electroni c_Equipment_Directive [23] Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/275207/1631119/?version =1&lang=_e [24] Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2006

(RoHS), http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/legislation/380525/47715 8/?lang=_e [25] Growth of e-waste may lead to national 'e-fee' on devices, http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command= viewArticleBasic&articleId=9012018 [26] EIA Offers Framework for Electronics Recycling Legislation, http://eia.org/ [27] MINNESOTA PASSES STRONGEST E-WASTE BILL IN US, http://www.computertakeback.com/news_and_resources/pres s_releases/index.cfm?pressReleaseID=24