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Received: 8 December 2015 Accepted: 1 December 2016 DOI: 10.1111/faf.12202
GHOTI
The “Nemo Effect”: Perception and reality of Finding Nemo’s impact on marine aquarium fisheries Thane A Militz1
| Simon Foale2
1
Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture, College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia 2
Centre for Tropical Biodiversity and Climate Change, College of Arts, Society & Education, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia Correspondence Thane A Militz, Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture, College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia. Email:
[email protected]
Abstract Global audiences are increasingly being exposed to digital media with fictitious storylines that draw on animal characters involuntarily entering wildlife trades. An understudied problem in wildlife trade is the potential for motion pictures to influence their audience’s desire to become more acquainted, often via acquisition, with animals portrayed in the films. The 2003 Disney motion picture Finding Nemo connected audiences with a wildlife trade already commonplace: the marine aquarium trade. In this trade, fisheries supply live coral reef organisms to millions of public and private aquaria worldwide. Here, we examine the perception and reality of Finding Nemo’s impact (coined the “Nemo Effect”) on the fisheries of the species complex representing the film’s primary protagonist “Nemo” (Amphiprion ocellaris/percula). Import and export fig-
Funding information James Cook University.
ures show little evidence for fan-based purchases of wild-caught fish immediately (within 1.5 years of release) following the film. We argue that the perceived impact on these species, driven by popular media with an emotive but scientifically uninformed approach to conserving coral reef ecosystems, can be more damaging to the cause of conservation than helpful. This perspective is intended to encourage marine aquarium trade stakeholders to consider the ecological and social repercussions of both media driven consumption and opposition to the trade. Using lessons learned from Finding Nemo, we discuss the likely impacts the sequel, Finding Dory, will have on wild populations of its protagonist “Dory” (Paracanthurus hepatus). KEYWORDS
aquarium fishery, clownfish, digital media, Finding Dory, Finding Nemo, marine aquarium trade
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1 | INTRODUCTION
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ocean acidification, overfishing and nutrient pollution, often due to the complexity of the trade (Dee, Horii, & Thornhill, 2014).
Although coral reefs cover less than 1% of the marine environment,
Recently, the role of digital media has been suggested as a potential
they are considered to be amongst the most biologically rich ecosys-
force for driving conservation efforts in live animal trades and fisheries.
tems on Earth (McAllister, 1995). The present century is afflicted with
Digital media can raise the public profile of charismatic species which
global declines in coral reef ecosystems, spurred by anthropogenic
then tend to receive increased research effort (Clark & May, 2002), fund-
stressors of poor watershed management, habitat destruction, global
ing (Tisdell & Nantha, 2007) and public popularity (Duarte, Dennison,
climate change, overfishing and other extractive activities (Bellwood,
Orth, & Carruthers, 2008). However, charisma is a poor predictor of con-
Hughes, Folke, & Nyström, 2004; Hughes et al., 2003). The impact of
servation efforts for a given species and the impacts that major motion
the marine aquarium trade on coral reef ecosystems in the present era
picture releases have on their featured species are poorly understood.
is a contentious issue. A sustainably managed marine aquarium trade
By enhancing the aesthetic value of biodiverse habitats and their asso-
has potential to incentivize conservation of marine ecosystems by
ciated fauna through motion pictures, this photographically mediated
increasing the perceived value of source habitats to local inhabitants
aesthetic fetishzsation of organisms may even be counterproductive to
and offer alternatives to more environmentally destructive livelihood
achieving overall preservation of biodiversity (Foale et al., 2016).
opportunities (Foale, Dyer, & Kinch, 2016; Tlusty, 2002; Wabnitz,
Global audiences are increasingly being exposed to fictitious
Taylor, Green, & Razak, 2003). Further, the global dissemination of
storylines that draw on animal characters involuntarily entering live
marine organisms into more than two million homes and public aquar-
animal trades (Table 1). While most of the featured animals have hus-
iums worldwide contributes to increased awareness, appreciation and
bandry requirements, availability and costs that limit frequent encoun-
understanding of the existence and plight of coral reef ecosystems
ter in wildlife trades (e.g. orcas in Free Willy), the Disney animation film
(Nijman, 2009; Teitelbaum, Yeeting, Kinch, & Ponia, 2010). In some
Finding Nemo, released in May 2003, connected public audiences with
instances fishery supply of organisms for the trade can fuel further de-
pets already commonplace throughout the world: aquarium fishes.
clines in reef health through a loss of biodiversity (Ross, 1984; Wabnitz
Here, we discuss the realized and perceived impacts the release of
et al., 2003; Rhyne, Rotjan, Bruckner, & Tlusty, 2009; Knittweis and
Finding Nemo had on the species represented by the film’s primary
Wolff 2010; Thornhill, 2012), overfishing associated with removal of
protagonist. From these findings, we address the possible impact the
fishes (Kolm & Berglund, 2003; Shuman, Hodgson, & Ambrose, 2005;
recent release of the sequel, Finding Dory, in June 2016 may have on
Tissot & Hallacher, 2003; Williams, Walsh, Classie, Tissot, & Stamoulis,
marine aquarium fisheries.
2009), introductions of non-indigenous species and/or diseases (Semmens, Buhle, Salomon, & Pattengill-Semmens, 2004; Holmberg et al., 2015; Militz, Kinch, Foale, & Southgate 2016), and the use of environmentally destructive fishing practices (Kinch, 2004b; MAC
2 | COLLECTION AND TRADE PRE-F INDING NEMO
2006; Mak, Yanase, & Renneberg, 2005; Rubec et al., 2001; Thornhill, 2012). The effects of the collection and trade in aquarium fishes are
Interest in maintaining live marine organisms for their aesthetic appeal
less studied than other threats to coral reefs including climate change,
traces back to the 1930s when collection and export for this industry
T A B L E 1 Films depicting wildlife trade and their financial success. The engagement of global audiences can be seen in the disparity between US and worldwide gross returns. Sequels proved to be more successful globally than original films in all cases Production studio
Year of release
US grossa
Worldwide grossa
Finding Nemo
Disney Enterprises
2003
380,843,261
936,743,261
Madagascar
DreamWorks
2005
193,595,521
532,680,671
Rio
Twentieth Century Fox
2011
143,619,809
487,519,809
Rango
Paramount Pictures
2011
123,477,607
245,724,603
Free Willy
Warner Bros.
1993
77,698,625
153,698,625
Paulie
DreamWorks
1998
27,008,669
NA
Two Brothers
Pathé Renn Production
2004
18,947,630
NA
Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa
DreamWorks
2008
180,010,950
603,900,354
Rio 2
Twentieth Century Fox
2014
131,538,435
500,188,435
Finding Dory
Disney Enterprises
2016
485,684,472
1,024,018,426
Movie Animated
Non-animated
Sequels
a
Data obtained from www.imdb.com, accessed on 1 November 2016.
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began (Wijesekara & Yakupitiyage, 2001). Starting at a very small scale in Sri Lanka, trade expanded in the 1950s with collections extending to an increasing number of places (e.g. Hawaii and the Philippines; Wood, 2001). Rapid growth and development of the trade began between 1990 and 1999 with exports of reef organisms showing annual growth of 12–30 per cent (Bruckner, 2001; Wabnitz et al., 2003).
3 | PERCEPTION VS. REALITY POST-F INDING NEMO 3.1 | Trade data An understudied problem in wildlife trade is the potential for motion
Roughly at the time of Finding Nemo’s release, an estimated 1.5 to 2
pictures to influence their audience’s desire to become more acquainted
million people worldwide maintained marine aquaria (Green, 2003),
(via acquisition) with animals portrayed in the films. The Jurassic Park
being most prevalent in the United States (US) (Wabnitz et al., 2003).
series and the animated televised series Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
The global value of trade in marine organisms for the aquarium trade
were suggested to be linked with an upsurge of public interest in keeping
was between US$200 and 330 million per year with nearly all of the
reptiles as pets (Ramsay, Ng, O’Riordan, & Chou, 2007; Watson, 1997).
marine organisms arising from fisheries (Chapman & Fitz-Coy, 1997;
Similarly, the suggestion that Harry Potter movies have accelerated
Larkin & Degner, 2001). It is estimated that pre-Finding Nemo only 1
India’s pet owl trade (BBC 2010) further implicates either perceived or
to 10 per cent of marine aquarium fishes could be captive bred, with
genuine influence of media productions on consumer driven pet trades.
less than 1 per cent of the total trade in hard corals being derived from cultured origins (Wabnitz et al., 2003).
Finding Nemo differs greatly from the above examples in that the film directly linked its animal characters with its respective pet trade
Depicting the journey from reef to aquarium, Finding Nemo rep-
(i.e. the marine aquarium trade). Despite this linkage, Finding Nemo
resented more than 1,500 species from 16 families of well-known
appears to have had little immediate impact on US imports of the
marine organisms (McClenachan, Cooper, Carpenter, & Dulvy,
species complex represented by the film’s primary protagonist, A. ocel-
2012). The primary protagonist of the film, “Nemo,” resembled two
laris/percula. Accredited as the largest importer of marine aquarium
species of clownfishes with similar appearances, Amphiprion ocel-
fishes, the proportion of the global trade made up by US imports
laris (Pomacentridae) and Amphiprion percula (Pomacentridae). The
has been estimated to be between 41% and 80% (Larkin & Degner,
unique biology of clownfishes, being shallow water, site-attached
2001; Wabnitz et al., 2003). Using US import data derived from Rhyne,
species in obligatory relationships with anemones, has endeared
Tlusty, Holmberg, and Szczebak (2015), the limitations and tabulation
these fishes to movie fans worldwide but also subjects these fishes
of which are discussed by Rhyne, Tlusty, Szczebak, and Holmberg
to a high risk of overfishing (MAC 2006; Shuman et al., 2005).
(2015), annual imports of A. ocellaris/percula into the US were found
Potential local over-exploitation of clownfishes was raised as a
to rise by only 2.0% between 2000 and 2004 despite a 34.5% increase
concern as early as 1992 (Edwards & Shepherd, 1992), well pre-
in total fish imports over the same time frame according to their
dating the film. The only study addressing the population-level impacts of collecting marine aquarium organisms before Finding Nemo
9,000,000
shows that both clownfishes and anemones exhibited significantly
8,500,000
lower densities at exploited sites compared to unfished sites in the
8,000,000
Philippines (Shuman et al., 2005).
7,500,000
It is also during the pre-Finding Nemo era that the aquarium in-
7,000,000
dustry became a target of public criticism given the high visibility of cerns were raised with regard to destructive collection techniques used, notably in South-East Asia (Olivier, 2003; Wood, 1985). This encompassed the use of sodium cyanide as a stunning agent to aid in the collection of fishes which can damage and kill both target and non-target organisms (Jones & Steven, 1997; Rubec et al., 2001). Additionally, physical reef destruction to access fishes hiding within
6,500,000
Number of individuals
marine aquarium products as the trade expanded. Sustainability con-
6,000,000
A. ocellaris
5,500,000
A. percula
All fish
300,000 250,000 200,000
2004b; Thornhill, 2012). Further concerns addressed localized over-
150,000
harvesting of target organisms (Andrews, 1990; Chan & Sadovy,
100,000
levels of mortality associated with shipping and husbandry practices
Both spp.
5,000,000 350,000
living coral was known to occur throughout the Indo-Pacific (Kinch,
1998; Thornhill, 2012; Wijesekara & Yakupitiyage, 2001) and high
Finding Nemo
50,000
along some supply chains (Balboa, 2003; Olivier, 2003; Schmidt &
0 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Kunzmann, 2005). However, evaluating the extent to which these
Year
concerns were validated across the entirety of marine aquarium fisheries is limited given the paucity of data collected on the industry and the lack of biological knowledge (incl. population status) for many of the organisms traded.
F I G U R E 1 US imports of A. ocellaris and A. percula in comparison with all fish imports. Dashed vertical line identifies the US release of Finding Nemo on 30 May 2003. Data extracted from Rhyne, Tlusty, Holmberg, et al. (2015)
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models (Figure 1). Relative to other popular fishes, A. ocellaris was not
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reported as the most exported species with A. percula ranked fourth
imported any more or less frequently, remaining the seventh most im-
for years 1997 to 2002 (Wabnitz et al., 2003). This would further sug-
ported fish for both 2000 and 2004 while the less imported A. percula
gest the popularity of A. ocellaris/A. percula was well established prior
shifted in ranking from twelfth to the tenth over this time frame. The
to Finding Nemo and not solely a direct result of the film.
only time frame after Finding Nemo’s release that shows an increase in
As an alternative to fisheries, any increase in the demand for
US imports is in 2005 where imports of A. ocellaris/percula were 10.3%
A. ocellaris/percula following Finding Nemo may have been buffered
above 2004 imports, despite only a 1.8% increase in total fish imports
by a supply of fish through domestic aquaculture. While the import
(Figure 1). Following this increase, US imports of the A. ocellaris/per-
data from Rhyne, Tlusty, Holmberg et al. (2015) are inclusive of both
cula species complex consistently declined to the point, that by 2009,
wild-caught and aquacultured fish, it does not account for domestic
imports were less than pre-Finding Nemo (i.e. in 2000).
aquaculture production. Prior to the release of the film, aquaculture
Given the global audience of Finding Nemo, it is plausible that de-
operations in the US and United Kingdom were already producing
mand by the global market for aquarium fishes, rather than just the
several species of clownfishes (Wabnitz et al., 2003). The US-based
US market, led to increases in wild-harvest of A. ocellaris/percula.
aquaculture facility Oceans, Reefs, & Aquariums (ORA) indicated sales
Global trends, influenced by non-US markets, may not be accurately
of aquacultured A. ocellaris rose 25% following release of the film
reflected in the US import data presented above. To examine global
while the demand for other clownfish species remained consistent
trends, the only reliable data currently available are country-specific
(Prosek, 2010). In requesting ORA to substantiate such claims with
collection and export records. Examination of collection data for
sales data, the company has remained uncommunicative. It is unclear
global exports from Marau Sound, Solomon Islands eleven months
how representative this anecdotal report from a single facility was for
before and after the release of Finding Nemo shows that collections of
all domestic aquaculture ventures at the time. What is clear is this re-
A. percula only increased by 0.9% of the fishery’s total catch (Figure 2).
port led to several studies suggesting wild collection was “fuelled” by
At the point of Finding Nemo’s release, the Solomon Islands were the
the high profile exposure of the aquarium trade by Finding Nemo (see
largest exporter of A. percula within this species’ natural range (Rhyne
McClenachan et al., 2012; Rhyne, Tlusty, Schofield et al., 2012).
Tlusty, Holmberg et al., 2015). In the Philippines, collection records
A bottleneck in assessing the demand Finding Nemo placed on
from January to April 2002 show the catch of A. ocellaris/percula was
domestic aquaculture is the lack of production information available
only 2.2% of the total catch (>40,000 fishes) (Shuman et al., 2005)
from industry. Understandably, such data are valued as proprietary
while in 2006 less than 1% of total catch (1,167 fishes) on monitored
information and sales records may not be retained where businesses
fishing trips were A. ocellaris/percula (MAC, 2006). It must be noted
transfer ownership. Both of these facets were encountered when
that while the authors of the previous mentioned studies reported
making requests to industry to provide such records. Data were made
on collection of A. percula within the Philippines, only A. ocellaris is
available by one US-based aquaculture facility, Reef Propagations Inc.,
known to occur there (Froese & Pauly, 2015), hence our use of the
that found sales of A. ocellaris/percula declined by 46.8% between
species complex A. ocellaris/percula in this instance.
2002 (17,489 fish) and 2004 (9,302 fish). While sales saw an increase
Other sources of collection/export data available prior to 2003 for
in 2005 (15,799 fish), sales were still 9.7% below the 2002 volume
comparison are restricted to the Global Marine Aquarium Database
(Figure 3). This indicates accounts of an increase in supply from do-
(GMAD; Wabnitz et al., 2003). Inaccuracies in this data have been
mestic aquaculture were not universal across the industry. Where in-
identified, being attributed to the nature of voluntary data submis-
stances of increased supply are reported (as with ORA), such increases
sions (Murray, Watson, Giangrande, Licciano, & Bentley, 2012; Rhyne,
may be a result of companies outcompeting their competitors for a
Tlusty, Schofield, et al., 2012). Exporter data indicate A. ocellaris was
greater market share rather than reflecting a greater market demand.
Number of Individuals
12,000
Jul 02 - May 03 Jun 03 - Apr 04
10,000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
P. hepatus
Total Fish
F I G U R E 2 Collection records from Marau Sound, Solomon Islands marine aquarium fishery. Total number of individuals collected 11 months before and after the US release of Finding Nemo on 30 May 2003. Data from Kinch (2004a)
A. ocellaris/percula
20,000
All fish
15,000 10,000 5000 0 2000
A. percula
Finding Nemo
25,000
Number of individuals
14,000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
F I G U R E 3 Sales of cultured A. ocellaris/percula in comparison with all cultured fishes sold by Reef Propagation Inc., a US-based marine aquarium aquaculture company. Dashed vertical line identifies the US release of Finding Nemo on 30 May 2003
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T A B L E 2 Examples of popular media articles implicating negative environmental impacts and clownfish rarity following the release of Finding Nemo
Publication/website
Title
Time of publication
The Guardian
Reefs at risk after Disney film
November 2003
VICE
Stunning Nemo
November 2003
Natural History Magazine
Saving Nemo
March 2004
Independent
“Finding Nemo” pets harm ocean ecology
July 2004
ABC Foreign Correspondent
Vanuatu—Saving Nemo
November 2004
3.2 | Popular media perception and effective conservation
Guardian (Fickling, 2003) stating “a booming trade in aquarium fish, sparked by Finding Nemo […] is endangering the wildlife of Vanuatu,” the local tour and dive operators’ association pressured government
Claims that Finding Nemo created an upsurge in consumption of wild-
authorities to ban the trade. A ban was enacted, but was lifted a few
caught A. ocellaris/percula (Table 2) are in contradiction with the pre-
weeks later for legal reasons, and the Vanuatu Fisheries Department
sented data. While increases in imports and collection were reported
was given the urgent task of mediating social conflict between stake-
for A. ocellaris/percula seven months after the film (i.e. 2004) these
holders (Yeeting & Pakoa, 2005). Vanuatu marine aquarium export
increases were small (≤2%) and had minimal impact on the relative
records revealed A. ocellaris/percula were not collected by the fishery
ranking of these species. While lack of growth in a fishery despite
(Grant Norton pers. comm.), which is also confirmed by US import data
increasing demand can be a result of overfishing (Pauly, Watson, &
(Rhyne, Tlusty, Holmberg, et al., 2015), despite Vanuatu being within
Alder, 2005), this is not the case here. A. percula imports into the US
A. percula distribution range (Allen, 1973; Fautin & Allen, 1997). While
declined consistently since 2004 (Figure 1) yet conservative estimates
empirical studies quantitatively demonstrating increased social con-
suggest only 0.0076% of the global population of this species are har-
flict following the release of the film are lacking, the use of Finding
vested annually (Maison & Graham, 2015). A 2015 assessment found
Nemo to further emotive but scientifically uninformed conservation
A. percula in no danger of over-exploitation throughout its range with
agendas in antitrade directed popular media articles cannot be denied
the species not warranting inclusion under the US Endangered Species
(Table 2). Such popular media articles (see Table 2) make unsubstanti-
Act (Maison & Graham, 2015). While similar assessment of A. ocel-
ated claims that ignore the process of scientific research.
laris is unavailable, this species covers a much greater geographical
Antitrade popular media depicting the rarity of clownfishes could,
range than A. percula with some locations (e.g. Australia) exporting
in itself, explain the increase in US imports of A. ocellaris/percula that
minimal numbers (Rhyne, Tlusty, Holmberg, et al., 2015), suggesting
occurred in 2005 (~1.5 years after Finding Nemo’s release). Many of
over-exploitation is localized where reported to occur (Madduppa,
the first popular media articles implicating Finding Nemo in inducing
Juterzenka, Syakir, & Kockzius, 2014; Shuman et al., 2005). Far more
rarity of clownfishes began circulating the Internet in late 2003 to
substantiating evidence persists that global economic trends and
2004 (Table 2). Hall, Milner-Gulland, and Courchamp (2008) explain
aquarium life-support technology are the main drivers of trends in
the potential for perceived rarity to fuel increasing consumer demand,
marine aquarium fisheries (Rhyne & Tlusty, 2012).
akin to a “limited edition” product. This can be seen in the marine
As many coastal regions in the tropics are experiencing a shift away
aquarium trade where publicized closure of fishing grounds for the
from extractive marine economies towards ecotourism, competition
yellow tang (Zebrasoma flavescens, Acanthuridae) in Hawaii to create
for ocean space and resources is occurring between fisheries and the
marine protected areas led to a 33% increase in price despite resulting
tourism sector. Social conflict is not unique to the marine aquarium
increases in catch (Tissot, Walsh, & Hixon, 2009). The impact of per-
trade, with conflict arising between food fisheries and tourism glob-
ceived rarity on demand has also been established in the US live coral
ally (Bennett et al., 2001; Fabinyi, 2010; Majanen, 2007). Australia
trade with price depending more on perceived market abundance
(Wabnitz et al., 2003), Fiji (Wabnitz et al., 2003), Vanuatu (Yeeting &
rather than actual supply (Rhyne, Tlusty, & Kaufman, 2012). In a trade
Pakoa, 2005), Maldives (Wood, 2001) and Hawaii (Capitini, Tissot,
partially governed by a collector’s mentality, rarity can fuel demand ei-
Carroll, Walsh, & Peck, 2004) all have documented cases of conflict
ther through the belief that this is the last chance to obtain a specimen
between aquarium fishers and the tourism sector. The rise of poorly
before collection is banned/restricted or if it is believed ownership sig-
informed environmental activism has been a leading explanation in
nifies social status, affluence and prestige (Hall et al., 2008).
the misplaced perception within the tourism sector that aquarium
While the end goal of such popular media is often to preserve coral
fishing is the primary threat to Hawaiian coral reefs, taking prece-
reef ecosystems, the fact is this conservation ideology is largely driven
dence over poor management, land-based development/pollution,
by affluent, scientifically educated individuals who tend to privilege
invasive species, and other forms of recreational and commercial fish-
abstract intrinsic and aesthetic values of coral reefs over the utilitarian
ing (Stevenson & Tissot, 2013). The social ramifications of a perceived
economic value associated with extracting certain species (even when
impact on wild populations due to Finding Nemo have engendered
this is perfectly sustainable), which is critical for the livelihoods of the
increased social conflict between ecotourism industries and marine
relatively poor custodians of those reefs (Adams et al., 2004; Foale &
aquarium fisheries (Yeeting & Pakoa, 2005). Following an article in The
Macintyre, 2005; Foale et al., 2016; Van Helden, 1998). The intrinsic
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value placed upon a species for simply existing, perpetuated by media
disconnected from coral reef ecosystems to evoke their own desire to
in wealthy countries, is often at odds with ecological importance
preserve such habitats for the enjoyment of future generations.
(Foale & Macintyre, 2005; Foale et al., 2016). There is no evidence that
The knowledge gleaned from these end-consumers (i.e. hobbyists)
clownfishes or anemones play a pivotal or keystone role in maintaining
of marine aquarium organisms and their contributions to science are
coral reef ecosystem function or resilience. Anemones are naturally
often underrepresented. The dissemination of collected knowledge
2
found at low densities in marine protected areas (