CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING Volume 15, Number 1, 2012 ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2011.0171
RAPID COMMUNICATIONS
Time Perspective as a Predictor of Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game Playing Katerina Lukavska, M.A.
Abstract
This article focuses on the relationship between the time perspective (TP) personality trait and massive multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) playing. We investigate the question of frequency of playing. The TP was measured with Zimbardo’s TP Inventory (ZTPI), which includes five factors—past negative, past positive, present hedonistic, present fatalistic, and future. The study used data from 154 MMORPG players. We demonstrated that TP partially explained differences within a group of players with respect to the frequency of playing. Significant positive correlations were found between present factors and the amount of time spent playing MMORPGs, and significant negative correlation was found between the future factor and the time spent playing MMORPGs. Our study also revealed the influence of future–present balance on playing time. Players who scored lower in future– present balance variables (their present score was relatively high compared with their future score) reported higher values in playing time. In contrast to referential studies on TP and drug abuse and gambling, present fatalistic TP was demonstrated to be a stronger predictor of extensive playing than present hedonistic TP, which opened the question of motivation for playing. The advantage of our study compared with other personality-based studies lies in the fact that TP is a stable but malleable personality trait with a direct link to playing behavior. Therefore, TP is a promising conceptual resource for excessive playing therapy.
MMORPG players. This article shows that differences in the amount of playing time can be explained by Zimbardo’s concept of time perspective (TP).13 TP is a traditional psychological phenomenon, usually related to motivation. The initial idea of TP assumed the existence of three temporal frames in the human mind—past, present, and future. Within this theory, a mind can shift attention between these frames, that is, a mind can focus on past experiences (past frame), present stimuli (present frame), or anticipated future events (future frame). Zimbardo’s empirical verification of the idea14,15 brought two main findings. First, people do not use each temporal frame with equal frequency; they usually prefer one frame, which they use more often than others, and this preference is relatively stable in time. Second, it is useful to divide both past and present frames into two independent factors (past positive and past negative; present hedonistic and present fatalistic) because they represent different mental characteristics with different correlates. Thus, five TP factors emerged as five personality factors. The individually specific TP pattern—time orientation— has serious implications for a person’s experience and behavior.15,16 Researchers found significant connections between TP and many personality traits (e.g., aggression, depression, emotional stability, anxiety, self-esteem, impulse control)15 as well as
Introduction
T
oday, we witness a broad discussion about the rising popularity of the virtual gaming worlds of massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs).1 Adolescents and young adults invest considerable amount of time playing these games. Scientific discussion has presented a large variety of motives. Video/computer games addiction is often discussed in this context.2–4 Some scholars warn that the focus on negative aspects of computer games is caused by societal cautiousness toward new media.5 There is also a growing body of research emphasizing positive outcomes, which players can obtain via playing (e.g., experiencing competence, making social connections, decreasing of negative feelings).1,2,6,7 Increasingly, researchers are trying to find a connection between gaming and certain personality traits, such as sensation seeking, self-control, neuroticism, aggression, anxiety,8 shyness, or depression.9 Although high frequency of playing video/computer games does not automatically constitute problematic playing,10 a player should be able to control his playing time. Relatively high average playing time (about 20 hours per week [HpW])11,12 and the fact that every second player feels to be ‘‘addict’’ to game11 suggest that this playing time control is quite rare in
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.
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TIME PERSPECTIVE AS A PREDICTOR OF MMORPG PLAYING between TP and behavioral patterns like procrastination,17,18 coping with homelessness,19 risky driving,20 drug use,21–25 and gambling.26 In this study, we describe the five TP factors and how they are relevant to MMORPG playing. The past positive factor reflects a warm, sentimental attitude toward the past. It correlates negatively with aggression, depression, and anxiety and positively with self-esteem.15 People who score high in past positive are introverted, but get involved in close relationships. They generally tend to act in accordance with the maxim ‘‘better safe than sorry.’’15 The past negative factor reflects a generally negative, aversive view of the past. It is associated with depression, anxiety, aggression, self-reported unhappiness, and low self-esteem.15 Past negative high-scorers report having fewer close friends than other factor representatives and were less likely to have sex and regular exercise. They also more participate in gambling.15 The present hedonistic factor reflects a hedonistic, risktaking, ‘‘devil-take-all’’ attitude toward time and life. It suggests an orientation toward present enjoyment, pleasure, and excitement, with little concern for future consequences.15 It is associated with a lack of consideration for future consequences, a low preference for consistency, low ego and impulse control, and high scores in novelty and sensation seeking.15 Present hedonistic high-scorers used alcohol more, had unclear future goals, and were not religious. They also tended to be highly energetic, engaging in many activities and a wide variety of sports.15 The present fatalistic factor reflects a belief that the present and future are predestined and uninfluenced by individual actions. The present fatalistic factor correlated positively with aggression and depression and negatively with consideration of future consequences.15 Present fatalistic high-scorers tended to be dissatisfied with their present life and did not believe they could improve it.15 The future factor suggests that behavior is dominated by striving for future goals and rewards.15 The future factor correlated strongly with consideration of future consequences, conscientiousness, preference for consistency, and reward dependence along with low levels of novelty and sensation seeking. Negative significant correlations were found with anxiety and depression.15 Future factor highscorers are depicted as highly organized, ambitious goal seekers who feel pressed for time but are willing to sacrifice present enjoyment to achieve their career objectives.15 Understanding the relevance of TP factors to MMORPG playing depends on characterizing MMORPG playing as an activity. To play MMORPGs means to be immersed in specific environments that differ from the ‘‘real world.’’ MMORPG worlds are designed to be entertaining. They are visually attractive, and the atmosphere is accentuated by music. The feeling of immersion is strengthened by the high reactivity of the game, which provides instant feedback on every action the player makes. There are many rewards embedded in MMORPG environments and life is simpler than it is in the real world. There are guidelines for almost everything, and living is based on a few activities and principles that are easy to learn. For these reasons, playing MMORPGs should be seen as a self-rewarding activity; there is no outside reason necessary to begin and continue playing. Playing MMORPGs as immersion in a trouble-free, entertaining, and self-rewarding activity has some similarities with compulsive activities.
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According to the studies on drug use and gambling and TP, there is a positive correlation between drug abuse and Present TP, and a negative correlation between drug abuse and Future TP.21,24,25 The relation between TP and addictive behavior was demonstrated when pathological and occasional gamblers were compared. Pathological gamblers showed a higher present hedonistic TP and lower future TP than occasional gamblers.26 Hypotheses In this article, TP is used for predicting how much time a player will spend playing MMORPG, which could help to explain differences between low-time players and high-time players. On the basis of previously cited studies on TP and substance use and gambling, we hypothesize that we will find a significant positive relationship between present (hedonistic and fatalistic) factors scores and the amount of time spent playing MMORPGs and a significant negative relationship with future factor scores. Additionally, we hypothesize that reasonable low-time playing is a matter of a balance between present TP and future TP rather than a matter of absolute scores in each factor. Materials and Methods Measures We had one dependent variable, namely, playing time, and one hypothetical explaining variable, namely, TP. The playing time score was obtained through players’ self-reports of the number of hours per week (HpW) spent playing MMORPGs (item: How many hours per week do you spend playing MMORPG?). Moreover, we asked players to indicate the length of their average session in hours per session (HpS) (item: How long does your typical session usually take?). TP was measured by Zimbardo’s TP Inventory (ZTPI) in its Czech validated version.27 ZTPI includes 56 items in the form of statements, and subjects express their level of agreement on a scale of 1 to 5. ZTPI measures five TP factors: past positive, past negative, present hedonistic, present fatalistic, and future. All statistical analyses were conducted using statistical software R.28 Data collection and sample Data were collected through an online form. Respondents were recruited in Czech Internet forums on MMORPGs. They were asked within a regular forum post to participate in the research on MMORPGs. We obtained data from 154 respondents (141 men and 13 women). Their age varied from 12 to 37 years (mean = 19.12, SD = 4.03, median = 18). Respondents were mainly active players (141), but there were also some former players (13). Respondents were primarily players of World of Warcraft (127) or Lineage 2 (24). Only a few active players played more than one MMORPG (6). Results Playing time Playing time was assessed through players’ self-reports both in the form of HpW usually spent in MMORPGs and in
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LUKAVSKA
Table 1. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients Between Time Perspective Factors PaNe
PaPo
PrHe
PrFa
Table 2. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients Between Time Perspective Factors and Playing Time
Fu
Past negative (PaNe) — Past positive (PaPo) - 0.04 — Present hedonistic 0.14 0.26** — (PrHe) Present fatalistic (PrFa) 0.45*** 0.22** 0.38*** — Future (Fu) - 0.08 0.02 - 0.29*** - 0.32*** — **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
the form of HpS. Answers ranged from 1 to 120 HpW (mean = 28.12, SD = 18.80, median = 24) and from 15 minutes to 15.5 HpS (mean = 4.15, SD = 2.45, median = 3.75). The correlation of the two measures was very strong (r = 0.73, p < 0.001). Time perspective Using the ZTPI questionnaire, we measured five TP factors: past positive (Chronbach’s a = 0.65), past negative (a = 0.85), present hedonistic (a = 0.85), present fatalistic (a = 0.72), and future (a = 0.73). Some significant correlations between factors were found (Table 1). As a first step we analyzed relationships between TP factors and playing time via correlation tests. As presumed, we found a significant positive relation between playing time and the present fatalistic factor (Table 2). Surprisingly, the relationship between playing time and the present hedonistic factor was not significant. We also found, in accordance with our hypotheses, a relationship between the future factor and playing time. It was not significant for HpW, but it was significant for HpS. We obtained convincing results in the case of the relationship between future–present balance and playing time. Based on factor z-scores, we computed two composite variables: future minus present hedonistic, and future minus present fatalistic. Then, we analyzed the relationships be-
Past negative Past positive Present hedonistic Present fatalistic Future Future minus present hedonistic Future minus present fatalistic
Hours per week
Hours per session
0.06 - 0.09 0.06 0.21** - 0.12 - 0.12 - 0.20*
0.02 - 0.02 0.09 0.26** - 0.23** - 0.19* - 0.30***
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
tween each of these variables and both measures of playing time. As shown in Table 2, we found significant results for all correlation tests, except for the relationship between future minus present hedonistic and HpW. For a more complex picture, we computed by how much people with low and high scores in various TP factors differed in playing time. We defined players under the 25th percentile in a certain factor as low-scorers; players above the 75th percentile in that factor as high-scorers. Table 3 shows means and mean differences in playing time for low-scorers and high-scorers in relevant TP factors. We obtained higher values in playing time from high-scorers in present factors and from low-scorers in future factor. Players who scored lower in future–present balance variables (their present score was relatively high compared with their future score) reported higher values in playing time. As presented in Table 3, some differences were significant. Discussion and Conclusions TP proved to be relevant for MMORPG playing. We demonstrated that different TP profiles relate to different frequencies of playing. Larger amounts of playing time correlates with lower level of future TP and higher levels
Table 3. Low- and High-Scorers’ Time Perspective Factors Differences in Playing Time Low-scorers (n = 39) Mean Present hedonistic Hours per week 25.83 Hours per session 3.57 Present fatalistic Hours per week 22.85 Hours per session 3.48 Future Hours per week 30.08 Hours per session 4.88 Future minus present hedonistic Hours per week 29.36 Hours per session 4.59 Future minus present fatalistic Hours per week 31.33 Hours per session 4.92 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.
High-scorers (n = 39)
SD
Mean
SD
Mean difference
15.79 1.59
27.49 3.91
16.06 2.14
- 1.67 - 0.35
14.5 1.81
33.4 5.26
24.8 3.34
- 10.54* - 1.78**
22.32 3.08
22.45 3.17
16.03 1.71
7.63 1.71**
22.59 3.12
24.13 3.42
16.52 1.73
5.22 1.17*
22.91 2.99
23.22 3.28
14.51 1.55
8.11 1.64**
TIME PERSPECTIVE AS A PREDICTOR OF MMORPG PLAYING of present TP, especially present fatalistic. This unbalance of present factors toward present fatalistic is worth of noting, because it constitutes a difference from reported studies on TP and drug abuse and gambling, where present hedonistic factor was demonstrated as the key variable. Present fatalistic is connected with dissatisfaction, aggression, and depression. We could hypothesize that people who spend significant time playing develop the present fatalistic orientation. However, it is more likely that people who already are present fatalistic play more, because playing helps to decrease their negative feelings.1 This would support Yee’s suggestion that extensive playing is an indicator of mood management.29 Regardless of motivation for playing, it seems that future orientation prevents extensive playing, probably via time managing skills. Time orientation is not available to a conscious mind and thus out of conscious control. This may be a reason why influencing playing time can be difficult even for nonproblematic players. Time orientation measurement and modification hence could be an important first step in excessive playing interventions or a useful tool for players who just want to spend less time playing MMORPGs. It should be noted that our results are not generally valid as our sample was self-selecting and consisted entirely of Czech and Slovak players and almost entirely of World of Warcraft players. Acknowledgment The author acknowledges the support of the Grant Agency of Charles University in Prague. Disclosure Statement No competing financial interests exist. References 1. Barnett J, Coulson M. Virtually real: a psychological perspective on massively multiplayer online games. Review of General Psychology 2010; 14:167–179. 2. Wan CS, Chiou WB. Why are adolescents addicted to online gaming? An interview study in Taiwan. CyberPsychology and Behavior 2006; 9:762–766. 3. Ng BD, Wiemer-Hastings P. Addiction to the Internet and online gaming. CyberPsychology and Behavior 2005; 8:110– 113. 4. Hsu SH, Wen MH, Wu MC. Exploring user experiences as predictors of MMORPG addiction. Computers and Education 2009; 3:990–999. 5. Ferguson CJ. Blazing angels or resident evil? Can violent video games be a force for good? Review of General Psychology 2010; 14:68–81. 6. McGonigal J. (2010) Gaming can make a better world. TED www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_ can_make_a_better_world.html (accessed April, 10, 2010) 7. Yee N. Motivations of play in online games. CyberPsychology and Behavior 2007; 9:772–775. 8. Mehroof M, Griffiths MD. Online gaming addiction: the role of sensation seeking, self-control, neuroticism, aggression, state anxiety, and trait anxiety. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 2010; 13:313–316.
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LUKAVSKA Address correspondence to: Katerina Lukavska Department of Psychology Faculty of Education of Charles University in Prague Myslı´kova 7 Prague 110 00 Czech Republic E-mail:
[email protected]
