Tourism as a strategy for sustainable development

31 Tourism as a strategy for sustainable development and poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa jerry Kolo

This chapter identifies specific initiatives that sHb-Saharan African (SSA) co1411tries need to ponder and adapt in order to develop rob11st and competitive tourism sectors. The chapter reviews the tourism literature and rationalizes that tourism holds enormous potentials for SSA to achieve sHstainable development and alleviate mass poverty, if it capitalizes strategically on the competitive but prqfitaMe global tourism market. This chapter submits that tourism's potencies can be actualized only if some critical "inputs" are put in place in a strategic rather than haphazard manner. The latter is the manner in SSA thus Jar, and its reversal is a crucial_first step to actualize the region's tourism potentials. First, the chapter develops profdes ~f modem tourism and tourists. Second, using these profiles, the chapter identifies the requisite inpHtsfor competitive tourism development. Third, the status of each input is examined to vividly depict SSA's tourism challenges. Finally, pra.qmatic initiatives are prescribed for effective tourism development in SSA.

Introduction The thrust of the discourse in this chapter is that tourism, in all its genres, is a powerful "weapon" which sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) can deploy strategically to help the region pursue sustainable developn~ent (SD) initiatives and also combat the abject poverty that robs most citizens of the region a decent and dignifying quality oflife. This depiction of poverty in SSA may be contested by those who would rather focus on recent reports and assessments that economic growth in Africa is outpacing growth in most other parts of the world (IMF, 2012: 84-8). Based on these "glowing reports," Gibb (2011: 24), for example, opined that "Africa is already an unheralded success story." Bell (2012) echoed this by stating that "Africa represents what we like to call 'frontier' markets," which are markets ripe and attractive for investments. In a more comprehensive report on all 54 African countries and forecasts for their economic performances in 2013 and beyond, Norbrook (2013: 67) surmised that, by 2020, given the world's voracity for energy and raw materials to produce basic and consumer goods, "Africa, with its proven resource base and its potential to move into both agribusiness and low-end manufacturing, is at the sweet spot of global demand." He added that "a 2012 PricewaterhouseCoopers survey of global chief executives found that 75% of them said their companies would invest more in Africa" (2013: 70). 516

Tourism: development and poverty alleviation

From these "positive" and "optimistic" depictions of growth in SSA, the view in this chapter is that, like the proverbial glass that is half full and half empty, one's verdict on growth in SSA depends on which half of the glass one chooses to look at. Yet, and more substantively, this chapter argues that one's view must be cognizant of the critical distinction between growth and development. In basic economic terms, growth implies quantitative, numeric and allocative measures of progress, while development implies qualitative and distributive measures of progress. This dichotomy is more useful for analytical purposes than for purposes of governance (public policy making, planning and management), since there is an inextricable relationship between the two, albeit growth can occur without development, but development cannot occur without growth. It is the former, growth without development, that this chapter believes SSA is currently witnessing and being heralded by those who chose to see the glass of development in SSA as half full. This is why it should not surprise any development scholar and observer that, while SSA's pace of growth is the subject of praise and accolades in many corporate and governmental spheres, there is ample evidence that most SSA countries are contending with growing poverty and its attendant problems, such as social unrest, political instability, terrorism, drug and human trafficking. In South Africa, Africa's largest economy, for example, the country's mines, perhaps one of the largest employers in the country, had 1.4 million jobs in 1994 compared to only 500,000 jobs in 2012. The worker revolts and police shootings that plagued the industry in 2012 were widely reported in the global media. These skirmishes continue, further compounding the xenophobic problem that reared its ugly head in 2010 and continues to fester across South Africa. So "troubling" is the country's economy that, in January 2013, Moody's, Standard and Poor's and Fitch- three of the world's leading credit-rating agencies downgraded the country's credit rating (England, 2013). The situation in South Africa is similar or worse in SSA's second largest economy, Nigeria, also the most populated country on the continent and one of the top 10 in the world. Following warnings from World Bank officials, the Federal Government was modest and quick to agree that, impressive as the country's economic growth was in 2012, it was incapable of reducing the country's growing poverty (Okeke, 2013 ). These examples of poverty and poverty-related or poverty-induced strife across SSA account for observations that caution against complacency on the basis of Africa's reported economic gains. As Gibb (2011) added, in his opinion on Africa's economic success story, "the distressing poverty in some parts of Africa still mocks the colossal opportunities that are on the horizon." Also, profiling what he called "some of the brightest spots" in Africa, Nesbitt (2012) was quick to note that "Africa's rapid growth is not affecting the continent equally." Most poignant on this point is the OXFAM report by Fuentes-Nieva and King (2012) (OXFAM being one of the world's foremost and reputable international NGOs), titled "Africa is awake but still hungry." Citing current positive statistics of growth in Africa, they stated that "in the backdrop of this new dawn for African countries, we see an increasing number of hungry people and a stubbornly constant share of the population suffering from undernourishment." Yet, others state quite bluntly -as is the view in this chapter - that Africa's economic growth deserves what Games (2012) calls a "reality check." She expressed the view that, "with all the optimism and hype about Africa in consultants' reports and newspaper articles and the mushrooming number of conferences on the topic ... Africa is still a place of many harsh realities and it might yet dent the ambitious growth prognoses." She added that "all the gushing about growth largely ignores the continent's political risks and challenges." Rowden (2013), in an article titled "The myth of Africa's rise," presented his opinion on "why the rumors of Africa's explosive growth have been greatly exaggerated." Green (2013) deemed Rowden's argument as casuistic, but admits that "the 'Africa rising' narrative may be questionable and misguided." On each and both of these opposing viewpoints on Africa's economic growth, or lack thereof, one 517

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enlightening verdict, and an indictment ofboth camps, was passed by Jerven (2013), who noted quite strikingly that both parties based their views on the same growth statistics for Africa, statistics which are known to be inadequate, perfunctory, inaccurate, unreliable and often outdated. The camps, consequently, "are both wrong because they don't have the numbers to back" their positions up. \ The prev:1iling :1nd perplexing conditions of m:1ss :1nd :tbject poverty, :tnd all sorts of poverty-related problems, in SSA serve as the basis on which some of the writers cited above, NGOs, grassroots advocacy groups and SSA development scholars, quite like the author of this chapter, posit that SSA leaders cannot and should not get carried away or distracted by glowing reports of Africa's economic growth. Instead, they should buckle down to grasp the complexity of their development conditions; get their development priorities straight; develop strategies that work uniquely for them; carry all citizens along in the development process; and seek mutual partnerships nationally, regionally and globally to address their development priorities and needs. It is in light of this challenging context that tourism offers a ray of hope and opportunities to achieve SSA's SD and poverty alleviation aspirations. In a review by this author (see Kolo, 2009) of the robust body of empirical literature that buttresses claims that SSA faces dire development challenges, now and in the future, the view in this chapter is that SSA development scholars, advocates, and practitioners cannot and should not relent in their indictment ofSSA leaders and technocrats for a persistently shoddy job at handling the development affairs of the region. While the reasons for this abysmal performance vary, the bottom line, which is the status of development in the region, is that SSA, with all its acclaimed natural, mineral, and human resources, trails every other part of the world on all development indicators, quantitative and qualitative. Also, in the competitive globalization race for economic growth and development, SSA is simply a bystander in races such as the knowledge economy, the creative economy, and tourism. For this author, any observation, fear, or criticism that SSA is in a development straitjacket should adumbrate or titivate SSA leaders rather than infuriate, embarrass, or discourage them. Too often, for various frivolous reasons, these leaders are intolerant of critical assessments of their development performances, but, weighed against the pandemic poverty that is ravaging people's lives

Table 31. 7 3-E Typology of modern tourism Entertainment (for self)

Environment (stewardship)

Enhancement (of self)

• Leisure (sand, sea, sun, sex) • Sports tourism • Family and friends (reunions) • Space tourism • Nude tourism • Danger-zone tourism • Techno-tourism • Secret tourism • Narco-tourism (narcotics) • Day/short cruises

• • • •

• • • • • • •

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Ecotourism Nature tourism/expeditions Space tourism Geotourism

Health tourism Education/excursions Pilgrimage Culture Family and friends (reunions) Space tourism Pro-poor/poverty tourism (service/outreach to the poor and underprivileged) • Techno-tourism • War tourism • Libel tourism • Slum tourism • Geotourism


and futures, substantive and critical efforts to chart feasible development paths for SSA should be a preoccupation of development scholars, such as the contributing authors in this reference material. For this author, every development path conceivable for SSA faces the inescapable hazards or risks of the region's population explosion; massive urbanization, urban decay and sprawl; natural resource mismanagement; infrastructure overload and deficiency; growing soci:tl inequity; and inter-tribal conflicts. So alarming are some of these hazards that conditions of living across most of SSA are not a cordite reflection or predictor of what some deem to be an imminent and a more explosive version of the Arab Spring. Averting this eventuality is another strong reason for development scholars, advocates, and practitioners to intensify their efforts to dialog and collaborate with SSA leaders and international development agencies to explore feasible paths to SD. It is in this context that this chapter delves into tourism as one of the most promising and powerful "tools" or "strategies" by which SSA can pursue SD and combat mass poverty in the region. In the next section, profiles or typologies of modern tourism and tourists are presented in Tables 31.1 and 31.2,

Table 3 7.2 A profile of modern tourists Characteristics

Examples of descriptors/indicators

Adventurous, curious, inquisitive

• Desirous to see, explore, leam about, engage in and experience culture (people, events, artifacts, places) at the destination

Active (agenda)

• Dynamic, often overloaded, agenda • Time-sensitive schedule at destination, so stay on-the-go

Accommodating/ tolerant/friendly

• Quick to help and give consideration to others (elderly, children, families, mentally/physically disabled) • Understand that they are not in their private territory and/or home country

Attentive/observant

• Cognitive mapping of places, events, and experiences • Capture memories of sights, events and people, using modern technology

Cost/budget-conscious • Bargain deals (hotels, transportation, entertainment, shopping, etc.) • Manage resources well, with no room for extravagance • Budget is preworked to minutiae Civil (subscribes to the rule of law)

• Investigate and endeavor to obey destination laws and protocols • Respect destination traditions and practices, however different from theirs

Demanding

• Insist on quality, respectable and courteous service, as part of value for money

Daring

• Engage in activities they normally would not do, or be shy to do at "home"

Discerning (choosy)

• Will not settle for less or mediocre products and services

Passionate

• Derive thrill and pleasure in activities and experiences at destinations because these are deliberately selected as reasons for travel

Prudent

• Cautious in destination environment (especially first-timers) • Conscious of consequences (legal and moral) of action

Savvy (do due diligence • Collect information about destination via TV commercials, Web, official or homework) gazettes, social networks and word of mouth Time-conscious

• Plan full schedule of events for limited time at destination • Value time, and make the most of it, at paid activities • Conscious of the financial cost of time, especially time wasted or lost

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respectively. These typologies are conceptual constructs from the author's aggregations of the plethora of definitions, descriptions, and depictions of modern tourism and tourists in the conceptual and empirical literature. The typologies are aimed at illuminating some intricate attributes of tourism and tourists, attributes which SSA must be aware of and plan for, in order to stay in the global tourism competition race.

A typology of modern tourism A typology of modern tourism genres is developed in Table 31.1, based on this author's aggregation of the different types of tourism identified in the vast pool of professional and scholarly tourism literature (see, for example, Adams, 2006; Christie & Crompton, 2001; Gibb, 2011; Goeldner & Ritchie, 2009; Gunn & Var, 2002; Mason, 2008; Page & Connell, 2009). From the classical notion or genre of tourism have emanated genres or types of tourism, perhaps too many to capture in any single piece of written work. Classical tourism, whose defmition this chapter chooses to quilt together from various sources, is "the temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work and residence" (Mathieson & Wall, 1982: 1) for a period of "not more than one year" (World Tourism Organization, 1991), "to seek personal rewards (Gunn & Var, 2002: 3) "other than for exercise of an activity remunerated from the place visited" (World Tourism Organization, 1991). There are innumerable and unique genres of modern tourism. Among the examples is what Adams (2006: 208) called "danger-zone" tourism. She identified those she called "danger-zone tourists," defining them as "travelers who are drawn to areas of political turmoil. Their pilgrimages to strife-torn destinations are not for professional purposes but rather for leisure, although in some cases the professional identities of danger-zone tourists are related to their leisure pursuits." She added that "danger-zone tourism is simply an extreme form of modern tourism. Danger-zone tourism is driven by the modern infatuation with authenticity and ... entangled with the process of commodification." Another example is libel tourism, which Gibb (2011: 24) described as travel "in which people abroad with tenuous links with Britain try to sue for libel" in Britain. He alluded to "London's reputation as the libel capital of the world," in a media report that Britain's Justice Secretary was drafting a bill to stop libel tourism. Added to these genres of tourism are other "unique" ones, such as slum tourism (Melik, 2012), secret tourism (Stokes, 2012), geotourism (National Geographic Center for Sustainable Destinations, n.d.), and an "odd" but fascinating and increasingly popular type called "staycation" (Alban, 2008). This type of tourism, which dates back to 2005, but became popular during the global financial crisis of 2008, is one in which people choose to save on the cost of travel by staying in a hotel or motel within ftve kilometers of their residences, and planning and engaging in financially scaledback activities that they would have undertaken had they traveled elsewhere as tourists. Interestingly, "staycation," as a neologism, made it into the 2009 edition of Merriam- Webster's Collegiate Dictionary.

For the purpose of this chapter, what this author deciphers and concludes from the various genres of tourism is that the leitmotif of tourism (what Gunn & Var, 2002: 3, termed "personal rewards") is a pragmatic and useful factor or basis for determining, aggregating or clustering types of tourism. On this basis, the author compiled Table 31.1, which delineates the pursuit of entertainment (leisure), the exploration of nature (environment stewardship), and the quest for self-enhancement or empowerment (capacity) as "confluences" for the various types of tourism identifiable in the tourism literature, or depicted by the lexicon of tourism.

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In addition to the typology of modern tourism in Table 31.1, quite important and useful for tourism development in SSA is the need for all the direct and indirect players and stakeholders in the tourism industry to comprehend the characteristics of the modern tourist, and to factor these into the policy, legislative, planning, programming and educational/outreach initiatives instituted to make the tourism industry viable, and contribute to the region's opacity to achieve its SD and poverty :~llevi:ttion go:tls. Following the approach taken to develop the typology of modern tourism, the author scoured the aforementioned tourism literature to sieve the characteristics of modern tourists summarized in Table 31.2. Examples of the indicators of the characteristics are given in the table. The author submits that there are defmitional overlaps between some of the characteristics, but, together, they represent the type of tourists who are the most important factor on the demand side of tourism, and the type that SSA's tourism industry must seek to attract, welcome, and satisfy from all over the world. It should be noted that, for all the characteristics identified, the overarching rationale for what tourists do or choose to do at tourism destinations is value (material or psychological return or satisfaction) for their investments of money, time, and energy. Essentially, the money invested in traveling to a destination must be fungible, that is, yield the return or satisfaction they intended to get from the destination or trip.

Rationalizing tourism for SO and poverty alleviation in SSA Following the "depictions" of modern tourism and modern tourists culminating in Tables 31.1 and 31.2, this section presents the rationalization for tourism as a powerful weapon to facilitate SSA's quest for SO and poverty alleviation. Given the avalanche of conceptual and empirical literature on the potencies of tourism as a development strategy, this chapter used the sustainability pentagon as an efficient framework to delineate and cluster the main advantages, benefits, or what may be termed strengths, of tourism as a strategy of growth and development globally, and particularly in SSA. The SO pentagon framework is a variant of the Brundtland Commission's classical 3-E SO pillars (WCEO, 1987), and both are shown in Figure 31.1. The former was discussed in more detail elsewhere (Kolo, 2010) as a contribution to the discourse on SO frameworks. There are other conceptualizations of SO frameworks, for example, the sustainability prism for land use planning (Berke et aL, 2006: 35-58), and Randolph's framework of five SO objectives, 2004: 12). Berke et al. (2006: 38), introduced livability as a fourth pillar or principle, in the argument that the three Brundtland Commission's "Es" "fall short in embracing conflicts associated with the livable community goal that is linked to the increasingly influential Smart Growth and New Urban movements in contemporary planning practice." "Livability encompasses two-dimensional features of the built environment emphasized by the three classical 'Es,' and the three-dimensional aspects of public space, movement systems, and building design." In another conceptualization, Randolph (2004: 12) added the pillars of Engagement and Eternity to what he called the "tri-objectives ofEconomy, Environment, and social Equity." He added the pillars of "Engagement and Eternity, to draw attention to necessary political participation and a future orientation. Sustainability must break from current short-term thinking and planning and adopt a long-term perspective." The anchoring pillars or principles of the SO pentagon are Brundtland's 3-E pillars (Economy, Environment, Equity), and two additional Es (Engagement and Enlightenment), which the pentagon submits are unavoidably critical in order to achieve SO ideals in any society, but particularly in SSA, where lack of awareness (un-enlightenment) and lack of citizen participation (non-engagement) are two formidable obstacles to effective governance and development. 521

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SD pentagon's 5-E pillars

Brundtland commission's 3-E SD pillars

Figure 37.7 SD pentagon and the 5-E pillars, with Brundtland Commission's 3-E SD pillars Sources: Kolo (2010); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development Using the SD pentagon as a framework, the author identified key potencies of tourism that can enable SSA countries to achieve economic growth, SD and poverty alleviation. The potencies are clustered in Table 31.3 below, using the 5-E pillars of the SD pentagon.

Key drivers of tourism There is an avalanche of information in the conceptual and empirical literature on the factors that drive or influence tourism as a multi-sectoral activity. Quite insightful on key tourism drivers in SSA in particular are the evidential and clinical empirical analyses of SSA tourism by authors such as Alcojor (2007) and Christie and Crompton (2001). In order to "massage" the pool of information on tourism drivers in SSA, the analytical approach used throughout this chapter is to develop a framework for aggregating what the author considers to be pertinent in the body of literature reviewed and cited on tourism in SSA. For the framework, the author used society's four goal clusters as an "efficient and effective" way to identify and cluster the main driving factors of tourism in SSA. The author further disaggregates the drivers based on whether they are internal or external to a society or community that is engaged in developing its tourism industry. The author's insight for the four societal goal clusters was influenced by the clusters inferred by Catanese (1988). The clusters are political, economic, environmental, and psychosocial. Table 31.4 shows what the vast literature reviewed for this chapter deems to be key drivers of tourism. The drivers are clustered according to the societal goals they align with, and based on whether they are internal or external to the society engaged in developing its tourism industry.

An overview of the status of tourism drivers in SSA Relative to all the other parts of the world, tourism as an organized and strategic industry in SSA is at best inchoate. A host of reasons account for this state of tourism in SSA. In Table 31.5,

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Table 31.3 Tourism potencies and rationalization for SD and poverty alleviation in SSA

SD pillars

Examples of tourism potencies and rationalization

Economy

job creation Attraction of local and foreign investment o Enhancement of local entrepreneurship o Contributions to local revenue base, GDP and foreign exchange earnings • Diversification of national and local economies o Green economy driver/enhancer o o

Highlight society's environmental or natural resources Promote environmental awareness and stewardship among citizens o Encourage/prioritize infrastructure investment and development o Mobilize environmentalists to advocate for environmental protection policies, programs, projects, and funding o Assist and enable society to safeguard natural resources for present and future generations o Enable environmental research by educational and research institutions

Environment (built

o

and natural)

o

Equity

Creation of micro-entrepreneurial opportunities for grassroots citizens, alongside major tourism entrepreneurs . o Provide outlets for creative economic activities based on local culture, art, traditions, and knowledge o Provide interested citizens with a sense of proprietorship in the tourism industry o Create opportunities for self-reliance, self-pride through tourism enterprises o

Engagement

Engage citizens, especially unskilled women and youth, in tourism and tourism-related activities as employees, employers, and entrepreneurs o Allow citizens to comprehend their potential roles and relevance in developing a sustainable tourism industry o Provide destination countries with international tourism network opportunities, raising the political and economic profiles of the countries o Give citizens in the tourism industry a sense of proprietorship of the industry o Promote transparency and accountability by all players in the tourism industry

Enlightenment

Raise awareness about the importance of, and entrepreneurial opportunities in, the tourism industry • Inform citizens who come in contact with tourists about global cultures and people's common humanity • Expose citizens to foreign cultures, and enable them to compare different cultures to their own

o

o

the author identifies descriptors or indicators, which depict the status of the tourism drivers listed in Table 31.4 in SSA. The descriptors derive from a review of the literature on tourism in SSA. Table 31.5 draws from the in-depth, comprehensive, and lucid analyses of tourism in SSA by authors such as Alcojor (2007), Dieke (2003), Akama and Sterry (2002), Christie and Crompton (2001), and various WTO publications. Of these sources, this author found the most copious and targeted in analyzing and depicting the tourism industry in SSA to be the report 523

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Table 31 .4 Examples of key tourism drivers by societal goal clusters

of internal drivers

Goal clusters

Examples

Political

• Clear tourism vision and philosophy • Strategic tourism policy and legislative frameworks • Sustained political commitment and will • Political freedoms and rights • Safety of lives and property • Transparent and accountable governance • Collaborative tourism governance strategy (multi-stakeholder engagement)

• Cordial international relations • Membership of global tourism organizations • Shared political affinity or heritage (e.g., colonialism) • Credibility of diplomatic emissaries and clarity of tourism message and plan

Economic

• Local investment capital • Purchasing power/disposable income • Credit and lending facilities, especially for micro- and small entrepreneurs • Business associations to promote tourism • Safety, reliability, and insurance of finance and banking services

• Foreign direct investment • Global economic boom and affluence • Support or certification by global network of tourism promotion agencies • Bi- and multilateral economic agreements

Environmental (natural and physical/built)

• Historic, ecological, heritage, and • Good international transportation archeological treasures choices, connectivity, and • Modern transportation, banking and afford ability hospitality infrastructure and technology • Shared international political and • Good destination transportation choices, environmental borders or boundaries connectivity, and affordablllty • Membership of International environmental organizations • Uniquely attractive destination climate and landscape

Psychosocial

• Quality and quantity of workforce • Hospitality of local culture or groups • External popularity of destination culture, cuisine and traditions • Citizens' sense of patriotism and pride at destination

Examples of external drivers

• Perceptions, impressions and image of destination by outsiders • Bi- and multilateral human service programs and projects • Political, historic, and cultural affinities with destinations

produced for the World Bank by Christie and Crompton (2001). The descriptors in the table are aggregated, using the aforementioned four main societal goal clusters as a framework.

Optimizing tourism opportunities in SSA: potential roles for stakeholders In light ofTable 31.4 (tourism drivers) and Table 31.5 (tourism challenges), this section delineates potential roles for stakeholders in SSA's tourism industry, in order to optimize the opportunities presented by the industry. Tourism is a complex and sophisticated multisectoral and multi-functional industry from both the demand (tourist, consumer, client) and supply (providers of tourism goods and services, tourism policies and laws) sides. In all facets of the industry, therefore, diligence is needed to ensure that the vision, plans, programs, projects, policies, and laws put in place to enhance tourism development are, among other

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Table 31.5 Summary of key Challenges in tourism development in SSA Goal clusters (internal and challenges/descriptors in SSA external drivers, Table 31.4)

Political

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Economic

• Very harsh lending and debt financing conditions for local investors • Low to very low purchasing power/disposable income of most natives • Lack of "formal" credit and lending facilities for micro- and small entrepreneurs • Lack of, or few, credible and competent tourism promotion business associations • Unreliable foreign direct investment due to unfavorable and high-risk investment environment in SSA • Substandard, obsolete tourism services (transportation, hotels, data, etc.) • Overprized and unaffordable tourism facilities and services, especially for local residents • Tourism dividend leakage (e.g., foreign and local investors, airlines, hoteliers, etc., all take their dividends offshore) • Monopoly of tourism by a few dominant but poor-performing industry players

Environmental (natural and physical/built)

• Disjointed, ineffective, nonexistent environmental protection laws • Substandard and nonexistent modern infrastructure for tourism (e.g., substandard airport runways, with only 17 percent of all runways in Africa rated as excellent, erratic power and water supplies, etc.) • Substandard and overprized tourism facilities and amenities (e.g., over prized hotel rates, excessive service fees, etc.) • Cultural/traditional practices that devalue nature/environment and heritage (e.g., in East Africa, where belief is that humans, human activities and needs are preponderant to "destructive" wildlife) • Poaching of wildlife and commodification of natural resources (mainly by illegal international traders)

Psychosocial

• • • • • •

Poorly articulated or nonexistent tourism vision and philosophy Ad hoc and incoherent tourism policy and legislative frameworks Lack of sustained political commitment and will Political instability and conflicts Inadequate to nonexistent security outfits for people and property Non-transparent and unaccountable public tourism institutions Lack of mutual collaboration among tourism stakeholders Poor country and tourism images internationally Omission of tourism from agenda of diplomatic emissaries Bureaucratic red tape and corruption in permitting tourism ventures Travel policies and visa regimes that undermine tourism growth Inadequate, unreliable, nonexistent information and emergency assistance services for tourists

Quality and quantity of workforce Hospitality of local culture or groups Perceptions, impressions, and image of destination by outsiders Threats to properties and persons of tourists Unhygienic, substandard health facilities and services Perception of tourism in traditional cultures as a non-leisure activity

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conditions, understood, shared, and managed collaboratively by all tourism stakeholders or interested parties, especially from the supply side. That tourism is a complex activity that is best undertaken collaboratively by all stakeholders was underscored by Alcojor (2007), who stated emphatically that "the complexities of tourism development demands deep cooperation and involvement of the public and private sectors." He referenced the Integrated Tourism Development Progr:1m (ITDP), which is 1n initi1tive th1t w1s proposed by the WTO Secretary-General at the 2001 Seoul!Osaka General Assembly. ITDP is a specific program aimed at ensuring tourism development in SSA. Alcojor (ibid) noted summarily that ITDP: included different activities such as maintaining good tourism practices at borders, tourist transport points (airports, train and bus stations, other transport terminals), and tourist sites to improve tourist arrivals, tourist satisfaction and confidence about tourist safety; assessing the creation of a national tourism satellite account statistical system to improve knowledge and raise awareness regarding the importance of the tourism sector, which facilitates private investments; inventory of tourism resources at the national and regional levels; institutional and legal framework organizing hotel classification systems, emergency and health services, consumer protection, protocols of tourist health protection; raising public awareness regarding the economic and social effects of tourism; tourism Development Financial Plan; development of human resources; tourism marketing strategy and promotion program; strengthening of the technical and managerial capabilities of public-sector tourism officials. Details of the scope and scale ofiTDP referenced above imply and suggest that, in order to be cost-effective, and to succeed in achieving its intended goals- such as job creation, entrepreneurship, poverty alleviation, sustainable development, cultural education. and others tourism needs to emphasize stakeholder and institutional collaboration and coordination, stakeholder participation, accountability and transparency of all tourism sector players, as well as programmatic integration and synchronization within and between relevant tourism agencies. Each player in the tourism sector must understand and play their roles efficiently and effectively. Table 31.6 is a summary of potential roles suggested for key stakeholders in the

Table 31.6 Potential roles for key stakeholder sectors in tourism development in SSA Stakeholder sectors

Examples of stakeholder-sector roles in sustainable tourism development

Economy pillar

Public

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• Formulate and adopt progressive and innovative tourism funding and development legislation, policies, and institutions • Develop and facilitate enabling environment for tourism business • Establish a dedicated revenue source for tourism • Adopt favorable banking, finance, and credit policies and international practices • Facilitate and incentivize public-private partnerships for tourism development • Establish and/or fund tourism research and data banks, and facilitate data sharing • Develop a patriotic/nationalistic tourism symbol, philosophy, spirit, and message • Lead stakeholders to formulate a comprehensive, integrated national tourism plan


Corporate

• • • • •

Collaborate in public-private partnership ventures with other stakeholders Invest directly in key tourism ventures Provide leadership to develop capacity in the tourism industry Engage in product and service design and innovation in tourism Provide business mentorship and other services for MSEs under corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices • Conduct independent tourism research and enhance tourism data sets and banks

Non-profits

• Provide MSEs with technical assistance in entrepreneurship, credit counseling, business mentorship, and tourism development research • Advocate and lobby for "progressive" and equitable tourism policies and plans • Assist to organize stakeholder partnerships and joint ventures • Advocate and lobby for economic empowerment programs for MSEs

Grassroots

• Participate actively and responsibly in tourism development processes and activities by government and other stakeholders • Produce quality and standardized tourism goods and services for local and foreign consumption • Patronize, embrace, and support the local tourism industry • Embrace and display a patriotic/nationalistic tourism spirit

Environment pillar Public

• Provide enabling legislative, policy and funding frameworks for sustainable tourism, and to safeguard national historic, ecological, heritage, and archeological treasures • Establish integrated institutional framework for sustainable tourism planning • Undertake and/or fund ecotourism research, data banks and data dissemination, in partnership with stakeholders, mainly universities and research institutes • Collaborate with stakeholders to formulate comprehensive ecotourism policies, plans, incentives and promotional campaigns, and to organize ecotourism educational forums and events

Corporate

• Invest directly or collaboratively to build state-of-the art ecotourism industry, based on international standards • Collaborate with governments and NGOs to undertake critical research, build robust data banks, and develop innovative products and services on ecotourism • Support MSE engagement in ecotourism via mentorship and subcontracting programs

Non-profits

• Lobby government to advocate for policies, laws, and programs to promote equitable tourism opportunities and development • Collaborate with all stakeholders to identify and safeguard national historic, ecological, heritage and archeological treasure • Foster organization of stakeholder partnerships and joint ventures for eco-tourism • Undertake and assist with research and data sharing oneco-tourism • Organize and co-sponsor multi-stakeholder eco-tourism educational events

Grassroots

• Participate actively and responsibly in tourism development processes and activities by government and other stakeholders • Produce quality and standardized tourism goods and services for local and foreign consumption • Patronize, embrace, and support the local tourism industry • Embrace and display a patriotic/nationalistic tourism spirit (Continued)

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Table 31.6 (Continued) Stakeholder sectors

Examples of stakeholder-sector roles in sustainable tourism development

Equity pillar Public

• Adopt policies to provide level playing field in the tourism industry for all stakeholders • Adopt laws and regulations to protect interests of all stakeholders • Develop and fund capacity-building programs and projects to empower MSEs

Corporate

• Undertake voluntary initiatives that promote "equity" ideals, such as corporate social responsibility (CSR) • Recruit community stakeholders to serve on tourism-related corporate advisory boards • Provide financial sponsorship for MSEs in the tourism business • Provide technical, management, and mentorship support to build capacity of MSEs in the tourism industry • Do business with MSEs in tourism through direct procurement or subcontracting of services and products

Non-profits

• Lobby government and corporate entities to advocate for policies, laws, and programs to promote equity in the tourism industry • Undertake programs and initiatives to disseminate information and create awareness about individual rights and business opportunities related to tourism • Organize and co-sponsor multi-stakeholder programs and initiatives to promote equity in the tourism industry • Provide technical and "legal" assistance and advice for MSEs to capitalize on equity programs, and "fight" inequity, in the tourism industry

Grassroots

• Lobby governmental and corporate entities to advocate for policies, programs, and initiatives to promote equity and justice in the tourism industry • Support, through volunteering and formal memberships, programs and events by other stakeholder sectors to promote equity in the tourism industry • Participate actively and voluntarily in educational and outreach programs aimed at promoting equity in the tourism industry

Engagement pillar Public

• Decentralize public agencies and deconcentrate authority for tourism planning • Involve credible representatives of all stakeholders in formulating tourism policies and plans • Support and sponsor formal linkages and collaborations between local and international tourism agencies and initiatives

Corporate

• Commit to voluntary initiatives, such as CSR programs, to collaborate with other stakeholders to promote tourism • Engage local stakeholders to serve on pertinent tourism-related corporate advisory boards • Engage MSEs in tourism ventures through direct procurement or subcontracting of services and products

Non-profits

• Lobby government to advocate for policies, laws, and programs to promote stakeholder collaboration in the tourism industry • Lobby government and corporations to provide opportunities for direct engagement of MSEs in tourism planning, businesses, and programs • Undertake programs and initiatives to disseminate information and create awareness about opportunities for stakeholder collaboration in the tourism industry

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Grassroots

• Organize, co-sponsor, and support multi-stakeholder collaboration and engagement programs and initiatives to promote tourism • Provide technical and "legal" assistance and advice for MSEs to capitalize on collaboration programs in the tourism industry • Lobby governmental and corporate entities to advocate for policies, programs, and

initiatives to promote collaboration and engagement in the tourism industry • Support, through volunteering and formal memberships, programs, and events by other stakeholder sectors to promote partnerships in the tourism industry • Participate actively and voluntarily in educational and outreach programs aimed at promoting partnerships in the tourism industry Enlightenment pillar

Public

• Plan and fund massive tourism outreach and grassroots awareness campaigns • Assist colleges and universities to establish credible tourism planning certification programs • Help to organize and sponsor tourism forums, workshops, and conferences for local and foreign tourism entities • Plan and fund electronic and physical portals to provide current tourism data

Corporate

• Support, through voluntary initiatives such as CSR, and collaboration with other stakeholders, mass awareness campaigns about the tourism industry • Involve local stakeholders in pertinent corporate activities to enhance awareness about tourism activities and opportunities • Sponsor research, education, and training by local educational institutions to promote tourism research and capacity • Collaborate with government and NGOs to develop tourism data banks, dataclearing, and information dissemination centers

Non-profits

• Lobby government to advocate for policies, laws, and programs to promote mass awareness about tourism and the tourism industry • Collaborate with government, corporate, and grassroots entities to undertake mass awareness programs and campaigns about opportunities in the tourism industry • Organize, co-sponsor, and support multi-stakeholder events to enlighten citizens about tourism and tourism business opportunities • Provide technical and educational assistance and advice for MSEs and citizens to learn about, and participate in, the tourism industry

Grassroots

• Lobby governmental and corporate entities to advocate for policies, programs, and initiatives to promote citizen awareness about tourism and tourism business opportunities • Support, through volunteering and formal memberships, programs and events by other stakeholder sectors to promote mass awareness about the tourism industry • Participate actively and voluntarily in educational, outreach, and awareness campaigns about tourism

tourism development process in SSA. These roles were deciphered from the conceptual and empirical literature reviewed on tourism in SSA, from firsthand experiential observation by the author in his travels across Africa, and from random but calculated conversations about the subject matter of this chapter with tourists from SSA at various tourism destinations worldwide. The analytical framework used in Table 31.6 delineates key roles for tourism sector players in society's four stakeholder sectors to play with reference to each of the five pillars or goals of the SD pentagon.

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Conclusion The argument made in this chapter is that tourism planning, investment, and management are imperatives for economic growth, SO and poverty alleviation in SSA, and can no longer be taken for granted or handled nonchalantly by policymakers and technocrats in SSA. Globally, the competition for a country's profitable share of the tourism market is very keen, and therefore countries must take very seriously issues of: coherence of tourism policies and plans; quality, diversity, and selection of tourism services and products; capacity of tourism sector players to deliver desired services and products; attitudes of citizens and hosts at tourism destinations toward visitors and tourists; and compliance with internationally prescribed and acceptable standards for tourism services and products. As has been demonstrated in this chapter, on each of these counts, the verdict, at best, is that SSA has a long way to go in order to be a formidable competitor in the global tourism race. This race is bound to get more heated as, on the demand side of the tourism industry, the tastes, expectations, and requirements of the modern tourist become more sophisticated and complex. On the supply side of the tourism industry, attracting and satisfying the modern tourist has become more "expensive" and requires more careful, strategic, and sophisticated planning. Compounding the rising costs of planning and developing a competitive modern tourism industry are other imperatives, such as the "greening" of the tourism industry and, indeed, the global economy, for example, through the use of sustainable energy sources and raw materials; the global clampdown on money laundering and illegal financial deals; an aggressive fight against illegal activities, such as human and drug trafficking, fueled by, and perpetrated under the cover of, tourism; and higher standards of service and service capacity in the tourism industry. SSA cannot ignore or avoid these facts and imperatives in its quest to capitalize on tourism as a means to diversify its economy, achieve sustained economic growth and SO, and alleviate mass poverty among its citizens. To date, tourism across SSA is primarily a government-led or -sponsored industry, with limited participation by the corporate sector and the least participation by MSEs and grassroots citizens. This implies that tourism occurs and must compete in the murky political waters of SSA governments. Sadly, there is an ironic perception across SSA that those in government (policymakers and technocrats) are either unaware of grassroots issues and challenges, have no feasible ideas about how to address the challenges, or simply do not care about addressing the challenges. The view in this chapter is counter to this perception, in that the author believes that all government offtcials know and understand grassroots challenges and, in most cases, desire to address them. However, one of the main problems is that most of the elected officials, and in some cases technocrats, are handicapped and, indeed, rendered ineffective by the fraudulent means by which they got to power or their positions. Due to their treacherous paths to public office, they end up preoccupied and consumed by their political baggages and debts rather than accountable and transparent public service. In light of this polylemma, compounded by the ever-competing development priorities of government in the face of very limited resources, SSA leaders tend to lean toward short-term, visible capital projects, many of them elephant projects, of which, in the calculation of these officials, tourism does not fit. This mentality about tourism in SSA must change, and the priority status of tourism must be elevated to the top of the economic agenda of the region, in order to capitalize on the opportunities that tourism offers for economic growth, SO, and poverty alleviation in the region. There is a need for policymakers, technocrats, and other stakeholders in SSA to see the interrelationship or complementarity of all development sectors and, for a sector such as

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tourism, its immense potentials and advantages, especially in creating employment and entrepreneurial opportunities, showcasing and promoting local culture and heritage, etc. There is and can be a tourism dimension to all major activities, as shown by the genres of tourism listed in Table 31.1. SSA must maximize its tourism potentials in order to tap into one of the world's most robust, resilient, and profitable industries.

References Adams, K.M. (2006). Terror and tourism: Charting the ambivalent allure of the urban jungle. In Claudio Minca and Tim Oakes (eds.), Travels in Paradox: Remapping T