Transport, Communications and Mobility in Europe

Euromobile: Transport, Communications and Mobility in Europe A Cross-National Comparative Overview

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Edited by PETER NIJKAMP Free University Amsterdam SHALOM REICHMAN Hebrew University Jerusalem MICHAEL WEGENER University of Dortmund Dortmund

Avebury Aldershot

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Brookfield USA

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Hong Kong Singapore . Sydney ·

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Austria M. M. FISCHER, M. LATZER, G. MAIER, P. P. SINT, W. B. STO HR H. WARMUTH

AND

1

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Features of the Austrian Transportation Network

Austria is located at the intersection of important European traffic routes across the Alps and along the Danube. The eastern part of Austria reaches into the range of the eastern block countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary), whereas the western part lies directly between Germany and Italy, two major EC-countries. So, the east of the country plays an important role in east-west flows. particularly since the Hungarian border became more open during the past decade. In the west EC-related transit is an important factor and has recently created severe problems. These problems are related to goods transport caused by a dramatic shift from rail to road since the early sixties, tourist traffic to the Mediterranean (with a clear peak in the time period between late June till early September) and to Italian, Yugoslav and Turkish guest workers following the same transit routes to jobs in the FRG. The results are congestion (especially in the summer time). increasing risk, and negative environmental effects (noise, pollution). The mountainous topography of Austria makes the construction and main tenance of the network of international transport routes very costly (large numbers of bridges and tunnels) and also requires a high level of technological inputs. The railway network links the population centres with each other. Bottlenecks occur because of several single track lines. While in the major agglomerations the railway network is also increasingly being used for regional passenger traffic, the secondary railways lines connecting rural and peripheral areas with the major u rban regions show a decreasing passenger frequency. Several of them have been closed down since the early 1980s. The most i mportant planning instrument available to the Federal Road Ad ministration in terms of its regional policy implications is the Road Priority Oulline completed in 1 972 for motorways and expressways and in 1 975 for B-level federal roads. This priority outline is updated every five years. 119

In the past, TCM research in Austria was highly dominated by a civil engineer ing perspective. This was also most pronounced in transport policy, where the main aim was focussed on identifying and removing bottlenecks in the transport system. This approach practically ignored indirect effects and feedback proces ses with related areas out.side the transportation sector (e.g. the settlement system). It also ignored interdependencies between different modes of transport, which are of particular significance in urban areas.

2.

Socioeconomic Context Analysis

2.1

Some important socioeconomic trends

Passenger transport

In Austria also the agglomerations show a strong tendency towards decon Population and industry are spreading out over a larger area leading to a decline of the city and a rapid growth in some former rural areas in the hinterland. Commuting distances and the demand for transport services are increasing. This demand, however, shows important variations during the day and during the week: it is particularly high in the morning and in the evening of workdays. The infrastructure investment has to be tailored to these peak periods. In Austria they are particularly pronounced because of the rather standardised working time {subject to change recently) and strict regulation of shopping time. The urban development process enlarges of course the urbanised area. The newly urbanised area shows comparatively low population densities and also in the city itself population density tends to decline. The costs of public transport tend to increase since it has to serve a larger area and stagnating numbers of potential customers. High availability of cars is seen to be an important prerequisite for the urban deconcentration process. The increasing amount of pollution caused by higher traffic densities is also an important stimulus for further population movements to the suburbs. Outside urban areas, traffic related to leisure activities is an important factor. Again to a large extent this is a peak period phenomenon. In the suburban ring, it consists of weekend traffic from Friday afternoon to Sunday evening. The increasing number of second homes of urban residents in rural areas is one important factor in this respect. centration.

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Goods transport

A large increase in freight transport (especially international transit transport) measured in terms of volume due to increasing goods production in general and spatial division of production in particular can be observed. Particularly the western sections of Austria are affected by transit transport between Germany and Italy. The construction of �o freeways crossing the Alps (Brennerautobahn, Tauernautobahn) during the past decades has attracted transit traffic in large quantities. On the Brennerautobahn, for example, about 80 per cent of all goods transport is pure transit. The mountainous topography of these parts of Austria (narrow valleys) makes 120

the problems associated with this situation (noise, pollution) even more severe. The related trend is the extremely Farge shift in the mode choice of freight transport from rail to road since the late 1960s. The market share of rail decreased from about 70 per cent in 1967 to less than 50 per cent in the early 1 980s. This adds to the problems mentioned above. To some extent this is a result of the investment decisions in the TCM sector in the late 1960s and the early 1970s, when the construction of transit freeways made road transport more competitive compared to rail. Also the tendency of spatial decentralisation tends to favour this shift in modal split, since a more deconcentrated structure is less easily served by rail. General trends

An important TCM related general trend is the increasing awareness of en vironmentaf matters . Environmental amenities are felt to becoming more scarce by various groups in society and are therefore given higher value. An important conflict potential between different interest andfor pressure groups is arising in society. The TCM sector is particularly affected by this trend, since automobile traffic is seen as an important source of environmental hazard. Therefore, restrictions on automobile traffic is in increasing demand, which is strictly opposed by automobile lobbies (driver associations). 2. 2

Research issues, analytical tools and gaps in knowledge

Because of the Austrian tradition in TCM related research, there is not an abundance of research which covers TCM as well as its socioeconomic back ground. Studies in spatial mobility (migration) usually deal with (part of) the socioeconomic background, but do not usually take explicit account of the transport sector. Population projections (e.g. by the Austrian Institute for Regional Planning) result from {more or less sophisticated) extrapolations and do not incorporate the transportation sector as an integrated component. Therefore, no consistent population transportation estimates can be derived in Austria. Also analyses dealing with urban development and related decentralisation processes (studied inter alia at the University of Economics, Vienna) lack an explicit notion of the transport sector. In theoretical terms, factors like the rise of the automobile, increased mobility, increased pollution in the urban centres resulting from transportation, etc. are considered to be major driving forces in the decentralisation process, while studies in this field also sometimes contain speculations about its i mpacts on modal split, volume and spatial pattern of traffic flows. In empirical terms, however, the transport sector is almost totally neglected. Transportation studies deal with the effects of infrastructure investments on the modal split, on regional development or on accessibility. Typically they use aggregate information instead of micro data, and traditional techniques like potentials and gravity type models. They are closely related to the central-place tradition in geography and aim at the delineation of regional markets of various types or at the estimation of spatial inequalities resulting from differences i n accessibility t o central places. ·

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Related to the main issues mentioned above are studies about tourism and leisure behaviour (e.g. at the Technical University and the U niversity of Vienna). They are often descriptive and deal with tourists spending their holidays i n Austria a s well a s with the behaviour o f second home owners. Little i s known about tourists passing through Austria on their way to and from the Mediter ranean, mainly because of the lack of detailed information about these people and the international character of the phenomenon. An i mportant research issue deals with the impact of automobile traffic on the environment. This research is stimulated by the growing environmental concern and particularly by the debate on the causes of the death of forests. Research in this area is undertaken in biology, chemistry and environmental sciences. However, it has important implications for transport policy ('benefits' of in vestments). The analytical tools typically used in TCM research in Austria are rather traditional. Studies use mainly aggregate data. They lack behavioural foun dation, and are often descriptive case study analyses. An i mportant tool for deriving policy recommendations in the evaluation of foreign experience in a specific field. Because of the time lag in many development processes between Austria and other western European countries, this is often a cheap and successful strategy. Gaps in knowledge exist in many areas. They are partly the result of the traditional orientation and fragmentation of TCM research in Austria. - There is still a lack of integrated studies in transportation and land use. Little is known about the cumulative effects of transport investments via changes i n land use and location. This deficit i s particularly severe with respect t o urban agglomerations. - The way major institutions in society (e.g. work hours, shopping hours regulations) influence the transport system is another problem. Answering this strongly policy related question requires a clear understanding of the prevail· ing socioeconomic processes (changes in educational level, shift from manufacturing to services, changes in work relations, etc.). - The manner in which the urban development process changes volume and spatial patterns of travel demand needs also further investigation, but this is mainly a gap in empirical knowledge. There is a demand for testing transport related hypotheses derived from urban development theories. ·

Other major gaps in knowledge concern the following issues: - Changes in modal split and volume of goods transport need more attention. - Transit of international tourist flows has received little attention despite the fact that it is felt to be a major structural problem. - Evaluation and rationalisation of political decisions in the TCM field would also be an important task. 2.3

Emerging research directions and theoretical developments

New research directions in the socioeconomic background of the TCM sector in 122

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Austria are: - A growing concern about the behavioural basis of TCM modelling. - Attempts to evaluate the benefits of transport policy measures (e.g. road safety). - A growing concern about modal split and the design of railroads. The shift in modal split from rail to automobile is accompanied by problems of road capacity, high deficits of the railroad company, environmental deterioration, etc. The success of high speed trains on the other hand, demonstrates that a modern train system is in principle able to compete with both automobile and air traffic.

3.

Technological Context Analysis

3. 1

Some important technological trends

The energy crisis led to increased efficiency, although motorisation was (and still is) rising . Currently there ls a �;trong legislative move to curb noxious emissions from motor vehicles by introducing catalyst converters. These efforts can only prove effective in the long term and are not relevant at all for heavy goods vehicles. So called lean-burn engines are being developed which promise to be as clean as petrol engines with catalyst converters and yet show substantial savings in fuel consumption. It remains to be seen whether such engines might become applicable for heavy goods vehicles. There is stagnation and lethargy of the railway company. After years of very little investment, new plans for the modernisation of the railway system in Austria are being discussed. Minor railways will be closed. Mainline trains will receive a much needed boost to their speed. Recent research has stimulated a systems engineering approach in Austria as well as the development of learning systems and Artificial Intelligence. In addition, environmental problems demand a systems engineering approach to transport systems. This results in research in logistic systems and transportation chains. Optimisation of the traffic system concerning capacity and changes of traffic modes are carried out with partial success. Here the integrated control of public transport and the control of individual transport (personal) by regionally determined systems may offer a important perspective. The separation of goods and information flows is another main trend. As all transactions can be simulated and agreed upon before a single lorry or con tainer begins to move, a large increase in the efficiency of transportation is possible. This in turn reduces the costs of transport and, more important, the costs of stock keeping and thus increases the overall factor productivity of manufacture. Thus the trend is towards a reduction of stock keeping due to just in-time (JIT) delivery and the modularisation of goods transport. Logistic planning of transport also improves the prospects of combined transport, white containerisation seems to induce standardised goods. The technological development in communication is leading to the era of the 3Cs (communications, computer and control) and brings together the trans123

mission of voice, data and pictures. In this respect integrated electronic data processing for administration is in its initial stage. For example, the impact of the example of the New Tokaido line and the success of operational use of electronic data processing in electrical power distribution and generation in the field of process application opened new horizons.

3. 2

Research issues, analytical tools and gaps in knowledge

The following list of topics gives an overview of current research issues in the TCM field: - New ways for the most favourable organisation of goods transport, and interfaces between internal and external transport, as well as between different modes of transport (transfer of goods and modules from one mode to another; changes in patterns of goods tran sport). - Methods of forecasting the generation of traffic. (Such work currently consists

mostly of extrapolation of the current situation and thereby neglects pos sibilities for active policies for change - reacting instead of acting). - External control of individual transp ort and methods for steering person vehicles. - Improvement of traffic services in zones of low traffic by user determined services (paratransit). - Impacts of integrated transport systems (subway, regional trains, bus, paratransit) on individual mobility, settlement structure and factors for regional development. - Decision making in case of complex conditions and with many different actors. - The consideration of self-organising systems and their stability. (Understanding of such complex phenomena improves recognition of social impacts). In general, rather conventional analytical tools

are applied to carry out

research on the technological context in the TCM field, such as: - Case studies (e.g. in the industrial sector) - Standard statistical methods - National and international dynamic economic Input-Output analysis - Simulation models and - Delphi studies for the design of scenarios. It has to be stated, however, that there is more of a problem finding data than using not very sophisticated analytical tools.

Theoretical developments which have been made in the TCM field are inter alia:

methods including fuzzy set approaches transport flows a'1d human behaviour (by means of si mulati on); improved simulation models of traffic (improved explanatory components, recursive models); goods flow models for railway carriers; improved models of

- Systems engineering - Methods about

traffic control;

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- Coding and cryptographical methods for data protection and security - Studies on the potential r ole of new telecommunications services, for instance, the necessary number of contacts to be established in order to fulfil one transport need - Research on international and interregional division of labour, e.g. the employment related to transport, or the analysis of structure and structural change. 3. 3


Despite the abovementioned research efforts, a wide range of questions remain unanswered:

- Will the new telecommunications system lead to extensive teleworking? Will video conferencing and the picture telephone substantially influence pas senger transport and the behaviour of its users? How large will the impact of new telecommunications services on transport be, notably on the volume (reducing redundant transport) and on the bundling of transport modules? Will it influence the choice of locations for commercial enterprises and private residences? - Will just-in-time (JIT) delivery increase or decrease transport? - Will rapid railways be introduced to a large extent? Are they necessary? Or should the modal transfer be improved? Will they change the economic framework for regional development and if so, in which way? Furthermore, the following research fields should be kept under close scrutiny: - The impact of increased use of data communication within enterprises and households

- Stability analysis of long living, self-organising systems - Impact of transportation on living space and environment; knowledge about the cause-effect relationship; new possibilities by using telecommunications in this field - The future use of super conductors and their impact on transport. The identification of gaps in knowledge in the TCM field has consequently led to the emergence of a number of new TCM research directions such as:

- Trends in centralisation/decentralisation, distribution of power and organisa tional changes in general in enterprises, public administration and between regions - Influence of national and international (e.g. EC) regulations on transport of goods. Influence of (missing) construction work in neighbouring countries on traffic in and on transit through other countries (concentration and deflection) - Substitution and generation of transport by information flows (anticipatory control and limitation of transport) - Structure, organisation and standardisation of interconnected telecom munication networks 125

- Improved driver behaviour, for instance through better information, auto drive and mode transfer - Design of systems with high dependence considering biological patterns; the relevance of information processing by biological systems for technical solutions (parallel computing) - Possible changes in the living space as 'catalyst' for an ingenious transpor tation system (sensible choice of the transport mode), for instance, optimisation of the subsystems according to the solution of the abovementioned task by following the principle of equal changes for different modes in the transporta tion system.

4.

Behavioural Analysis

4. 1

Some important trends in behavioural patterns

The most important trends in TCM behaviour in Austria are the following: Passenger transport A (slightly) increased personal mobility

measured in terms of daily trip frequency per mobile person, of daily trip length per mobile person, and daily trip duration per mobile person in general, and in particular . increasing commuting rates and distances caused by several factors such as the still ongoing suburbanisation process. the expansion and improvement of the transport system, the increasing degree of motorisation, the increasing female labour force participation, etc . rising weekend and holiday trips due to increasing car availability and household incomes and due to a reduction in working time (statutory reduction in the standard working week from 42 to 40 hours and extension of the vacation period to a minimum of five weeks in the 1970s). A large increase in the trip share of individual car transport up to the late 1 970s which is now declining (note that locally there are widely differing developments largely dependent upon the specific local transport policies pursued). Goods movement

(especially in international transit transport), measured in terms of volume, due to an increasing goods production in general and the spatial division of production in particular.

A large increase in freight transport

An extremely large shift in the mode choice of freight transport from rail to road

since the late 1 960s. The railways have shown a decrease in their market share from about 70 per cent in 1 967 to less than 50 per cent in the early 1980s; waterways are somewhat more stable: more or less constant at about 1O per cent, while roads make up the remaining percentage. 4.2

Research issues, an alytical tools and gaps in knowledge

Behaviourally oriented TCM research is not very well developed in Austria. The 126

main reasons are: (i) TCM research is generally consultancy work designed for specific policy relevant questions and problems in a narrow sense, (ii) funds for basic research are rather limited and (iii) there is a lack of appropriate data Since the late 1970s, the Federal Ministry of Construction and Technology has commissioned a number of studies in the field of transport and regional planning (including an overall transport forecasting model) in order to prepare the establishment of an Austrian general transport concept. Most of these studies can be assigned lo the technology cluster and serve to provide a data base to different c-0mponents of the transport system. Travel forecasting is viewed in the framework of the classical aggregate travel demand modelling framework (trip generation, trip distribution, model split, route assignment by mode) and lacks a behavioural rationale. The current state of the art in the TCM field covers research issues which are generally tackled with conventional methods (e.g. standardised sample survey techniques, gravity type and regression analytic models) rather than with more sophisticated methods and techniques. The most important research issues are the following: in general and analysis of individual modal choice reactions to public policy measures (such as parking restrictions, changing fares) as well as to infrastructure investment projects in particular . The study of accessibility to public goods (in terms of access to transport systems and the patter of scheduled services) in order to reveal whether minimum levels of access are fulfilled (measures of potential rather than behaviour are derived; characteristic methods are graph theoretic and gravity type models) . The analysis of tourism and leisure behaviour . The analysis of attitudes, motives, preferences and constraints influencing the migration decision and housing and residential location choice behaviour of households (characteristic methods are causal and discrete choice models) .

. Modal choice analysis

From both a theoretical and technical/modelling point of view, the three most important gaps in the field of behavioural TCM research refer to: . Goods transport in general and the behaviour and decision making process of

prime actors in freight transport, in particular . The supply side of the transportation system and . The effects of the current recession upon travel behaviour. The analysis of goods transport has not attracted the attention justified by its importance. This is certainly a consequence of the fact that consultancy work is done for Lander and Local governments rather than for the Federal government. Goods transport constitutes a substantial element in the Austrian transport sector, In terms of both volume as well as economic, social, environmental and traffic impacts. In 1 976 goods movement on Austrian roads totalled about 30 million tons in long distance traffic {or 6.2 million ton km), while transit traffic accounted for two fifth of the total long distance freight volume. The recent political debate on regulatory policy measures concerning the international 127

transit traffic reveals in particular that there is an urgent need for a bettt understanding of the decision making process directly affecting the freigl transport. Research efforts should concentrate on those decision elemen determining the flow pattern of goods, with shippers, receivers and operator being the primary actors in the decision system. In particular. more powerft approaches are needed to allow successful modelling of the freight transpo and to evaluate the alternative regulatory policies (e.g. road pricing, temper; and spatial restrictions in economic, technical and environmental terms). The second important gap in TCM research in Austria refers to the supply sid of the TCM system. Our present knowledge of investment and operatic decision behaviour of transport carriers and communication operators is rathe poor. Moreover, our understanding of how the supply of transport services react: to changes in the transport infrastructure, to changes in TCM policies, t• technical innovations or to changes in its internall y imposed constraints, i. inadequate and unexplored. The economic crisis of the 1980s affects the transportation sector through < wide range of factors, in a complex way. Travel behaviour may be aflecte1 through at least four major lines: stagnating real disposable household incomes higher fuel prices, increasing unemployment, and cuts in public spending. Up tc now, available evidence on the reaction of individuals (households), organisa tions and Federal, Lander and Local governments is very limited. The likely effects of the recession upon travel behaviour are pressures on ca ownership, a reduction in total car travel and a shortening of travel distance Individuals may be forced to combine journeys with different destinations and/o replace car journeys with more frequent cycling and walking so that their use ol the car decreases. Moreover, it seems likely that individuals will adjust themsel· ves to the rising fuel prices in the longer term by shifting to more fuel efficienl cars. Whether a significant modal shift towards public transport will arise in urban areas is questionable. Unfortunately, no attention has been given to such possible reactions of individuals to the economic recession so far. No doubt, it is more important to improve understanding of the behavioural response of individuals (households), organisations and governments. There are also several other gaps in behavioural TCM research. These gaps refer inter alia to . The understanding of the dynamic nature of travel choice behaviour (panel data as a prerequisite for this type of research are not available) . The interaction between transportation and land use (despite some very first attempts undertaken at the Austrian Institute for Regional Planning) . The effects of changing societal values on mobility behaviour (life style developments, implying inter alia new activities and new conditions for other activities, can have important impacts on mobility patterns) . The effects of policy restrictions on travel behaviour (traffic abatement, pedestrian precincts), especially on multipurpose and multistop trips, and . The effects of new transport technologies (e.g. high speed passenger trains) on travel behaviour.

Finally, there is an urgent need for national travel surveys which should collect 128

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reliable data on personal travel patterns and relate them to both household and individual characteristics and to types of residential areas. Such surveys should be carried out at regular intervals to allow dynamic modelling. 4. 3


There are few new research directions on new theoretical paradigms (new with respect to Austrian TCM research). A first might be seen in the growing interest in discrete choice modelling (e.g. Maier and Schubert 1 984, Fischer and Nijkamp 1 985a, 1985b, 1 987, Maier and Fischer 1 985, Aufhauser, Fischer and Schonhofer 1 986, Fischer and Maier 1 9 86, Otruba, Gampe and Maier 1 987, Fischer and Aufhauser 1 988). A second new direction refers to studying travel behaviour within a space-time framework. This conceptual approach forms a powerful basis for gaining deeper insight into the derived nature of travel and for better understanding behavioural patterns of travel and other activities in space and time. Travel is considered as an integral component of the activity pattern. Special and temporal constraints as well as the linkages between household members may be treated in an explicit and more comprehensive way. This paradigm gained increasing popularity (especially at the Institute for Public Finance of the Technical Univer sity of Vienna) and was used there to analyse transport measures with respect to their traffic producing effects.

5.

Policy Analysis

TCM policy analysis has not yet become a well developed field in Austria. In the field of policy analysis much attention has been given to road construction and to the promotion of public transport. These issues will successively be discussed in a succinct form. 5 .1

Road construction and motorisation

In the period between 1 955 and 1 985, the planning and construction of the primary road network was a key issue in public expenditure policies for infrastructure. At the outset, in 1 953, road construction was much more a tool for creating new employment opportunities in the construction industry and in the field of tourism by providing easy access for incoming tourists from abroad; the aspects of transport policy were of secondary importance. The clear side effect, by no means intended during the first decade and not expected in its growth during the following decades, was the motorisation of Austria which influenced modal choice considerably since the early seventies. In 1 967 the former piece meal planning had led to such confusion in the ranking of major road projects that a new approach was Inevitable. Therefore, a new priority assessment method had to be developed on a rational basis. In 1 97 1 , a ten year building programme was published ranking all building projects of the national primary road network ('Dringlichkeltseinteilung 1 970'). The priority programme was updated in the years 1 975 and 1 980 for a five year 129

period but abandoned in 1985 for lack of funds. The road building programme was too ambitious to be financed by the federal budget alone. Taking Italy as an example, it was decided therefore to form four independent freeway corporations with the task of building motorways for the major transit traffic routes crossing the Alps. These corporations were free to operate on the investment market for the provision of their financial means and It was understood that they should secure the return by tolls or revenues levied on through-traffic. Nevertheless, as it turned out, the excessive growth of transit traffic could not be managed in that way, especially on the Brenner route. The year 1985 marked turning of the tide in road construction. With 1200 km of motorways already built, a very narrow federal budget. environmental issues strongly discussed {especially in the west of Austria with its transit routes), the investment in road infrastructure was cut back for the first time. On the other hand, pavement management was initiated to keep up the standard of the existing network. The major impact of road construction, i.e. motorisation, was never a definite issue of transport policy in the field of personal transportation. Private travel by car and bus travel were regarded a natural phenomenon following the well known trend in western countries (with a time lag characteristic for Austria). With approximately 90 per cent of the incoming tourists using the road, this laissez faire attitude was quite understandable and only in the late seventies had the outlook on motorisation changed somewhat. Road freight transport, on the contrary, constantly hampered by a transport policy in deliberate favour of the railway. The aim of this policy was to keep down long distance freight transport on the road by legal, fiscal and technical means {'Schwerverkehrsabgabe 1982'). A new approach regarding the intermodal transportation concept for transit traffic was made in 1984. 5. 2

Promotion of public transport in conurbations

Motorisation, in consequence, brought about a change in modal split especially for commuters. The traffic situation in towns deteriorated due to congestion. excessive parking in the streets, rush hour traffic jams, and a higher proportion of through-traffic. As a solution to this problem (including cutting down environmen tal pollution), transport policy readopted the issue of public transport providing means for better facilities and new organisation. A series of goals was worked out and put into effect in the years 1965 and 1985, namely: - Installation of rapid rail transit systems in the conurbations of Vienna, Lutz, Innsbruck and the Rhine valley - Construction or an underground system of in Vienna - Extensions of the light rail system in Vienna. Graz and Linz - Programmes for upgrading operational speed of light rail and bus services in seven towns - New concepts for the operation of the bus systems of the Federal Railways and of the Postal Service {KWD-GBB-PTT) Construction of central and local bus stations ·

- Provision of a special fund in the federal budget for financing investment grants 130

to public transport installations and infrastructure in conurbations ('Nah verkehrsmilliarde') - Creation of a regional transport board for the conurbation of Vienna and its transport catchment area in the surrounding provinces ('VOR - Verkehrsver bund Ostregion') In rural areas public transport declined rapidly as a consequence of motorisation, but - in contrast to the conurbations - little or nothing was done for tis promotion. The issue of opening the school bus services to public transport was discussed in length but not brought into being. The main problem area is rail transport on local branch lines. These are all suffering from high deficits, especially in the field of public transport. The problem was studied for more than a decade and a seven volume report was produced in 1981 ('Nebenbahnengutachten'). But irrespective of the heavy los ses, the ultimate solution of closing down the lines is postponed from year to year. There are special means of local transport in areas with winter tourism. Modern skiing is dependent on those numerous facilities making hill climbing an easy mechanical pleasure: aerial ropeways, cable cars, chair lifts and ski lifts. There was a strong tendency during the past two decades to grant subsidies to enterprises with a deficit for th·e sake of tourism and, therefore, there was a boom in building such installations. Now, this year, with a tight budget and no sub sidies to be expected, a number of publicly owned companies are for sale or for privatisation in order to cut down expenses; there will be no public funding for new projects.

6.

Conclusions

Austria as a transit country with much international trade has in most TCM questions joint Interests with its neighbours. Besides that, also topics like local transport should be studied comparatively. There is a broad consensus that only integrative research projects can yield sensible results. In this respect the importance of common objectives and the exchange of data has to be stressed. The difficulties of such efforts are surmounted by their necessity. One important output of cross national projects might be integrated scenarios of transport, communications and mobility. Coordinated assumptions on future scenarios could make national projections easier. Especially in international projects, the discussion of desirable objectives with planners and politicians is highly desirable.

Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank R. Genser, R. Gittinger, A. GrObler, M. Herry, K. Husa, H. Otruba, G. Platzer, G. Rusch, G. Sammer, M. Sauberer and U. Schubert for stimulating discussions and helpful comments. They would also like to thank the lnstitut tor Sozio-okonomische Entwicklungsforschung und Technikbewertung 131

der osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Vienna, and the lnstitut tor St rassenbau und Verkehrswesen. Abt. tor Ve rkehrstechnik und Verkehrsplanung der Technischen Universitat Wien.

Selected

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