Total Quality Management

International Journal of Management Sciences Vol. 1, No. 12, 2013, 488-509

Total Quality Management: Effectiveness in Lebanese Schools Perceptions of School Leaders and Teachers Khalil Al-Jammal1, Norma Ghamrawi2 Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the degree to which a sample of public and private schools in Beirut, Lebanon; were catering for Total Quality Management (TQM) in their contexts. The sample of this study consisted of 650 participants: 130 school principals (65 public school principals and 65 private school principals) and 520 teachers (4 teachers from each public school and 4 teachers from each private school). A survey was developed based on an extensive review of the literature. SPSS 21.0 was utilized to analyze data. Results indicate that the vast majority of private school principals considered all TQM components to be effective in their schools. Conversely, all TQM components were perceived as ineffective by the majority of public school principals. All TQM components were considered to be ineffective by the majority of both private and public school teachers. Recommendations for future research and for practice are offered. Key Words: Total Quality Management, Teaching and Learning Process, Continuous Improvement, Assessment 1. Introduction Total Quality Management (TQM) has helped the Japanese economy to raise to world class levels after World War II (Lunenburg, 2010). Like many other concepts, this concept though originated within with in the Business sector, it has migrated to the Education sector and many educators believe it could help leverage reform efforts in schools. In this line, TQM is viewed as a systematic approach to education reform based on the philosophy of W. Edwards Deming (2000) who provides a revolutionary vision of how organizational change can be realized resulting in optimal quality production (Lunenburg, 2010). In a TQM school, improvement teams and individuals are constantly working on improving service to customers (Lunenburg, 2010). Seevral researchers have addressed TQM in education including: DeCosmo, Parker and Heverly (1991), Ewell (1993), Sherr and Lozier (1991), Bonser (1992), Tribus (1993), Brigham (1993), Rhodes (1992), Cunningham (2007) and Kumar, Choisne, Grosbois and Uma Kumar (2009). The findings of most of these studies rotate around the fact that the application of TQM principles in education could result in improvements in quality and help decrease waste and raise productivity; hence keeping costs low and raising student satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to investigate the degree to which Lebanese schools were applying TQM principles irrespective of their knowledge of the term or not. Purpose of the Study The main objective of this study was to investigate the degree to which the principles of TQM are applied in a sample of public and private schools in Beirut. Specifically, the study aimed to audit the school effectiveness on the following TQM components:

1 2

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, Lebanese University, Beirut- Lebanon Full Professor, Faculty of Education, Lebanese University, Beirut- Lebanon

© 2013 Research Academy of Social Sciences http://www.rassweb.com

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International Journal of Management Sciences o Values, mission and vision of the School o School atmosphere and interpersonal relationships o Performance of school management o Quality of teaching and learning o Services available to students o Participative management o Teamwork o Human resources o Physical environment for learning and physical resources Research Questions The study was guided by an overarching general research question: To what extend do public and private schools apply TQM principles? Several sub-research questions support the process of responding to this overarching question, including: 1. Are schools committed to a code of ethics? Do schools have a mission and vision? Are schools committed to ethics, values and principles of integrity, honesty, respect and fairness in dealing with students and parents? Do schools have a vision and a mission including their beliefs, values and goals? Do schools communicate with staff, students and parents to explain their mission and vision and to determine their expectations of them? Do schools have clear strategies and effective and appropriate plans to achieve their mission and objectives? 2. To what extent the atmosphere in the schools as well as interpersonal relationships meet the requirements of TQM? Are schools maintaining a pleasant and friendly atmosphere between management and employees, students and teachers, among employees, as well as with the parents? Does the school atmosphere motivate teachers to work and students to learn? 3. To what degree the management performance of the schools take into account the principles of TQM? Does the management performance of schools take into account these principles in all processes, areas and activities (e.g. management of efforts and energies of human resources; proactive management; strategic planning; processing errors quickly and effectively; reviewing and improving the management system of the school constantly; giving clear guidance to employees; competing with other schools; the use of material resources effectively; effective financial management; effective communication; identifying the needs, demands and expectations of students, parents and staff; responding to the needs and demands of students, parents and staff; the adoption of a formal and effective system of evaluation; referring to feedback received from external and internal parties when making decisions)? 4. Do schools provide quality education and quality learning to learners? In other words, To what extent the process of teaching and learning is based on the TQM requirements (e.g. using of different strategies and techniques of active learning; reconsidering the strategies of teaching, learning and evaluation adopted in schools from time to time; taking into account individual differences and special needs of some learners; providing the learner with the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by this age; increasing and improving students achievement constantly; developing a sense of responsibility of the school learners and encourage them to take responsibility for their own learning)? 5. A TQM school must provide several services to learners, such as: the information they need or require; counseling and guidance services, recreational activities and sports, clean toilets, using of different learning sources and resources available in the school. Do schools provide appropriate services to students? 489

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi 6. To what extent schools implement the principles of “participative management” which is required by TQM? Do schools encourage staff and parents to share in the responsibilities and in decision-making process? Do schools encourage students to express their problems, views and suggestions? 7. Is the schools’ culture based on “teamwork” as required TQM? Is that teams are homogeneous, consistent and productive? Do schools train their staff on teamwork skills? Are the ideas, efforts and achievements of teams recognized by schools? 8. To what extent human resources in schools are well managed? Do schools have a sufficient number of employees? Do schools communicate with employees to explain the tasks entrusted to each of them and to determine the expectations of each one? Are those schools ensured that employees are able and willing to carry out the tasks assigned to them? Does the professional development provided by schools improve the knowledge, skills and attitudes of staff, strengthen the confidence of employees in their abilities, and improve the competitiveness of the school with the others? Is the professional development of employees commensurate with the needs of each of them? Do schools develop leadership skills of employees and encourage them to play leadership roles? Do they recognize the achievements and suggestions of the employee? 9. To what extent the physical environment and resources are well managed? Are buildings, health facilities classrooms and other rooms clean, attractive and well equipped? Do they comply with the rules of public health and safety? Do schools use a variety of learning situations in the classrooms in order to motivate students and encourage them for learning? Schools plan and organize the physical environment of learning appropriately in order to improve students’ achievement? It was hoped that that the analysis of data collected could help in offering recommendations for better practice with TQM. 2. Review of Related Literature History of Total Quality Management The Total Quality Management (TQM) concept was developed based on the teachings of quality leaders such as Philip B. Crosby, W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa, and Joseph M. Juran (Austenfeld, 2001; Ho, 2011; Lewis, 2009; Neave, 2012; Turner, 1998). W Edwards Deming was an American statistician, considered the father of the modern quality movement. He strongly influenced Japanese industry post WWII with Statistical Process Control (SPC) and TQM. Edwards Deming was credited with the rise of Japan as a manufacturing nation, and with the creation of TQM (Austenfeld, 2001; Ho, 2011; Lewis, 2009; Neave, 2012; Turner, 1998). In 1986 Edwards Deming published “Out of the Crisis” in which he set out 14 points which he believed that , if applied to the US manufacturing industry, the US would be saved from an industrial doom on the hands of the Japanese. Although Deming did not use the term TQM in his book, it is credited with launching the movement. Most of the modern central ideas of TQM are rooted in “Out of the crisis”. In this book, he described the 14 famous Points that constitute his transformational theory of management (Austenfeld, 2001; Ho, 2011; Lewis, 2009; Neave, 2012; Turner, 1998): o Create constancy of purpose towards improvement of products and services. o Adopt the new philosophy: new economic age that requires western management to confront the challenge. o Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. o End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag; instead, minimize total cost by working with a single supplier for any one item, on a long term relationship of loyalty and trust. o Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs. 490

International Journal of Management Sciences o Institute modern methods of training on the job. o Institute leadership and modern methods of supervision to get people to do a better job. o Drive out fear: encourage two-way communication, and encourage employees to work in the organization’s interest. o Break down barriers between staff areas: departments within an organization should be dealt with as “internal customers” to each other and must work together. o Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force that ask for zero defects and new levels of productivity. o Eliminate numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical goals for management. o Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship, and eliminate the annual rating or merit system. o Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for everyone. o Put everybody in the organization to work to accomplish the transformation which should be viewed as everybody's job. Deciphering TQM The term TQM is illustrated in table 1. Table 1: Deciphering TQM Total  Covers all functional areas  Covers all employees at all levels. It is employee-centered.  Covers :  Suppliers  Customers  Stakeholders in the organization

Quality  Conformance to customers’ needs, expectations and quality service  Fitness for use  Customer satisfaction

Management  Effective utilization of:  Men  Machine s  Material  Methods  Money  Time  Work towards continuous improvement in all spheres and activities of an organization.

Adapted from Badiger & Laxman (2013), Total Quality Management and Organisation Development, Retrieved from: http://www.ijbmi.org

Therefore, TQM calls for providing quality goods and services at the lowest cost in order to achieve customers’ satisfaction and, at the same time, to ensure satisfactory business development by permanent improvements. In a TQM organization, all members participate in improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work. In this line, TQM has the triple targets: gaining maximum productivity, profitability and customer loyalty (Marolia et al., 2007). Based on this definition, Marolia et al. (2007) identified the reasons for all the organizations adopting TQM approach as follows: o Overriding concern for quality. o Achieving certification from national and international organization regarding quality assurance in all facets in the organization. o Gaining competitive advantage over its rivals. 491

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi o Achieving customer satisfaction o Ensuring overall growth of the business. o Reducing losses due to wasteful practices. Elements of TQM There are no fixed number nor terminology for the elements of TQM in the literature. According to Padhi (2010) these elements are eight and they can be classified into four groups: o Foundation – It includes: Ethics, Integrity and Trust. o Building Bricks – It includes: Training, Teamwork and Leadership. o Binding Mortar – It includes: Communication. o Roof – It includes: Recognition. On the other hand, Psychogios and Priporas (2007) considered that the elements of TQM are nine; and they include: (1) Total Employee Involvement, (2) Continuous Improvement, (3) Continuous Training, (4) Teamwork, (5) Empowerment, (6) Top-management Commitment and Support, (7) Democratic Management Style, (8) Customer/Citizen Satisfaction, and (9) Culture Change. Padhi and Psychogios & Priporas have only two elements in common (“Training” and “Teamwork”); the others are different. In the field of education, Jamaa (2010) five components for TQM which include: o Student Services o Physical Environment and Resources o Human Resource o Processes o Product (Output) Figure (1) below represents the conceptual framework of TQM and student academic achievement. Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework of TQM and Student Academic Performance Objectives

Mean

1. 2. TQM Standard 3. 4. 5.

Services Physical Environment & Resources Human Resources Process 5. Product (Output)

Measure

Standard Quality Audit Checklist

Adapted from Jamaa (2010), The Effectiveness of Applying Total Quality Management in Public Senior High School Kasihan 1 Bantul, Yogyakarta Indonesia, Retrieved from: http://journal.uny.ac.id

Despite the fact that Jamaa’s (2010) framework looks apparently differently from that of Padhi and Psychogios & Priporas; the essence remains the same: quality. Several factors interfere including: philosophical and cultural background of the researchers, their focus, their purpose, the field or area of study (industry, education, banking, etc.). 492

International Journal of Management Sciences It should be noted that the classification of these elements is only theoretical; the boundaries between them are not clearly defined in practice. So bringing together several TQM studies (table 2) from the literature would be meaningful to present TQM comprehensively. Table 2: Components of TQM Components Basic Ethics, Integrity, Trust Total Employee Involvement

Democratic/Participative Management Style and Employee Empowerment Leadership

Communication

Quality Planning

Quality Control

Quality Audit

Customers (students and parents) Satisfaction and Customers Feedback Continuous Professional Development

Teamwork

Recognition, Motivation

Culture Change

Related Resources Butts&Rich(2012), Longstaff(1992), Padhi(2010). Badiger&Laxman(2013), Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Psychogios&Priporas(2007), Trukšāne(2003). Gopalakrishnan(2009), Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Psychogios&Priporas(2007), Riley(2012), Trukšāne(2003). Farrell(2011), Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Javitch,(2009), Kotter(2013), Lawless(2013), Linfield(2013), Marolia et al.(2007), Mikoluk(2013), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Padhi(2010), Trukšāne(2003). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Padhi(2010), Trukšāne(2003). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Loughlin(2008), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Psychogios&Priporas(2007). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Loughlin(2008), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Psychogios&Priporas(2007). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Loughlin(2008), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Loughlin(2008), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Psychogios&Priporas(2007), Trukšāne(2003). Alberta Teachers’ Association(2010), Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Lotich(2013), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Padhi(2010), Psychogios&Priporas(2007), Trukšāne(2003), Wong(2011). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Loughlin(2008), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Padhi(2010), Psychogios&Priporas(2007), Trukšāne(2003). Jamaa(2010), Marolia et al.(2007), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Padhi(2010), Trukšāne(2003). Ho(2011), Jamaa(2010), Loughlin(2008), Lynn&Curto(1992), Oduwaiye et al.(2012), Psychogios&Priporas(2007), Woods(1998).

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K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi TQM- Foundation of Ethics, Integrity and Trust Padhi (2010) argues that TQM is built on a foundation of ethics, integrity and trust. It fosters openness, fairness and sincerity and thus allows full involvement of everyone. Padhi (2010), considers this as the key to unlocking the ultimate potential of TQM; and that although these three elements move together, each one offers something different to the TQM concept. Ethics is a two-faceted concept (good/bad) represented by organizational and individual ethics. In a TQM context, organizations are expected to construct a business code of ethics to which all personnel adhere (Padhi, 2010). Integrity, unlike duplicity, encompasses morals, fairness, honesty and sincerity. The vision and mission of an organization often determine the differential values within individual organizations. Some of these differential values are: achievement, competence, knowledge, creativity, innovation, agility, leading by example, autonomy, teamwork, community, valuing diversity, encouraging others. Organizations need to define their values operationally through their philosophy and mission; likewise they must define their ethical practices in writing and in verbal communication (Butts & Rich, 2012). Longstaff (1992) stated that the key to ethical management is to understand the values and to let them form the basis of each attitude or behavior. Finally, trust is a by-product of integrity and ethical conduct, without which, the framework of TQM may not be realized. Trust fosters full involvement of all members of an organization. It secures empowerment that encourages pride ownership and commitment. When employees are trusted to make decisions, they start to take pride in the organization for which they work. (Butts & Rich, 2012; Padhi, 2010). It provides an environment in which people (employees and clients) feel valued and respected and this enhances productivity of the organization. (Padhi, 2010) TQM- Total Employee Involvement TQM involves everyone in an organization. The “total” element of TQM implies that every member of the organization is involved in quality improvement processes and activities (Padhi, 2010). In addition, TQM is essentially a way of organizing and involving the whole organization; every department, every process, every activity, every single person at every level. (Badiger & Laxman, 2013; Ho, 2011; Jamaa, 2010; Lotich, 2013; Marolia et al., 2007; Oduwaiye et al., 2012; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007; Trukšāne, 2003). It is widely accepted that the increase of employees’ participation in the overall quality strategy brings an increased flow of information and knowledge, and contributes in the "distribution of intelligence" to the bottom of the organization for resolving problems and improving productivity (Psychogios & Priporas, 2007; Trukšāne, 2003). This could result in an increased effectiveness of the organization it would help unveiling unrealized potential available within its human resources (Psychogios & Priporas, 2007; Trukšāne, 2003) However, an increased involvement also means more responsibility, which in turn requires a greater level of knowledge and skills. Therefore, the organization must attach a great importance to continuous professional development of staff at all levels. One area that should be common to most, if not all professional development programs, is problem solving, which is a prerequisite to widespread empowerment (Trukšāne, 2003). TQM- Participative Management Style and Employee Empowerment One of the basic roles of participative management is to foster employee empowerment. The concept of empowerment demands the full participation and interaction of all levels of an organization (Gopalakrishnan, 2009; Ho, 2011; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007; Riley, 2012; Trukšāne, 2003). It has the effect of improving employee morale and job satisfaction (Gopalakrishnan, 2009; Riley, 2012). TQM- Leadership The literature shows that leadership is also a key element of TQM (Ho, 2011; Jamaa, 2010; Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010; Trukšāne, 2003). Leadership requires the manager within the context of TQM to be visionary(Farrell, 2011; Javitch, 2009; Kotter, 2013; Lawless, 2013); honest (Farrell, 2011; Lawless, 2013; Mikoluk, 2013); delegating and empowering (Mikoluk, 2013); committed (Farrell, 2011; Lawless, 2013; Linfield, 2013; Marolia et al., 2007; Mikoluk, 2013; Padhi, 2010); ambitious and challenge-oriented (Javitch, 494

International Journal of Management Sciences 2009; Mikoluk, 2013); persuasive (Farrell, 2011); confident (Farrell, 2011, Mikoluk, 2013); competent (Javitch, 2009; Mikoluk, 2013); and characterized with strong interpersonal skills (Javitch, 2009; Lawless, 2013; Mikoluk, 2013). TQM- Communication Communication cements the whole organization and is a premise for the application of TQM (Ho, 2011; Jamaa, 2010; Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010; Trukšāne, 2003). It clarifies vision, mission and values for all employees and customers as well (Lotich, 2013; Trukšāne, 2003). According to Marolia et al. (2007) and Padhi (2010), communication happens in a variety of ways: (1) Downward communication ( top-bottom communication); (2) Upward communication (bottom-up communication); and (3) Sideways communication (inter-departmental communication). TQM- Quality Planning Quality planning is a continuous process, including planning, implementing the plan, analyzing the results and re-planning (Marolia et al., 2007). Inter-related improvement plans are deployed at all levels of the organization (corporate, department, process, individual). According to Marolia et al. (2007), there are 7 steps for quality planning: o Quality policy is formulated. o Quality policy is adopted by the management explicitly, stating its commitment and intentions with respect to quality. o Quality plans are established regularly based on quality policy. o The feedback on quality problems encountered in the past or expected in the future is collected. Improvement plan must be based on customer feedback. o Based on this feedback, quality objectives involving every function are set. o Quality goals are set in regard to procedures, training, quality costs, documents, tools and gauges, preventive maintenance, development of new products, etc. o Quality plans are monitored quarterly by the quality council, reporting directly to the chief executive. Lotich (2013) indicates that improvement plans should be written in SMART goals format with assignments to specific staff for follow through. The author argues (2010) that SMART goals are a great way to help planner to identify and target goal attainment. Without thinking through some of the detail ahead of time, planner may be setting himself up for failure. That is where SMART goals are helpful. SMART Goals are: o Specific o Measurable o Attainable o Realistic o Timely According to Lotich (2013), goals may include some of the following: o Process improvement initiatives, such as: customer call hold times o Leadership Development: Walk-the-Talk o Management Training/Development: How to manage employees in a quality environment o Staff Training/Development: Customer Service o Performance Management: Setting expectations, creating job descriptions that support the vision and holding staff accountable. 495

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi TQM- Quality Control Quality is regarded as a function where attention is given more to the end product than the processes themselves. Variation is studied through a decision making process based on acceptable or unacceptable standards (Marolia et al., 2007). Quality control phase makes use of techniques (including statistical) to achieve, maintain and improve quality standards of products and services (Marolia et al., 2007). In other words, Quality control includes a system which accepts or rejects any activities which affects the quality and prevents quality deficiency and imparts consistency in the quality of product or service (Ho, 2011; Loughlin, 2008; Marolia et al., 2007). TQM- Quality Audit It is a systematic and independent examination to determine whether quality activities and related results comply with planned arrangements and whether these arrangements are implemented effectively and are suitable to achieve goals (Oduwaiye et al., 2012). In other words, it is an independent review undertaken from time to time to check whether quality performance conforms to pre-determined standards in respect of quality measures, activities, plans, systems, policies, specifications, and other aspects (Ho, 2011). It could be: o Internal audit – It is carried out by the executives nominated by the management for specific areas such as system audit, product audit or sub-contractor audit (Ho, 2011). o External audit – It is assigned to external independent agencies (Ho, 2011; Jamaa, 2010; Marolia et al., 2007; Oduwaiye et al., 2012) TQM- Customers Satisfaction and Customers Feedback Creating a culture that is customer focused and collecting and analyzing data that supports efforts for the customer are critical components to the TQM system (Ho, 2011; Lotich, 2013). In a TQM organization the customer, not internal activities and constraints, comes first (Ho, 2011). Customer satisfaction is seen as the organization's highest priority. The organization believes it will only be successful if customers are satisfied (Mariola et al., 2007). It is sensitive to customer requirements and responds rapidly to them. Being sensitive to customer requirements goes beyond defect and error reduction, and merely meeting specifications or reducing customer complaints. In fact, the concept of requirements is expanded to take in, not only product and service attributes that meet basic requirements, but also those that enhance and differentiate them for competitive advantage (Ho, 2011; Marolia et al., 2007). Therefore, in a total quality context customer satisfaction is the driving force for an organization to improve its performance (Ho, 2011). The customer defines the quality of the service delivered and the organization (employees, different departments) defines the quality of the processes associated with the delivering of services Lotich, 2013). To realize customer satisfaction, everyone within the organization should consider permanent improvement as something necessary and urge organizations to make an inventory of customers’ data, customers’ complaints, and benchmarking in order to improve the customer services (Ho, 2011; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007). Thus, the only way for an organization to know how well they are meeting customer requirements is by simply asking the question (Ho, 2011). Questionnaires, interviews, meetings, communication by technology and social media are tools that can be used in assessments of results of current plans (Lotich, 2013; Loughlin, 2008). The literature related to social media argues that there are many ways to use them in communication with customers of organizations, including the customers of schools: students and parents (Britland, 2012; Ferriter et al., 2011; Melton, 2009; Nielsen, 2013; Sheninger, 2012; Steiner, 2013; Williamson, 2012). TQM- Continuous Professional Development Professional development is very important for employees to be highly productive (Padhi, 2010). TQM is a science to be learned by employees through training (Ho, 2011; Jamaa, 2010; Lotich, 2013; Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007; Trukšāne, 2003). Professional development can focus on areas such as: TQM awareness, new knowledge, upgrading technical skills, team work, problem solving, 496

International Journal of Management Sciences decision making, performance analysis and improvement, and interpersonal skills (Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010; Wong, 2011). In the field of education, Alberta Teachers’ Association (2010) and Wong (2011) suggest activities to enhance the professional knowledge, skills, and attitudes of educators so that they might, in turn, improve student achievement. Some of these activities include: attending conferences, classrooms/other schools visits, collaborative curriculum development, communication networks, compiling Professional Portfolios, cowriting or editing a book, critical friends groups, curriculum mapping, engaging in action research, journaling and self-reflection, membership in professional organizations, online courses, peer coaching, professional learning communities, reading professional books and journals, seeking out positions as a teacher trainer, auditing courses at universities, enrolling in MA/PhD programs, teaching a different level or course, or in a different context, and many others. TQM- Teamwork Team work is also a key element of TQM which requires everyone to work individually and within a team (Ho, 2011; Jamaa, 2010; Loughlin, 2008; Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010; Trukšāne, 2003; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007). Teams provide more continuous improvements in different processes and operations in organization (Ho, 2011; Loughlin, 2008; Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007). Traditional management approaches, entails that each department needs to take care of its own affairs and problems (Ho, 2011). In a TQM context, the whole organization needs to care about quality improvement and not just in a departmentalized fashion (Ho, 2011). In this regard, an organization needs cross-functional work groups that would deal with inter-departmental management affairs and problems (Ho, 2011; Loughlin, 2008; Psychogios & Priporas, 2007). It is believed that people working in a team are more likely to make creative suggestions and solutions than those working in isolation (Loughlin, 2008). In teams, they feel more comfortable bringing up problems that may occur, and can get help from other employees to find a solution and put into place. (Ho, 2011; Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010). Team work also helps develop mutual trust among staff (Psychogios & Priporas, 2007). Moreover, teams could develop the culture of total quality through building collective responsibility and develop a sense of ownership and provide additional communication channels between individuals, management and customers (Loughlin, 2008). TQM- Recognition, Motivation Detecting and recognizing contributors is an important job of a manager (Marolia et al., 2007; Oduwaiye et al., 2012; Padhi. 2010; Trukšāne, 2003). Recognition should be provided for both suggestions and achievements for teams as well as individuals (Jamaa, 2010). It has the effect of increasing self-esteem and this, in turn, can lead to huge changes in productivity, quality and the amount of effort exhorted to the task at hand (Mariola et al., 2007). Indeed, an employee or a team does a better job when he/it feels his/its work is being appreciated. In other words, reward and recognition systems, emphasizing the achievement of quality objectives, truly motivate the work force to fully participate in quality improvement activities (Marolia et al., 2007; Padhi, 2010). TQM- Culture Change Culture is the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavior patterns that characterize the members of a community or organization (Woods, 1998). According to Psychogios and Priporas (2007), a supportive organizational culture is the common denominator of all aspects of TQM. In other words, quality culture binds together all of aforementioned TQM elements. It acts as the driving force for what everyone does in the organization (Woods, 1998). It emphasizes permanent improvement of processes and activities, one that results in a healthy workplace, satisfied customers, and a growing, profitable organization (Psychogios & Priporas, 2007). Based on understanding a business as a system, Woods (1998) identified six values on which managers can build a successful quality culture. To better understand these values, Woods identified the opposite of 497

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi each one. He considered that the opposites better characterize the assumptions behind lots of behavior in businesses today. These values and their opposites are listed in table 3. Table 3: The Six Values of a Quality Culture and their Opposites Values Opposites We are all in this together: organization, suppliers, Everyone for him or herself. and customers. No subordinates or superiors allowed. The boss knows best. Open, honest communication is vital. Keep communication limited and secretive. Everyone has access to all information on all Keep most information at the top, and share it only operations. when necessary. Focus on processes. Focus on individual work. There are no successes or failures, just learning Success is everything; no tolerance for failure. experiences. 3. Methodology Research Tool The technique of data collection used in this quantitative research was the questionnaire. Based on an extensive review of the literature of TQM, the researchers developed a questionnaire consisting of 84 items. This questionnaire was sent to both school principals and teachers participating in the study. The instrument was piloted on a sample comprised of 15 school principals and 32 teachers. Therefore, few amendments for language and syntax were introduced. The survey instrument requested participants to determine to what extent the principles of TQM are applied in schools within 9 components appearing in table 4. Table 4: The 9 Components and the Number of Items Per Each One TQM Components Number of Items 1. Values, Mission and Vision of the School 8 2. School Atmosphere and Interpersonal Relationships 6 3. Performance of School Management 22 4. Quality of Teaching and Learning 13 5. Services Available to Students 6 6. Participative Management 4 7. Teamwork 6 8. Human Resources 12 9. Physical Environment for Learning and Physical Resources 7 A four point likert scale was used to rank respondents opinions about schools effectiveness within the 9 TQM components mentioned above. Response choices were: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Agree, 4=Strongly Agree. The Sample The sample of this study consisted of 650 participants: 130 school principals (65 public school principals and 65 private school principals) and 520 teachers (4 teachers from each public school and 4 teachers from each private school). Participant schools were all located in Beirut. Along with the survey, a cover letter and an informed consent form were made available to invited schools; as well as the full contact information of the researches. The cover letter detailed the purpose of the study, guarantee of anonymity, for participants and how data will be used. 498

International Journal of Management Sciences Principals and teachers were invited to complete the questionnaire and return it back, along with the signed consent form, to the given address by regular mail, as a scanned document via email or fax. In cases where this method was not feasible, respondents were invited to return the questionnaire back, along with the signed consent form, to the assistant researchers who paid visits to school based on prior appointments. Only 574 surveys were returned, out of which only 500 questionnaires were usable: 100 questionnaires for principals (50 public school principals and 50 private school principals) and 440 questionnaires for teachers. However, teacher questionnaires of identical schools of principals’ sample were selected. Thus, the number of usable teacher questionnaire was further reduced to 400 (200 public school teachers and 200 private school teachers). Data Analysis Data was analyzed using SPSS 21.0 for windows. Descriptive statistics were used to describe and summarize the properties of the mass of data collected from the respondents. Means scores, standard deviations and percentages were calculated per each item of the survey instrument. 4. Results and Discussions As stated earlier, 9 TQM components were addressed in the questionnaire. Several items were employed to fully portray each of the 9 components. Results are presented per component and not per individual items so as to ease the readability of tables. However, the items addressing each component are enlisted to give the reader a clear understanding of the research protocol. Component 1: Values, Mission and Vision of the School Table 5 represents the items addressing the first component of TQM, whereas table 6 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 5. Items for TQM Component of “Values, Mission and Vision of the School” No Items 1. At school, there's a code of ethics that all employees must follow in carrying out their work. 2. The school is committed to ethics and values, and the principles of integrity, honesty, respect and fairness in dealing with students and parents. 3. The school has a written and clear vision for the future. 4. The school communicates with employees to explain its vision and to determine its expectations of them. 5. The school has a written mission which includes its beliefs, values and goals. 6. The school communicates with employees to explain its mission and to determine its expectations of them. 7. The school communicates with students and parents to explain its mission and to determine its expectations of them. 8. The school develops effective strategies and appropriate plans to achieve its mission and objectives.

499

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi Table 6. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Values, Mission and Vision of the School

SD 1.0

D 9.3

A 82.7

SA 7.0

Private School Teachers SD 23.1

D 65.2

A 11.5

SA .2

Public School Principals SD 22.8

D 65.0

A 2.5

SA 9.7

Public School Teachers SD 81.5

D 13.3

A 4.7

SA .5

Table 6 indicates that component 1 was perceived to be effective by the vast majority of private school principals. In fact, 82.7% of them “agreed” that this TQM component was effective in their schools. Additionally, if “agree” responses were grouped with “strongly agree” ones, then this value would increase to 89.7%. As for teachers of this group of schools, only 23.1% believed that it was effective. On the other hand, table 6 shows this was perceived as ineffective by 65% of public school principals and very ineffective by 22.8% of them. This is opposed to 81.5% of their teachers who believed that their school was ineffective against this component. This figure would increase to 94.8% if both ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ are added up. Component 2: School Atmosphere and Interpersonal Relationships Table 7 represents the items addressing the second component of TQM, whereas table 8 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 7. Items for TQM Component of “School Atmosphere and Interpersonal Relationships” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The relationship is good between pupils and staff. The school maintains a friendly atmosphere among employees. The school maintains a friendly relationship with parents. The relationship is good between the school principal and all the staff. The friendly atmosphere at the school helps to motivate teachers to work and to increase their productivity and effectiveness. The positive atmosphere at the school helps to motivate students to get their work done and to improve learning achievement.

Table 8. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals School Atmosphere and Interpersonal Relationships

SD .7

D 10.3

A 81.7

SA 7.3


D 53.9

A 15.3

SA .3


D 54.0

A 3.3

SA 13.0


D 9.9

A 6.2

SA .7

Table 8 shows that component 2 of TQM was perceived as being effective by the vast majority of the private school principals. In fact, 81.7% of these participants “agreed” on this and when “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, the figure goes up to 89%. 53.9% of private school teachers considered it to be effective against 30.5% who rated it as ineffective. 500

International Journal of Management Sciences On the other hand, this component was perceived to be ineffective by 54% and very ineffective by 29.7% of public school principals. The overwhelming majority of teachers of this group considered this TQM component to be very ineffective in their schools(83.2%). Moreover, when “disagree” responses are grouped with “strongly disagree” ones, the figure raises up to 93.1% . Component 3: Performance of School Management Table 9 represents the items addressing the third component of TQM, whereas table 10 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 9. Items for TQM Component of “Performance of School Management” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

The school benefits from efforts and potentials of their employees effectively. The school takes proactive measures to avoid getting errors before they occur. When a problem occurs, the school deals with it quickly and efficiently. The school has short-term plans. The school has strategic plans to meet the distant future and to make significant changes in various fields. The administrative system of the school is regularly reviewed and developed. The school principal gives clear guidance to employees. Our school seeks to compete with other schools. Material resources are effectively managed at school. Our school has effective financial management and effective budgetary control. Communication takes place in both directions between the principal and the employee, and it is done by various and effective ways (Meetings, phone calls, communication by e-mail or via social media sites ...). Communication takes place in both directions between the school and students and parents, this is done by various and effective ways (Meetings, phone calls, communication by e-mail or via social media sites ...). The school knows the needs of parents and their demands and expectations. The school does its best to get the satisfaction of parents. The school knows the needs of its students and their demands and expectations. The school strives to meet the needs, demands and expectations of pupils. The school knows the needs and demands of all employees. The school strives to meet the needs and demands of the staff. The school has formal systems for review and evaluation. Feedback from external groups is regularly obtained. Feedback from internal groups (students, parents and staff) is regularly obtained. The school is based on the results of the evaluation carried out by internal or external groups when making decisions.

Table 10. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Performance of School Management

SD .9

D 9.5

A 82.5

SA 7.1


D 62.2

A 12.5

SA .2


D 62.0

A 2.7

SA 10.7


D 12.3

A 5.2

SA .5 501

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi As shown in table 10, component 3 was perceived to be effective by the vast majority of private school principals (82.5%). Moreover, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, this implies that 89.6% of these principals have a positive perception on the effectiveness of this component in their schools. However, the perception of the private school teachers is different regarding the effectiveness of this TQM component. Indeed, the majority of these teachers (62.2%) approve that this component is ineffective, while 25.1% of them consider to be very ineffective. On the other hand, a table 10 shows that the majority of public school principals (62%) considered that component 3 was ineffective in their schools. Moreover, this component was perceived as very ineffective by 24.6% of them. Concerning public school teachers, results indicate that the overwhelming majority of them (82%) considered this component as very ineffective in their schools. Additionally, if “disagree” responses are grouped with “strongly disagree” ones, it follows that 94.3% of these teachers have a negative attitude about the effectiveness of this component in public schools. Component 4: Quality of Teaching and Learning Table 11 represents the items addressing the fourth component of TQM, whereas table 12 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 11. Items for TQM Component of “Quality of Teaching and Learning” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Learning is student-centered. The interest of students is a priority at the school. The school maintains a caring atmosphere for pupils. The school develops the sense of responsibility of learners and encourages them to take responsibility for their own learning. The school attaches great importance to enhance and improve student learning outcomes. The school is interested in building the personality of the learner in a balanced manner taking into account all aspects of his personality (physical, psychological, social ...). The school provides students with the knowledge, skills and attitudes required in their lives. The school uses the different strategies and techniques of active learning. Teaching & learning strategies are regularly reviewed. The evaluation system (methods, strategies...) is regularly reviewed. The school takes account of individual differences among students, and focuses on learners with special needs. The results of exam are excellent and students achieve impressive successes. Pupils are happy and have sense of pride in their learning.

Table 12. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals SD D A SA Quality of Teaching .8 10.0 82.0 7.2 and Learning Private School Teachers SD D A SA 28.2 57.5 14.1 .2

Public School Principals SD D A SA 27.5 57.4 3.1 12.0 Public School Teachers SD D A SA 82.8 10.9 5.7 .6

Table 12 indicates that the fourth component was perceived as effective by the vast majority of private school principals (82%). In addition, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it follows that 89.2% of these respondents have a positive attitude about the effectiveness of this component in their 502

International Journal of Management Sciences schools. However, this TQM component was perceived as ineffective by 57.5% and very ineffective by 28.2% of private school teachers. On the other hand, this component was perceived as ineffective by 57.4% and very ineffective by 27.5% of public school principals. Regarding the public school teachers, table 12 shows that the overwhelming majority of them (82.8%) considered this TQM component to be very ineffective. Moreover, if “disagree” responses are grouped with “strongly disagree” ones, it can be concluded that 93.7% of them have a bad perception on the effectiveness of applying this component in their schools. Component 5: Services Available to Students Table 13 represents the items addressing the fifth component of TQM, whereas table 14 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 13. Items for TQM Component of “Services Available to Students” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

School provides students with the information they need it or request it. The school offers students counseling and guidance. The school offers a range of leisure, recreation & sporting facilities for students. Toilets are clean and well maintained. Students have an open access to learning resources and school encourages them to benefit from the resources. Students can access to computer facilities.

Table 14. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Services Available to Students

Public School Principals

SD D A SA 1.0 10.0 82.3 6.7 Private School Teachers

SD D A SA 29.7 54.0 3.3 13.0 Public School Teachers

SD 30.5

SD 81.9

D 53.9

A 15.4

SA .2

D 11.3

A 6.1

SA .7

Table 13 shows that component five was perceived as effective by the vast majority of private school principals (82.3%). Moreover, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it can be concluded that 89% of these principals have a positive perception on the effectiveness of the application of this component in their schools. However, this component is perceived as ineffective by 53.9% and very ineffective by 30.5% of the private school teachers. Regarding the public school principals, the result from table 14 indicates that this component was considered as ineffective by 54% and very ineffective by 29.7% of them. According to the responses of public school teachers, the image related to the effectiveness of the application of this TQM component was darker: the overwhelming majority of them (81.9%) confirmed that this component was considered as very ineffective in their schools. Moreover, if “disagree” responses are grouped with “strongly disagree” ones, it follows that 93.2% of these respondents have a bad perception on the effectiveness of this component in their schools. Component 6: Participative Management Table 15 represents the items addressing the sixth component of TQM, whereas table 16 represents global results obtained for this component. 503

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi Table 15. Items for TQM Component of “Participative Management” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4.

The school applies the principles of “participatory management”: staff is encouraged to be involved in the responsibilities and decision-making. The school applies the principles of “participatory management”: parents are encouraged to be involved in the responsibilities and decision-making. Constructive criticism and suggestions of staff are listened to and taken into consideration by the school which does its best to correct the bad situation. Views and suggestions of students are regularly solicited by school.

Table 16. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Participative Management



SD D A SA 2.0 98.0 .0 .0 Public School Teachers

SD .7

SD 80.7

D 99.3

A .0

SA .0

D 19.0

A .3

SA .0

It is evident from the results of table 17 that the sixth component was perceived as effective by the vast majority of private school principals (84%). Additionally, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it can be concluded that 92% of these respondents have a positive perception about the effectiveness of this component in their schools. However, almost all private school teachers (99.3%) considered this TQM component as ineffective. On the other hand, table 16 shows that almost all the public school principals (98%) consider the component of “Participative Management” as ineffective in their schools. Regarding the public school teachers, this TQM component was considered as ineffective by 19% of them and very ineffective by the vast majority of them (80.7%). Component 7: Team Work Table 17 represents the items addressing the seventh component of TQM, whereas table 18 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 17. Items for TQM Component of “Teamwork” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Different departments cooperate to achieve the objectives of the school. Our school culture is based on teamwork. Teams have strong cohesion. School encourages team members to have good practices in their work within a team. The school provides staff training on in skills of team work. The school recognizes the achievements carried out by one of the teams, and commends the efforts of the team and honors the members appropriately (choice of place, timing, and the right way).

504

International Journal of Management Sciences Table 18. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Teamwork




SD 3.1

SD 79.2

D 83.4

A 13.5

SA .0

D 16.3

A 4.3

SA .2

Table 17 shows that the vast majority of private school principals (83%) approve that the seventh TQM component was effective in their schools. Moreover, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it follows that 90.7% of these principals have a positive attitude on the effectiveness of this component in private schools. Regarding private school teachers, data indicates that only 13.5% of these participants considered this TQM component as effective; while the vast majority of them (83.4%) perceived it as ineffective. On the other hand, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it can be deduced that only 15.6% of public school principals have a positive perception about the effectiveness of “Teamwork” component in their schools. However, the vast majority of these respondents (80.7%) consider this TQM component as ineffective in the public schools. Concerning the public school teachers, this component is perceived as ineffective by 16.3% of them and very ineffective by the vast majority of them (79.2%). Component 8: Human Resources Table 19 represents the items addressing the eighth component of TQM, whereas table 20 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 19. Items for TQM Component of “Human Resources” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

School' staff is enough. The school communicates with employees to explain the tasks and the expectations of each of them. School knows the training needs of each employee. The school provides professional development activities for employees commensurate with the needs of each of them. The school provides professional development activities for staff to become more efficient and productive. The school provides professional development activities for employees in order to make them more motivated for work, and to strengthen their confidence in their abilities. The school provides professional development activities for employees in order to improve its competitiveness with other schools. The school is interested in motivating staff and providing them with the necessary support. The school recognizes the achievements of any employee, takes into consideration his/her suggestions; it commends his/her efforts and honors him/her appropriately (the choice of place, the timing, and the suitable way). The school ensures that all the employees are able to carry out the tasks assigned to them. The school ensures that all the employees are willing to carry out the tasks assigned to them. The school develops the leadership skills among employees and gives them the opportunity to practice leadership roles (launching innovative initiatives, proposing projects for the development of the school, applying new ideas ...).

505

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi Table 20. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Human Resources




SD 18.0

SD 82.2

D 67.5

A 14.4

SA .1

D 12.2

A 5.2

SA .4

Table 20 shows that the eighth component was perceived as effective by the vast majority of private school principals (82.2%). Moreover, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, this implies that 89.7% of these principals have a positive attitude about the effectiveness of this TQM component in their schools. Concerning the private school teachers, data indicated that 14.4% of them considered this component to be effective. However, the same component was perceived as ineffective by 67.5% and very ineffective by 18% of them. In other words, the overwhelming majority of these respondents (85.5%) had a bad perception about the effectiveness of “Human Resources” component in their schools. On the other hand, the results from table 20 indicate that the eighth component was considered as ineffective by the majority of public school principals (66.5%) and very ineffective by 17.5% of them. Only 16% of these participants had a positive perception about the effectiveness of this component in their schools. Regarding the public school teachers, data shows that the vast majority of them (82.2%) considered this TQM component to be very ineffective. In addition, if “disagree” responses are grouped with “strongly disagree” ones, this implies that 94.4% of these teachers bear a negative attitude towards this component. Component 9: Physical Environment for Learning and Physical Resources Table 21 represents the items addressing the ninth component of TQM, whereas table 22 represents global results obtained for this component. Table 21. Items for TQM Component of “Physical Environment for Learning and Physical Resources” No Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Buildings and classrooms are clean and attractive. Appropriate visual and learning aids are available at the school. The provisions of the desks in the classroom are varied and appropriate to motivate students for (learning classroom layouts are exciting to pupils). The physical environment is well planned and organized. School buildings and facilities meets the requirements set health and public safety. The number of rooms in the school (classrooms, administrative offices, etc.) is sufficient, and the room spaces are suitable. Buildings, facilities and rooms are well equipped and regularly maintained.

Table 22. Component Percentages from Principals and Teachers Rating Private School Principals Physical Environment for Learning and Physical Resources

SD .9

D 9.1

A 82.9

SA 7.1


D 74.1

A 23.0

SA .0


D 69.7

A 5.7

SA 21.2


D 16.7

A 7.0

SA .4 506

International Journal of Management Sciences Table 22 shows that the vast majority of private school principals (82.9%) perceived the ninth component as effective in their schools. Moreover, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it can be concluded that 90% of these principals have a positive perception on the effectiveness of this TQM component in their schools. Regarding the private school teachers, data indicates that 23% of them perceived this component as. However, the vast majority of these respondents (74.1%) considered it as ineffective. On the other hand, if “agree” responses are grouped with “strongly agree” ones, it follows that 26.9% of public school principals have a positive perception regarding this component. However, this same component was considered as ineffective by the vast majority of these principals (69.7%). Concerning the public school teachers, data shows that 16.7% of these participants perceived this component as ineffective while the vast majority of them (75.9%) considered it to be very ineffective. 5. Conclusion The study evaluated the effectiveness of applying TQM in public and private Lebanese schools. The results showed a consistent perception about the effectiveness of the 9 TQM components among the majority of respondents from the same stratum of the sample (private school principals, public school principals, private school teachers, and public school teachers). The vast majority of private school principals considered all TQM components to be effective in their schools. Conversely, all TQM components were perceived as ineffective by the majority of public school principals. All TQM components were considered to be ineffective by the majority of both private and public school teachers. Based on the forgoing, it can be deduced that the image of applying TQM components in private and public Lebanese schools is dark; however, this image is quite darker in the public ones. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research The sample of this study is one of the limitations confronting the validity of this study. In fact, geographically, the sample was localized in the Mohafazat (Governorate) of Beirut; the other five Lebanese Mohafazats were not represented in the sample. Future research should attempt to involve a larger and more representative sample of school principals and teachers across Lebanon. Additionally, various school customer groups, especially the pupils and their parents, were not represented in the sample of this study. Future studies should take this point into consideration. Moreover, the data was collected using quantitative procedures. The instrument used was the questionnaire. It would be very useful if researchers would employ qualitative methods in dealing with this concept. Recommendations This study recommends that school principals and teachers should improve their knowledge, attitudes and skills to apply effectively the TQM components in their schools. Thus, both principals and teachers are encouraged to participate in formal training sessions in different TQM components. This goes parallel to a study conducted by Al-Jammal and Ghamrawi (2013a) who suggest that practices of teacher professional development are not satisfactory in schools, particularly in public schools. Enhancing the knowledge, attitudes and skills of principals and teachers is essential for successful applying of TQM in schools. Obviously, the formal training sessions should not be the only way for professional development. The Alberta Teachers’ Association (2010) and Wong (2011) outlined in the review of literature section could be useful for planning effectively for such development. Moreover, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education and the educational administrations of private schools (such as teaching offices of religious congregations) should empower schools to apply the 9 TQM components effectively. This support must be in several forms, such as: o Organizing formal training sessions for schools' staff in different components of TQM. 507

K. A. Jammal & N. Ghamrawi o Encouraging and supporting schools' staff to use successfully and effectively the various activities of continuous professional development (formal and informal activities). o Motivating and supporting schools’ staff on moral and material terms. o Maintaining the buildings of schools regularly. o Providing schools with the material resources they need. o Reducing the bureaucratic restrictions that hinder the effective application of the various components of TQM. Finally, training providers and colleges of education are also encouraged to make use of the findings of this study in designing their curricula related to school management (or school leadership), educational supervision and teaching diplomas. References Al-Jammal, K. & Ghamrawi, N. (2013 a). Teacher Professional Development in Lebanese Schools, Retrieved from: http://basicresearchjournals.org Al-Jammal, K. & Ghamrawi, N. (2013 b). Leadership versus Management: Between Self-Concept and Actual Practices of Lebanese School Principals, Retrieved from: http://www.soeagra.com Alberta Teachers’ Association-ATA. (2010). PD Activities for Professional Growth, Retrieved from: http://www.teachers.ab.ca Austenfeld, R.B. (2001). W. Edwards Deming: The Story of a Truly Remarkable Person, Retrieved from: http://web.crc.losrios.edu Badiger, S. & Laxman, R. (2013). Total Quality Management and Organisation Development, Retrieved from: http://www.ijbmi.org Britland, M. (2012). Social Media for Schools: a Guide to Twitter, Facebook and Pinterest, Retrieved from: http://www.guardian.co.uk Butts, J.B. & Rich, K. L. (2012). Ethics in Organizations and Leadership, Retrieved from: http://www.jblearning.com Farrell, R. (2011). 23 Traits of Good Leaders, Retrieved from: http://edition.cnn.com Ferriter, W.M., Ramsden, J.T. & Sheninger, E.C. (2011). Communicating and Connecting With Social Media: Essentials for Principals. Bloomington: Solution Tree Press. Gopalakrishnan, H. (2009). Participative Management Indicates Employee Empowerment, Retrieved from: http://www.thehindujobs.com Ho, P.V. (2011). Total Quality Management Approach to the Information Systems Development Processes: an Empirical Study, Retrieved from: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu Jamaa, S.A. (2010). The Effectiveness of Applying Total Quality Management in Public Senior High School Kasihan 1 Bantul, Yogyakarta Indonesia, Retrieved from: http://journal.uny.ac.id Javitch, D.G. (2009). 10 Qualities of Superior Leaders, Retrieved from: http://www.entrepreneur.com Kotter, J. (2013). Management Is (Still) Not Leadership, Retrieved from: http://blogs.hbr.org Lawless, C. (2013). Ten Characteristics of Leaders Who Last, Retrieved from: http://thomrainer.com Lewis, E.A. (2009). Deming's 14 Points, Retrieved from: http://www.ealewisconsulting.com Linfield, L. (2013). The Big http://www.tlnt.com

Difference between Leaders

and Managers,

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