Tracking bias against the selection of female ... - Wiley Online Library

Tracking Bias Against the Selection of Female Expatriates: Implications and Opportunities for Business Education Charles M. Vance

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Yongsun Paik

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Judith A. White

Executive Summary The primary purpose of this study was to investigate early formation and presence of an unfounded bias against female expatriate selection. Overall results found that freshmen exhibited less bias against female expatriate assignment viability than MBA students, and females were less biased than males. However, freshman males exhibited greater bias against females in expatriate assignments than did freshman females, and they did not differ significantly in their perceptions from their male MBA counterparts. Our results suggest that the unfounded bias against female expatriate selection can exist very early, particularly among male students, presenting an important educational challenge and opportunity for business educators. Recommendations are made for improving business education to counter bias formation and dispel negative stereotypes. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION As the number of skilled, educated workers in many labor markets continues to decrease at the same time that the demand for them increases, organizations are facing increasing staffing and retention challenges. These challenges are of strateCharles M. Vance is a professor of management and human resources at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles. His PhD at Syracuse University was in instructional technology, and much of his past work has focused on the design and management of organizational learning systems. His recent published work also examines issues involving international career development. Yongsun Paik is a professor of international business and management at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles. He received his PhD in international business from the University of Washington, Seattle. His primary research interests include expatriate management, cross-cultural negotiation, global strategic alliances, and knowledge management. Judith A. White teaches business ethics and organizational behavior in the School of Business at Santa Clara University. She received her PhD in organizational behavior from Case Western Reserve University. She has published in such journals as the Journal of Management Inquiry, the Journal of Management Education, Organizational Learning, the Journal of Corporate Citizenship, the Journal of Values-Based Management, and Management Learning. Thunderbird International Business Review, Vol. 48(6) 823–842 • November–December 2006 Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. • DOI: 10.1002/tie.20124

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gic importance for short- as well as long-term success in global competition (Parker, 1999; Vanderbroeck, 1992). Multinational corporations (MNCs) can little afford to place an unnecessary restriction upon their pool of talented human resources by excluding particular groups of employees based on personal characteristics, such as gender, that may be shown to be irrelevant to job-performance success Despite a grad- in the global marketplace (Tung, 2004). Yet women continue to be ual increase in an underutilized source of human talent in international business female represen- (Vance & Paik, 2001). tation among the expatriate ranks, male bias toward women prevailing in American MNCs still tends to discourage the selection of females for filling an expatriate assignment.

The participation rate of women in expatriate assignments lags far behind that of men as they are frequently reported to be passed over for expatriate assignments in favor of men (Stroh, Varma, & ValyDurbin, 2000). According to Adler and Izraeli (1994), in the early 1980s women represented only 3% of the total number of expatriate managers sent by major North American MNCs. This representation, which is typically significantly ahead of the utilization of women expats in Western European MNCs, grew to 5% in the late 1980s and to about 14% in the late 1990s (Tung, 2004). Despite a gradual increase in female representation among the expatriate ranks, male bias toward women prevailing in American MNCs still tends to discourage the selection of females for filling an expatriate assignment (Stroh et al., 2000). A powerful obstructing factor present in the early selection phase of expatriate assignments appears to involve unfavorable perceptions from management at headquarters regarding female candidate success potential (Stroh et al., 2000; Vance & Paik, 2001). Primary reasons for selecting males over females typically are to (1) promote and optimize the competitive viability of business operations abroad and (2) avoid costly assignment failure (Adler, 1993; Izraeli, Banai, & Zeira, 1980). These arguments are perplexing when a majority of women on expatriate assignments claim that their international assignments were successful even in such countries as Korea and Japan, where male managers almost completely dominate business activity (Steinberg, 1996; Tung, 2004; Westwood & Leung, 1994). These successful female expatriate managers reportedly do not find cultural differences to be a significant barrier to the effective performance of their job. In fact, they frequently note that the biggest hurdle they had to overcome in their international career was not in their foreign business environments, but rather back in their home country where negative perceptions about the probability of expatriate assignment success often discouraged managers from seriously considering and selecting female candidates in the first place.

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Tracking Bias Against the Selection of Female Expatriates

Research by Vance and Paik (2001) provided evidence of U.S. male manager bias against American women and favoring male expatriate candidates—a bias that was unfounded when compared to the more positive perceptions toward female American expatriates held by local national businesspeople in the business environments of Germany and Mexico.1 Stroh et al. (2000) found evidence of a similar male …many of the bias at company headquarters when she compared the views of female expatriates in the field with those of their back-home supervisors, women indicated 88% of whom were male. Her results indicated that 60% of the back- they were suchome supervisors agreed or strongly agreed that prejudice in some cessful in their countries prevented women from being effective on the job, while foreign assignonly 10% of the female expatriates in the field held the same percep- ments and were tion. A recent field study by Vance (2002) featuring interviews of making valuable American male and female expatriates working in five major cities in contributions to Central and Southern Europe revealed that three times as many men their organizaas women believed that women could not be as successful in internations’ bottom tional business as men. line. Although these studies did not assess quantitative measures of success and effectiveness for making comparisons between male and female expatriates, many of the women indicated they were successful in their foreign assignments and were making valuable contributions to their organizations’ bottom line. This finding provides prima facie evidence that the reported male bias favoring the selection of male expatriates is unfounded. The apparently unjustified negative bias against the selection of women for expatriate assignments highlights the unfortunate way in which American MNCs make staffing decisions that contravene their own best interests in the aforementioned challenge and competition surrounding scarce global human talent. This unfounded bias is even more unfortunate at the individual level, where women may have fewer opportunities to develop, through foreign work experiences, critical global competencies that can be very influential in advancing their careers (Black, Morrison, & Gregersen, 1999; Carpenter, Sanders, & Gregersen, 2001; Tung, 2004). With this evidence, both at company headquarters and abroad, of an unfounded American male bias against the selection of women expatriates for foreign assignment, are we to conclude that such bias is unavoidable? Is it inherent to the human condition due to a deeply ingrained affective tendency from early childhood to protect and act in favor of one’s own reference group (in this case, male) and at the expense of another (Tilly, 1998; Tomaskovic-Devey, 1993)? Or can this prejudice be explained as being more due to unconscious cognitive processes that may be more easily reversed by specific and purThunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • November–December 2006

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posive educational efforts and information sharing (Foddy & Smithson, 1999; Reskin, 2000)? The primary purpose of this study was to begin to shed light on these questions by examining the levels of bias against women expatriate selection between young adult males, who may reflect a natural tendency to favor their own reference group, and older adults with more business education, experience, and expoMany prominent sure to workplace culture and gender stereotypes, including those explanations for pertinent to international business. Our clearer understanding of the extent of this bias may be useful in guiding our efforts to reduce and workplace disultimately eliminate it for the benefit of both organizations and indicrimination are grounded in con- viduals that are adversely affected. flict theory.

DISCRIMINATION THEORY AND BIAS AGAINST FEMALE EXPATRIATE SELECTION Many prominent explanations for workplace discrimination are grounded in conflict theory (e.g., Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Goodwin, Operario, & Fiske, 1998; Jackman, 1994; Martin, 1992; Tilly, 1998; Tomaskovic-Devey, 1993). Here those who may benefit from systems of inequality, typically people in positions of higher power and status, protect their privileges by utilizing the resources they control to exclude members from groups having less power and status. Somewhat similar to conflict theories are those featuring ingroup preference rather than the intrinsic discord of heterogeneity, where people are more comfortable with, have more trust in, hold more positive views of, and feel more obligated to members of their own group (Perdue, Dovidio, Gurtman, & Tyler, 1990). Accordingly, people try to avoid out-group members and favor in-group members in evaluations and rewards; more often from in-group preference rather than from disdain for out-group members (Brewer & Brown, 1998). These conflict and in-group preference theories explain discrimination in terms of the strategic, self-serving actions by members of privileged groups who intentionally exclude and even exploit subordinate-group members to preserve the status quo and protect or advance their own interests (Reskin, 2000). These theories are often used to explain the presence of the organizational “glass ceiling” phenomenon that obstructs the upward career mobility of women and are easily extended to the multinational organization in the context of expatriate manager selection (Tang, 1999). Cognitive discrimination theories based on social cognition and status characteristics (e.g., Berger, Fisek, Norman, & Zelditch, 1977; Fiske, 1998; Humphreys & Berger, 1981; Reskin, 2000) suggest 826



that persistent workplace stereotypes are commonly formed about categories of people (e.g., females) and gender-linked job or task characteristics (e.g., male-type jobs requiring aggressive and competitive behavior and female-type jobs requiring caring and supportive behavior). These stereotypes are cognitive “shortcuts” that help people cope with complex and demanding environments and occur People unconregardless of people’s feelings toward other groups or their desires to protect or improve their own status. If they remain uncorrected, sciously prefer, these biases can lead to outcomes neither intended nor recognized pursue, and by those holding the stereotypes (Reskin, 2000). People unconremember sciously prefer, pursue, and remember events and information that events and support their stereotypes (even remembering events that did not information that occur) and discredit, ignore, and forget information that challenges support their their stereotypes (Fiske, 1998). In this way, stereotypes serve as stereotypes and “implicit theories, biasing in predictable ways the perception, inter- discredit, ignore, pretation, encoding, retention, and recall of information. . .” and forget infor(Krieger, 1995, p. 1188). Specifically related to the unfounded bias mation that examined in this study, the most commonly cited reasons for select- challenges their ing males over females for international assignment include (1) the stereotypes. presence of heavy cultural restrictions on the role of women in international business, (2) the predominance of males who prefer doing international business with other males, (3) greater personal qualifications of males for international assignment, (4) the relative inability of females to adapt to the challenging requirements of foreign assignments, and (5) the greater vulnerability of females to the aggressive nature of the foreign business assignment (Vance & Paik, 2001). Reasons 1 and 2 above relate to managers’ stereotypes about the male-appropriate nature of the foreign job assignment, while reasons 3, 4, and 5 are clearly stereotypes held about the gender categories of males and females. The “teaching” of these stereotypes is often part of the informal “cultural curriculum” of American business, where males are likely more susceptible to learning these stereotypes supporting their natural tendency toward in-group preference (Brewer & Brown, 1998). Unfortunately, perhaps in its well-intended efforts to increase curricular relevance to what is happening in the “real world,” male-dominated business school education also has been guilty of mirroring many of these stereotypes. For example, we are familiar with management cases currently in use—and even encouraged at international business teaching workshops—that perpetuate this stereotype. They typically involve the ethical dilemma of whether to select a less talented male for a foreign business assignment to a reputed male-dominated, chauvinistic foreign business culture, or to send a very capaThunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • November–December 2006

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ble female employee whose promising career and business with the organization would likely be severely damaged in the assignment. Because this mirroring in business education of the prevailing workplace bias typically precedes entry into international business practice, it may therefore predispose males to bias against female expatriate selection. If the male selection bias against women expatriates exists in the international field as well as back at company headquarters, we might wonder how far back this bias extends for males.

If the male selection bias against women expatriates exists in the international field as well as back at company headquarters, we might wonder how far back this bias extends for males. Although in general male and female students tend to develop over their undergraduate education more favorable attitudes toward women in professional roles (Bryant, 2003), it seems plausible that older male business students (e.g., advanced MBA students) who have more international business education and work experience, where stereotypes and predominant perceptions of the global business environment can be learned, may hold a stronger bias against women expatriates than those just beginning their college education (e.g., freshmen). Due to their limited experience and exposure to work cultures and specific indoctrination that would encourage the development of unfavorable stereotypes, we would expect that young freshmen would be little motivated by status and power to protect their self-interest and would follow a more egalitarian view of men and women (Eagly & Mladinic, 1994; Spence & Hahn, 1997). We would expect to find more bias among older adults—and males in particular—who have more work experience and international business education since high school and who are motivated by in-group preferences and more inclined to hold unfavorable stereotypes regarding women in international business. Because this bias seems to be upheld and magnified among those American males serving in foreign assignments, who may rationalize the appropriateness of their bias by their perception of a relative lack of female expatriates, we also would expect to find a positive link between these unfavorable stereotypes regarding expatriate women and such factors as amount of living and working experience abroad. Therefore, based on the above theoretical perspectives on the formation of gender bias, content in business education that may discourage international business careers for women, and considerable past research reflecting male bias related to expatriate selection, the following three hypotheses were posed for the present study: H1: Male students will reflect an overall less favorable perception about the effectiveness of females in expatriate assignments than female students.

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H2: Young freshman students (male and female) will reflect more favorable perceptions about the effectiveness of women in expatriate assignments than older MBA students. H3: Individuals possessing more experience in international travel or working experience abroad will hold more unfavorable perceptions about the effectiveness of females in expatriate assignments.

METHODS A survey assessing perceptions about the potential effectiveness of female American managers working in foreign assignments was given to first-semester freshman students and advanced (i.e., beyond core curriculum) MBA students at a private university in Southern California. The surveys were administered at the beginning of the students’ regular class sessions and were followed by a presentation on career opportunities and challenges in international business. Of the 116 total freshmen, 69, or 60%, were female and 47, or 40%, were male, with a mean age of 18.2 years. Of the 94 total MBA students, 36, or 38%, were female and 58, or 62%, were male, with a mean age of 28 years, and ranging from 22 to 49 years. The male and female compositions of both samples were similar to those of their larger student population at the school (i.e., larger percentage of female business undergraduates and larger percentage of male MBA students). The MBA students, most of whom completed undergraduate degrees at other institutions, were in the advanced levels of their program, with most planning on completing their program within a semester of taking the survey. The MBA program, with classes in the late afternoon and evening, accommodates full-time and part-time students, many of the latter working full-time in nearby organizations. Seventyfive percent of the MBA students were employed, and 52% of the respondents worked for a company that sent employees on foreign assignments.

The surveys were administered at the beginning of the students’ regular class sessions and were followed by a presentation on career opportunities and challenges in international business.

A 17-item survey (see Figure 1), grounded in discrimination theoretical constructs of social cognition and status characteristics (both gender group-related and job-related), presented both positive and negative stereotypical statements regarding the relative effectiveness of American female managers working in foreign assignments compared to their male counterparts. The content of the items was based on a literature review of general gender stereotypes and specifically related to women in international business, as well as on interviews with 29 American managers. The first 16 stereotypical statements related to females as a group (four positive and six negative stereoThunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • November–December 2006

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Figure 1. Survey Questions Completely Disagree

Statement 1.

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American female executives are generally not restricted or limited to the same female role expectations as are local female members of foreign cultures. Foreign cultures, where males dominate in local business, present an extremely difficult barrier to the acceptance by foreign businessmen of female American executives. Due to their generally recognized superior ability in multitasking (handling multiple things at one time), American females have an advantage over their male counterparts in flexibility for handling constant changes and uncertainty. Female American executives generally have more difficulty than do males in adjusting to cultural differences in foreign assignments. Because of their more sensitive natures, female American executives generally have more difficulty than do their male counterparts in coping with the aggressive and competitive atmosphere of international business. Generally, it is easier for the wives of male American executives to join their husbands in living abroad for extended work assignments than it is for the husbands of female American executives. Husbands who join female American executives in a foreign country for an extended period of time tend to have more difficulty adjusting to this new experience than do wives joining male American executives. American females have greater ability than their male counterparts to adjust and adapt to the uncertainty and unpredictable changes that are common in international business. Due to their overly sensitive and emotional natures, women compared to men tend to lack the stability and consistency needed to be successful abroad. American female executives have an advantage over males in international business because they stand out and are more memorable among a group of predominantly male business competitors. Women are physically more fragile and not as hardy as men in dealing with the stress and rigorous demands of foreign work assignments. Because of their generally more sensitive natures, women executives have an advantage over men in being more responsive to different cultural needs of their foreign customers, which is extremely valuable for building productive foreign customer relationships. Cultural expectations reflected in many foreign cultures which limit the role of women in business represent a difficult barrier to the success of American female executives in international business. Female American executives have an advantage abroad over their male counterparts because they generally are perceived as more talented and competent, since they have successfully overcome back-home barriers of workplace discrimination. Male American executives tend to be more rational and stable in their decision making than their female counterparts, thus giving males an advantage in effectively dealing with the difficult and challenging decisions frequently faced in international business. Because of their generally stronger interpersonal skills, American women have an advantage over men in building productive teams and customer relationships in their international business assignments. Overall, female American executives generally are not as effective for extended foreign work assignments as are male American executives.

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types) and the demanding and challenging nature of expatriate job assignments relative to American women (two positive and four negative stereotypes). The final survey statement, reflecting an overall expectation that American males would be more successful than American females in an expatriate assignment, was used in accordance with a common decision-making style based on general consideration of a range of facts and choices (Etzioni, 1989), and thus upon overall inclinations or general “gut-level” intuitive feelings rather than upon specific rationales. The degree of respondents’ agreement with each statement was assessed using a seven-point scale (1 = completely disagree, 7 = completely agree).

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Since the main goal of this research was to investigate perceptions of prejudice against female expatriate selection from a sample of two distinct age groups of students, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) on gender- and education-level differences were conducted to simultaneously test the null hypothesis of no significant mean response differences among all respondents on each of the 17 survey items. Table 1 and Table 2 contain the value of Hotellings’s T statistic and Wilks’s lambda divided by N-2 for the simultaneous test of hypotheses. The significant level of the F distribution (p < .000) demonstrates substantial differences between male and female respondents as well as between freshmen and MBA students on the perceived ability of female versus male candidates effectively managing overseas assignments, with females and freshmen holding more positive perceptions (higher mean scores). Thus, our Hypotheses 1 and 2 were generally supported by the data. Table 1. Multivariate Tests of Significance Between Gender Test Name

Value

Exact F

Hypoth. df

Error df

Sig. of F

Hotellings’s T

.894

10.093

17.00

192.00

.000

Wilks’s Lambda

.528

10.093

17.00

192.00

.000

Note: N = 105 (male), N = 105 (female).

Table 2. Multivariate Tests of Significance Between Freshman and MBA Students Test Name

Value

Exact F

Hypoth. df

Error df

Sig. of F

Hotellings’s T

0.178

2.013

17.00

192.00

.012

Wilks’s Lambda

0.849

2.013

17.00

192.00

.012

Note: N = 116 (freshmen), N = 94 (MBA). Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • November–December 2006

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A test of reliability on the entire 17-item survey revealed a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .76, indicating very high instrument reliability. In order to identify the subset of survey item dependent variables contributing to differences between gender and education level, univariate F tests were performed on the 17 items of the survey. As seen in Table 3, in assessing female candidate ability, the scores of the female students were significantly higher than those of the male students in 10 out of 17 items at the significance level of p < .05. Table 4 shows that the scores of the freshmen students were significantly different from those of the MBA students in 5 out of 17 items. These items, 3, 4, 6, 10, and 12, were mainly associated with advantages of female managers over male managers due to their stronger interpersonal skills and higher adaptability to uncertain and unfamiliar foreign environments. Meanwhile, the majority of items, 12 out of 17, did not reveal any significant differences between freshmen and MBA students. Multivariate F tests found no significant effect of either living experiences abroad or the amount of overseas work experience on the 17-item mean responses, thus failing to support our third hypothesis. Significant differences were detected between male and female students for both freshman and MBA groups. As indicated in Table 5, Table 3. Comparison of Mean Responses Between Male and Female Students Male Students Mean

Female Students Mean

F Value

Sig. of F

Item 1

4.39

4.50

00.307

.580

Item 2

3.34

2.78

02.974

.086

Item 3

3.06

4.74

68.114

.000

Item 4

4.35

5.17

16.135

.000

Item 5

4.33

5.13

14.491

.000

Item 6

3.40

3.76

02.472

.117

Item 7

4.02

4.06

00.044

.834

Item 8

3.08

3.94

18.887

.000

Item 9

4.68

5.92

42.954

.000

Item 10

3.58

4.11

05.723

.018

Item 11

4.73

5.84

32.462

.000

Item 12

3.71

4.57

18.306

.000

Item 13

3.32

3.29

00.042

.837

Item 14

3.18

3.36

00.879

.349

Item 15

4.31

5.39

31.371

.000

Item 16

3.41

3.99

08.671

.003

Item 17

4.92

5.94

30.372

.000

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Table 4. Comparison of Mean Responses Between Freshman and MBA Students Freshman Students Mean

MBA Students Mean

F Value

Sig. of F

Item 1

4.45

4.44

0.004

.951

Item 2

3.13

2.97

0.248

.619

Item 3

4.18

3.55

7.645

.006

Item 4

4.97

4.49

5.053

.026

Item 5

4.73

4.72

0.003

.957

Item 6

3.86

3.23

7.586

.006

Item 7

4.22

3.82

3.254

.073

Item 8

3.58

3.42

0.573

.450

Item 9

5.32

5.27

0.055

.815

Item 10

4.12

3.51

7.505

.007

Item 11

5.29

5.28

0.004

.949

Item 12

4.36

3.85

5.831

.017

Item 13

3.38

3.21

0.939

.334

Item 14

3.40

3.09

2.616

.107

Item 15

4.85

4.85

0.000

.984

Item 16

3.79

3.59

0.957

.329

Item 17

5.48

5.36

0.351

.554

Table 5. Comparison of Mean Responses Between Male and Female MBA Students Male MBA Mean

Female MBA Mean

F Value

Sig. of F

Item 1

4.43

4.44

00.002

.963

Item 2

3.02

2.92

00.126

.723

Item 3

2.90

4.61

34.146

.000

Item 4

4.33

4.75

01.575

.213

Item 5

4.38

5.19

06.953

.010

Item 6

3.33

3.06

00.634

.428

Item 7

4.02

3.53

02.267

.136

Item 8

3.10

4.08

12.898

.001

Item 9

4.81

6.06

21.012

.000

Item 10

3.45

3.64

00.303

.583

Item 11

4.78

6.08

20.449

.000

Item 12

3.66

4.31

04.730

.032

Item 13

3.17

3.25

00.083

.775

Item 14

3.03

3.22

00.391

.533

Item 15

4.34

5.67

19.716

.000

Item 16

3.36

3.97

04.314

.041

Item 17

4.90

6.14

20.523

.000


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the mean scores of MBA female students were higher (i.e., more supportive of female expatriates) than those of their male student counterparts in 9 out of 17 items at a significant level of the F distribution (p < .05). Likewise, Table 6 demonstrates that the mean scores of freshman female students were higher than those of their male counterparts in 12 out of 17 items at a significant level of the F distribution (p < .05). In stark contrast, no significant differences in item responses were detected either between female freshmen and female MBA students or between male freshmen and male MBA students. In other words, gender differences in responses were consistently present regardless of education levels, with male students of both groups reflecting less positive perceptions of women for expatriate assignments. Here we again found support for our Hypothesis 1 but failed to support Hypothesis 2, which predicted that male and female freshmen alike would reflect more positive views about women expatriates than their older and more experienced MBA counterparts.

DISCUSSION The present study extends the evidence of unfounded male bias against the selection of women expatriates beyond male expatriates in Table 6. Comparison of Mean Responses Between Male and Female Freshman Students Male Freshmen

Female Freshmen

F Value

Sig. of F

Item 1

4.36

4.55

00.401

.528

Item 2

3.81

2.68

03.886

.051

Item 3

3.32

4.77

23.519

.000

Item 4

4.36

5.38

14.338

.000

Item 5

4.15

5.10

09.442

.003

Item 6

3.43

4.10

04.582

.034

Item 7

4.06

4.33

00.756

.386

Item 8

3.11

3.90

06.879

.010

Item 9

4.40

5.96

35.196

.000

Item 10

3.72

4.38

04.452

.037

Item 11

4.64

5.80

17.684

.000

Item 12

3.87

4.75

09.374

.003

Item 13

3.49

3.28

00.684

.410

Item 14

3.38

3.45

00.062

.803

Item 15

4.19

5.28

16.347

.000

Item 16

3.53

3.97

02.442

.121

Item 17

4.87

5.93

16.439

.000

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the field and managers (predominantly male) back at company headquarters to include business school MBA students and beginning freshmen. We found significant male and female perceptual differences among both freshmen and MBA students, and no differences between male students at MBA and freshman levels, which reflected a less positive view about women serving in foreign assignments. We To sum up, our also found that freshman students projected a more positive view about female expatriates than MBA students, who had more work findings suggest experience and on average had six more years of higher education, that the higher predominantly in business schools. Since female students did not difthe education fer at MBA and freshman levels, our evidence suggests that male perlevels are, the ceptions regarding female expatriate appropriateness for expatriate stronger the assignments may become less positive as they get older, during which biases against time they gain more business education and experience. Extrapolatthe perceived ing beyond the present study, these results suggest that the business viability of female educational process may be failing to exert an adequate impact on expatriates for changing this negative bias into a more positive view toward Ameriforeign assigncan women as international professionals. These results are particuments, particularly striking when compared with a recent national study that found larly among male gains in favorable attitudes toward women in professional working students. roles among male and female undergraduate students over their four years of university education—and moreso for female students (Bryant, 2003). However, this national study focused on domestic career issues in general and not the international context of expatriate assignments. To sum up, our findings suggest that the higher the education levels are, the stronger the biases against the perceived viability of female expatriates for foreign assignments, particularly among male students. This study, especially with its sample of one university, does not purport to prove that business school education is contributing to an unfounded bias toward women expatriates. It would be useful to expand the present study sample to include multiple universities from different regions of the United States. However, we also found no evidence that higher education is having any effect on dispelling that bias or preventing its formation and growth, especially among young males who may be more vulnerable and susceptible to learning these negative stereotypes that support their natural tendency toward in-group preference (Brewer & Brown, 1998). Thus, our study potentially adds to recent arguments questioning the value and effectiveness of current business school education (Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). But in a more positive vein, our results also pose a hopeful challenge and opportunity for business educators to develop instruction and Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • November–December 2006

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learning environments that are effective in reducing and eliminating this unfounded bias against women expatriates that is detrimental to both organizational success and individual careers. As specific instruction in women’s studies has been found to be linked to gains in favorable student attitudes toward women’s careers and professional roles in a domestic context (Bryant, 2003), the learning of negative stereoField research types regarding women in expatriate assignments in international involving inter- contexts should be specifically countered by business curriculum conviews of Ameri- tent. Some studies have indicated that bias and perceptions of gender inequalities may be eliminated by the provision of specific, personal can women in information about a target individual that disconfirms stereotypes, expatriate assignments in such as an actual American female expatriate who is very successful in several different her sales manager assignment in Mexico City (Foddy & Smithson, 1999; Geis, 1993; Glick, Zion, & Nelson, 1988). The theory of staforeign countus characteristics and expectation states (Berger et al., 1977; Wagner tries purports & Berger, 1993) also claims that all salient status information held as that these stereotypes (e.g., about women) will be regarded as relevant to women often have great suc- expected task outcomes (e.g., expectations about women’s expatriate assignment success) unless the inapplicability of the stereotypes is cess in performbelieved or demonstrated—such as through business course instrucing their foreign tion with credible positive female models and case examples. assignments.

Field research involving interviews of American women in expatriate assignments in several different foreign countries purports that, contrary to common but unfounded perceptions about American female expatriates, these women often have great success in performing their foreign assignments (Harris, 1993; Jelinek & Adler, 1988; Solomon, 1998; Stone, 1991; Westwood & Leung, 1994). In many cases, women may even hold distinct advantages over their male American counterparts (Adler & Izraeli, 1994; Fisher, 1998; Steinberg, 1996). Steinberg (1996) noted that the main benefit of being a woman in overseas business is high visibility. When competing for the attention of a foreign executive in obtaining a desired business deal, a sole female sales representative will have the advantage of being remembered among the otherwise homogeneous competition among sales representatives. It has even been suggested that American females also may benefit from a positive “self-fulfilling prophecy” or “halo effect” held by the foreign businesspeople who expect that the female expatriate is extremely capable and talented since she was able to overcome the significant gender-biased obstacles that were presumed to be placed in her way back in the home country (Adler, 1994). Another important reason for the reportedly high success rate of American female expatriates is that in actuality they are not necessar836



ily subject to the traditional gender-based restrictions in business interactions and involvement that are prescribed by the predominant culture of the host country or business region (Kirk & Maddox, 1988). Qualitative field studies involving interviews with American women in different foreign assignments, including countries such as Japan where considerable male dominance exists in business, have failed to identify culturally driven obstacles to their international business success that would support a preference of males over females (Napier & Taylor, 1996). Similarly, Tung (1987) found no gender difference in the successful performance of expatriate managers. Many women in field interviews have even asserted that women expatriates can often be more effective in their foreign assignments than their male counterparts (Vance, 2002). This success may in part be due to the enhanced interpersonal skills women bring to organizations. Studies (Gilligan, 1987; Goleman, 1998; Myers, 1976; Rosener, 1990; Wentling, 1992) on gender differences in interpersonal relationships and personality characteristics show that women tend to be empathic, interactive, caring, attentive to nonverbal cues, intuitive, and more collaborative in their approach to peers and subordinates. Because women are socialized to view themselves as in relationship with others rather than separate from others, they have a high concern for developing and maintaining relationships, often without regard to the utility of those relationships (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Miller, 1976).

…business education should do a more thorough and effective job in demonstrating the inaccuracy of stereotypes about women and the “femaleunfriendly” nature of expatriate assignments…

Therefore, business education should do a more thorough and effective job in demonstrating the inaccuracy of stereotypes about women and the “female-unfriendly” nature of expatriate assignments by providing examples, cases, and models, based on real and specific women expatriates, that compellingly disconfirm stereotypes underlying the unfounded bias. The core business curriculum— required for all—should include clear evidence to disconfirm this unfounded bias. Of course, significant obstacles and challenges are frequently reported for women expatriates that are different from their male counterparts, such as less likelihood of spousal social and emotional support, less position status in expatriate assignments that may reinforce local perceptions of less credibility and power, genderbased behavioral expectations, local negative stereotypes regarding women in business, and fewer opportunities for networking and mentor development. These realistic obstacles and challenges also should be carefully examined for valid instruction, along with valuable experience-based guidelines for overcoming those obstacles (Caligiuri & Cascio, 1998; Mathur-Helm, 2002; Owen & Scherer, 2002; Selmer & Leung, 2002, 2003). Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • November–December 2006

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Judith A. White

Besides greater examination in course content of actual cases and reasons for women’s viability in international business assignments, the presentation of more women as successful professional role models should be made in course delivery, both through professional women guest speakers and more women faculty. The majority of business school faculty and administrators are men, and thus undergraduate, Faculty and MBA, and executive students see fewer women working in administrators autonomous, expert positions as faculty. Additionally, research in should increase higher education shows that male professors are less likely to discuss their awareness issues of diversity and give examples of women in nonstereotypical professional roles than women faculty (Grossman & Grossman, of their own unconscious atti- 1984). Particularly related to the present study, business schools need to be more proactive in hiring and promoting women faculty with tudes and actions that may international work experience who can provide valuable mentoring and credible role models for female students, as well as living examprivilege male ples to help disprove and dispel the heretofore solidifying gender students, stereotypes among male students (Evans, 2003; Rask & Bailey, whether in the classroom or in 2002). their offices, as From this research, we also suggest that faculty and administrators they advise and make a commitment to developing comprehensive teaching practices mentor students.

that include gender and cultural proficiency (Lindsey, Robins, & Terrell, 2003) and, where possible, participate in diversity training. Faculty and administrators should increase their awareness of their own unconscious attitudes and actions that may privilege male students, whether in the classroom or in their offices, as they advise and mentor students. For example, Rothenberg’s (1988, 2002) studies on discrimination in the classroom demonstrate that both male and female faculty systematically focus more attention on male students than female students by calling on them more frequently during class discussions. As diversity training in corporate settings has proven to reduce bias and discrimination in its subtle and overt forms (Gilbert, Stead, & Ivancevich, 1999), it can also be effective with university faculty (Brown, 2002). Diversity training can provide an opportunity for faculty to explore their own unconscious and hidden biases and stereotypes of others in their working environment, such as colleagues and students, and including possibly negative unfounded expectations about female students’ international career options. One direction for future research is to explore the differences in how male and female business school faculty teach and the effects of their teaching styles on male and female students’ bias and perceptions of gender stereotypes in managers and professionals. Further, it is important to distinguish between a bias against women versus a bias

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against diversity, exploring whether students also would have stereotypes against African-American, Latino, or Asian men in expatriate assignments. Additionally, this area of study lends itself to examining the changing nature of expatriate work and associated professional roles, due to enhanced telecommunications, and whether in the future managers may spend more time in relationship-building activities such as training and mentoring host-country nationals to take over the work that expatriate managers are currently doing. In conclusion, organizations cannot afford to restrict their global human talent by criteria—such as gender—that have been demonstrated to be unfounded. For both their benefit and the ethical treatment of their individual employees, organizations should do all they can to root out stereotypes and forms of bias that limit the selection of women for foreign assignment. In addition, in their overall responsibility to society, business schools and higher education in general have an obligation and opportunity to reexamine the content and processes of instruction and make necessary changes to help remove the frustrating blocks posed by these unfounded biases toward women. We can begin to make real progress by not simply mirroring unfounded stereotypes held by American men at company headquarters and in the international workplace, but instead consistently and more frequently providing a more accurate and realistic picture of successful female expatriates. Such a model likely would encourage both male and female students’ formation of more positive expectations regarding women’s future international work experience and their future application for foreign assignments. This early attention to improved educational impact may also ultimately help to decrease predominantly male-held negative stereotypes and unfair bias against females, which are presently adversely influencing the expatriate selection process for women and their organizations.

NOTE 1. The U.S. female managers’ perceptions about the viability of female expatriates was much more positive than those of their male counterparts, reflecting a closer fit with the more positive perceptions of the businesspeople in the foreign business environments of this study.

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