Factors negatively affecting teachers' work wellbeing: job demands . ..... Career intentions vs. demographic and professional background . ...... technician.
University of Warsaw Faculty of Modern Languages Institute of English Studies
Joanna Pitura
STRESS AND OCCUPATIONAL BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH - AN EMPIRICAL STUDY
This dissertation is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD, written under the supervision of prof. dr hab. Hanna Komorowska-Janowska
Warsaw, 2014
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER ONE. STRESS AND BURNOUT – THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 9 1.1. Stress ............................................................................................................................... 9 1.1.1. Theory of stress ........................................................................................................ 9 1.1.2. Theory of occupational stress ................................................................................. 14 1.1.3. Measurement of stress ......................................................................................... 23 1.2. Burnout .......................................................................................................................... 27 1.2.1. Theory of burnout ................................................................................................... 27 1.2.2. Theory of work engagement ................................................................................... 31 1.2.3. Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model.................................................................. 33 1.2.4. Measurement of burnout, work engagement and job resources-demands .............. 36 1.3. Consequences of stress and burnout .............................................................................. 39 Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 42 CHAPTER TWO. THE TEACHING PROFESSION VS. STRESS AND BURNOUT – SETTING THE SCENE FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH ................................................................. 43 2. 1. Change as a source of stress in teachers ....................................................................... 43 2.2. Teachers of adults and freelance teachers ..................................................................... 46 2.3. Job satisfaction in the teaching profession .................................................................... 48 2.4. Research on the teaching profession ............................................................................. 50 2.4.1. Teacher stress ......................................................................................................... 50 2.4.2. Teacher burnout ...................................................................................................... 53 2.4.3. Individual determinants of teacher stress and burnout ........................................... 55 2.4.4. Teachers’ beliefs..................................................................................................... 60 2.4.5. Consequences of stress and burnout in the teaching profession ............................. 61 Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 65 CHAPTER THREE. JOB DEMANDS AND JOB RESOURCES IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION ....................................................................................................................................... 66 3.1. Factors negatively affecting teachers’ work wellbeing: job demands ............................... 66 3.1.1. Socio-organization factors ...................................................................................... 66 3.1.2. Mental challenges ................................................................................................... 81 3.1.3. Physical environment conditions ............................................................................ 82 3.1.4. Sensory challenges ................................................................................................. 82 3.2. Factors fostering teachers’ work wellbeing: job resources ........................................... 83 3.2.1. Organizational factors ............................................................................................ 83 3.2.2. Economic conditions .............................................................................................. 87 3.2.3. Conditions for professional development ............................................................... 93 3.2.4. Communication conditions................................................................................... 107 3.3. Work-life interaction ................................................................................................... 111 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 113 2
CHAPTER FOUR. STRESS AND BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH – AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ......................................................................................................................... 114 4.1. Statement of the problem ............................................................................................ 114 4.2. Purpose of the study .................................................................................................... 115 4.3. Procedures ................................................................................................................... 115 4.3.1. Characteristics of mixed methods research .......................................................... 115 4.3.2. Type of applied mixed methods strategy.............................................................. 117 CHAPTER FIVE. THE QUANTITATIVE STUDY ON STRESS AND BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH ................................................................................................. 118 5.1. Purpose of the quantitative study and research questions ........................................... 118 5.2. Quantitative data collection ......................................................................................... 119 5.2.1. Data collection procedure ..................................................................................... 119 5.2.2.Sample ................................................................................................................... 120 5.2.3. Data collection variables and instruments ............................................................ 123 5.3. Quantitative data analysis procedures ......................................................................... 128 5.4. Results ......................................................................................................................... 129 5.4.1. Teachers’ work wellbeing .................................................................................... 129 5.4.2. Teachers’ career intentions ................................................................................... 131 5.4.3. Teachers’ burnout ................................................................................................. 131 5.4.4. Teachers’ evaluation of job resources .................................................................. 133 5.4.5. Teachers’ evaluation of job demands ................................................................... 137 5.4.6. Teachers’ evaluation of work-life interaction ...................................................... 142 5.4.7. Participants’ comments ........................................................................................ 142 5.4.8. Work wellbeing vs. demographic and professional background .......................... 144 5.4.9. Career intentions vs. demographic and professional background ........................ 153 5.4.10. Job resources vs. form of employment and taught age group ............................ 162 5.4.11. Job demands vs. form of employment and taught age group ............................. 171 5.4.12. Work-life interaction vs. form of employment and taught age group ................ 180 5.4.13. Disengagement, exhaustion and total burnout vs. form of employment and taught age group ..................................................................................................................................... 182 5.4.14. Types of teachers according to perceived work well/ill-being ........................... 185 CHAPTER SIX. A QUALITATIVE STUDY ON JOB RESOURCES, JOB DEMANDS AND HOME-LIFE INTERATION IN THE ACCOUNTS OF FREELANCE TEACHERS OF ADULTS 191 6.1. Purpose of the qualitative study and research questions ............................................. 191 6.2. Role of the researcher .................................................................................................. 192 6.3.Qualitative data collection procedure ........................................................................... 192 6.3.1. Participants ........................................................................................................... 193 6.3.2. Data collection strategy ........................................................................................ 194 6.4. Data recording procedure ........................................................................................ 195 6.5. Qualitative data analysis .............................................................................................. 196 6.6. Validating the accuracy of findings ............................................................................. 197 6.7. Results ......................................................................................................................... 197 6.7.1. Job resources in teachers’ accounts ...................................................................... 197 6.7.1.1. Organizational factors ................................................................................... 197 6.7.1.2. Economic conditions ..................................................................................... 203 3
6.7.1.3. Conditions for professional development ...................................................... 208 6.7.1.4. Communication conditions............................................................................ 214 6.7.2. Job demands in teachers’ accounts ....................................................................... 219 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors ............................................................................. 220 6.7.2.2. Mental challenges .......................................................................................... 233 6.7.2.3. Sensory challenges ........................................................................................ 237 6.7.3. Work-life interaction in teachers’ accounts .......................................................... 237 CHAPTER SEVEN. STRESS AND BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................................... 242 CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS.................................................. 261 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 266 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ...................................................................................... 281 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 284 Appendix A ........................................................................................................................ 284 Appendix B ........................................................................................................................ 286 Appendix C ........................................................................................................................ 288 Appendix D ........................................................................................................................ 297 Appendix E ......................................................................................................................... 301 Appendix F ......................................................................................................................... 306 STRESZCZENIE ................................................................................................................... 321 RÉSUMÉ ................................................................................................................................ 324
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INTRODUCTION Teachers, whose work entails direct involvement in close interpersonal contact with students and their problems on an everyday basis, are situated among the professions most exposed to the operation of occupational stress and burnout. Research into stress and burnout, particularly in the so-called “helping professions”, has been conducted since the 1970s by many scholars abroad (e.g. Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Pines, 2000; Bakker, Xanthopoulou, Hakanen, & Demerouti, 2007; Schaufeli, Leiter, & Maslach, 2009) and in Poland (e.g. Sęk, 2000b; Grzegorzewska, 2006; Ogińska-Bulik, 2006; Pyżalski & Plichta, 2007; Tucholska, 2009; Lisowska, 2012). Although the problem of occupational stress and burnout has been well researched, it largely concerns teachers in state primary and secondary schools and - to a lesser extent university teachers (e.g. Catano, Francis, Haines, Kirpalani, Shannon, Stringer, & Lozanzki, 2010; Winefield, Gillespie, Stough, Dua, Hapuarachchi, & Boyd, 2003). Teachers of adults, other than university students, who work mainly in private language schools on a freelance basis, have been neglected in research work. Those teachers are involved in the adult learning process, and they are no less important than the rest of the teaching population. After all, it is they who help develop adult learners’ knowledge and skills after they complete formal education, so it is they who “make lifelong learning a reality” (Education and Training 2020). In Poland, this professional group (constituted by freelance teachers and teachers of adults) seems to be particular for many reasons. Prima facie, their work is characterized, amongst others, by a high level of job insecurity (being self-employed, working on a contract for a specific task or a commission contract basis), lack of a professional advancement system, and limited theoretical and practical preparation to work with adults in the training period. Apparently, this occupational subgroup also runs the risk of developing burnout symptoms. So, the question arises: can previous studies on teachers of children and adolescents be applied to those teachers? It seems that the problems freelance educators of adults have to cope with are quite different from those existing in the work of teachers of children and adolescents. Therefore, the answer can be negative but exploratory and diagnostic studies are essential if further steps aimed at monitoring and improving teachers’ working conditions are to take place. Moreover, prior research has rarely investigated or compared various groups of teachers, ignoring the specificity and work context of subject-specific teachers, where foreign 5
language teachers have been overlooked. This is rather unfortunate since, as PiechurskaKuciel (2011) rightly asserts, It may be speculated that as learning a new language is different from learning any other school subject, also teaching it may require different skills on the part of the teacher, leading to different (most probably higher) levels of burnout (p. 211).
Accordingly, research into foreign language teacher stress and burnout is fully justified, and neglecting these problems may entail not only individual but also social costs. This notably concerns teachers of English, who are nowadays involved in educating a great number of students. In Poland, according to the Central Statistical Office report (Oświata i wychowanie w roku szkolnym 2011/2012, GUS, 2012), the number of people learning languages is increasing, which is considered to be the result of European integration, social and economic globalisation, and job market demands (GUS, 2012, p. 104). Moreover, starting from the 2009/2010 school year, learning one foreign language has been obligatory in the first class of primary school, and learning two foreign languages has been required in lower secondary schools (Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 23 grudnia 2008 r. w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół, Dz. U. z 2009 r. Nr 4, poz. 17). The dominance of learning English as an obligatory subject in all primary, secondary and post-secondary schools has increased from 45% in 1999/2000 to 91% in 2011/2012. In the 2011/2012 school year 38.8% of students chose German, Russian – 5.1%, and French – 3.0% (GUS, 2012, p. 105). Needless to say, stress and burnout in teachers of English can affect a great number of students – the recipients of teachers’ professional activity. Although both teacher stress and burnout have been widely reviewed and studied, a more comprehensive strategy is now necessary in order to encompass the aspects that influence teachers’ work wellbeing when working in a variety of educational settings. In view of that, pragmatic knowledge claims are made in the current thesis, where the research problem is at the centre of attention and the researcher can use multiple methods and worldviews in order to understand the problem (Creswell, 2003). This epistemological stance allowed for the adoption of an interdisciplinary approach, bringing together three academic disciplines:
occupational
psychology,
organizational
psychology,
and
pedeutology.
Occupational (work) psychology involves studying individuals in the work context, i.e. their functioning (including stress and burnout) and effectiveness, as well as their professional development, employment and management (Bańka, 2000a, pp. 283-284). Organizational psychology studies the social context of an employee’s performance, and includes the areas of 6
work motivation, satisfaction, leadership, etc. (Bańka, 2000b, p. 322). Finally, pedeutology is the sub-discipline of pedagogy which makes teachers (their personality, selection of candidates to work, education and training, etc.) the subject of concern (Okoń, 2007, p. 305). The central purpose of this diagnostic and explanatory study is to include language teachers in the mainstream research on occupational stress and burnout, paying special attention to freelance teachers who work with adults. In order to address the research aim, a two-phase sequential explanatory mixed methods approach was employed as the strategy of inquiry. The rationale for mixing methods (quantitative and qualitative) was that in order to explain the findings obtained at the quantitative stage, the qualitative data were necessary as studies on stress and burnout in freelance teachers and teachers of adults are non-existent and therefore could not be used in interpreting the results. The present thesis consists of seven chapters, the first three of which are intended as an overview of the relevant theoretical and empirical background, and the remaining four chapters present and discuss the findings of an empirical study conducted on teachers of English in Poland. The theoretical part opens with Chapter One, which presents the review of the theory of stress and the implications for its measurement. Next, the theory of burnout, extended by the construct of work engagement, is discussed, followed by the Job Demands-Resources model of burnout and tools to measure burnout. A discussion on the consequences of stress and burnout end the chapter. Chapter Two starts by setting the scene for comprehending teacher stress and burnout. It discusses the issue of change as the main source of stress in teaching, presents the specificity of problems that contemporary teachers of adults deal with, and indicates that many teachers can derive satisfaction from work. Finally, it provides an overview of research into teacher stress and burnout. Chapter Three of the theoretical part explores the situational (environmental, organizational) aspects of work: job demands (i.e. the factors that afflict teachers’ work wellbeing) and job resources (i.e. the working conditions that foster teachers’ work wellbeing) in the teaching profession. As to job demands, four aspects are discussed, i.e. socio-organization factors, mental challenges, strain caused by the physical environment, and sensory challenges. Job resources include organizational factors, economic conditions, conditions for professional development, and communication conditions. Moreover, work-life interaction is taken into account as it is considered to have a significant impact on teachers’ work wellbeing. The purpose of the empirical part is to present and discuss the findings of a study aimed at examining the relationship between teachers’ individual (e.g. demographic) and 7
environmental (work) characteristics and aspects such as teachers’ work wellbeing, burnout, and career intentions (to change the workplace, the position and the profession). In particular, Chapter Four discusses the research problem and research questions. The next section presents the characteristics of mixed methods research and discusses the procedures employed in the study. Chapter Five provides the findings of the quantitative stage, which involved surveying teachers of English from all educational settings in Poland in order to examine various determinants of their subjective work wellbeing (i.e. work stress, work wellbeing and private stress) and burnout. This is followed by Chapter Six, which presents the results obtained at the qualitative stage regarding job resources, job demands and work-life interaction in Polish teachers of English working with adult learners in private language schools. In Chapter Seven the author - by mixing the data obtained at the quantitative stage with the data from the qualitative stage - discusses the results of the study and makes an attempt at interpreting them. The thesis ends with concluding remarks, and presents its limitations, as well as a number of postulates. All in all, as Cooper writes, “we need our research to be more relevant to the issues and challenges of our time” (2010, p. 261). So, innovative solutions are needed in order to address the contemporary problems in work settings, including schools. As previous research on stress and burnout excludes language teachers, teachers of adults and freelance teachers, the present study can be treated as a contribution to the field. Moreover, recognizing the issue of teachers’ work wellbeing is of great significance because “organizations that can create work environments that attract, motivate and retain effective individuals will be better positioned to succeed in a competitive environment” (Müller, Alliata, & Benninghoff, 2009, p. 578). For this reason it is hoped that the findings of the study will draw the attention of those who plan and organize teachers’ work at various levels – from educational policy makers and specific (language) school owners to other stakeholders (politicians, ministries, state agencies, regional and local authorities). Their initiative is vital to improve teachers’ work conditions and to prepare tailor-made intervention schemes.
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CHAPTER ONE. STRESS AND BURNOUT – THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS Because of the omnipresence of stressful experiences and the inevitability of having to deal with their unpleasant consequences, the problems of stress and burnout have been of interest both to researchers and the general public. As many theories and approaches exist, this chapter will provide an insight into the nature of the conceptual debates in the field of stress and burnout. Accordingly, the following sections will review some early and contemporary theories of stress, which will be followed by selected issues relevant to organizational stress. The theory of burnout – expanded by the construct of work engagement – will be addressed at greater length in further sections, in particular the Job Resources Demands model of burnout, which now prevails in the field. Some space will also be devoted to stress and burnout measurement. A discussion on the consequences of stress and burnout will end the chapter. 1.1. Stress 1.1.1. Theory of stress Although the problem of stress has been extensively researched, defining it is still a matter of controversy. In 1980 Tom Cox wrote that “[t]he concept of stress is elusive because it is poorly defined. There is no single agreed definition in existence” (Cox, 1980, p. 1). Forty years later Carolyn M. Aldwin (2009) asserted that the situation had not significantly improved, and there were voices calling for abandoning research into stress and coping. Indeed, the number of definitions, perspectives and typologies is remarkable. Initial research into stress is associated with the name of a Canadian physiologist, Hans Seyle, who first used the term “stress” in reference to the reaction of an organism subjected to noxious stimuli (Seyle, 1956/1963; Heszen-Niejodek, 2000). He was primarily concerned with the physiological mechanisms of stress, and was influenced by two physiologists, Claude Bernard and Walter Cannon. He went on to develop Cannon’s theory of homeostasis, and perceived stress as a reaction to the disturbed homeostasis brought about by environmental demands – stressors (cf. Łosiak, 2008). Selye also proposed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (1956/1963), which represented the process of an organism’s defence reactions to “noxious elements”. According to Selye, at the first stage is the “alarm reaction”, when the body is subjected to the stressor. As a result, the organism is activated to 9
fight the harmful agent. At the second stage, the “stage of resistance”, the body is still exposed to the stressor but now it begins to adapt to the situation. In the final, “collapse” stage, the body becomes exhausted after having been exposed to the long-term stressor. Consequently, in the beginning phases of research, stress was seen as a response to a stimulus (stressor) residing in the environment (see Figure 1.1), and it was a physiological consequence of an array of adverse stimuli. It was assumed that all stimuli cause the same responses and the effects of this exposure sum up (Probst, 2011). According to this approach, stress was considered to be a dependent variable, i.e. a response to the stimuli coming from the environment (Cox, 1980).
STIMULUS Stressor
(in the environment)
RESPONSE Stress (in a person)
Figure 1. 1. A stimulus-response model of stress (Cox, 1980, p. 4) The next approach shifted the focus from the person and located stress in the environment. Stress affected the person and created strain in response (Cox, 1980).
STIMULUS Stress (in the environment)
RESPONSE Strain (in a person)
Figure 1. 2. A stimulus-based model of stress (Cox, 1980, p. 12) Stress was, therefore, conceptualized as a noxious stimulus of the environment and was treated as an independent variable, i.e. the environmental cause of resultant ill-being. This understanding gave rise to a number of studies which aimed to identify the stimuli that cause the strain. The psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe were among the first to study stress within this approach. They were inspired by the American psychiatrist Adolf Meyer, who had devised a list of life events associated with diseases in patients, believing that change (brought about by life events, regardless of whether they are serious or minor) led to various health problems. Holmes and Rahe surveyed their patients’ medical records, looking for the events that preceeded the illness, and designed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. It contained serious events (e.g. death of a close person, serious disease, etc), events that could have a moderate impact (e.g. birth of a child, moving house), and minor events (e.g. going on holiday). The Scale became very popular in researching somatic illnesses at the time, though it came in for some criticism. Above all, it was found that not all life events cause strain - they 10
must fulfil additional criteria, such as being undesirable, out-of-control, and unexpected (cf. Łosiak, 2008, pp. 49-53). With time it became evident that it is not sufficient to discuss stress only in terms of stimulus-response reactions because individual perceptions, appraisals and the social context are just as important in the emergence of stress. Conseqently, earlier approaches were criticized for reducing stressful experiences to external stressors, as well as for ignoring cognitive, contextual and individual factors in the stress process. Modern psychological models have emerged in response to this criticism, and they dominate contemporary research. Stress is viewed in terms of interactions or transactions between the person and the environment (Cox, 2000; Heszen, 2013), as represented by Richard S. Lazarus and Susan Folkman (cognitive-transactional model) and Stevan E. Hobfoll (Conservation of Resources Theory). The cognitive-transactional model highlights the fact that the stress reaction depends on how the individual assesses the situation. Stress is treated as a specific relation (transaction) between the individual and the environment, which is evaluated each time a stimulus appears. According to Lazarus and Folkman, stress is constituted by “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 19). Their main assumption lies in the significance of this appraisal. Lazarus and Folkman emphasize that people vary in their construal of events because of individual differences in sensitivity, susceptibility, etc. Therefore, an event has a subjective meaning, and it is the individual interpretation of an event that shapes people’s reactions. In this theory two kinds of appraisal - primary and secondary - are distinguished. By primary appraisal the individual is able to identify the relation and attach a meaning to the event, which can be assessed as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. It is only the last type of appraisal that is central in creating stress, and can be rated as a harm/loss, a threat or a challenge. Secondary appraisal concerns evaluating the outcome and deciding what can be done to handle the situation. It is “a mere intellectual exercise in spotting all the things that might be done”, which means that the individual must decide which coping strategy to employ in order to deal with the situation. Both types of appraisal contribute to the process of creating the stress and the individual’s reactions to it (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, pp. 34-35). A model currently competing with that of Lazarus and Folkman, the Conservation of Resources Theory (COR; 1989, 2006), sees the individual against the background of the 11
society. Stevan Hobfoll, a socially-oriented American psychologist, criticizes the transactional approach to stress for considering stress to be primarily the result of the individual’s perceptions, refusing to recognize the significance of “actual environmental occurrences” (Hobfoll, 1989, p. 515), i.e. objective external events and circumstances, such as the unemployment rate. Moreover, he emphasizes the role that resources play in the emergence of stress. Resources - central in Hobfoll’s theory - are defined as “those entities that either are centrally valued in their own right, or act as means to obtain centrally valued ends” (Hobfoll, 2002, p. 307). He enumerates the following kinds of resources: objects – material resources: a house, means of transport, household appliances, personal characteristics – competencies (professional, social, leadership skills) and personality traits (self-esteem, optimism, self-efficacy, hope), conditions – enable access to other resources (health, employment, work experience, marriage), energies – can be exchanged for other resources (money, creditworthiness, knowledge) (Hobfoll, 2006, pp. 74-75). His basic assumption is that people aim at retaining (conserving) their existing resources, as well as accumulating new ones. Additionally, he asserts that people are far more affected by the loss of their resources, compared with the gain of resources, i.e. individuals emotionally suffer more from the negative outcomes of the loss than profit from the gain. However, he believes that gaining resources may counterbalance potential future loss and alleviate the impact of the resources loss. Consequently, as maintained by Hobfoll, people should gather surplus resources in order to prevent their (potential) loss, and deal with the consequences of the existing loss by gaining new resources (Hobfoll, 1989, 2006). This significance of resources is key to understanding the context for the emergence of stress. Hobfoll claims that stress appears as: a reaction to the environment in which there is (a) the threat of a net loss of resources, (b) the net loss of resources, or (c) a lack of resource gain following the investment of resources. Both perceived and actual loss or lack of gain are envisaged as sufficient for producing stress (Hobfoll, 1989, p. 516)
Despite the differences, it seems that the two perspectives are not in juxtaposition. Instead, they supplement each other - the cognitive-transactional model puts more emphasis on the individual, whereas the COR theory gives a lot of attention to the individual’s social background. By underscoring the importance of personal resources, the COR theory enriches the theory of stress (cf. Heszen, 2013, p. 43) and burnout (cf. section 1.2.3. Job Demands12
Resources (JD-R) model). However, it should be noted that, despite the existence of stressful objective events (natural disasters, wars), as noted by Aldwin (2009), “most environments are ambiguous and more subject to individual interpretations” (p. 33), which points to the significance of cognitive subjective appraisals in the perception of stress. Most recently, stress experienced by people has been associated with negative emotions, such as fear, anxiety, hostility, frustration or anger, but researchers vary in their understanding of the nature of the stress-emotions relationship. According to Hobfoll (1989), negative emotions may be treated as a direct stress consequence. Strelau (2000, 2006) defines stress as a state characterised by negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, anger, etc. that cause psychological discomfort, and hence considers negative emotions to be stress components. Scherer (1985; in: Łosiak, 2008) believes that negative emotions appear immediately after an unfavourable event and last for a relatively short time. However, if the source of negative emotions does not disappear, this state evolves into stress. Finally, Łosiak (2007, 2008) proposes that stress is a set of physiological adaptation processes which constitutes the basis for all negative emotions. Moreover, stress can only be experienced by means of negative emotions that appear as a result (cf. Łosiak, 2008). Stress negative emotions (Hobfoll) Stress = negative emotions (Stelau) Negative emotions stress (Scherer) Stress = adaptation processes negative emotions (Łosiak) Figure 1. 3. Conceptualizations of the relationship between stress and negative emotions (Author’s own elaboration. Source: Łosiak, 2008, p. 19) Despite this controversy, there is a consensus that stress remains in a close relationship with negative emotions. As a result, emotional reactions have become popular indicators of stress (Łosiak, 2008). The present author is inclined to accept the conceptualization by Strelau, where stress is associated with negative emotions, for the purposes of the current study. This stance can be justified by the fact that people, when asked “What stresses you at work?”, might come up with similar answers, compared with the question “What frustrates you / makes you angry or anxious, etc. at work?”. The difference between the questions is that the latter might trigger more responses as it makes the person aware of more contexts where stress can be experienced. Hence, conceptualizing stress as negative emotions might be appropriate in researching sources of stress (stressors). 13
Concluding, in researching stress nowadays it is vital to account for both individual and environmental factors, with special emphasis on the role that resources and negative emotions play in the process of stress emergence. As the consequences of stress, such as psychological and physical health deterioration, are often ascribed to professional activity, occupational stress will be discussed next.
1.1.2. Theory of occupational stress It has been commonly acknowledged that work can be a source of great stress, and the experience of stress at work has negative effects in terms of health and productivity for individuals and organizations. Consequently, the issue of occupational stress has attracted researchers’ interest, which has resulted in a number of models that aim to determine the features of work environment that contribute to the development of stress. The report European Opinion Poll on Occupational Safety and Health – May 2013, conducted by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, reveals that 72% of European workers point to job reorganization or job insecurity as the main causes of workrelated stress (in Poland 84%). Hours worked or workload are indicated by 66% of workers (in Poland 65%). Being subjected to unacceptable behaviours (bullying or harassment) is considered to be a common cause of work-related stress for 59% of workers, 57% report a lack of support in fulfilling their role from colleagues or superiors, 52% select a lack of clarity on roles and responsibilities (in Poland 59%), and, finally, 46% of European workers indicate limited opportunity to manage work patterns (p. 6). In short, occupational stress may constitute a significant problem for the European workforce. There have been a number of attempts at capturing work factors that determine the experience of stress in work situations. Most researchers agree that stressful work characteristics involve the factors summarised in Table 1.1.
Table 1. 1. Stressful characteristics of work by T. Cox (Source: Cox, 2000, p. 68) Context to work Organizational culture poor communication, low levels of support for problem solving and function
and personal development, lack of definition of organizational objectives
Role in organization
role ambiguity and role conflict, responsibility for people
14
Career development
career
stagnation
and
uncertainty,
underpromotion
or
overpromotion, poor pay, job insecurity, low social value to work Decision
low participation in decision making, lack of control over work
latitude/control
(control, particularly in the form of participation, is also a context and a wider organizational issue)
Interpersonal
social and physical isolation, poor relationships with supervisors,
relationships at work
interpersonal conflict, lack of social support
Home-work
conflicting demands of work and home, low support at home, dual
interference
career problems
Content of work Work environment and problems regarding the reliability, availability, suitability and work equipment
maintenance or repair of both equipment and facilities
Task design
lack of variety or short work cycles, fragmented or meaningless work, underuse of skill, high uncertainty
Workload/workspace
work overload or underload, lack of control over pacing, high levels of time pressure
Work schedule
shift working, inflexible work schedules, unpredictable hours, long or unsocial hours
Next to those work aspects, recent socio-economic and technological changes have had an immense impact on the nature of work. First, progress in information technology merges the sphere of work and home, where “[h]omework, telework, participation in virtual networks, and an unprecedented degree of flexibility in local and temporal work arrangements contribute to this process [stress]” (Siegrist, 2009, p. 125). The idea of job career as well as the nature of work contracts has also been altering. As Siegrist (2009) notes: Within organizations, flexible teams rather than fixed stable hierarchies are expanding, and traditional continuous occupational careers are increasingly replaced by job change, requalification, fix[ed]-term contract[s], [and] contingent and temporary work. Self-employment, freelancing, and other types of non-standard work contracts challenge traditional notions of occupational status, status consistency, job career, and employment security (p. 125).
Moreover, the economic situation has had a major influence on the labour market.
Alongside the educated, skilled and satisfied workforce, there are a large number of employees (especially those who are older, less qualified, and less mobile) who work in conditions of low job security, receiving inadequate remuneration. Finally, mergers, 15
outsourcing and redundancies have continuously posed a threat to employee wellbeing (Siegrist, 2009). There have been a number of empirical studies investigating stress levels in various occupational groups, such as teachers, healthcare workers, police officers, etc. However, most studies concentrated on particular occupations and used diversified measures to assess the level of stress, which makes the comparison of those professional groups difficult, if not impossible. A relatively new standardized tool, the ASSET questionnaire (cf. section 1.1.3. Measurement of stress), enables researchers to compare the scores of different occupations. For example, Johnson, Cartwright, Cooper, Taylor and Millet (2005; in: Johnson, 2009) studied the experience of work stress of employees in twenty six different occupations (N=11,001) in the UK and ranked those occupations according to three stress outcomes: physical health, psychological well-being, and job satisfaction in order to find out which occupations are most stressful and least satisfying. It appeared that ambulance staff, teachers, social workers, customer service workers (call centres), bar staff, prison officers and police officers reported worse than average physical health. As to psychological health outcomes, social workers, teachers, fire fighters, ambulance staff, vets, lecturers, prison and police officers, and academics-researchers were among those who scored below the average. Finally, prison and police officers, ambulance staff, customer service staff (call centres), social workers, teachers and healthcare staff reported the lowest job satisfaction (Johnson, 2009). Studies like these provide evidence that investigating teachers’ work stress and wellbeing is indeed a worthwhile undertaking. There are a number of theories that explain work stress from various perspectives. First models of work stress were considered to be too reductionist as they emphasized either environmental or individual factors (stimulus-response models), whereas contemporary models draw on Lazarus’s transactional model of stress. Most theories make reference to the interaction between two elements, i.e. work environment (and its demands) and the individual (and his/her resources). It has been commonly recognized that the higher the work demands, the higher the psychological stress/strain. The situation is regarded as stressful when it involves appraisals in terms of loss, threat or challenge, which in turn produces emotional, behavioural and physiological reactions. A more thorough presentation of leading theories is provided below.
Interactional models of occupational stress
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Since work constitutes one of the most important domains in human life these days, people strive to have a return on the resources they invest in this activity in the form of their own satisfaction or financial profit. It is viable if the person is well-suited to the job or - in other words - the job is “tailor made” for the person (Merecz & Andysz, 2010, p. 9). Some theorists have argued that this “goodness of fit”, or rather lack of it, may explain the experience of stress, and have explored stress in terms of Person-Environment (P-E) fit. Other synonymous terms for “fit” found in the literature include “congruence” or “correspondence”. As noted by Aldwin (2009): The same environment might be stressful to some persons because it requires capacities or preferences that they do not have; yet, it might be a comfortable or stimulating environment for individuals who possess those capacities or have those preferences (p. 17).
This theory assumes that organizational stress emerges as a consequence of the interaction between the individual and his/her environment. In particular, the misfit between the person and the environment generates psychological, physiological, and behavioural strains. Edwards and Van Harrison (1993) explain that: P-E fit can take either of two forms, one representing the extent to which the rewards and supplies provided by the environment match the needs and preferences of the person, and the other representing the extent to which the demands and requirements of the environment match the skills and abilities of the person (p. 628).
Other dimensions of congruence have been identified. A detailed account is provided by Merecz and Andysz (2010): person-organisation fit (similarity in features, values and aims), person-preferences for culture fit (the degree of acceptance of various aspects of organizational culture), person-job fit (congruence between work tasks and person’s skills/abilities), person-vocation fit / occupational congruence (congruence of the individual’s interests and skills with work requirements), within occupation congruence (congruence of the individual’s interests and his/her professional specialization), person – group fit / person-group fit, person – supervisor fit, person-role fit,
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subjective vs. objective fit - subjective fit can be assessed only by the individual through the lens of individual personality, needs, values, experience, and emotions; objective fit is independent of the individual and perceptible by an external observer (pp. 12-13). The Demand – Control Model was first proposed by Robert Karasek (1979), and was further developed by Karasek and Theorell in the 1990s. This model views job stress as a consequence of the interaction of high job demands (e.g. workload or conflicts) and low job control (decision latitude) understood as “the range of decision-making freedom (discretion) available to the worker facing those demands” (p. 287). Four types of job characteristics were distinguished, taking into account the degree of the extent of both dimensions (demand and control): 1. “high strain job” (high demands and low control) – considered to be very stressful because a person has particularly difficult tasks to do with little or no autonomy in their performance; 2. “active job” (high demands and high control) – a person, in spite of challenging tasks, can match them with his/her skills or behaviour, etc. to meet the challenge; 3. “passive jobs” (low demands and low control) – such a situation involves “a decline in overall activity and a reduction in general problem-solving activity”; 4. “low strain jobs” (low demands – high control) – a high degree of control allows for a more suited reaction to the demands, and such a situation triggers much less strain in a person (p. 288). Later, a third dimension - social support - was included in the model, assuming that it can neutralize the negative effect of high strain. Accordingly, the expanded DemandControl-Support Model of stress is based on the notion that stress appears in jobs that are characterized by having limited control over high demands, accompanied by low social support or social isolation (cf. Siegrist, 2009). Transactional models of occupational stress Transactional models of stress highlight the cognitive processes and emotional reactions,
reflecting the individual character of the person-environment interaction. In line with this, Tom Cox proposed the Transactional Model of stress (described by Mackay & Cox, 1980). He believed that stress arises as a person realizes that he/she cannot appropriately cope with the demands they are faced with. According to this model, occupational stress is generated in response to situational and individual factors, from “an imbalance between demand, both external and internal, and capability in meeting demand, when coping is important” (Mackay 18
& Cox, 1980, p. 150). “External demands” involve various aspects of one’s work, such as work tasks, the physical and psychosocial work environment, etc. By “internal demands” the authors mean the person’s needs and values, which - unless fulfilled - can trigger a sense of dissatisfaction, contributing to the experience of stress. The Veronian Model of stress was developed by Polish researchers Tadeusz Marek and Magdalena Fąfrowicz. The model got its name from the town of Verona, Italy, where the authors had an opportunity to discuss their model with the participants of the meetings devoted to stress in 1995-1997. Their theory distinguishes between the concepts of “stress” and “fatigue”. Stress appears when work or task demands exceed the individual’s resources, i.e. one perceives a deficit in one’s own resources available to deal with the situation. When the individual has appropriate resources at their disposal the situation/task is not perceived as stressful, and the individual is able to carry out work duties without much strain. Fatigue refers to the state which involves a disturbed use of one’s resources (e.g. memory, attention) while performing work tasks. It is argued that a sustained state of fatigue leads to resource depletion or damage, which can be assessed as stressful because the individual appraises it as a deficit in their own resources. Next to fatigue, the authors introduce the concept of “effort” to their theory. The effort necessary to cope with the demands increases with the perceived divergence between the demand and the individual’s capacity. This concept refers both to the experience of stress and fatigue. According to the authors, there are two types of effort – psychological and compensational. The first type – psychological effort – is a function resulting from task demands (e.g. degree of complexity, level of difficulty, variability and novelty) in combination with the range of capabilities available to the individual (e.g. cognitive efficiency, acquired skills, experience, training). Compensational effort appears in the situations in which deficits, e.g. in skills, hinder task execution, and this type of effort is made in order to compensate for this deficiency. The authors are of the opinion that psychological effort can be attributed to psychological strain, while compensational effort can be attributed to stress and mental fatigue. The compensational effort associated with mental fatigue aims at balancing disturbed resources (e.g. memory, attention), whereas the compensational effort related to stress aims at reducing or eliminating the stress reaction, assuming the role of coping with the stressor (Fąfrowicz & Marek, 1999, pp. 14-20). The Effort–Reward Imbalance Model (ERI) of stress at work proposes that the experience of stress may be explained in terms of an incongruence between high costs invested and low gains received in return, which provokes negative health consequences:
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This model claims that lack of reciprocity between costs spent and gains obtained at work (highcost/low-gain conditions) define[s] a state of emotional distress with special propensity to autonomic arousal and neuroendocrine stress response. Effort at work is spent as part of a socially organized exchange process to which society contributes in terms of rewards (money, esteem, and career opportunities) (Siegrist, 2000, p. 303).
Siegrist asserts that there are some specific situations in which the non-reciprocity (i.e. lack of match between efforts and rewards at work) generating strain is likely to occur, i.e. in the conditions of “dependency”, “strategic choice”, and “overcommitment”. “Dependency” involves the types of contacts (in particular in the case of unskilled, semi-skilled, or elderly workers, as well as those of limited mobility or on short-term contracts) where the rewards granted by employers are low, while the probability of an employee rejecting a contract is also low as they have no other alternative to fall back on. “Strategic choice”, often observed among employees at the start of their careers, refers to accepting the conditions of disproportionate exchange, where high costs are accompanied by low gains. Such employees usually work very intensively without being obliged to, but they do so hoping for better career opportunities in the future. “Overcommitment” appears in the employees who need others’ approval and esteem and, even though their effort is rewarded to a limited extent, such individuals remain involved in work. All the conditions, by failing to comply with social reciprocity, entail negative heath consequences (Siegrist, 2009). All in all, traditionally, the concept of work stress has been associated with the presence of negative states (e.g. anxiety, strain, tension, etc). Today’s approach has been influenced by positive psychology and accentuates positive states at work. Work well-being is seen as “a dynamic state of mind characterized by reasonable harmony between a person’s abilities, needs and expectations, and environmental demands and opportunities” (World Health Organization, 1986; in: Cox, 2000, p. 11). As a result, subjective physical and mental (e.g. enthusiasm, joy, satisfaction, etc.) work wellbeing has been a target of research (cf. Warr, 2009). The Vitamin Model developed and enhanced by Peter Warr is based on the assumption that there are principal features of job characteristics associated with work-related employee well/ill-being. They are as follows: 1. opportunity for personal control, e.g. decision latitude, participation, 2. opportunity for skill use and acquisition, i.e. the extent to which an employee’s expertise and knowledge is applied and developed,
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3. externally generated goals, e.g. job demands, underload, overload, role conflict, workhome conflict, 4. variety, e.g. in the job content, 5. environmental clarity, i.e. role clarity, receiving feedback, limited future ambiguity, 6. contact with others, e.g. its quality and quantity (conflict, social support), 7. availability of money, i.e. receiving income, 8. physical security, 9. valued social position, i.e. the significance of a task/role, 10. supportive supervision, e.g. having a considerate supervisor, 11. career outlook, i.e. job security, advancement opportunities, 12. equity, e.g. justice within the organization (Warr, 2009, p. 62). The model posits that the environment (including the workplace) influences human wellbeing in a non-linear way. The author uses the analogy of the effect vitamins have on a body. As Warr (2009) explains: Vitamins are important for physical health up to but not beyond a certain level. At low levels of intake, vitamin deficiency gives rise to physiological impairment and ill-health (sometimes referred to in a medical context as “deficiency disease”), but after a moderate level has been reached (the “recommended, or guideline, daily allowance”) there is no benefit from additional quantities (p. 63).
Similarly, deficit or lack of certain organizational features may lead to decreased wellbeing at work, but there are no further benefits if they exceed a certain level. Examples of such features include: availability of money, physical security, valued social position, supportive supervision, career outlook, and equity. What is more, some vitamins become harmful in large doses. So are some features of a workplace, as Warr argues. Such a toxic effect can appear as a result of exceeding levels of the following: opportunity for personal control, opportunity for skill use and acquisition, externally generated goals, variety, and contact with others. Warr clarifies that “[v]ery high levels of some environmental characteristics can become punishing in themselves”, where an “opportunity” turns into an “unavoidable requirement”, job demands impose a challenge that cannot be dealt with, high variety results in inability to concentrate, etc. (Warr, 2009, pp. 64-65). This model has not attracted much research attention, however. It has not been widely tested, and the results of existing studies support it to a limited extent (e.g. Jeurissen & Nyklíček, 2001). Some theorists think that job stress combines two types of job characteristics in explaining worker health and wellbeing, i.e. job demands and job resources, which can be further distinguished as cognitive, emotional and physical job demands and resources. Job 21
demands are “work-related tasks that require effort” (such as solving problems or moving heavy things), whereas job resources are “work-related assets (i.e., opportunities, data, people, things) that can be employed to deal with those demands” (van den Tooren, de Jonge & Dormann, 2012, p. 312). In particular, the Demand – Induced Strain Compensation (DISC) model of job stress (de Jonge & Dormann, 2003) posits that the strain brought about by work demands can be alleviated if sufficient and corresponding types of job resources are available to deal with those demands. This idea of match is referred to as the “matching hypothesis”. This means that employees who have to deal with high physical demands will experience less job strain if they have sufficient physical resources (e.g. a trolley), the strain of those who are faced with cognitive demands (e.g. problem solving) will be reduced if they have access to cognitive job resources (e.g. books), and the employees who have to cope with emotional strain will most likely succeed when they have emotional job resources available (e.g. collegial support) (van den Tooren et al., 2012, p. 312). Another noteworthy current model of stress is the ASSET Model proposed by Cooper and Cartwright (2002; in Johnson, 2009), which accounts for the perceptions of work stressors and the potential outcomes of the stress experience. As presented in Figure 1.4, the model reflects a new perspective on studying the experience of stress, i.e. it includes the positive states (job satisfaction, wellbeing) that can emerge in the work context. STRESSORS Work relationships Work-life balance Overload Job security Control Resources and communication Pay and benefits
Aspects of the job (level of satisfaction)
OUTCOMES OF STRESS
Commitment of organization to employee Commitment of employee to organization
Physical health Psychological well-being
Figure 1. 4. The ASSET model (Adapted; Source: Johnson, 2009, p. 176) Concluding, as worklife usually constitutes a large part of present-day human life, occupational wellbeing has emerged as a matter of great importance. Teachers, due to the 22
specificity of their profession, have been regarded as particularly vulnerable to stress. Accordingly, teacher stress is the focus of the next chapter.
1.1.3. Measurement of stress
Psychological stress can be measured by a number of methods, each having their own advantages and inherent limitations. Nowadays, most research into stress is in line with Lazarus and Folkman’s model. Assuming the cognitive-transactional perspective in investigating stress, the measurement of stress must reflect its subjective dimension and focus on the appraisal process (Cox, 2000). Consequently, self-report questionnaires and scales (also known as “pen-and-pencil” questionnaires, where respondents describe their own reactions, behaviours or opinions by choosing from the suggested answers) have been most common in measuring stress (Łosiak, 2008). There is a large body of available questionnaires measuring aspects of stress in various areas (e.g. exam stress, personal stress, stress related to illness). Examples include: The Miller–Rahe Recent Life Changes Questionnaire (RLCQ), designed to assess life events that occurred over the period of the last two years. It contains 74 items encompassing the following five categories: health-related issues, job–workplace, household–family, personal–social, and finances (in: Arias, Rodriguez, Padilla, Gonzalez, & Rodriguez, 1999, p. 288). In 1999, Sobolewski, Strelau and Zawadzki adapted this tool to the Polish context (Kwestionariusz Zmian Życiowych, KZŻ). The Conservation of Resources Evaluation (COR-Evaluation; Hobfoll & Lilly, 1993) examines individual resources, as stipulated in Hobfoll’s COR theory presented earlier. The questionnaire includes a list of 74 resources, e.g. “personal transportation (e.g. car, truck)”, “feeling that I am successful”, “time for adequate sleep”, etc. (Hobfoll & Lilly, 1993, p. 137). A 1-7 response scale is used to assess the loss/gain experienced in the last few weeks and the loss/gain experienced in the past few years (1 - little loss/gain, 7 - great loss/gain). This questionnaire also has a Polish version Kwestionariusz Samooceny Zysków i Strat. It was adapted by Dudek, Gruszczyńska and Koniarek in 2006. Other currently available tools in Poland are as follows:
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Kwestionariusz Poczucia Stresu (KPS), developed by Mieczysław Plopa and Ryszard Makarowski, allows the evaluation of the general level of stress, as well as emotional tension, and psychological stress (http://practest.com.pl), Skala Odczuwanego Stresu (PSS-10) by Zygfryd Juczyński and Nina Ogińska-Bulik (2009) is an adaptation of the questionnaire by Cohen, Kamarck, and Mermelstein. It includes. It includes 10 items concerning subjective appraisals of personal problems and coping with. It measures the level of stress experienced over the period of the last month (http://www.practest.com.pl). The scale Positive Affect – Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) uses affect as a stress indicator. It consists of twenty adjectives comprising two subscales: positive feelings and emotions (e.g. “interested”, “excited”, “strong”, etc.) and negative ones (e.g. “distressed”, “upset”, “guilty”, etc.). Respondents are asked to indicate the extent of each emotion on the scale 1 – “very slightly or not at all” to 5 – “extremely”. Moving on to occupational stress, there are some instruments to monitor and measure stress levels in the workforce. The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ), developed by Karasek and Theorell, consists of the scales evaluating psychological and physical demands, social support, decision latitude, and job security at work, whose properties were found to be reliable for most scales (Karasek, Brisson, Kawakami, Houtman, Bongers, Amick, 1998). The effortreward imbalance (ERI) questionnaire (Siegrist, Starke, Chandola, Godin, Mormot, Niedhammer, & Peter, 2004) consists of three scales: effort, rewards and overcommitment. It has been translated into a number of languages. Other examples include the Occupational Stress Indicator or the Health and Safety Executives Stress Indicator Tool (in: Johnson, 2009, p. 133). The ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool) was designed by Cary Cooper and Susan Cartwright – two organizational psychologists – from the ASSET model of workplace stress discussed earlier (section 1.1.2. Occupational stress). By means of this tool organizations or researchers can evaluate the risk and level of stress in employees, distinguish the extent of stress levels between groups/departments, identify sources of stress in the organization, and compare its stress profile with the provided norms. The questionnaire is divided into four sections which gather data about work stressors (Perceptions of Your Job scale) and outcomes of stress (Attitudes Towards Your Organization and Your Health), as well as some background data. Perceptions of Your Job scale evaluates work relationships (e.g. “My relationships with colleagues are poor”), work-life balance (e.g. “I work unsociable hours”), overload (e.g. “I do not have enough time to do my job as well as I would like”), job security (e.g. “My job skills may become redundant in the near future”), control (e.g. “I am 24
not involved in decisions affecting my job”), resources and communication (e.g. “I do not have the proper equipment or resources to do my job”), pay and benefits (e.g. “My pay and benefits are not as good as other people doing the same or similar work”), and aspects of the job (e.g. “My physical working conditions are unpleasant”). Attitudes Towards Your Organization assesses the perceived commitment of an employee to an organization (e.g. “I am proud of this organization”) and the perceived commitment of an organization to an employee (e.g. “I feel valued and trusted by the organization”). Your Health includes the evaluation of psychological wellbeing (e.g. “panic or anxiety attacks”) and physical health (e.g. “lack of appetite and over-eating”). The questions in the first two sections are answered by means of a 6-point scale (from “Strongly agree” to “Strongly disagree”), while the Your Health section includes a 1-4 response scale (“Never”, “Rarely”, “Sometimes”, “Often”) (Johnson, 2009, pp. 137-140). Teachers’ occupational stress can be evaluated by means of some standardized tools. For example, Skala Stresu Nauczycielskiego [Teacher Stress Scale] (SSN) was developed by Stanisława Tucholska in the 1990s. It is used to determine the stressful factors in teachers’ work settings, to evaluate their intensity, and to assess the global level of stress. The author drew on a 20-item sources of teacher stress inventory prepared by Boyle, Borg, Falzon, and Baglioni (1995), whose contribution to the field will be presented in Chapter Two (cf. section 2.4.1. Teacher stress). Tucholska’s scale includes the following dimensions: inappropriate interpersonal relations (5 items), students’ misbehaviour (7 items), lack of student motivation (4 items), time pressure (5 items), inappropriate professional recognition (4 items), and difficult work conditions (5 items). Each item is assessed on a 0-4 scale (0-“not stressful”, 4“very stressful”) (Tucholska, 2009, pp. 120-122). Jacek Pyżalski and Piotr Plichta constructed Kwestionariusz Obciążeń Zawodowych Pedagoga [Questionnaire of Pedagogues’ Work Demands] (KOZP; 2007), which evaluates the perception of the job demands of professionals who work with students of special needs, as well as other teachers. It is available in two versions, A and B, but only version A has satisfactory psychometric properties and hence can be used for scientific and diagnostic purposes. The Version A questionnaire consist of 20 items and comprises three subscales: situations of conflict (e.g. “My students are verbally abusive towards me”), organizational demands (e.g. “Rest and refreshment rooms for staff are unsatisfactory”), and lack of work meaningfulness (e.g. “Although I want to, it is hard for me to help my students”). Respondents are asked to state whether a specific demand occurs in their workplace and to
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describe the perceived level of demand, choosing from the provided 1-5 scale, where 1-“does not occur”/ “is not demanding” – 5-“occurs very often”/ “is very demanding”. Self-report questionnaires dominate in contemporary research on stress as they are easy to administer and are cheaper compared with other methods. However, there are a number of limitations which make self-report measures insufficient or inadequate in studying stress. Most notably, people may withhold certain information or may simply not understand the survey questions. Moreover, the authors of the survey may not have full knowledge of what should be included in the questionnaire. In view of that, alternative methods may and should be applied in the field of research on stress. The Ecological Momentary Assessment method (EMA) was developed in response to the problem of distortions in self-reporting (where respondents are to provide a report on a period of time and when they fill the gaps in memory by providing the data which they consider to be typical or true for themselves, or the data which are coherent with the situation in question). The EMA method involves multiple data collection in participants’ natural environment. Participants are given a sound signal (e.g. by beepers that go off randomly or at set times), which means that the participants have to record or assess the researched matter as occurring at that specific moment. This method is particularly useful when researchers are interested in the context or occurrence of the problem (cf. Aldwin, 2009, p. 78; Heszen, 2013, pp. 218-220). Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) have been used to collect data at random or at predetermined times. The respondents complete the survey provided in their PDA and send it directly to researchers’ computers. Moreover, PDAs can be equipped with sensors that can detect, e.g. smoke, providing additional evidence, such as bad habits (cf. Aldwin, 2009, p. 79). In order to study causal relationships between various variables, researchers can employ controlled laboratory experiments. The type of stressors that are used to induce psychological stress include films with distressing content or situations of social exposure (e.g. public speaking). The advantage of this method lies in the fact that stress conditions are clearly defined and the subsequent reactions can be appropriately measured (cf. Aldwin, 2009, p. 81). For example, the Trier Social Stress Test, developed by Kirshbaum, Pirke and Hellhammer (1993), is a standardized protocol for generating moderate levels of psychological stress and evaluating their effects in terms of physiological responses. The test consists of a waiting period, a speech delivery period, and an arithmetic task performed in front of an audience.
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Apart from the quantitative approach, research into stress has heavily relied on the qualitative approach to data collection. In particular, semi-structured and narrative interviews are especially beneficial when examining new areas or when dealing with very sensitive issues. By means of interviews, a researcher can get a better individual insight into the problem. As to semi-structured interviews, it is important that the researcher refrains from excessive interfering with the content. The researchers are to assume that it is the interviewee who is the expert in the subject of interest, and the researcher should only provide some themes (derived from theory or practice) to be discussed. Some researchers abandon even such themes and allow participants to talk freely about the issue in question. Narrative interviews, in turn, involve reporting a stressful event, and more emphasis is put on the social context. Other methods of qualitative data collection include: focus group discussions, recording observational data, diaries, and e-mail communication. Generally, the sample in qualitative studies is usually small; it may even consist of only one person. The data collection process finishes when the researcher has grasped the understanding of the phenomenon. Data analysis and interpretation may be based on the existing theory. Alternatively, a theory is generated on the basis on the gathered and analyzed data (Heszen, 2013, pp. 221-225). However, it has to be borne in mind that the qualitative approach to studying stress is very time-consuming. Furthermore, and more importantly, researchers’ bias and researchers’ potential to interpret the results, as well as the non-generalizability of the results to a wider population, may raise many methodological concerns (cf. Aldwin, 2009, p.81; Heszen, 2013, pp. 226-227). It may be concluded that the available questionnaires to measure stress have limited applicability for examining the problem under study in this thesis. Their adequacy is rather doubtful for investigating sources of stress in teachers of English in the Polish context, especially of those working on a freelance basis and those of adult students. An additional problem consists in the fact that most psychological standardized tests are only available to psychologists (i.e. graduates of psychology). Qualitative methods, on the other hand, offer a promising perspective in researching the study problem. 1.2. Burnout 1.2.1. Theory of burnout The way researchers define burnout and describe its dynamics varies considerably. Many authors assume different theoretical perspectives and hence approach the problem differently. 27
Christina Maslach, whose three-dimensional model of burnout dominated research work for many years, defined burnout as “a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job” (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001, p. 397). She saw it as a syndrome comprising three dimensions: exhaustion, cynicism (depersonalization), and inefficacy (other terms: reduced professional efficacy/accomplishment). Exhaustion involves a feeling of being emotionally and physically overextended and exhausted by one’s work demands. Depersonalization / cynicism refers to a negative, detached attitude to various aspects of one’s work. More specifically, depersonalization concerns the contexts which require interaction with clients, patients or students, where people are treated like objects, whereas cynicism is used in the broader context to refer to a job in which human relationships are not necessarily a part of that job. Reduced professional efficacy/accomplishment is characterized by a feeling of incompetence and a lack of achievement at work (Maslach et al., 2001, p. 399). Maslach emphasized that although exhaustion is the most salient aspect of the syndrome, it is not the only dimension for defining or diagnosing the syndrome. In other words, if someone is exhausted, it does not necessarily mean that he/she is suffering from burnout. Maslach’s three-dimensional model, although widely recognized and very influential in the field until quite recently, has been contested by various researchers. Most importantly, some empirical studies have found that only exhaustion and depersonalization form the “core” dimensions of burnout. Besides, there has been evidence that the component of reduced personal accomplishment reflects a personality trait similar to self-efficacy (Bandura, 2003) and should be regarded as a separate personality construct (Demerouti, Mostert, & Bakker, 2010). Moreover, Maslach’s theory has been challenged ontologically. For example, Matthias Burisch (2000) defines burnout as a set of fuzzy symptoms. In his opinion, burnout is a configuration of overlapping symptoms, unique for each person, comprising lifestyle, thinking style, professional situation, etc. People who are in a state of prototypical burnout are usually characterized by hyper- or hypoactivity, helplessness, depression, exhaustion, anxiety, lower self-esteem, discouragement, deteriorating social relations, and a desire to change the situation. However, trying to define burnout precisely is like trying to determine the boundary of a large cloud, in his view. It is so because some symptoms take a central position, while others, such as depression, are more peripheral and thus overlap with other phenomena. He claims that the loss of autonomy is a key determinant, albeit not the only one, in the
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development of burnout, and all the symptoms result form the loss or from the attempts at regaining autonomy or compensating for the loss (Burisch, 2000, pp. 58-71). A Polish researcher, Helena Sęk (2000a), assuming a cognitive perspective, defined burnout as “a set of symptoms appearing in people who do jobs in which close interpersonal contact with full commitment, as well as features of character, constitute the basic instrument of professional activity, and are decisive in the quality of job execution, success and failure” (Sęk, 2000a, p. 84; present author’s translation). She makes reference to the cognitivetransactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), where the subjective appraisal of stressors and the available resources to cope with them play a critical role in the perception of the situation as a challenge, a threat or a loss. Moreover, referring to the concept of Bandura’s self-efficacy (Bandura, 2003) and the findings by Jerusalem (1990; in Sęk, 2000a, p. 86-87) on self-competence, Sęk argues that a sense of self-competence has an influence on the perception of how stressful the situation is. That is, people with a high sense of selfcompetence more often assess stressors as a challenge, while people with a low sense of selfcompetence are more likely to treat stressors as a threat or a loss. According to her, burnout develops as a consequence of failure in coping with stressors, as well as a generalized conviction of one’s inability to deal with them at work. In order to avoid burnout, Sęk claims that an individual must feel efficient in achieving important professional goals. Alaya M. Pines (2000), although agreeing that burnout is a state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion, maintained that it is a lack of perceived meaningfulness that is key to the emergence of burnout. In her existential perspective she assumed that people strive to make their lives meaningful, and that they want to feel that what they do is important and useful. People try to make sense of their life at work, but when their efforts prove to be fruitless they gradually realize that all the effort does not matter, is senseless, and they burn out as a consequence. For this reason people who are ambitious and have high expectations are susceptible to burnout, especially in professions such as paediatrics, nursing, management, teaching, and social and mental care. These motivated and well-educated professionals, who strongly identify with what they do and expect to find sense of their lives at work, may burn out when they are unable to accomplish their goals or ambitions (Pines, 2000, pp. 32-56). Next to trying to establish the nature of burnout, there have been some attempts at theorizing the development of burnout stages. According to Maslach’s multi-dimensional model, emotional exhaustion leads to depersonalization / cynicism, i.e. exhausted and discouraged individuals put a distance between themselves and the recipients of their work (i.e. clients, patients, students) and develop a cynical or indifferent attitude in order to cope 29
with the demands (e.g. work overload, social conflicts). This is because people - to protect themselves from emotional and physical strain - start to treat other people (clients, pupils, etc.) as impersonal objects, devoid of uniqueness, or become indifferent and detached from their work (in the case of people who work outside human services). The successive sequence – from cynicism/depersonalization to inefficacy - is not so clear. It is suggested that inefficacy arises parallel to other dimensions due to a lack of job resources, or as a result of being exhausted and working with people towards whom one is indifferent (Maslach et al., 2001, p. 403).
Alternatively,
Golembiewski,
Boudreau,
Munzenrider,
and
Luo
(1996;
in
Golembiewski, Boudreau, Sun, & Luo, 1998) proposed the phase model of burnout, which places an individual within one of eight phases, form I (least advanced, characterized by an individuals’ perception of being effective and worthwhile at work, with many emotional resources to cope with the stressors) to VIII (most advanced, when individuals distance themselves from other people, lack information and social support, view their work as psychosocially unrewarding and unattractive, and who are unable to mobilize emotional resources to deal with the stressors). They do not assess burnout by the amount or severity of work stressors. Instead, the model focuses on the overall intensity with which individuals experience the stressors. All in all, the first models of burnout focused on individuals and their experiences. However, more recent theories, just like theories of stress, bring together individual and situational factors and explain human behaviour and reactions in terms of a personenvironment interaction. It has been recognized that individuals are not isolated from others at work; they do not act in a void. Instead, they function within multi-level organizational structures (work teams, business units, international corporations). As Maslach states: “There is a lot of ongoing social interaction, and reciprocal exchanges, which can either contribute to a supportive and engaging environment, or produce the downward spiral of an uncivil and mean-spirited work community that can lead to burnout” (Maslach, 2011, p. 45). Consequently, from the approach that was primarily preoccupied with individual experiences, there has been a shift, where organizational conditions and their influence on the individual are accounted for. This has practical as well as theoretical implications. Maslach believes that interventions aiming at ameliorating poor organizational conditions may be more beneficial because, operating on a larger scale, they affect more people (Maslach, 2011). Accordingly, the understanding of burnout has undergone some modification, and the psychosocial work context has gained in importance. Maslach and Leiter (2008), drawing on the Person-Environment fit model (cf. section 1.1.2 Theory of occupational stress), assume 30
that burnout is caused by deteriorating relations between an individual and his/her job. They assert that more congruence between an individual and his/her work is likely to foster mental and physical wellbeing and less stress, while a mismatch can lead to tension and burnout. The authors identify six areas of job-person mismatch: Workload - too many demands drain an employee’s energy and make the recovery process impossible. Alternatively, the type of work is unsuitable for an employee. However, people can bear an excessive workload if they are praised, receive good pay, get on well with colleagues, and believe that their work is meaningful. Control – employees do not have sufficient control over work resources or autonomy to execute their work the way they think is suitable. Reward – employees receive inappropriate financial or social rewards (e.g. poor salary or lack of recognition for their work). Community – employees do not feel social bonds within the workplace, do not have support, or are involved in conflicts. Fairness – there is cheating, unfair distribution of workload or pay, or evaluation or promotion opportunities are unjust. Values – employees have to do something which they regard as unethical or contrary to their own values (Maslach et al. 2001, pp. 414-416). It is believed that an appropriate fit in these domains results in work engagement, while the opposite may lead to burnout. Restoring job-person fit is crucial in combating burnout (Maslach, 2011; Maslach, Leiter, & Jackson, 2012). On the whole, burnout was originally viewed in terms of negative psychological and physiological states caused by individual factors and unfavourable work conditions. However, the present discussion on burnout would be much impoverished without accounting for the contemporary approach, which sees burnout as a gradual wearing away of work engagement. Therefore, the discussion will now proceed to the notion of work engagement, which expands the theory of burnout.
1.2.2. Theory of work engagement With the emergence of so-called “positive psychology” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), there has been a growing interest in the positive mental states which accentuate human wellbeing, growth and optimal functioning, compared with the previous approach in psychology, which focused on human ill-being and weaknesses (Chirkowska-Smolak, 2012, 31
p. 23). This has also brought a paradigm change in the research on burnout and resulted in the expansion of the construct by work engagement, where the factors that stimulate people’s potential and development are recognized. Two competing, though not much different, perspectives are present in the literature. Maslach and Leiter (2008), American scholars, refined the previous definition of burnout (Maslach, 2000), acknowledging the significance of work engagement, which, in their view, is “an energetic state of involvement with personally fulfilling activities that enhance one’s sense of professional efficacy” (p. 498). Burnout, in turn, is now defined as “an erosion of a positive state of mind”, and develops when something which “started out as important, meaningful and challenging work becomes unpleasant, unfulfilling, and meaningless. Energy turns into exhaustion, involvement into cynicism, and efficacy turns into ineffectiveness” (Malsach et al., 2001, p. 416). Hence, people’s relationship to work is seen as a positivenegative continuum (Figure 1.5), the negative experience of burnout (consisting of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy) being one pole, and the positive state of engagement (comprising energy, involvement, and efficacy) – the opposite end (Malsach, Leiter, & Jackson, 2012). This understanding of the problem allows the assertion that burnout can be prevented by building engagement (Maslach, 2011).
Burnout ----------------------Engagement Exhaustion--------------------------- Energy Cynicism-------------------------Involvement Inefficacy------------------------------Efficacy Figure 1. 5. Burnout – engagement continuum according to Maslach and Leiter (Maslach and Leiter, 2008, p. 498) Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, and Bakker (2002), European researchers, define and operationalize work engagement slightly differently, though they also see it as a three-dimensional construct. They view it as: a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption. […] Vigour is characterized by high levels of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one’s work, and persistence even in the face of difficulties. Dedication is characterized by a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge. […] [A]bsorption, is characterized by being fully concentrated and deeply engrossed in one’s work, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work (Schaufeli et al. 2002, pp. 74-75)
32
Two bipolar dimensions of burnout and engagement are distinguished: (1) “Activation”, where vigour constitutes the opposite of exhaustion, and (2) “Identification”, where dedication is the opposite of cynicism (Figure 1.6). The third element of work engagement, absorption, does not have a negative equivalent and constitutes a separate dimension. Burnout
Engagement
Exhaustion---------(Activation)-------------Vigour Cynicism--------(Identification)-------Dedication Reduced professional efficacy
Absorption
Figure 1. 6. Burnout and engagement according to Schaufeli and Bakker (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004, p. 295) In general, most burnout theorists agree that work engagement comprises Activation and Identification dimensions, and see work engagement as involving high levels of energy and strong identification with one’s work. Conversely, burnout is characterized by low levels of energy and low identification with one’s work. However, just like in the case of inefficacy (reduced professional efficacy), which is the third burnout dimension in Maslach’s model, there is still much debate on the third dimension of engagement, i.e. if it is the opposite of inefficacy or a different dimension (Absorption). Some authors claim that it may well be an outcome of Activation and Identification or a distinct construct (Bakker, Van Emmerik, & Van Riet, 2008; Chirkowska-Smolak, 2012). The present author tends to accept that the twodimensional model of burnout-engagement as the third dimension is highly disputable. It is probable that inefficacy (reduced professional efficacy) is a separate construct (comparable with Bandura’s self-efficacy), while Absorption appears as a consequence of Activation and Identification. Establishing such a positive-negative understanding of work attitudes has important theoretical consequences. Currently, the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model - the most influential theoretical framework within which employees’ work well- or ill-being is investigated nowadays - integrates two research areas: burnout and engagement. This model will be presented in the next section. 1.2.3. Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011) attempts to “bridge the gap 33
between ‘negative’ and ‘positive’ psychology” (Hakanen, Ahola, & Schaufeli, 2008, p. 224), where reference to Hobfoll’s Conservation of Resources Theory becomes evident. In particular, it explains how ill-being (e.g. burnout) and work engagement (e.g. motivation) may be produced as a result of existing work conditions. What is important is that it considers a workplace not only as a place where harmful stressors operate, but also as a source of positive and stimulating experiences, which are meaningful and valuable for an employee. Moreover, it enables the analysis of the factors that contribute to burnout and engagement in terms of fit or misfit between an individual and his/her work environment. First of all, it is assumed that working conditions, irrespective of the type of job, can be divided into two categories: job demands and job resources. Job demands are the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require physical and/or psychological effort, which is associated with physiological and/or psychological costs. Examples of job demands include excessive work pressure, irregular working hours, work conflicts, etc. Job resources concern the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that help achieve work goals, reduce job demands and the arising physiological and psychological costs, and stimulate personal growth, learning, and development. Examples of job resources can be found across various levels. At the organizational level they could be employees’ salaries, advancement opportunities, or job security. The interpersonal level encompasses social support and the atmosphere in the workplace. Finally, at the task level, there is autonomy, performance feedback, task significance, etc. (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004, p. 296; Bakker at al., 2008, p. 192). Secondly, the model posits that two different psychological processes play a role in the development of job-related strain and motivation. The “health impairment” process (i.e. exhaustion and health problems) is produced as a consequence of operating chronic job demands that strain employees’ mental and physical resources. High job demands may result in resources’ depletion as well as exhaustion of energy and, consequently, ill-health. Notably, job demands do not have to be negative in nature, but they may turn into a source of stress if meeting those demands involves great effort. Without opportunities to recover, an individual may face negative consequences, such as depression, anxiety or burnout. The second process – “motivational” – owing to the potential of job resources - leads to work engagement, low levels of cynicism and good performance. It is argued that employees, even when confronted with high job demands, may be motivated by the presence of job resources. Moreover, the model has influenced the way burnout is conceptualized. Accordingly, burnout is viewed as a two-dimensional construct, consisting of exhaustion (which refers to a 34
need to rest and physical exhaustion) and disengagement (which involves distancing oneself from work and negative attitudes to various aspects of work). It is important to note a variation
in
the
terminology
–
the
second
dimension,
previously
known
as
“depersonalization/cynicism”, is referred to as “disengagement”, which seems justifiable as this term is more straightforward and informative in this context. Furthermore, burnout is assumed to appear in jobs where job demands are high, accompanied by limited job resources. However, when job demands are high employees experience exhaustion (but not disengagement), whereas lack of job resources leads to increased levels of disengagement (but not exhaustion) (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). In other words, being exhausted by work does not yet indicate that one is suffering from burnout. Similarly, when someone finds his/her work unfulfilling or boring, it does not equal burnout, either. Understanding burnout as an erosion of a positive state of mind, which appears as a response to chronic job demands and lack of job resources, allows the differentiation of this construct from depression. Depression is characterized by a loss of interest and pleasure derived from all activities and passions, a feeling of dejection, sadness and despair. It has been found to be different from burnout through empirical studies, and appeared to be related to the work context, whereas depression permeates all areas of an individual’s life. However, it is emphasized that those who are prone to depression are also more susceptible to burnout (Maslach et al., 2001, p. 404). The JD-R model has been tested empirically. For example, Schaufeli and Bakker (2004), in their study on Dutch employees from service organizations, found support that burnout is predicted by presence of job demands and also by lack of job resources, while work engagement is predicted only by presence of available job resources. They also found that burnout is related to health problems and turnover intentions, but engagement is related to (no) turnover intentions only. Hakanen et al. (2008), by using a panel study design on a representative sample of Finnish dentists (N=2555), found evidence that job resources influenced work engagement positively over time, and lack of job resources predicted burnout three years later. Job demands led to health impairment processes, and their impact on burnout was much stronger than that of lack of job resources. De Lange, De Witte, & Notelaers (2008) tested the relations between job resources, work engagement and turnover in a two-wave panel study on Belgian employees from industry and services sectors. They found that low engagement, low job autonomy, and limited unit/departmental resources predicted personnel turnover. For the employees who stayed in the company, positive effects of job autonomy on work engagement were found. 35
The JD-R model has also been tested on the teacher population. For example, the study by Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli (2006) on a sample of 2038 Finnish teachers from elementary, secondary and vocational schools showed that high job demands led to the development of burnout, while job resources fostered work engagement and organizational commitment. In the study by Bakker et al. (2007), also conducted on Finnish teachers (N=805) working in elementary, secondary and vocational schools, the influence of job resources on work engagement was examined in teachers who were confronted with student misbehaviour. It appeared that job resources such as supervisor support, innovativeness, appreciation, and organizational climate were particularly important in coping with such interactions. Further evidence comes from Simbula (2010), who conducted the first diary study on a sample of 61 Italian schoolteachers in order to investigate the influence of job demands (i.e. work-family conflict) and job resources (i.e. co-workers support) on mental health and job satisfaction. As a result, she found support for motivational and health impairment processes assumed in the JD-R model. On the whole, the model, by taking into account both job demands and job resources, provides a valuable framework for investigating burnout more comprehensively. It may be particularly useful in examining the stressors which contribute to the development of burnout in contemporary teachers. Accordingly, for the purposes of the current study, burnout will be understood as an erosion of a positive state of mind, which appears as a response to chronic job demands and lack of job resources, and will be conceptualized as a two-dimensional construct, consisting of exhaustion and disengagement. The section discussing the tools that can be employed to measure burnout will follow next.
1.2.4. Measurement of burnout, work engagement and job resources-demands Depending on the adopted perspective on burnout and work engagement, different instruments can be used. Maslach and Leiter (2008) propose that since burnout (defined as exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy) constitutes the opposite pole of engagement (defined as energy, involvement and efficacy), both constructs can be measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 1981), whereby low scores on exhaustion and cynicism and high scores on efficacy are indicative of high levels of engagement, while high scores on exhaustion and cynicism and low scores on efficacy would indicate burnout. However, because all the items in the subscales are worded in the same direction (exhaustion and cynicism items are phrased negatively, while professional efficacy items are phrased 36
positively), this scale is – from a psychometric point of view – faulty and may lead to artificial results (Demerouti et al., 2001, 2010). The Ultrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli et al. 2002) was developed to measure only work engagement (and not burnout), understood as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind, which is characterized by vigour (high energy, persistence, mental resilience at work), dedication (a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge), and absorption (full concentration and happy engrossment in one’s work). Contrary to Maslach and Leiter, it is argued that burnout and engagement are independent (though correlated) mental states that should be assessed separately by means of different tools (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). However, as stated earlier, the inclusion of “absorption” as a third dimension of work engagement in the UWES remains controversial. In 2003 Demerouti, Bakker, Vardakou, and Kantas developed the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI; in: Demerouti, et al. 2010), which posits that burnout and engagement are two opposite poles of one continuum. It measures work engagement as characterized by high levels of energy (vigour) and strong identification with one’s work (dedication), while burnout is characterized by low levels of energy (exhaustion) and low identification with one’s work (disengagement). It has been argued that work engagement cannot be measured by the MBIGeneral Survey: “As the MBI-GS includes only negatively worded items, it is difficult to conclude that individuals who reject a negatively worded statement would automatically agree with a positively worded one” (Demerouti et al., 2010). Bipolarity of burnout and engagement was assumed in the construction of this tool, and therefore it includes questions on both ends of the exhaustion-vigour and disengagement-dedication continua. Exhaustion is seen as a consequence of physical, affective, and cognitive strain, whereas disengagement refers to distancing oneself from work, experiencing negative attitudes to the work object, work content, and work in general (Demerouti et al., 2001). Positively framed items should be reverse-coded to assess burnout, while negatively framed items should be reverse-coded to assess work engagement. Since this instrument consists of both positively and negatively phrased items, it may be more appropriate than the MBI in assessing work engagement / burnout. It may also be superior to the UWES because it does not include the debatable “absorption” dimension. While some tools to assess burnout and work engagement have been developed, no such universal measures to examine job resources and demands – the factors that contribute to the emergence of burnout or work engagement - are available. It appears that providing such general surveys may be difficult, if not impossible, as the variables must be operationalized 37
taking into account the specificity of job contexts. Some attempts have been made to construct such scales, however. For example, Yeung, Genaidy, Deddens, and Sauter (2005), in order to assess the relationship between work-related factors and musculoskeletal complaints among hospital nurses, applied a survey based on a work-factor classification system developed by Genaidy and Karwowski (2000, in: Yeung et al., 2005). Their survey included nine areas of work conditions (148 items): 1. The physical task requirement scale, which consisted of the following subscales: dynamic strength requirements, dynamic endurance requirements, static strength requirements, static endurance requirements, postural loading of the lower extremities, postural loading of the upper body, and sudden handling requirements. 2. The mental task requirement scale, which consisted of the following subscales: information processing, memory-related requirements, cognitive requirements, and peak mental requirements. 3. The sensory requirement scale, which consisted of: visual, auditory, touch, odour, taste, body movement sensing, and body balance process requirements. 4. The physical environment requirement scale, which consisted of the following subscales: physical agents, physical hazards, workspace arrangement, clothing, interior design, chemical agents, and biological agents. 5. Socio-organization requirement scale, which consisted of the following subscales: work conflict, work abuse, work schedule, work responsibility, work structure/management, and technical requirements. 6. Organizational conditions scale, which consisted of the following subscales: task meaningfulness (e.g. task significance), task autonomy (determining one’s own schedules and procedures), and organization autonomy (influencing organizational policies and procedures, participation in important decision-making). 7. Social / communication conditions scale, which consisted of the following subscales: social support, social openness, social praise, feedback, and communication of job and organizational goals. 8. Economic growth scale, which included basic salary, benefits, job security, financial incentives and promotion increases. 9. Individual growth scale, which included development and use of skills and knowledge, and mentoring and advancement opportunities (Yeung et al., 2005, pp. 87-88). Jaworek, Marek, Karwowski, Andrzejczak, and Genaidy (2010) also studied the effects of work factors on the frequency of musculoskeletal complaints among hospital nurses. 38
Their data were gathered by means of the survey described above, adapted to the Polish context. What is new is the fact that they distinguished two categories of work conditions, i.e. work demands and work stimuli (which is their term for job resources) and grouped the variables described in Yeung et al. (2005) accordingly: 1. Work demands, i.e. Physical Environment Requirements, Socio-organization Environment Requirements, Workload resulting from the specificity of the nursing profession, Sensory and Mental Task Requirements. 2. Work stimuli, i.e. Organizational Conditions, Economic and Individual Growth Conditions, Social/Communication Conditions, and Job control (Jaworek et al., 2010, p. 370). Although the terminology used by the authors is rather confusing (e.g. “requirements” to refer to the factors that physically or mentally strain employees, or “stimuli” for the aspects that have a positive influence on employees), the classifications, accommodating the specificity of teaching in Poland, may serve to analyze the job demands and job resources as present in teachers’ work settings. Job demands (i.e. the factors that afflict teachers’ work wellbeing) and job resources (i.e. the factors that foster teachers’ work wellbeing) will be more extensively presented in Chapter Three.
1.3. Consequences of stress and burnout Negative features of the work environment can trigger cognitive, emotional and behavioural changes, i.e. they can alter the way the person thinks, feels and behaves. There are a number of classifications of stress consequences proposed in the literature. Cox (1980) offers a summary of the possible effects of stress under six headings: subjective, behavioural, cognitive, physiological, health and organizational, as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1. 2. The effects of stress by T. Cox (1980, p. 92) anxiety, aggression, apathy, Subjective effects
boredom,
depression,
fatigue,
frustration, guilt and shame, irritability and bad temper, moodiness, low self-esteem, threat and tension nervousness, and loneliness Behavioural effects
accident proneness, drug taking, emotional outbursts, excessive eating or loss of appetite, excessive drinking and smoking, excitability, impulsive
behaviour,
impaired
speech, nervous
laughter, restlessness, and trembling 39
Cognitive effects
inability to make decisions and concentrate, frequent forgetfulness, hypersensitivity to criticism, and mental blocks
Physiological effects
increased blood and urine catecholamines and corticosteroids, increased blood glucose levels, increased heart rate and blood pressure, dryness of mouth, sweating, dilation of pupils, difficulty breathing, hot and cold spells, “a lump in the throat”, numbness and tingling in parts of the limbs
Health effects
asthma, amenorrhoea, chest and back pains, coronary heart disease, diarrhoea, faintness and dizziness, dyspepsia, frequent urination, headaches and migrane, neuroses, nightmares, insomnia, psychoses, psychosomatic disorder, diabetes mellitus, skin rash, ulcers, loss of sexual interest, and weakness
Organizational
absenteeism, poor industrial relations, poor productivity, high
effects
accident and labour turnover rates, poor organizational climate, antagonism at work, and job dissatisfaction Steptoe (2000) distinguishes four domains in which stress can be manifested:
physiology - changes in neuroendocrine, autonomic nervous system, and immune function, behaviour - aggressive responses, health-related behaviours (smoking and alcohol consumption), and deficits in the performance of complex tasks, subjective experience - distress and feelings of dissatisfaction and anger, accompanied by anxiety and depressive responses, cognitive function - changes in information processing, attention and memory; disturbed performance and decision-making (p. 510). Another classification provided in the literature is that of immediate and long-term effects (Łosiak, 2008). Immediate consequences appear directly after the stressful event and may comprise: (1) depressed mood, (2) somatic changes (stomach cramps, gastrointestinal disorders, increased heart rate, muscle tension, etc), (3) modifications of cognitive processes (remembering and concentrating on negative emotions, especially anxiety and sadness), and (4) deterioration of task performance (e.g. in exam situations). As to long-term effects, they appear as a consequence of a chronic stressor (stressors) operation or after applying inappropriate coping strategies. Long-term effects include, first and foremost, health effects (cardiovascular diseases, gastric and duodenal ulcers, infections, colds, etc), though currently 40
researchers are more careful in finding a direct stress-disease link, and prefer to talk about stress as contributing to disease in conjunction with other factors such as individual differences, coping strategies, etc. Other long-term consequences also comprise changes, such as changes in attitudes towards the self (lowered self-esteem) and work (occupational burnout), and deficits in social functioning (concentration on the self, outbursts of negative emotions, impulsiveness, irritability). Finally, stress negatively influences the execution of the individual’s life goals, which is caused by impaired performance (immediate stress effect) (Łosiak, 2008, pp. 119-137). However, it has to be noted that the experience of stress does not have to lead to pathology. As noted by Cox (2000), Many of the person’s responses to that experience, both psychological and physiological, are comfortably within the body’s normal homeostatic limits and, while taxing the psychophysiological mechanisms involved, need not cause any lasting disturbance or damage (p. 16)
It is chronic exposure to psychosocial work stressors that can have adverse consequences, affecting the employee’s health and job performance, and entailing social and economic costs. Burnout, in particular, has been regarded as the extreme consequence of stress. The burnout syndrome has been associated with health problems, such as deregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis accompanied by sympathetic nervous system activation, sleep disorders, inflammation, disturbed immunity, cardiovascular disorders, and musculoskeletal pain (Demerouti & Bakker, 2010). Besides, there is evidence that burnout leads to disturbed mental health, such as anxiety, depression, lowered self-esteem, etc., as well as tendencies to abuse various substances (Maslach et al., 2001). As to musculoskeletal complaints (neck, shoulders, back pains), Jaworek et al. (2010) found an association of work demands with musculoskeletal complaints and the burnout syndrome. Moreover, it appeared that higher work resources (which they call “stimuli”) decrease the risk of burnout. Unexpectedly, job resources were associated with increased musculoskeletal complaints. The authors explain this surprising result by stating that “work stimuli [resources] are meant to mobilize people, sometimes at great lengths, resulting in high levels of muscle tension due to elevated performance levels” (p. 374). As well as these, burnout is also assumed to negatively affect job performance. For example, Bakker et al. (2008) found that lack of motivation (the cynicism dimension in the burnout syndrome) plays a crucial role in objective performance but did not find support that exhaustion plays such a role. Burnout has been associated with absenteeism, intention to leave the job, and actual turnover. Those who stay, however, tend to be dissatisfied with their job 41
and less committed to their organization. They may be less productive and effective at work. In addition, people affected by burnout can have a negative influence on human relations, for example by provoking conflicts with colleagues. Finally, people’s home life is also disturbed (Merecz, 2010; Chang, 2009; Maslach et al., 2001).
Conclusion While stress is experienced by everybody on a daily basis, burnout is assumed to develop over time in work settings that are characterized by high job demands and lack of job resources. It needs to be noted that although stress is considered to cause burnout, exposure to stress does not have to lead to burnout. That is to say that if people have appropriate job resources at their disposal, they can successfully cope with difficult situations. Moreover, it emerges that stress, burnout and their consequences cannot be viewed only from the individual perspective because environmental factors are just as important. For this reason it is vital to examine working conditions that are assumed to foster work wellbeing, and conditions that can trigger burnout. It appears that job demands and job resources existing in organizations/schools may have a great influence on teachers’ work wellbeing and the development of burnout symptoms. Accordingly, Chapter Two will discuss the specificity of teacher stress and burnout.
42
CHAPTER TWO. THE TEACHING PROFESSION VS. STRESS AND BURNOUT – SETTING THE SCENE FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Stress can be regarded as a stable component of present time, where political, economic, social, and cultural transformation constantly shapes the reality. This has had consequences on contemporary work conditions: “globalization, privatization, and liberalization cause rapid changes in modern working life, such as increasing demands of learning new skills, the need to adopt new types of work, pressure of higher productivity and quality of work, time pressure and hectic jobs, which, in turn, may produce burnout” (Schaufeli, Leiter, & Maslach, 2009, p. 210). Nowadays, it is employers who dictate the employment terms - they look for engaged, motivated, enthusiastic staff who will show initiative, and multiply profits. It also becomes evident that the employers of today – due to high competition in the job market - may sometimes be much less interested in creating optimal work and career conditions for employees. As Maslach et al. note: “Now employees are expected to give more in terms of time, effort, skills, and flexibility, whereas they receive less in terms of career opportunities, lifetime employment, job security, and so on” (Maslach et al., 2001, p. 409). Finally, the economic recession and its effects have left the imprint on many individuals who have been affected by job losses, increased levels of job insecurity, absenteeism and presenteeism (Cooper, 2010). The teaching profession has not been immune to these trends. On the contrary, for years it has been influenced by political and economic changes to a great extent. This chapter aims at establishing the context for understanding teacher stress and burnout. Specifically, it will present the type of change that teachers have faced throughout recent decades, and how a new professional subgroup (i.e. freelance teachers of adults) has emerged. An overview of research on teacher stress and burnout will end this chapter.
2. 1. Change as a source of stress in teachers Change is inscribed in the teaching profession and has been recognized as a major source of work-related stress in teachers. That is because constant reforms, changes in the range and quality of teachers’ qualifications and professional duties, as well as the role of knowledge in the society (especially now, in the knowledge-based society) and change in paradigms in
43
many knowledge domains (Pyżalski, 2010b), etc. undoubtedly contribute to increasing levels of teacher stress. It appears that change in education is brought about, first and foremost, by education reforms. In Poland, major education reforms were initiated in 1989 by deep political and social transformations, and over the years many kinds of reforms have taken place. Śliwerski (2003) enumerates four kinds of reform: repair (naprawcze), modernization (modernizacyjne), structural (strukturalne), and systemic (systemowe) reforms in our country. Repair reforms in 1990-1991 aimed at replacing the socialist system of education with grassroot initiatives of creating private, community or religious schools, where the didactic process was freed from centrally imposed syllabi and teaching methods, and where teachers were invited to introduce innovation, pedagogic experiments, and original syllabi to their practice. Modernization reforms concern constant upgrading of the teaching content, coursebooks and equipment, as well as developments in didactics and in teacher training. Examples include adjusting to EU structural or curricular requirements with regard to teaching foreign languages, or introducing a new secondary school-leaving examination in Poland. Structural reforms refer to changes in the structure of the education system, such as the system of financing, teachers’ status, length of obligatory education, types of school, levels of education, and certificates and qualifications. Finally, systemic reforms refer to very deep institutional, organizational changes which alter the relations between the education system and the society (e.g. decentralization of education) and radically change the system of quality and effectiveness control (Śliwerski, 2003, pp. 383-396). Naturally, teachers in Poland have faced all types of those reforms; they have had to adopt to the new reality and to function in the constantly changing school environment. Next, membership of the European Union entails various European requirements and policy guidelines. Examples of recommendations adopted by the European Council and Parliament include: Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 February 2001 on European cooperation in quality evaluation in school education (2001/166/EC; OJ L 60 of 1.3.2001), Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning (2006/962/EC; OJ L 394/10 of 30.12.2006). In addition, the following conclusions have been adopted: Improving the Efficacy and Equity of Education and Training Systems (OJ 2006/C 298/03 of 8.12.2006), Improving the Quality of Teacher Education (2007/C 300/07 of 15.11.2007), Preparing Young People for the 21st Century: An Agenda for European Cooperation on Schools (2008/C 319/08 of 21.11.2008). Those documents highlight the need for 44
improving the quality of teacher education throughout the whole career, encourage in-service teachers to update their skills, and point to the necessity of responding to teaching needs in providing in-service education. Finally, great emphasis is put not only on attracting qualified teachers to the profession, but also on maintaining experienced teachers who might otherwise retire (European Union, 2010). Improving the quality of education and reinforcing lifelong learning have been the main aims of the Education and Training 2010 (ET 2010) work programme. The current direction and future of education and the teachers’ role in this process is described in the document Education and Training 2020 (ET 2020), whose strategic objectives are to foster lifelong learning, improve the quality and efficiency of education and training, promote equity, social cohesion and active citizenship, and to enhance creativity and innovation. The situation of language teachers, who are at the centre of attention of this thesis, must also be viewed through the education and language policies set by the European Union and the Council of Europe. Accordingly, promoting multilingualism and plurilingualism, regional and minority languages, CLIL, early start in language learning, appropriate evaluation, defining learning outcomes, lifelong learning, and quality teacher training came to the fore in European initiatives (Komorowska, 2007a, p. 11; Komorowska, 2007b, pp. 14-15; European Union, 2010, p. 12). This involves new teacher responsibilities and roles, which puts more strain on the profession. Apart from political influences, language teachers’ work has been affected by changing trends in didactics. These include developments in research on L1 and L2 acquisition, as well as in research on intercultural communication and cognitive linguistics. New technologies have become the basic medium in communication and are also becoming indispensible tools in education, including language education. Furthermore, there has been greater emphasis on learning outcomes and learners’ autonomy. Last but not least, teachers deal with increasingly diversified learners with regard to their backgrounds and abilities (Aleksandrowicz-Pędich, 2007; Gajek, 2007; Krajka, 2010). These new developments and the altering nature of the teaching recipients necessitate, more than ever, appropriate initial teacher education and constant upgrading of in-service teachers’ knowledge and skills in order to make teaching a quality lifetime career. Otherwise, teachers not only run the risk of becoming ignorant in various domains (which poses a threat to modern and effective teaching), but they also put their own wellbeing at stake. Being unable to deal with modern professional challenges they may experience frustration, anxiety and dissatisfaction, i.e. the emotions that are associated with stress and burnout. 45
Teachers of English in Poland constitute a relatively young professional group, trained in an innovative manner to cover teaching staff shortage, initiated and intensified by the political and economic transformation of 1990 and followed by the reform of language teaching and language teacher training. Until the late 1980s opportunities for learning English (as well as other Western languages) were heavily restricted, and were limited to grades 7 and 8 in some primary and in a few secondary schools. The experts, whose work was led by Hanna Komorowska, were to prepare a report evaluating the situation and needs for language teaching/learning in the country, and to implement a plan of remedial measures, starting with the 1990/91 school year. It appeared that the amount of teaching staff was far from sufficient, and the numbers were systematically decreasing as people speaking foreign languages had other attractive work prospects in the new market situation. Since philology studies appeared to be unable to train so many teachers with pedagogic skills willing to stay in smaller communities, the idea to create foreign language teacher training colleges was born. As a result, on 1st October 1990 41 colleges training teachers of English, 19 – French, and 13 – German started operating in Poland (Komorowska, 1999, pp. 9-21).
2.2. Teachers of adults and freelance teachers
Teachers of English cannot be associated only with teaching children and adolescents in state schools. Before the transformation in the 1990s, the Russian language had had the dominating position in the Polish educational system, and most Polish people had never had a chance to learn English. Political and economic changes meant that adults needed to learn this language in order to do business and stay competitive in the emerging capitalist market. Consequently, many teachers have pursued their careers as teachers of adults in the Non-Vocational Adult Learning (NVAL) sector. Before proceeding, some explanation is necessary to clarify the issue of NVAL, which will frequently appear in this thesis. In general, Non-Vocational Adult Learning involves formal and non-formal initiatives that are not directly connected to the labour market, supporting vocational training in the scope of languages, ICT skills, and personal competencies that contribute to one’s employability. Formal NVAL institutions comprise schools, colleges, universities and other formal education institutions that offer qualifications at upper secondary levels to those who wish to gain them later in life (so-called “second chance”, “palliative”, “recovery” or “compensatory” education and training). Non-formal NVAL organizations function alongside the educational systems and offer activities that do 46
not lead to certification. A variety of terms are employed to refer to educators of adults, such as: teachers, tutors, lecturers, trainers and instructors, which are usually synonymous but in some countries differ in positions. For example the term “teachers” may be used in the context of formal education, “trainers” – non-formal education, “lecturers” – higher or further education or in community adult learning centres, “instructors” – in trade unions or adult learning centres (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, pp. 43-72). Important changes have had an impact on the educators in the NVAL sector and can be identified within a number of areas. Firstly, the target group (i.e. students) has been altering due to migration trends, increasing life expectancy, higher levels of education and greater willingness to invest financial resources in learning and self-development. Secondly, the content and activities that are of interest to adult learners have also been changing, i.e. the issues of environment, health, management, economics, new media, coaching, etc. have gained in importance. The language services offer has also been greatly differentiated. Finally, new teaching methods and tools have emerged (a more student-oriented approach, e-learning) in order to cater for the needs of a learner group that is increasingly heterogeneous (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, p. 164). In Poland, teachers of English who work with adults usually cooperate with private language schools mainly on a freelance basis, which most often involves being self-employed. Generally, self-employment may be viewed as a chance to design their own career and personal development, independence, autonomy (also with regard to determining content of work), and financial success. However, it appears that some employees, in spite of their preferences and abilities, are being forced to adopt this form of employment with its inherent burdens (e.g. risk of failure, limited social protection) as employers offer no other employment options for them (Oren, 2012; Millán, Aguado, Hessels, & Thurik, 2013). Language teachers in Poland are a case in point, where private language schools offer employment on freelance contracts. Presumably, long-term cooperation on such terms may have a significant impact on teachers’ work wellbeing. It is job insecurity that constitutes a characteristic feature of this form of employment, and it may be a source of significant stress in freelance employees. But only a few studies have investigated work wellbeing in self-employed and organizationally-employed workers. For example, Oren (2012) compared those two groups and found that the self-employed complained about lack of job security, whereas the organizationally-employed (accountants, lawyers, pharmacists, and psychologists) complained about lack of autonomy, though no differences in overall stress levels or overload were found. In another study, Millán et al. 47
(2013) analyzed the job satisfaction of self-employed and organizationally-employed workers using the survey data of 15 European countries for 1994-2001. It appeared that self-employed individuals were more likely to be satisfied with their present type of job and less likely to be satisfied with the job security aspect, compared with the workers who had an indefinite period contract. Interestingly, working more hours was associated with more satisfaction with the type of work and job security in the self-employed. Additionally, research has found that the two categories of employees differ in personality, i.e. self-employed workers have an internal locus of control, greater willingness to take risks, high self-assertiveness and self-efficacy, and a greater need for success, achievement, autonomy, and control. There are also differences with regard to the outcomes, i.e. the self-employed are more committed to work and more satisfied due to perceived autonomy. However, they work longer hours, have more familywork conflicts, experience higher levels of stress, smoke more, are more obese, and have more psychosomatic health problems (Oren, 2012). All in all, it can be concluded that freelance language teachers and teachers of adults may constitute a distinct group of professionals who are exposed to a different type of work strain (compared with e.g. teachers working with children and teenagers in state schools), which requires a more thorough investigation.
2.3. Job satisfaction in the teaching profession On the whole, all teachers - irrespective of the subject they teach, the type of contract they have or the kind of students they work with - face occupational challenges which have a negative influence on their work wellbeing. However, it would be incomplete and misleading to portray teachers as totally displeased and unhappy with their work. On the contrary, research shows that many teachers are satisfied with at least some aspects of their job. Polish teachers’ positive attitude to their profession was revealed in 2010 in the poll conducted by TNS OBOP, where it appeared that the respondents employed in the education sector were very satisfied with their workplace. In fact they constituted the most satisfied professional group in Poland. What is more, in the study report by J. Pyżalski and D. Merecz (2010), 78% of teachers declared that they would choose to be a teacher if they were to choose their profession again. It appears that, despite the low level of pay and perceived social status, teachers are satisfied with this job as they have contact with people, personal development opportunities, holidays longer than in other professions, job security, and influence on others (Federowicz, Haman, Herczyński, Hernik, Krawczyk-Radwan, Malinowska, Pawłowski, Strawiński, Walczak, & Wichrowski, 2013, p. 39). 48
In order to identify the trajectories that result in teachers’ satisfaction till the end of their careers, Veldman, Van Tartwijk, Brekelmans, and Wubbels (2013) studied the development of job satisfaction throughout the careers of four Dutch veteran language teachers (of Dutch, French, and German), who were over the age of 54, had over 25 years of experience, were satisfied with their job, and had not developed burnout symptoms. It appeared that the following contributed to their satisfaction: positive teacher-student relationships, changing the position to a more important one (management) within the school hierarchy, changing the type of school (from vocational education to upper secondary school), engagement in continuous professional development, and work meaningfulness (“a privilege to work with young people” (p. 62). The report ALPINE – Adult Learning Professionals in Europe (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008) shows that the job satisfaction of the educators from the NVAL sector in most European countries is also high, despite lower wages, limited social security and fewer career prospects. Apparently, the following aspects make this work attractive: flexible working hours, autonomy in developing syllabus and work methods, opportunities to develop skills, highly-motivated students, a sense of helping the society, recognition and feedback from students. In some countries, however, being an educator of adults is not considered to be a good profession because it is badly-paid, does not provide any pension schemes, and educators are offered only part-time employment. As far as educators of adults in Poland are concerned, it is reported that they consider their profession to be attractive, well-paid and interesting, offering opportunities for development and contact with other people and ideas. They believe that they project an image of well-educated people but they are dissatisfied with income instability (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, p. 108) (cf. Chapter Three, section 3.2.2. Economic conditions). The results of the project conducted in the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) show that English teachers’ (N=52) sense of job satisfaction is associated with good relationships with students, colleagues and supervisors, a variety in tasks at work, and work autonomy. These teachers need to feel that their job is challenging, that they are positively assessed by students, that they are really helping students, that they can perform very well in this job, and that they work for a reputable organization (Rádai, 2003, pp. 82-83). Despite these positive aspects which undoubtedly foster teachers’ job satisfaction, the problem of burnout was identified. It is considered to be among the most serious psychological consequences of chronic job stress in the teaching profession. Accordingly, an
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overview of research into teacher stress and burnout will be presented in the subsequent sections.
2.4. Research on the teaching profession 2.4.1. Teacher stress “Teaching is not just a job. It’s a stress test”, as one participant in the ECML project on language teachers’ working conditions said (Rádai, 2003, p. 38). Indeed, the teaching profession is characterized by many demands causing stress. Teacher stress has been researched since the 1960s. Examples include studies by Robert Kahn and colleagues, Cary Cooper, Chris Kyriacou and John Sutcliffe, Gregory Boyle and colleagues, etc. (for a review see, e.g. Tucholska, 2009, pp. 101-104). In Poland, a number of existing empirical studies are devoted specifically to teacher stress (e.g. Tucholska, 1999; Grzegorzewska, 2006). Other researchers studied the problem across various occupational groups, including teachers (e.g. Ogińska-Bulik, 2006; Terelak, 2007). Kyriacou and Sutcliffe defined teachers’ stress as: a response of negative affect (such as anger or depression) by a teacher usually accompanied by potentially pathogenic physiological and biochemical changes (such as increased heart rate or release of andrenocorticotropic hormones into the bloodstream) resulting from aspects of the teacher’s job and mediated by the perception that the demands made upon the teacher constitute a threat to his self-esteem or well being and by coping mechanisms activated to reduce the perceived threat (1978, in: Boyle, Borg, Falzon, & Baglioni, 1995, p. 50)
Evidently, teacher stress is determined by difficult work conditions of various nature and is manifested by negative emotions and unhealthy physiological states. Elsewhere, Kyriacou (1989; in: Pearson & Moomaw, 2005) emphasizes negative emotions in teacher stress development: “Teacher stress refers to the experience of unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression and nervousness, resulting from the aspect of their work as teachers” (p. 39). Sources of teacher stress (negative emotions) cannot be left unaccounted in present considerations. Lists of stressors that are characteristic for teaching contexts are abundant in the literature (for a review see, e.g. Tucholska, 2009; Kirenko & Zubrzycka-Maciąg, 2011; Lisowska, 2012). Interesting results were obtained by Boyle, Borg, Falzon and Baglioni (1995), who first identified the main factors associated with teacher stress in primary school teachers in 50
Malta and Gozo, which were as follows: workload (lesson preparation, checking assignments, general amount of work, responsibility for pupils, insufficient rest periods), professional recognition needs (few promotion and professional development opportunities, inadequate salary, inadequate recognition for teaching competencies), pupil misbehaviour (class discipline problems, impolite behaviour, lack of interest in learning, managing additional pupils), time/resource difficulties (inadequate equipment and facilities, poorly constructed syllabi, insufficient time for individual tuition, large class sizes), poor colleague relationships (pressures from authorities and parents, attitudes of other parents). The results of the study conducted in 1991-1993 by Helena Sęk on Polish primary and secondary state school teachers (who reported high levels of stress, increasing over time) revealed many similarities to the previous study and showed that the following were considered to be the most stressful aspects in teaching in Poland at the time: low salaries which did not compensate for effort and time, the low social status of the teaching profession, students’ behaviour and features of character, overloaded syllabi and their constant modifications, excessive and contradictory supervisors’ demands, constant threat of being evaluated by a supervisor, and unfavourable technical work conditions (Sęk, 2000b, p. 152). Contemporary primary and secondary school teachers regularly encounter stressful situations at work, which largely concern the problems of role overload, classroom practices (disruptive students, poorly motivated students, dealing with individual differences), lack of support from administrators and parents, poor collegial relationships, being evaluated, school reforms, and high-stake student testing (Steinhardt, Faulk, Gloria, & Smith Jaggars, 2011; Pyhältö, Pietarinen, & Salmela-Aro, 2011; Hultell, Melin, & Gustavsson, 2013). Liu and Onwuegbuzie (2012), studied sources of stress in Chinese teachers (N=510) and identified the following: educational reforms, pressure on improved students’ test scores, lack of parents’ support in motivating students to study, the system of teacher evaluation, heavy workload, low salaries, and professional exams. In the Polish context, Grzegorzewska (2006) found the following sources of stress in primary, secondary and special school teachers: students’ aggression, school structure and management, physical conditions (class size, noise), lack of opportunities for school decisionmaking, work overload, human resources management (social relations, teacher-principal relations, lack of support), lack of recognition, respect, and advancement opportunities, lack of pedagogic competencies (fear of difficult situations in relations with students and parents), job insecurity (unpredictable future, apprehension caused by change and necessity of adjusting to new work conditions, redundancies, lack of job stability), and teacher’s role 51
ambiguity. In addition, some differences with regard to teacher speciality were revealed. It appeared that teachers of primary education were most concerned with the quality of human resources management, compared with teachers of humanities and language teachers. According to Grzegorzewska, the latter are more concentrated on their job and teaching results and, consequently, do not tend to pay attention to problems related to work organization. Secondly, work overload mostly affected teachers of humanities and least affected teachers of primary education, which the author explains by the fact that the former have to check long essays or classwork, as well as tests, and pay more attention to lesson preparation. Job insecurity mostly affected teachers of primary education and least affected language teachers, which suggests that language teachers feel more appreciated or valued at schools than other teachers, according to the author. Although the interpretation of the results is arguable (e.g. language teachers, especially teachers of English, had been in demand at the time, which meant that job security was not a problem for them), interesting differences with regard to sources of occupational stress among teachers of various specialities become evident. This might indicate that the results obtained on teachers of one speciality should be treated with caution when referring them to other groups. More recently, Poraj (2009) found that insufficient pay appeared to be the most pronounced professional strain for teachers, followed by poor work conditions, excessive bureaucracy, lack of authority, and lack of students’ motivation to work. Moreover, female teachers felt more affected by school pathologies than male teachers. Another study, carried out by the Occupational Health Medicine Institute (Instytut Medycyny Pracy) in Łódź, brings the results of a project whose aim was to diagnose the psychosocial work conditions for teachers in Poland. This research project was conducted by means of interviews on a representative sample of 1214 teachers across Poland. The interviewed teachers indicated the following to be the most stressful factors in their profession nowadays: work incommensurate with pay, overloaded syllabi, little influence on school policies, unsatisfactory teachers’ facilities, high teacher-student ratio, teacher rivalry, lack of superiors’ support, and lack of collegial help (Pyżalski, 2010b, p. 53). Teachers of English who participated in the ECML project (Rádai, 2003) report that their job is not well-paid, independence, initiative, and creativity are not rewarded, their achievements are not recognized, they do not receive quality feedback and clear guidelines from supervisors, they do not have flexible working hours, they cannot manage their workload, do not have prospects for promotion, and feel that there are not clear rules and
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procedures at work (Rádai, 2003, pp. 82-83). Clearly those issues create negative emotions (e.g. frustration, anger, anxiety) which are associated with stress. All in all, much has been done to determine the situational (organizational, environmental) aspects that contribute to teacher stress. However, the review of the literature reveals that the problem has been studied within an approach that is primarily concerned with the job demands, whose presence leads to the emergence of occupational stress and burnout. In light of new developments in the field, such an approach considerably limits the scope of research and hides other important issues. Notably, the issue of job resources, whose absence generates negative states, has been treated rather cursorily in the research on teacher stress, which considerably obscures the problem.
2.4.2. Teacher burnout Empirical studies on teacher burnout were initiated by American psychologists in the 1970s (for a review on international studies see, e.g. Tucholska, 2009). In the Polish context, within the last decade, the problem has been explored by a number of researchers, e.g. Tucholska (2009), Pyżalski and Merecz (2010), Kirenko and Zubrzycka-Maciąg (2011), Lisowska (2012), whose work - drawing on Maslach’s multidimensional model of burnout concentrated on diagnosing the burnout syndrome in Polish teachers and analyzing a range of individual (e.g. personality) and situational (e.g. work climate, social support) determinants of burnout. Numerous researchers have attempted to evaluate the level of teacher burnout in various populations, and it appears that the extent of the problem varies from author to author, depending on the adopted methodology. For example, in a longitudinal study on 816 beginning teachers in Sweden by Hultell, Melin, and Gustavsson (2013) it appeared that 5% of teachers in the sample indicated a high burnout level, whereas the majority of teachers reported it to be at a low level. In Poland, Sęk (2000b), studying primary and secondary state school teachers (N=83) in the 1990s, found that teachers at that time indicated varied levels of burnout. Specifically, 39% of those teachers were not burned out, more often treated stressors as a challenge, and had the longest work experience. 18% of teachers displayed fully blown symptoms, regarded stressors as a threat, and had the shortest work experience. Recently, Pyżalski and Merecz (2010) found that Polish primary and secondary school teachers (N=1214) display a moderate level of burnout on all dimensions (exhaustion, depersonalization, inefficacy). Finally, Kirenko and Zubrzycka-Maciąg (2011) studied female 53
teachers (N=158) who worked in kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, as well as in other social-education agencies in Lubelskie province. The findings show that 27.84% of teachers revealed intensive burnout symptoms, whereas 32.91% of respondents did not display symptoms of burnout. The dominant type comprised the teachers who were described as “intensely engaged” (39.24%). Teacher burnout differs from that of other professions. The study results conducted by Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998, in: Maslach et al., 2001, p. 408) in the USA and the Netherlands among five occupations (teaching, social services, medicine, mental health, and law enforcement) revealed that in both countries teachers were characterized by the highest level of exhaustion, police officers and prison guards scored highly on cynicism and inefficacy and low on exhaustion, whereas medical staff revealed lower levels of exhaustion and cynicism and higher levels of inefficacy. Moreover, workers in social services were characterized by higher levels of cynicism in the USA, and average levels in the Netherlands. Mental health care staff in the USA scored lower on exhaustion and cynicism, while in the Netherlands the results were higher. However, burnout in language teachers has received very limited interest. Some insight into the problem was provided by Grzegorzewska (2006), who showed differences in burnout levels in Polish teachers of various specialities: early education, humanities, science, foreign languages, other teachers and school pedagogues. She found statistically significant differences among the groups with regard to the level of depersonalization. It appeared that it was lowest in teachers of primary education and in foreign language teachers, compared with school pedagogues, where it was highest, which the author explains by the fact that school pedagogues have to engage in difficult and emotionally challenging situations. Although the reasons why language and early education teachers scored lowest in the sample are left unexplained, the study results imply that teaching involves a lot of emotional effort, which may lead to emotional exhaustion, and consequently, to distancing from students (depersonalization / disengagement). The issue of intensive emotions in teaching is of great significance in research on teacher burnout. Chang (2009) indicates that those emotions range from very pleasant (passion, excitement, joy, pride, hope) to negative ones (worry, frustration, guilt, anger, powerlessness, fearfulness, vulnerability, disappointment). As to the negative emotions associated with stress and burnout, teachers may feel exhausted when involved in various social relationships and interactions. Moreover, teachers may experience unpleasant emotions when confronted with change, especially when the change is characterized by ambiguity or 54
conflict. As stated by Steinhardt et al. (2011), emotional exhaustion is “the central component that makes burnout ‘real’ to the teacher” (Steinhardt et al., 2011, p. 426). Chang (2009) proposes that studying discrete emotions (anxiety, frustration, anger and guilt) may help us understand why teachers get emotionally exhausted. Chang reports that anxiety appears when teachers feel uncertain or when they have low control over a situation (e.g. being unprepared to teach, being late, not having enough teaching materials, being questioned by others on their expertise, losing control over the class, being behind schedule, etc). Frustration and anger can be triggered by administrative factors, change or reforms that are considered to be unfavourable to the teaching/learning process, conflicts between the teaching goals and student misbehaviour/failure, as well as administrative expectations. Finally, guilt is experienced by teachers who feel responsible for certain situations, e.g. when a student gives up learning (Chang, 2009, pp. 203-209). Therefore, investigating what determines the emergence of negative emotions may be of great significance in studying teacher stress and burnout. As discussed in the previous chapter, the JD-R model may be relevant in accounting for the job demands and job resources, whose presence or lack may produce negative emotions (e.g. frustration, anger, anxiety, etc), and lead to teacher burnout over time. The characteristics of the job demands and resources in teachers’ work settings nowadays will be provided in a separate chapter - Chapter Three - as the issue requires more extensive investigation. Now the focus will be on individual factors that, apart from the environmental factors, can predict the emergence of burnout in the teacher population.
2.4.3. Individual determinants of teacher stress and burnout This section will give an overview of the main individual determinants of stress and burnout discussed in the literature. It is important to note that since burnout is considered to emerge as a consequence of chronic stress, its determinants are assumed to be identical with the determinants of occupational stress. Moreover, the review below will concern the individual, i.e. it will discuss some demographic (age, gender) and professional (experience, education, etc.) aspects. Environmental - organizational characteristics will be discussed in the next chapter. The following are most commonly investigated in relation to occupational stress and burnout: age, work experience, gender, and the level of education. However, the findings concerning these variables as predictors of burnout are very inconsistent. 55
As to studies on teacher burnout, it was found that teachers between 20 and 30 years old are more prone to burnout, especially as regards exhaustion and depersonalization, while teachers over 45 years old scored lower on the dimension of personal accomplishment (Chang, 2009). In Poland, Kirenko and Zubrzycka-Maciąg (2011) found that the levels of exhaustion and depersonalization increase and the level of personal accomplishment decreases till forty, after which age the relations are reversed. However, no relationship was found between teachers’ age and burnout in other studies (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010; Lisowska, 2012). Only a weak correlation was found between age and a sense of personal accomplishment, which slightly increases in older teachers (Pyżalski, 2010a, p. 39). Notably, research on other employees does not provide a clear picture regarding the relationship between stress/burnout and age, either. In some studies the level of burnout is reported to be higher in younger employees than it is among 30-40-year-old employees, which may be caused by the fact that young people who experience burnout are likely to leave the job, whereas those who exhibit lower levels of burnout stay in the profession (e.g. Maslach et al., 2001). Rauschenbach and Hertel (2011) found an inverted U-shape relationship between age and strain experience across three age groups: 18-35, 36-50, 51-65 years, and indicated that middle-aged workers experience the highest level of strain. The authors explain that workers from this age group probably face more duties compared with younger or older employees, ranging from those of parental roles to increasing levels of responsibility at work. Similar results were obtained in the study reported by Johnson (2009, pp. 148-149). They revealed significant differences between age bands and indicated that the level of stress increased with age, except for the age band 56+, where its level decreased. The participants in the 36-45 age group were found to be “at their worst”. Among the possible reasons explaining these findings, the authors enumerate factors pertaining to a person’s role, issues outside work, and the prospect of retirement (Johnson, 2009). With reference to work experience, research findings also bring inconclusive results (Steinhardt et al., 2011). In Poland, Sęk (2000b) found the lowest level of burnout in the most experienced teachers, while the highest was found in the least experienced teachers. Lately, in the study by Kirenko and Zubrzycka-Maciąg (2011), work experience was found to correlate with the exhaustion dimension of burnout. The lowest level of exhaustion was found in teachers with five years’ experience, the next fifteen years is associated with an increase in exhaustion, but after twenty years’ experience it decreases. However, the results cannot be confirmed in other studies. For example, Lisowska (2012) did not find statistically significant relationships between work experience and burnout in teachers. 56
Interesting insights into teachers’ professional life phases (related to experience rather than age) and teachers’ commitment to work are provided in the findings from the research project Variations in Teachers’ Work, Lives and Effectiveness (VITAE; Day, Stobart, Sammons, Kington, Gu, Smees, & Mujtaba, 2006) conducted on primary and secondary school teachers in the UK. Six phases in teachers’ professional life, characterized by varying levels of work commitment, were identified: Phase 1: 0-3 years – high levels of commitment, where school support is of great significance and pupil misbehaviour is a strain; Phase 2: 4-7 years – increasing levels of confidence about being effective as a teacher, taking on more responsibilities, where heavy workload negatively affects some teachers; Phase 3: 8-15 years – growing tensions on teacher identity; 80% of teachers have a responsible post and some are considering decisions about leaving the profession, 76% show engagement and 24% show detachment or loss of motivation; Phase 4: 16-23 years – apart from heavy workload, struggling to maintain work-life balance is a key issue; teachers report a lack of school support and pupil misbehaviour; three subgroups are distinguished: 52% owing to advancement opportunities indicate an increase in motivation and commitment, 34% manage to sustain motivation and commitment, 14% report heavy workload, a feeling of career stagnation, leading to decreased motivation, commitment and effectiveness; Phase 5: 24-30 years – 60% of primary school teachers are judged to sustain their motivation and over 50% of secondary school teachers are found to be losing motivation, mainly because of external policies and pupil misbehaviour; Phase 6: 31 and more – most teachers are characterized by high commitment accompanied by good pupil-teacher relations and pupil progress, 36% feel “tired and trapped” (Day et al., 2006, p. 4), governmental policies, health problems and pupil behaviour have a negative impact at this phase. These results, though not directly pointing to burnout, suggest that work experience may be important in the development of burnout, understood as a gradual wearing away of a positive state of mind (work engagement, commitment) caused by the presence of job demands and absence of job resources at work. The studies taking the variable of gender as a predictor of burnout do not bring conclusive results, just like in the case of the previously discussed age and experience variables. Nevertheless, there is one aspect that is rather consistent, i.e. men often score higher on the cynicism dimension (Maslach et al., 2001), which was confirmed in the Polish context 57
in the studies of teacher burnout (e.g. Sęk, 2000b; Pyżalski, 2010a). But, contrary to these results, in the study on Spanish secondary school teachers, female teachers revealed higher levels of cynicism and exhaustion than men (Prieto, Soria, Martínez, & Schaufeli, 2008). As to the level of education, again there are mixed results. Some studies show that burnout is more common in teachers with lower education, others show that a higher level of education is associated with a higher level of burnout, and yet other studies find no differences (Steinhardt et al., 2011). Interestingly, studies on the employees from other sectors found that those with higher levels of education experience higher burnout than less educated employers, which may imply that those with higher education have more responsibility at work and experience more stress as a consequence. It is also suspected that better educated people have higher job expectations and are more dissatisfied and frustrated if these are not met (Maslach et al., 2001). In addition to these four variables, speciality (taught subject), professional status, the type of school, and school location are taken into consideration in studies on teacher burnout. As regards the speciality (taught subject), Kirenko and Zubrzycka-Maciąg (2011), for example, found a relationship between this variable and burnout (exhaustion dimension). The level of exhaustion is highest in teachers who graduated from exact sciences, the lowest in teachers of pedagogic studies. The results in other dimensions did not prove to differentiate the study groups significantly. A tendency in the relationship between professional status and burnout was also observed by Kirenko and Zubrzycka-Maciąg (2011). They found that the level of exhaustion increased with each obtained status, where chartered teachers were characterized by the highest level of depersonalization, which the authors explain by disappointment with the effects of promotion in comparison with the amount of effort necessary to achieve it. As well as this, they found that the level of efficacy was similar across the groups and stayed at an average level. As far as the type of school is concerned, high school teachers report a higher level of burnout compared with teachers of lower grades (Steinhardt et al., 2011). In Polish studies a weak association between the type of school and burnout was noticed. That is, teachers from primary schools scored lower on burnout, but the difference was not statistically significant (Pyżalski, 2010a). Similarly, a tendency was found between the type of school and the level of burnout (Kirenko & Zubrzycka-Maciąg, 2011), i.e. teachers working in lower and upper secondary schools and in primary schools scored higher on the exhaustion dimension than teachers from kindergartens and other social-education agencies. Teachers from lower and 58
upper secondary schools scored highest on the depersonalization dimension and lowest on the efficacy dimension. The authors suggest that the type of school may be a predictor of burnout. The VITAE report (Day et. al, 2006) also shows that primary school teachers were more likely to sustain their commitment, motivation and effectiveness compared with secondary school teachers, especially in mid-careers (8-15 years). Surprisingly, teachers employed in more than one school appeared to score lower on exhaustion and depersonalization and higher on efficacy (personal accomplishment) dimensions, which suggests that such teachers suffer less from burnout compared with the teachers who work only for one school. However, the results should be treated with caution as they were not statistically significant (Kirenko & Zubrzycka-Maciąg, 2011). School location did not achieve statistical significance in the Polish studies (Kirenko & Zubrzycka-Maciąg, 2011; Lisowska, 2012), either. Interestingly, Kirenko and ZubrzyckaMaciąg (2011) note that teachers in the sample who work in towns scored higher on the exhaustion dimension and lower on the depersonalization dimension, and they also assessed their efficacy as lower than the teachers working in the country. The authors explain high levels of depersonalization in the teachers from the country by the fact that such teachers live in small communities, where private and professional relations are intertwined. However, Lisowska (2012) obtained entirely contradictory results (though not statistically significant), i.e. teachers from towns scored lower on the emotional exhaustion dimension and higher on depersonalization and efficacy, compared with teachers from the country. The studies that explore personality in search of burnout sources bring more consistent findings. However, since the analysis of psychological variables is outside the scope of this thesis, it will suffice to mention that the following have been found to constitute the profile of a burnout-prone individual: low hardiness (e.g. low openness to change and a sense of control over events), type-A personality (characterized by competition, time pressure, hostility, excessive need for control, etc), lower self-esteem, high expectations, external locus of control (limited attribution to one’s own ability and effort in accounting for success), neuroticism (anxiety, hostility, depression, self-consciousness, etc.) (Chang, 2009; Maslach et al., 2001). In conclusion, research results on individual determinants of burnout are far from satisfactory. Perhaps this is so because there are other factors (such as taught student age group or the form of employment) that have been ignored in research so far but that may be better predictors of burnout development in contemporary educational contexts. Moreover, as individual teachers’ beliefs may create intensive emotions, teachers’ work attitudes might be affected as a result. This may add to teacher burnout, as discussed below. 59
2.4.4. Teachers’ beliefs Although teachers often feel proud and satisfied knowing that they contribute to others’ development, some teacher beliefs may influence their work attitude. Sęk (2000b), drawing on previous research, remarks that teachers are characterized by strong convictions about life, are dominated by idealistic values, and assumes that the teaching profession is chosen by idealists. Alternatively, strong adherence to principles is instilled in the course of their education. Difficult confrontation with reality leads to the intensification of these idealistic beliefs, and even to the appearance of irrational beliefs (e.g. one should be liked and respected by everybody, one must be maximally competent in all areas, one should be affected by the problems of the people one works for, it is disastrous when reality is not as expected, people are imperfect and bad and deserve punishment, etc.). Moreover, it is noted that teachers experience a clash between professional ideals/goals and reality when their professional competence is tested in the classroom. All this, over time, increases the likelihood of experiencing burnout (emotional exhaustion) (Sęk, 2000b, pp. 90107). The results of the ECML project (Rádai, 2003) showed that teachers of English (N=52) believe that their work is important. What is more, the study revealed what such teachers value in their work. It appeared that having an enjoyable and stimulating job is most important for them, as well as having freedom, really helping students, having a job where they can perform very well and develop their potential, being able to show initiative, having the optimal workload, and being positively evaluated by students. The factors related to prestige, i.e. “a prestigious job title”, “a profession that is prestigious”, “a reputable organization” (p. 81), and fringe benefits turned out to be the least important in teachers’ opinions. The author states that the results “confirm that teachers of English, as a professional community, are altruistic, idealistic and more concerned with the intrinsic, classroom-based aspects of their profession than with the extrinsic aspects” (Rádai, 2003, p. 82). Although interesting findings on what is considered to be important by teachers of English in their work were obtained, it is difficult not to argue with the author’s conclusion. It is more probable that those teachers were not concerned with the “extrinsic aspects” of their job because those were secured for them and taken for granted as such teachers were in great demand at the time. Wysocka (2003) points to other issues concerning teachers of English in Poland. It occurs that most teachers positively regard the institution of school, i.e. they believe that it is the place where teaching and education take place, new friendships are made, school develops 60
students’ interests, and teaches them how to live in a society. However, she draws attention to other problems. Some participants believe that teachers do not have any rights or authority, the school is too formal, not flexible, and it does not appropriately prepare students to live in the society, classes are too big to approach students individually, and there is too much senseless bureaucracy. Moreover, children are at risk of meeting not the right mix of people, the school does not support development of talented individuals, teachers and students do not feel safe at school, language lessons are poorly organized, there is a financial problem, the school is obligatory and hence nobody wants to go to school (Wysocka, 2003, pp. 80-81). Needless to say, such beliefs might have an influence on teachers’ work attitude. Interesting results on Polish teachers’ beliefs and values were also obtained by Bogucka (2007). In her exploratory qualitative study on early education teachers of English (N=12) in Poland she found that those teachers are proud to be involved in the important mission of “making a difference in children’s lives” (p. 51), and associate good teaching with their pupils’ success and satisfaction with learning. But they are afraid of “falling into a rut of routine behaviour and monotony” (p. 52) since it would be harmful both for the teacher and the relationships with their pupils: “If I am bored, my students will be bored. If they are bored, they will stop liking me” (p. 52). They also indicate that their work in not sufficiently recognized by the society, which seems to reflect a common conviction among teachers in general (Bogucka, 2007). Undoubtedly, some teachers’ beliefs can have an unfavourable effect on their morale and may prompt the emergence of negative emotions (e.g. frustration), little by little leading to burnout. Its consequences do not only have an impact on individual teachers’ wellbeing; they influence the teaching and learning process as well. The following section will look into the outcomes of teacher occupational stress and burnout in more detail.
2.4.5. Consequences of stress and burnout in the teaching profession As already stated, the experience of stress may have a negative impact on teachers’ work wellbeing. Unfavourable conditions can influence teachers’ functioning in the workplace and the quality of their relationships with students (Pyżalski, 2010b). Some distressed teachers choose to avoid going to work, thus creating the problem of teacher absenteeism. This poses a challenge for schools to find replacement teachers, and it may also have a negative effect on long-term learning and teaching. The results of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS; OECD, 2008; in: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013) show that 61
35% of European lower secondary school teachers had school heads who believed that teachers’ absenteeism hindered instruction. In Poland, 37% of respondents thought that it hindered instruction “to some extent” (the highest result of all participating countries), and 6.5% “a lot” (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 102). The consequences of burnout in teachers have been recognized as harmful to the didactic process. Sęk (2000a) maintains that at first tension, irritability and psychophysical exhaustion appear as a result of excessive work demands. If this state becomes chronic and is not modified by appropriate coping strategies, further symptoms, such as discouragement and loss of energy, appear. Tired teachers find it increasingly difficult to cope with students’, parents’ and supervisors’ demands; they work hard but not effectively. They complain about rude, lazy, ungrateful and critical students. Consequently, they try to distance themselves from their students in order to defend themselves against those students, they shorten the time spent with the students, and label and depersonalize them. This, in turn, meets with a negative reaction from members of society (students, parents), who critically evaluate teachers’ competencies and motivation. Teachers who are dissatisfied with this situation, often beset by a sense of professional inefficacy and emotionally and physically exhausted, think about leaving the profession or retiring (Sęk, 2000a, pp. 96-97). What is more, in a study on Polish teachers (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010) it appeared that teachers who scored higher on all burnout dimensions also indicated frequent inappropriate student behaviour in class. The authors explain that this situation may be caused by the fact that the teachers who experience burnout may also react in a specific – very emotional – manner, and hence evaluate their students’ behaviour more negatively. Moreover, it was also found that the more burned out teachers were, the more they believed that corporal punishment should be used (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010). Burnout, as mentioned earlier, is associated with teacher attrition. The study on primary and secondary school teachers in Switzerland conducted by Müller et al. (2009) reports the following factors as prompting teachers to leave the profession: changes in work conditions (the manner in which institutional changes are implemented, having to discipline students instead of teaching them), workload (changing work duties, increasing workload), fatigue and health problems, relationships with head teachers (e.g. lack of support from school management), and school policies (e.g. unsatisfactory professional development). In Poland, Grzegorzewska (2006) found that 33% of the surveyed teachers thought about changing their profession, which was caused by low income, work atmosphere, and insufficient recognition by head teachers, pupils/students and their parents. 13% of those surveyed declared intentions 62
of leaving the profession, 10% were in the process of applying for a job somewhere else, and 3% were planning to take early retirement. It is notable, however, that despite teachers’ willingness to leave the profession, there are some aspects that prevent them from taking that step, such as: financial risk, lack of other qualifications, unstable socio-economic situation, or high unemployment. As stated by one respondent, a primary school teacher: If I had a chance to withdraw from the profession, I would do it […], but the risk of leaving is too high […] I don’t know anybody who is over 40 and wouldn’t want to resign from this job if they had such an opportunity (Grzegorzewska, 2006, p. 126, present author’s translation).
Another - secondary school - teacher indicated: If you are a teacher, you are not able to do anything else, you do not have qualifications to do any other jobs. If I wanted to start a new career, I would have to start from the beginning, and I wouldn’t be able to support myself without my salary. Besides, I have no opportunities to change the job without additional education. At the same time, I can’t bear the thought of teaching for the next thirty years (Grzegorzewska, 2006, p. 126, present author’s translation).
Similarly, in their study on 510 Chinese teachers (Liu & Onwuegbuzie, 2012) 40.4% of those surveyed indicated that they would leave the teaching profession if they had such an opportunity. Their turnover intentions were motivated by high stress, low salaries, inadequate breaks and holidays, heavy workload, disruptive student behaviour, boredom with teaching, low confidence in education regulations, policies and reforms. Yet 48.6% of respondents reported that they were “very likely” or “highly likely” to remain in teaching. The authors explain that apparent, in their opinion, contradiction by the fact that teachers might find it difficult or impossible to find a new job, despite considering the current job to be intolerable and stressful. Veldman, Tartwijk, Brekelmans, & Wubbels (2013) qualitatively studied professional trajectories in four Dutch veteran teachers who remained not burned out at the end of their careers. They found that three teachers had attempted to leave their profession at some point. One teacher admitted that becoming a teacher was not his ambition when he was a student. However, as he could not find a job elsewhere, he remained in the profession as he realized that it was the only professional option for him. When he settled down and bought a house he no longer considered changing the profession. What is important is that although this teacher reported having good relationships with students, the authors found that “from the students’ point of view this relationship was far from positive” (p. 62). The second teacher also considered changing his career after the introduction of education reforms in the 1990s. 63
However, home responsibilities and a mortgage had a discouraging effect on his intentions. Finally, one female informant experienced a period of two years when she was looking for a job outside the school, but eventually she stayed in teaching. All in all, despite the fact that those teachers managed to remain not burned out, the findings might instead be evidence that some teachers are in the profession not because they truly want to, but because of so-called “negative selection”, where those who stay try to rationalize their state (i.e. “I should like what I have because I have no other option”). As noted by Pyżalski (2010b), some teachers, especially very competent ones and those who feel they will manage in the job market, ultimately resign from teaching and start working in organizations where the conditions and pay are more satisfactory. Buchanan (2010) conducted another qualitative study – by means of telephone interviews - on a sample of 21 Australian ex-teachers to find out what drove them from the profession and how they compare school to their current working conditions. It appeared that few regretted their decision. Buchanan pessimistically concludes that: The profession is losing highly competent people. A concurrent truism, alongside that of the multiple careers [in one’s lifespan], is that younger workers – the Gen X-ers and Y-ers – have an increasing capacity to vote with their feet in terms of their careers. Increasingly, the teaching profession needs to be competitive to attract, value-add to and retain quality staff (Buchanan, 2010, p. 209)
As studies into the psychological property of burnout reveal that burnout may be a temporary state that can be overcome by engaging in professional development (Chang, 2009), the issue of work engagement needs to be addressed. Various studies have found a relationship between work engagement and performance, where it appeared that the workers who are engaged in their work achieve better financial results and have more satisfied clients and customers. Arnold B. Bakker (Bakker et al., 2008) explains why engaged employees perform better in work settings compared with non-engaged ones. He argues that they tend to experience positive emotions (e.g. happiness, joy, and enthusiasm), they are more psychologically and physically healthy, they create their own resources (e.g. support from others), and they affect others with their engagement (p. 193). Positive emotions play a key role in fostering performance also according to Fredrickson (2001). Emotions such as joy, interest, contentment, pride and love are believed to optimize wellbeing and are imperative in achieving psychological growth. They broaden the range of thoughts and actions that come to mind when an individual is faced with a task requiring creativity, they eliminate negative emotions and foster psychological resilience.
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With regard to teachers, several studies have shown how work engagement positively influences them at individual and organizational levels. Work engagement has been found to be predictive of enhanced classroom performance, organizational commitment, and subjectively perceived health (Bakker et al., 2007). Moreover, the VITAE project (Day et. al., 2006) findings show that pupils of teachers who are committed to work were more likely to achieve results at or above the expected level, irrespective of the school context, whereas pupils of teachers who did not sustain their work commitment were more likely to score below the expected level.
Conclusion In light of the above, the issue of stress and burnout in contemporary teachers of English constitutes an important problem, whose diagnosis may be a worthwhile undertaking. It appears that research interest in the problem of stress and burnout has been limited to the professionals who work with children in state schools and that teachers of adults and freelance teachers have been entirely ignored by researchers. Moreover, a more modern approach to studying stress and burnout is necessary, where adopting recent developments in the field is vital to investigating the nature and extent of the problem and to provide evidence-based schemes to solve it. Hence, in line with the current paradigm in researching stress and burnout, selected job demands and job resources, with special emphasis on the teaching profession, will be more widely considered in Chapter Three of this thesis.
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CHAPTER THREE. JOB DEMANDS AND JOB RESOURCES IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION In order to fully understand teacher stress and burnout it is vital to examine the factors that stay in a close relationship with both phenomena. Sources of stress and burnout have received abundant attention in the literature, as discussed in the previous chapters. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that those accounts are not exhaustive, concentrating on some issues, while failing to notice others. The Job Demands-Resources model offers a promising perspective for a more comprehensive analysis of the factors that might contribute to teacher stress and burnout. It allows for a categorization of job demands and job resources in the teaching profession, whose presence or absence may have different consequences. Drawing on the JD-R model as a theoretical framework, the first part of this chapter will be devoted to the presentation of the job demands that characterize teachers’ work. The demands, i.e. the aspects that deteriorate teacher’ work wellbeing, are divided into four groups, i.e. socio-organization factors, mental challenges, strain caused by the physical environment, and sensory challenges. In the subsequent sections the focus will be shifted to the job resources available in teachers’ work contexts. The following resources, i.e. the factors that foster teachers’ work wellbeing, are going to be discussed: organizational factors, economic conditions, conditions for professional development, and communication conditions. Finally, work – life interaction will be outlined as it is assumed to play an important role in teachers’ perception of work wellbeing.
3.1. Factors negatively affecting teachers’ work wellbeing: job demands Job demands, whose presence is associated with employees’ ill-being, will be discussed within four broad categories: socio-organization factors, mental challenges, strain caused by the physical environment, and sensory challenges (cf. Yeung et al., 2005; Jaworek et al., 2010). Each category will be presented in turn.
3.1.1. Socio-organization factors The following are considered to be teachers’ job demands with regard to socio-organization factors in the current thesis: social interactions, workload (e.g. teaching load, work schedule, 66
time pressure), work roles and responsibility, atmosphere at work (e.g. ineffective management policies), and technical conditions (e.g. faulty equipment and inadequate facilities) (cf. Yeung et al., 2005).
Social interactions Social interactions may be a source of work conflict and have a strong influence on employees (Grzegorzewska, 2006, pp. 64-65). In the teaching context, four types of interactions need to be considered: teacher-student, teacher-teacher, teacher-administration/management, and teacher-parent interactions. On a daily basis teachers are primarily involved in interactions with students. Obviously, teachers experience a lot of satisfaction when they manage to get through to their students and establish a good rapport, while problems in creating and maintaining successful relations, accompanied by discipline problems, may lead to increased levels of strain in teachers. Pupils’ disruptive behaviour and discipline problems pose a significant challenge for teachers and are regarded as the main occupational stressors leading to emotional exhaustion (Chang, 2009; Bakker et al., 2007). This is because teachers have to be constantly alert and act when such behaviour appears, as indicated by one interviewee in Buchanan’s study (2010), and teaching is associated with “the constant pressure of having to maintain and manage behaviour” (Buchanan, 2010, p. 207). The literature provides some typologies of students’ disruptive behaviour. For example, in the research report on Polish teachers’ psychosocial work conditions, Pyżalski refers to two typologies. In the typology by Shechtman and Leichtentritt two categories are distinguished, i.e. misbehaviour (e.g. disturbing, aggression towards the teacher or peers) and off-task behaviour (not concentrating on tasks). In the typology by Pšunder three factors are considered, i.e. (1) behaviour officially considered as disobeying the schools’ regulations or as breaking the law (e.g. stealing, physical aggression, deliberate destruction of school property), (2) behaviour taken into official account and considered as less serious (e.g. addressing a teacher disrespectfully, offending other students), (3) behaviour not accounted for officially (e.g. cheating, reading newspapers in class) (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010, pp. 55-56). It appears that disruptive pupils had a negative impact on 50% of primary and secondary school teachers in the UK (Day et al., 2006). Specifically, teachers in the first three years of teaching were especially affected by how they could manage pupil misbehaviour. Older pupils (Year 9) had a less positive attitude to school and their teachers, compared with 67
younger pupils (Year 2 and 6), which significantly distressed teachers. Polish teachers mainly complain about their students talking in class, latecoming, off-task behaviour, or lack of engagement in class activities. Aggression towards the teacher or other students is rather rare (Pyżalski, 2010b). However, the study by Wysocka (2003) on teachers of English in Poland reveals that teachers do have problems with aggression in classes dominated by boys (e.g. aggressive and unpredictable behaviour towards other students or the teacher, spitting, swearing, taking off clothes), which very often leaves teachers helpless. Kindergarten teachers indicate problems with discipline of a different nature, i.e. when children cannot control their emotional (crying) or physiological (hiccups) reactions. Those teachers admit that with time they learn how to react, which takes some trial and error to achieve. It also appears that when teachers are confronted with discipline problems they react with anger or irritation, or send troublemakers to the head teacher. Interestingly, they are aware of the fact that bad behaviour is often caused by students’ boredom but they do not know how to deal with it (Wysocka, 2003). Remarkable results are revealed by Polish teachers’ convictions with regard to maintaining discipline and applying corporal punishment (Pyżalski, 2010b): 86% of teachers think that they should have more tools available to discipline students, 72% believe that discipline problems emerge because their students have more rights than teachers (this aspect was also brought up by the teachers of English in Wysocka’s study, who believe that students have more rights than teachers, which in practice involves students’ disregard of teachers’ reactions to improper behaviour), 50% think that a student should be at least a little afraid of the teacher, 30% feel that there are students who can be disciplined only by means of corporal punishment, 26% believe that they should give the impression of a strict and serious person in order to control the class, and 10% of teachers believe that lack of corporal punishment is one of the reasons why there are discipline problems in Polish schools. However, it is important to note that a great majority (90%) are against applying corporal punishment, and 84% are also against making it legal so that teachers could threaten their students with it (Pyżalski 2010b, p. 62). Teachers of English in Poland handle discipline problems in three ways (Wysocka, 2003). The first – the smallest – group of teachers manage to maintain discipline by setting clear rules at the beginning of the course and by consistently sticking to them. They keep calm, are aware of the fact that interested students do not disturb the lesson, and reward improvement in behaviour. The second group of teachers keep a distance from their students, and when problems occur they employ, as the author states, “sophisticated and rather 68
unpleasant solutions to the problem” (Wysocka, 2003, p. 74, present author’s translation), such as transfixing them with a look or humiliating them in front of the whole class. The last group of teachers use various forms of punishment, which is in their opinion the most effective way to deal with bad behaviour. Examples include a “penalty test” (the pupil responsible for the class having to take the test is identified so that the whole class may vent their anger on him/her), or “penalty points” which have an influence on the final grade at the end of the school year. The teachers who find keeping discipline in class difficult – especially in primary and lower secondary schools – admit that they can manage their pupils only by the use of punishment (Wysocka, 2003). Other areas have also been found to be significant in creating stress in EFL teachers. It appears that groupwork can be a source of discipline problems as teachers indicated that they cannot control the situation when students work in groups (some students switch into Polish then or talk about something else). For this reason teachers tend to avoid such class interactions. It was also found that some teachers of English do not know what to do when better students switch off their attention from classwork, weaker students withdraw, students speak Polish, conflicts arise, students do not want to cooperate with one another, or when nobody wants to work with “outsiders” (Wysocka, 2003, p. 77). Clearly, managing students may be a challenging issue, with which some teachers struggle, not knowing how to do it efficiently. However, it is not only disruptive students that may contribute to teachers’ stress and, consequently, burnout. It appears that lack of reciprocity in student-teacher relations predicts burnout as well. Students reciprocate teachers’ investments or enthusiasm when they react with gratitude. Inattentive, disrespectful, or bored students fail to return teachers’ effort, which leads to emotional exhaustion and, eventually, burnout (Bakker et al., 2007). This is confirmed by some language teachers from the ECML project (Rádai, 2003), who indicate children’s declining interest in learning languages. Evidently, teachers’ attempts to demonstrate the significance of learning a foreign language in the contemporary world may meet with unsatisfactory reactions, which can affect the quality of teacher-student relations. Despite the fact that most teachers of English in the Polish study by Wysocka (2003) report that they are able to maintain good relations with their students, there is a group of teachers who have problems in this respect. Strikingly, these are the teachers who do not like their job and are looking forward to getting another one. Alternatively, some teachers have previous negative experience with students and display an attitude of distrust. Yet others are uncertain how to react when something unexpected happens. Finally, large class size hinders 69
positive contact with students – teachers find it difficult to approach each student individually (Wyscoka, 2003). While teachers working with children and adolescents are mainly affected by discipline problems, teachers of adult learners encounter problems of a different character. Adult learners are usually motivated to learn once they enrol for a language course, and for this reason teachers do not have to fight for their attention. Adults want to learn for various reasons, such as: work-related (getting a job in a specific company, promotion, changing the job for a better one), international scholarships, getting to better schools or foreign universities, interest in the culture or language itself, a need for social contacts or trying to find a life partner (Martin, 2011). What makes interaction and work with this age group difficult is that adults have certain expectations concerning their classes, as Martin (2011) notes. According to this author, the following must be provided in order to satisfy adult learners and to keep them (as sources of income) in a private language school: interesting and exciting classes, developing students’ interests, based not only on the coursebook, but enriching it with Internet resources, films, etc., classes conducted almost exclusively in English, regardless of the proficiency level, encouraging students’ active participation and facilitating opportunities to produce longer utterances in class, quality feedback about students’ progress, individual approach, where learning styles and pace are taken into consideration and where teachers advise learners on how to learn effectively, not only are teachers’ professional competencies (language skills, knowledge about the culture, etc.) important, but also their personality and passion for teaching, being demanding for students, motivating them to do systematic individual work at home and to actively participate in class, constant revising of the covered material, teachers providing support when students face difficulties, dynamic lessons with logical stages enabling understanding and memorisation, where students see the sense of doing the activities proposed by the teacher, making good use of class time, using ICT while preparing lessons, i.e. podcasts, video clips, online articles, etc., learning how to learn effectively, i.e. effective vocabulary learning strategies,
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maintaining motivation levels, especially at higher proficiency levels (Martin, 2011, pp. 184-187). All it all, adult learners are demanding students, which requires from teachers a lot of skill, creativity and an individual approach to each student. It is very important that these expectations are met by schools and teachers because adult students – clients of language schools’ services – can choose a different school if they are dissatisfied with the service. Unquestionably, this may be a source of considerable stress for teachers of adults. What is more, even though adults usually do not cause discipline problems, their behaviour and attitudes can be difficult for teachers at times. In particular, students of private language schools can sometimes take advantage of their position, where they are the clients who pay for the service and who, as stated earlier, may turn to the competition if their demands or requests are not fulfilled. For this reason they may display a whole range of behaviours that is undesirable for teachers (and school authorities), i.e. forcing the school to enrol a student for a course at a higher level of language proficiency when not meeting the level description, getting promotion to the next level despite lack of progress in learning, instructing teachers on how to run classes, not accepting new students in class, demands for a change of a teacher when students do not like his/her personality or his/her sense of humour, etc. (Martin, 2011). Consequently, having to deal with mixed ability groups or dissatisfied students makes such teachers’ work more difficult as the atmosphere is tense and unpleasant, which may be considered highly stressful by teachers. Finally, some more light may be shed on the nature of stress at the tertiary education level. Krajka (2010) found that teachers of English while working in a multilingual class (with Chinese students) in a higher school encountered three types of teaching problems which can have an impact on teacher-student relations: culturally-conditioned problems, where students perceived the teacher’s role differently, were unwilling to speak to the teacher, cooperate with peers or volunteer, and where plagiarism was not recognized as something reprehensible, language-conditioned problems, e.g. mixed ability, problems with grammar and pronunciation, personality-conditioned problems, e.g. students’ shyness (Krajka, 2010, p. 251-252). Naturally, struggling with problems caused by cultural differences may also contribute to teacher stress.
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Teacher – administration/management interactions may be another source of considerable stress. Although teachers are much less frequently involved in this type of interaction, it may have a considerable impact on teachers’ work wellbeing. Previous research on teacher stress and burnout reveals that teacher-school head relations have been indicated as important in teachers’ evaluations of work conditions and wellbeing in Poland (e.g. Grzegorzewska, 2006). Moreover, according to the VITAE (Day et al., 2006) research findings, 85% of primary and secondary school teachers in the UK declared that the quality of school leaderships (next to relations with other colleagues) had a major influence on their commitment to work and their decision to stay or leave the school. The third group of interactions, and a potential source of work conflict and stress, is that of teacher-teacher interactions. Although teaching does not usually involve much cooperation with peer teachers, schools gather a group of people (teaching staff) who somehow relate to one another. Although most teachers do not report inappropriate teaching staff behaviour in the study reported by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010, p. 71), negative relations are reported in approximately every fifteenth school. It appears that 60% of teachers declare that there are colleagues who are not engaged in their work and do only the minimum or less of required work. 38% report that there are colleagues who laugh at or make it difficult for the teachers who want to do more at the school. One quarter of teachers point out that there are colleagues in their school who are pleased when other teachers have problems with their students. 7% of teachers state that all or most colleagues spread gossip in their schools, and every twentieth teacher declares that they work in a school where all or most teachers are unfriendly. All that indisputably has an influence on teachers’ morale and work atmosphere. The Polish teachers of English in Wysocka’s (2003) study positively assess their relations with other colleagues. However, there are some who do not get on with other teaching staff, where contact is rare and formal. A few of them never see their colleagues. Working with children and adolescents involves cooperation with their parents. Accordingly, teacher – parent interactions can also be a source of considerable stress in teachers’ work settings. The study by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010) confirms that these relations should be treated as a significant stressor in contemporary teachers. It was found that 34% of those surveyed feel emotionally exhausted after meetings with parents, which implies that such situations involve conflicts or problems with which teachers struggle. Besides, 30% do not feel supported by parents in their didactic and educational efforts. Similarly, in the study by Buchanan (2010) it emerges that some teachers do not feel supported by parents in conflicts with children, and often refuse to take responsibility for children’s behaviour and 72
learning. Teachers of English in Poland positively assess their relations with parents, though those contacts are rather rare as some parents do not show much interest in their children’s progress, according to the study participants. Some teachers negatively assess their relations with parents, which is a source of considerable resentment (Wysocka, 2003).
Workload Workload has been consistently found to be related to occupational stress and burnout (Pyżalski, 2010a). Empirical studies found evidence that quantitative overload leads to more exhaustion and less dedication at work over time (Prieto et al., 2008). However, it is not only excessive quantitative overload (i.e. too many tasks to complete within a specific time limit) that has an influence on work wellbeing. Qualitative overload (i.e. not having the right competencies to do one’s job) can be a source of stress as well, and has an influence on the evaluation of stress and work performance. What is more, qualitative underload (i.e. not being able to make use of one’s competencies in one’s work) may also negatively influence an individual, leading to boredom, lack of motivation and routine. Only optimal workload ensures a sense of achievement, creativity, energy and motivation (Grzegorzewska 2006, p. 58). According to the study on the psychosocial work conditions of Polish teachers (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010), it appears that 86% of teachers in Poland believe that their work strain is higher compared with other professions. One of the reasons for this may be that teachers’ work continues outside the school building, usually at home, where checking students homework (e.g. long essays), tests and exams, or preparing classes takes a lot of time. For instance, Buchanan (2010), in his qualitative study on ex-teachers, cites an interviewee who is now a nurse: Teaching was a job that never stopped, mentally […] There was a lot of extra work when I got home. I found that really draining… I’d be up till 11 or 12 o’clock planning for the next day. If you are going to do it properly[,] I would be up at 3 o’clock in the morning down in the garage looking for books or props […] (Buchman, 2010, pp. 203-204)
The number of teaching hours (time spent by teachers with their groups) in European state schools is defined in teachers’ employment contracts and varies from 12 hours to 36 hours per week, depending on the country, the level of education, or teachers’ experience (e.g. in Germany, Greece and Spain teaching hours are reduced as teachers’ experience/age increases). In Poland, weekly teaching load is regulated by the Teachers’ Charter (Karta Nauczyciela, Article 42, Act of 26.01.1982 with further amendments). Under this Act, 73
kindergarten teachers (except for teachers working with children aged 6) are obliged to work at least 25 hours per week, teachers working with children aged 6 – 22 hours, teachers employed in primary schools, lower and upper secondary schools, and special kindergartens and schools - 18 hours. This constitutes the minimum weekly load and the overall working time of a teacher employed full time cannot exceed 40 hours per week. A detailed report on Polish teachers’ time and working conditions from the teachers’ perspective (Czas pracy i warunki pracy w relacjach nauczycieli) has recently been published by Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych (IBE; Federowicz et al., 2013). Previous studies provided divergent results, ranging from 26 to 45 hours per week, due to the difference in the employed methods, tools, and sample selection, as well as the differences in defining the concept of teachers’ working time. The authors of the report aimed to establish the actual time spent in a typical school week on all professional activities and to examine the factors that determined the diversity. The overall, “real”, working time included the time stipulated by the contract, as well as teachers’ individual work (i.e. lesson preparation, collection and preparation of lesson materials, writing tests, checking homework and class tests), the time spent at school, at home and in other places. In order to obtain reliable and accurate results, the authors carried out a quantitative study on primary, secondary and vocational school teachers by means of two techniques. The first – Day After Recall (DAR) - involved a sample of 2617 teachers, where they studied a typical teacher’s day. The second - Computer Assisted Web Interviewing (CAWI) - included a sample of 4762 teachers, where a typical teacher’s week was studied. The project lasted one year (from November 2011 to December 2012). It appears that 78% of teachers think that their obligatory teaching load (pensum) is neither too big nor too small, but 17% indicate that it is rather too small or definitely too small, and 5% - that it is too big or definitely too big. Furthermore, the study identifies fifty four activities carried out by teachers, out of which only five dominate in a typical professional day, i.e. giving classes, preparing classes, giving other classes, preparing other classes, and checking homework, which the authors call the “big five”. Apart from those main activities, it is important to note that 6% of teachers’ time is spent on documenting the didactic process, 4% on professional development, and 1.3% on individual contact with parents. In a typical week all the professional activities take, on average, 34 hours 35 minutes as measured by the CAWI technique, and 46 hours 40 minutes as measured by the DAR technique (the results concern teachers who work 18-27 school hours per week, who do not carry out other functions, and work in one school only). The difference in the results is a consequence of the employed methods. DAR interviews are 74
considered to be more reliable as teachers refer to the previous day, and so their memory is still quite vivid. However, this method fails to capture weekly differences in the workload, and the CAWI study - aimed at evaluating time spent weekly on specific activities - is believed to be free of this disadvantage. An interesting relationship occurs as to overall work time. A linear relationship is observed in the teachers whose obligatory teaching load is less than 18 hours per week, i.e. the more classes teachers have, the more they work in general, but when teachers have 18 or more classes per week, their overall work time stabilizes and does not differ from the teachers working 20 or 25 hours per week. As to work schedule, 83% of teachers assess their work schedule well or very well, 4% - badly, and 13% - neither well nor badly. During the breaks teachers mainly keep order in the corridor (73%), talk to their students (64%) and other teachers (60%), prepare classes (39%) or eat (28%). They seldom deal with private matters (2%), talk to parents (3%) or check homework (4%). Free periods (okienka) are undesirable elements of teachers’ schedules and teachers who do not have such periods assess their schedule better. During this time teachers often check homework or complete school documentation, but rarely relax or deal with private matters (Federowicz et al., 2013). Apart from the size of the teaching load, the pupil/teacher ratio may influence teachers’ perception of their workload, i.e. the more students teachers have in their classes, the more work in general they have, especially as to checking homework or tests. The Eurydice report (2013) provides data on the pupil-teacher ratio (obtained by dividing the total number of pupils by the total number of teachers) that indicates the size of the teaching workforce in a country (not to be confused with the class size – the number of pupils in a single class). In Europe, the highest ratio in primary education is that observed in Turkey (22:1), whereas the lowest ratios are in Lithuania (10:1) and in Lichtenstein (9:1). In secondary education the highest ratios are in Turkey (17:1), the Netherlands (16.5:1), and the UK (16:1). In Poland the ratio is relatively low and stands at 10:1 at the primary education level and at the secondary level the ratio is 12.3:1 (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 69). The literature gives little attention to teachers working with adults in the NVAL sector (e.g. in language schools). The ALPINE report (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008) indicates that those teachers are often freelancers, whose work schedule is usually associated with more freedom and opportunities to reconcile work with home duties, due to flexible working hours. Notably, as educators usually have to adjust to their clients’ requirements,
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they typically work in the evenings or at weekends when their clients are free to take up extra activities. All in all, the size of workload may be a source of teacher exhaustion, leading to burnout in the long run. Nonetheless, it is not the only undesirable consequence. Van Ruysseveldt, Verboon, & Smulders (2011) found that a large workload hinders workplace learning. The authors explain that since learning requires time to observe, reflect and exchange opinions with others, excessive workload forces employees to focus on current tasks, which precludes “behaviours that are not immediately productive, such as reflection, exploration and experimentation – actions that are necessary conditions for workplace learning” (p. 219). Apparently, this compels teachers to resort to previous, habitual or routine behaviour. Needless to say, this – next to exhaustion - may have a detrimental effect on teachers’ workplace functioning and professional development.
Work responsibilities and roles General state school teachers’ responsibilities are defined in the Teachers’ Charter (Karta Nauczyciela, Article 6, Act of 26.01.1982 with further amendments) and are as follows: (1) to diligently execute didactic and educational tasks pertinent to the entrusted position and basic school functions, (2) to support every pupil in their development, (3) to aim at one’s own full personal development, (4) to educate young people in the love of the Homeland, in respect to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, in an atmosphere of freedom of conscience and respect for every person, (5) to promote pupils’ moral and civic attitudes in accordance with the ideas of democracy, peace and friendship among people of all nationalities, races and worldviews. Next to these responsibilities, primary and secondary school teachers are in charge of administering national (standardized and centrally set) tests, and marking them. In Poland, teachers at upper secondary level assess the oral part of the matriculation exam only, whereas the written part, as well as exams at primary and lower secondary level, are assessed by external examiners (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, pp. 108-109). Moreover, a trend where students and their parents are treated as a school’s clients has been brought about by demographic decline. For this reason teachers are increasingly responsible for retaining students/pupils, who are a source of income for schools (Poraj, 2009, p. 38). As regards language teachers, the Core Curriculum (Podstawa Programowa; Tom 3; Języki obce w szkole podstawowej, gimnazjum i liceum, 2010) specifies the language 76
knowledge and skills that Polish pupils from primary and secondary schools are expected to acquire. In order to achieve those stipulated outcomes, language teachers need to assume a range of responsibilities, such as the responsibility for the gradual development of students’ language competence, as well as for incorporating ICT in the learning process, and fostering an attitude of tolerance and openness towards other cultures. At the final educational stage, to further develop students’ language competencies, teachers are supposed to grant access to the language in films, newspapers, the Internet, literature, etc., establish regular contact with native speakers, and participate in various exchange programmes. EFL teachers may assume a number of roles, according to Lewicka-Mroczek (2010). She distinguishes external and internal factors as influencing the application of teacher roles. With regard to external factors, methodological trends in language teaching and the teaching context (i.e. taught age group, teaching conditions, country-level regulations and requirements, short-term and long-term aims, etc.) have an influence on the roles’ application. As to internal factors, the following have an impact on the applied roles: teachers’ beliefs, personality, attitude, motivation, teaching preferences and education (pp. 224-226). The selection of a role is strongly determined by learners’ age, which diversifies their needs, interests, knowledge and experience. Lewicka-Mroczek (2010) asserts that teachers of children should assume the role of a supporter, motivator, planner and manager of the learning process, a fair evaluator, a good language model to follow, a culture transmitter, and a technician. Teachers of teenagers are supposed to act as facilitators and organizers of the learning process, providers of stimulating materials, motivators (especially if learners have lost their initial curiosity and have prior unpleasant learning experience) and monitors of progress. What is important, as nowadays students have to take an external lower and upper secondary school leaving exam in a foreign language, is that EFL teachers also play the role of knowledge providers and controllers of students’ progress. Working with adults, teachers may need to choose the following roles: providers of useful materials, friends and participants in the leaning process, experts, counselors, facilitators and learning advisors, and discreet monitors of progress, where creating a supportive and low-anxiety environment remains of great importance (pp. 232-239). Martin (2011) compares teachers in language schools to students’ fans and referees, who provide support at times of crisis and are pleased with students’ success, but who also monitor their progress and administer tests and exams. At the tertiary level, students are preparing to enter employment, so teachers’ roles consist in providing opportunities for practicing students’ skills (e.g. giving presentations, negotiations, running meetings, etc.) in order to be competitive in the job market (Piasecka, 2007, p. 185). 77
Role performance may be stressful not only because of perceived incompetence or uncertainty as to its execution. It appears that it is a straining experience under a number of other circumstances, i.e. when the role is ambiguous, its execution is in conflict with other roles, and when facing role over- or underload. Role ambiguity appears when an employee does not have clearly defined work aims or range of work duties and, consequently, misinterprets the entrusted responsibilities. In the teaching context role ambiguity results from constant changes in the educational system, and changes in the methods and requirements, which causes lack of clarity in the range of work duties (Grzegorzewska, 2006). Role conflict refers to having to deal with contradictory demands concerning the role execution (e.g. there are a few supervisors whose demands are contradictory), or conflict between work roles and an employee’s needs, potential or values. An important issue connected to the role conflict in the teaching context is that of female teachers, who usually have to juggle their home and professional roles (Grzegorzewska, 2006). In addition, Komorowska (2011) notices a role conflict with regard to implementing an autonomous learning approach in the didactic process nowadays. Specifically, teachers who consider their role to be that of an organizer of learning (who choose coursebooks and extra resources) may perceive learner autonomy as a threat to their authority and sense of control. Moreover, students may believe that the choice of learning aims and type of material is the teacher’s domain (p. 67). Role overload emerges when an employee is unable to deal with all the tasks assumed in the role within a set time and maintain a good quality of work because of excessive tasks (quantitative overload), task difficulty (qualitative overload), time pressure or the range of the responsibility. Role underload, on the other hand, involves executing a role which requires a very limited range of work tasks or tasks in which employees do not fully employ their skills or potential (Grzegorzewska, 2006; Terelak, 2008). Needless to say, difficulties in performing professional roles may be a significant stressor in teaching, and there is evidence that role conflict leads to increased cynicism, while role ambiguity leads to decreased dedication at work (Prieto et al., 2008). Moreover, it is important to note that teachers are explicitly or implicitly obliged to perform a number of duties and roles, regardless of their work experience. As Khamis puts it: “although the expectations of their [beginning teachers] performances may not be the same as the expectations of veteran [experienced] teachers, the responsibilities are the same” (in: Buchanan, 2010, p. 208). That statement might imply two things, i.e. that either beginning 78
teachers are initially overloaded with work responsibility and roles, or that experienced teachers remain underloaded in this respect. The present author tends to believe that it is the latter, which may lead to boredom and routine at work and have an unfavourable impact on work wellbeing.
Atmosphere at work Work climate, created to a large extent by school management policies, may be an important source of dissatisfaction and stress in many work settings. According to Deci and Ryan (2008) social climates that are perceived as controlling and pressurizing have a negative influence on people, whereas those that are supportive and informational tend to positively affect people at work. Regrettably, many organizations ignore that aspect and treat individual employees as an element of the mass, which can influence employees’ organizational commitment. It occurs that such organizations are also characterized by poor communication and inappropriate flow of information. Consequently, work atmosphere is affected and a sense of redundancy and insignificance emerge (Grzegorzewska, 2006, p. 65). Interestingly, Faragher, Cooper and Cartwright (2004) found a strong correlation between the commitment from the employee and the perceived commitment from the organization (r= 0.676). They state that “the extent to which employees consider their organization is committed to them is likely to influence greatly the extent to which they reciprocate commitment back to the organization” (p. 198). Work climate in schools is shaped by their character, culture, quality of teaching and resources, as well as social relations. If it is viewed negatively, teachers experience stress and over time develop burnout. A number of studies show that school climate may be a source of stress in teachers (e.g. Grzegorzewska, 2006) or may lead to teacher attrition (e.g. Müller et al., 2009). The majority of early school teachers of English in the qualitative study by Bogucka (2007) complain about the atmosphere in the staffroom, which is “impersonal” and “cold” (p. 53). In contrast, if school climate is assessed positively, it may boost wellbeing (resilience, motivation and achievement) in teachers, administrators, as well as students (Collie, Shapka, & Perry, 2012). Furthermore, Bakker et al. (2007) argue that school climate may also support teachers’ work engagement, by creating challenges and opportunities for self-development. Also, the issue of teachers’ identification with the organization has been addressed in the literature as it may have a great impact on the evaluation of work climate. Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011) define teachers’ feeling of belonging to a school as “the degree to which they 79
[teachers] feel integrated with colleges, administrators, and students at school” (p. 372). In their study on 231 Norwegian primary and secondary school teachers they found that teachers’ feeling of belonging, and their work satisfaction, are related to the extent they share the norms and values of the school. Besides, it appears that teachers who feel that they “belong there” also feel that they are liked, respected and valued by the school, otherwise they feel different and estranged (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011).
Technical conditions Technical conditions in schools contribute to teachers’ comfort and create opportunities to give an attractive lesson. Lack of materials, inadequate facilities and faulty equipment may negatively influence teachers’ work wellbeing and impede effective work performance. A qualitative study on ex-teachers in Australia (Buchanan, 2010) reveals that working conditions in some schools may still be very poor. One interviewee mentioned “incredibly old dilapidated classrooms, no air-conditioning, no blinds, blackboards not fixed to the wall, on stands, falling apart”. Another one stated: “We had really dodgy old books that were falling apart because of the way funding was. You were undervalued as a teacher in that way. Like chalk and stuff. You had to provide a lot of your own things. You just always struggled” (p. 207). However, according to the IBE report (Federowicz et al., 2013), the present situation in Polish schools is not that appalling. In general, 92% of teachers are satisfied with their work conditions, 90% of them think that the conditions for individual work at school are good, and 95% positively assess the sanitary conditions in their schools (p. 58). It appears that teachers have easy access to chalk (98%), though much more restricted to paper (50%) and other stationery articles (43%). Contemporary education involves the use of multimedia and office equipment, and almost all teachers indicate having Internet connection (98%), a desktop computer (97%), a photocopier (96%), and a CD player (96%) in their schools. Some teachers do not use school equipment (such as a scanner, a projector, a projector screen, a multimedia board, a TV, a laptop, a notebook). This is so not because they do not need them but because they cannot use them – they are out of order, there is no toner, ink or paper in the printer, or the queue for the photocopier is very long. In the study referred to it was also found that despite the availability of multimedia equipment, there are problems with its organization, i.e. teachers have to look for and bring it from other classrooms, which involves coming to work earlier or sacrificing their break to organize everything (p. 48-51).
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The teachers’ room is where teachers can rest as well as work, and whose comfort may be achieved largely by creating appropriate technical conditions. As it appears in the IBE study (Federowicz et al., 2013), teachers mainly drink tea or coffee (42%) there, eat (34%) and work individually (31%). They more seldom rest there (19%), work with other teachers (12%), or meet with parents and students (6%). With regard to equipment and facilities, there is room for personal belongings (88%), a kitchen annexe (82%), a computer (66%), Internet connection (66%), a photocopier (48%), a printer (43%), a place for individual work (40%), and a scanner (12%). Those results may explain why 53% of Polish teachers prefer to do individual work (preparing lessons and tests, checking homework, etc.) at home. It seems that only there can some of them find the right conditions that allow them to work. Only 8% prefer to work at school, while for 35% the preferred place depends on the type of activity, and for 4% the place does not matter (pp. 44-56). Moreover, the subjective perception of workspace arrangement and furniture may be of importance at work (Yeung et al., 2005). This aspect was also studied and reported by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010), and it appeared that Polish teachers do have some reservations: 22% of respondents think that school corridors are not wide enough and that they are too crowded, 33% are of the opinion that the teachers’ room is not big enough for all the teachers to feel comfortable, 25% do not have appropriate furniture to keep their materials and private belongings, and 18% indicate that the furniture (chairs) is uncomfortable (pp. 118 – 119).
3.1.2. Mental challenges Mental challenges can cause emotional exhaustion, which can directly lead to burnout. Despite its significance, there is little interest in researching the relationship between mental challenges and work wellbeing among teachers. There is only limited evidence that teachers of English have problems explaining grammar rules, which kindergarten teachers find especially difficult and report high levels of helplessness and uncertainty while faced with this task (Wysocka, 2003). Yeung et al. (2005), in their survey on the workload of hospital nurses, include a scale called “mental task requirement”, which consists of the following subscales: information processing, memory-related requirements, cognitive requirements, and peak mental requirements. Since no more elaboration on those is provided, this enumeration gives only a vague idea of what constitutes mental strain. Therefore, further sources need to be consulted in order to examine mental challenges in the teaching context. 81
Nęcka, Orzechowski, & Szymura (2006) distinguish between primary cognitive processes (elementarne procesy poznawcze) and complex cognitive processes (złożone procesy poznacze). With regard to primary cognitive processes, the following fall into the category: vigilance (uwaga), cognitive control, perception, and memory. As far as complex cognitive processes are concerned, these are enumerated: thinking and reasoning, problem solving, making judgments and decision making. It seems that all of these can be associated with stress in teachers across various contexts. Problems with regard to these processes might emerge either as a stress consequence (e.g. stress-affected thinking, reasoning and memory) or may be a source of stress (e.g. problem solving or decision making).
3.1.3. Physical environment conditions Undoubtedly, optimal physical environment conditions are vital to teachers’ work wellbeing. In contrast, stressors residing in the physical environment can deteriorate work comfort and lead to worsened work performance. Jóźwiak (2010) distinguishes four types of stressors that are of a physical nature and that can appear in work settings: climatic demands (air temperature, circulation and humidity), poor lighting, and chronobiological demands (e.g. a night shift, a weekend shift) which are related to incompatibility with biological cycles (sleep, meal times, work times). As a consequence, mistakes at work can occur, or it may take a prolonged time to complete a task. However, the study reported by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010) reveals that the physical environment does not constitute a source of discomfort or other problems for Polish teachers.
3.1.4. Sensory challenges Challenges of a sensory nature (related to the sense of sight, hearing, smell and the voice organ) in the teaching profession have not received a satisfactory account in the literature. There is only evidence of teachers reporting voice complaints and excessive noise at schools. Challenges related to the sense of sight and smell seem to have been neglected in the literature on teacher stress and burnout. Voice complaints constitute a significant problem in the teaching profession, where problems such as hoarseness, dry throat, or cracking voice appear after intensive vocal effort (Śliwińska-Kowalska, Fiszer, Kotyło, Ziatkowska, Stępowska, & Niebudek-Bogusz, 2002).
82
As to the sense of hearing, according to Jóźwiak (2010) noise can damage the hearing organ, and cause exhaustion of the nervous system and general discomfort. The results presented in the report by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010) show that 63% of teachers in Poland are often exposed to a lot of noise. Also, teachers of English in the study by Wysocka (2003) indicated that groupwork may be a source of significant noise in class, but they are able to tolerate it as this is the result of students’ work.
3.2. Factors fostering teachers’ work wellbeing: job resources The presence of the other category of work conditions – job resources – is associated with work wellbeing, and they are particularly important in work environments where highly stressful conditions – job demands – operate (Bakker et al., 2007). Moreover, owing to their motivational potential, job resources are associated with work engagement (Demerouti et al., 2001). The following kinds of job resources will be considered in the subsequent sections: organizational factors, economic conditions, conditions for professional development, and communication conditions (cf. Yeung et al., 2005; Jaworek et al., 2010).
3.2.1. Organizational factors With regard to this type of work conditions, the following will be discussed in the subsequent sections: autonomy at the task level (determining teachers’ own schedules and procedures), autonomy at the organizational level (influencing organizational policies and procedures, participation in important decision-making), work meaningfulness, and professional status (cf. Yeung et al., 2005).
Autonomy at the task level Autonomy at the task level, understood as freedom in determining one’s own work schedule and work procedures, may be considered essential in fostering work wellbeing. As asserted by Deci and Ryan (2008), autonomy involves acting volitionally, with “a full sense of choice and endorsement of an activity” (p. 15), and is believed to be one of the basic human needs. It plays a motivational role in achieving work goals and is associated with better performance, productivity, greater psychological well-being, satisfaction with work, and less burnout. They argue that: “When people’s autonomy is supported, they often feel free to follow their interests and consider the relevance and importance for themselves of social values, mores, 83
and norms” (Deci & Ryan, 2008, p. 18). Conversely, lack of perceived autonomy in determining one’s work schedule and control over the organization of work or work environment have been regarded as closely related to burnout (De Lange et al., 2008). Pearson and Moomaw (2005), in their study on the relationship between teacher autonomy and stress, work satisfaction, empowerment and professionalism, found that with the increase in curriculum autonomy, the perceived job stress decreased. However, they found little relationship between curriculum autonomy and job satisfaction. Apparently, teachers need freedom in order to decide what is best for their students and limiting teachers’ autonomy by constraining their control and power in this area leads to tension, frustration and anxiety (Pearson & Moomaw, 2005; Langballe, Innstrand, Aasland, & Falkum, 2011). As Pearson and Moomaw (2005) put it: Teachers feel that they are qualified authorities in the instructional process because they have considerable expertise in specialized fields; they have a right to organize the learning process according to their own choosing; and that the network of impersonal school rules stops at the classroom door because teachers formulate their own, personalized, flexible rules, which allow them to operate within their classroom as they see fit (2005, p. 41).
Indeed, teachers have their own ways of teaching which they consider to be most effective in their work, as illustrated by one veteran teacher of the German language from the qualitative study by Veldman et al. (2013): I had ideas about how you teach a language best: first listening, then reading, and then more active skills like writing and speaking. And then, suddenly, due to the reforms[,] I […] was [only] allowed to teach reading: so boring… And all those study planners; I couldn’t improvise any more… (p. 62).
At this point it should be noted that the fact that teachers’ autonomy concerning work methods or procedures is sometimes restricted for various reasons does not necessarily mean they are unconstructive limitations. It is commonly known that some teachers make uninformed didactic decisions or tend to choose work methods out of routine (if not laziness). On such occasions supervisors’ or authorities’ attempts at modernizing or improving the quality of the teaching-learning process may meet with resistance. At any rate, this sensitive issue of teachers’ autonomy in determining work methods requires tact and diplomacy, as teachers may take it as criticism of their competence and expertise, leading to dissatisfaction with the workplace or the profession. The Eurydice report (2013) shows that teachers in Europe are usually free to decide on the curricular content of optional subjects, teaching methods, choice of school textbooks, grouping of students for learning activities, and choice of internal assessment methods. It 84
appears that in Europe, on average, teachers in primary education have more autonomy with regard to these issues, compared with secondary school teachers. In Poland, teachers can influence all the above-mentioned areas, with some restrictions on the curricular content of optional subjects and grouping of students (p. 104). However, some researchers point to the problem of shrinking autonomy as to the choice of didactic aims, content and forms, which is a direct result of centralization of education and external evaluation of teaching/learning outcomes. This entails limiting schools’ and teachers’ autonomy in deciding what is best for their students (Pyżalski, 2010b). Secondly, as most Polish schools are exam-oriented, that may also have a negative influence on teachers’ autonomy, leading to competition rather than cooperation among the teaching staff (Poraj, 2009). As discussed above, the issue of autonomy concerning work procedures or methods has received a relatively good account in the literature. However, little is known about autonomy in determining work schedule.
Autonomy at the organization level Influencing organizational policies and procedures, as well as participation in important decision-making, are regarded as significant determinants of employees’ work wellbeing (Grzegorzewska 2006, p. 62), and constitute the criteria for establishing the range of teacher autonomy at the organization/school level. In Europe, teachers are usually involved in the decision making concerning student progression from grade to grade in the countries where there are no regulations for automatic progression. Most teachers participate in the grade retention process by forming a decision, making
a
proposal,
and
being
consulted
on
the
matter
(European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 109). However, it appears that teachers have limited, if any, influence on school policies and the decisions which concern the educational system in general. The report (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013) indicates that teachers in Europe (including Poland) are excluded from decision-making regarding school personnel management, i.e. recruitment for vacancies, substituting absent teachers, teachers’ dismissal, teachers’ responsibilities and duties, and election of school heads. Teachers can have a voice in only a few countries, mainly when choosing a school head (p. 104). Changes administered by authorities, e.g. the ministry of education, without consulting with teachers, were indicated as a source of dissatisfaction in language teachers (Rádai, 2003). 85
Work meaningfulness and professional status Work meaningfulness, i.e. the evaluation of how important or significant what one does professionally is, may be considered to be one of the key aspects contributing to work dissatisfaction if the appraisal is negative. As argued by Ayala M. Pines (2000), people want their work to make sense, to be meaningful and wanted by other people. Moreover, according to Pines, success at work equals personal success, and failure at work equals personal failure. For this reason, teachers who, despite their efforts, do not achieve desirable outcomes, might feel that their work does not make sense and does not profit anybody, which may lead to burnout. That is confirmed in the Polish study, where it was found that the higher the scores on lack of work meaningfulness, the higher the scores in all burnout dimensions. Besides, it appears that 22% of teachers reported lack of work meaningfulness as a significant work strain (Pyżalski, 2010). The teaching profession may be considered important for several reasons. Most importantly, as indicated by Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011), teachers feel that they have an impact on children’s lives. As to language teachers, Rádai (2003) points to three areas that make teachers think that their work is valuable. First come the reasons related to (young) learners (students’ achievements, creativity and reciprocity in relationships). Secondly, there are the functional aspects connected with the importance of languages, the learning of which allows learners to make friends around the world and live in the multicultural world. Finally, they believe that their profession involves didactic innovation, i.e. developments in didactics, applied linguistics, and language pedagogy (such as autonomous learning, new technologies in language learning, etc.). Teachers’ work meaningfulness and worth may be influenced by the perception of their status in the society and how prestigious the profession is in the opinion of the society. For example, Buchanan (2010) found that Australian ex-teachers’ opinions on the prestige of teaching varied, i.e. some felt that teachers were treated with respect, others reported mixed reactions, yet others indicated that there was no respect for this profession. As stated by one participant: “I was shocked… teachers are not really highly regarded at all… Is anyone even valuing what we’re doing?” (Buchanan, 2010, p. 207). In Europe, language teachers’ status varies from country to country, as reported by Rádai (2003), who found that in some countries language teachers are more respected than other teachers (e.g. in Austria, Finland, Lithuania, Slovakia), while in other countries all teachers have the same status (e.g. in the Czech Republic, Poland, Spain), yet in others language teachers have less respect when compared 86
with teachers of other subjects (e.g. in Greece, Sweden). Several participants indicated their dissatisfaction with the low status language teachers have in the society, which in their opinion is caused by low salaries, as well as the lower status of the language they teach, compared with other subjects or other languages (“overrated presence of English”, p. 27). Early education teachers of English in Poland (Bogucka, 2007) report that the decline of the status and respect for the teaching profession is caused by the negative image pictured by the media and low financial rewards. As far as teachers of adults are concerned, the ALPINE report (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008) reveals that the status and perception of educators varies across Europe: “Some say it is a profession that is only for those who are unable to teach elsewhere. Others say that it is a highly respected occupation with a lot of professional freedom” (p. 151). Bogucka (2007) notes that: “Teachers seem to be locked in a vacuum. They dream about the traditional concept of authority and a high unquestionable status. The fact that they are needed in a ‘different way’ surpasses their traditional understanding of the profession” (Bogucka, 2007, p. 55). Undeniably, this attitude has a negative impact not only on teachers’ work commitment, satisfaction, and intention to stay in this profession. As Rádai (2003) asserts, fewer and fewer people want to pursue a career in teaching, and those who do decide to become teachers exhibit lower academic ability. Interestingly, despite teachers’ opinions, social recognition for teachers’ work in Poland is still quite high, according to the CBOS (Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej Public Opinion Research Centre) survey results from 2009 on the prestige of professions. It appears that teachers are in seventh position in the ranking (after university professors, firefighters, miners, nurses, doctors and factory engineers), where 70% of respondents stated that they held teachers in high regard, and 24% in average regard. However, it is necessary to observe that there has been a slight decline since 1995, when 73% of people stated that they had high esteem for teachers.
3.2.2. Economic conditions The next category of job resources available in teaching – economic conditions – will be discussed taking two broad aspects into consideration, i.e. salary (including benefits, financial incentives and promotion-related rises) and job security.
Salary 87
It is all too obvious to state that financial conditions have an influence on work attitude. Not surprisingly, inappropriate pay has been invariably associated with teacher stress and burnout. Apparently, teachers may vary in this respect depending on the sector they work in and the subject they teach. In the case of state school teachers in Europe, there are various pay scales, as shown in the latest Eurydice report (European Commission, 2013) Teachers’ and School Heads’ Salaries and Allowances in Europe, 2012/2013. The basic statutory salary is paid to teachers who have the minimum qualifications required and teach at a specific level of the education system. The basic gross annual statutory salary is paid in a year, and includes general increases, the ‘13-month’, and sometimes holiday-pay. The minimum salary amounts to the level of the basic gross salary, which teachers receive at the beginning of their careers. The maximum salary is the basic gross salary, and includes the increases related to the length of service and/or age. Teachers’ statutory salaries are accompanied by various allowances and benefits (e.g. for further formal qualifications, positive performance appraisal, teaching in difficult circumstances, teaching students with special needs, additional responsibilities, extracurricular activities, overtime, geographical location, etc.), and therefore the actual teacher salary may be in fact higher than the maximum salary. Actual gross average salary includes basic gross statutory salary and all the allowances, bonuses and financial benefits (divided by the total number of teachers at that level). In Poland, state school teachers’ salaries are regulated by the Teachers’ Charter (Karta Nauczyciela, Article 30, Act of 26.01.1982 with further amendments). Teacher salary consists of the base salary, bonuses (seniority bonus, incentive bonus, responsibility bonus, and a bonus for work conditions), pay for overtime hours and substitution, awards, and other benefits resulting from employment. The level of basic salary depends on the professional status, formal qualifications and the number of obligatory hours in the teacher’s schedule. The level of benefits, on the other hand, depends on the length of employment, the quality of performed work and extra duties performance, entrusted position or function, as well as arduous working conditions. Table 2.1. compares the annual gross salaries of full-time fully qualified teachers in state schools in 2011/12 and 2012/13 in Poland (European Commission, 2012, p. 62; European Commission, 2013, p. 60).
88
Table 3.1. Annual gross salaries of full-time fully qualified teachers in state schools in 2011/12 and 2012/13 in Poland (Source: European Commission, 2012, p. 62; European Commission, 2013, p. 60) Basic statutory salary (in PLN) Average actual Minimum
Maximum
salary (in PLN)
2011/12 2012/13 2011/12 2012/13 2011/12
2012/13
Pre-primary
22010
22805
36579
37983
47001
49005
Primary
22010
22805
36579
37983
54092
56168
Lower secondary
24787
25687
41702
43309
54911
57079
Upper secondary
28020
29043
47728
49573
53673
55821
The level of salaries has been increasing, which is the result of teacher salaries reform. In 2012/13 an increase of 3.8% was a continuation of government action to achieve a 50% growth in teachers’ salaries by 2012 in comparison with 2007. In the previous year 2011/12 the increase amounted to 7% (European Commission, 2012; European Commission, 2013). Teachers working outside the state sector operate under other regulations. The salaries of teachers working in the private sector are governed in accordance with the Labour Code and schools’ statutes (European Commission, 2013, p. 60). As regards the NVAL sector (such as private language schools), there is no statutory structure for salary scales, and no official data on teacher salaries are available. According to the ALPINE report (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008), salary levels vary according to the country, service provider, or type of position, and are usually assessed as unsatisfactory in most European countries. However, Polish interviewees (educators of adults) stated that they were satisfied with their salaries, which were often above the country average. They indicated the problem of income instability, though (p. 108), which will be further discussed in the next subsection. The ECML project (Rádai, 2003) findings show that European language teachers feel that their qualifications and expertise are not appropriately rewarded. In particular, Central and Eastern European teachers have to work a lot in order to earn enough, which is recognized as a source of stress and burnout (Rádai, 2003, p. 27). Contrary to this, Buchanan (2010), in the study on ex-teachers in Australia, found that salary was not the most important reason for leaving the profession, although it was indicated as having an impact on the standard of family life. As Buchanan puts it: “a substantial proportion of teachers choose their profession neither because of nor despite salary levels, but regardless of them” (p. 207). 89
Job security The teaching profession has been associated with relative job security in the state sector as it usually involves employment on a permanent contract basis. In Europe, there are three categories of employment status of fully qualified teachers at pre-primary to upper secondary levels in state sector education: employees with contractual status - teachers are employed by local or school authorities on a contractual basis, where the contract is regulated by general employment legislation and central agreements on salaries and conditions (in countries like Italy, Estonia, the UK), civil servant status - teachers are employed by state authorities, and whose contract is in accordance with legislation different from the laws operating in the private sector (in Austria, Hungary or Finland), career civil servant status – teachers are appointed for life by central or regional authorities, and they can lose their job only in exceptional situations (in Spain, France or Germany). Before teachers assume permanent positions, a probation period is required in most countries (except for Belgium, Lithuania, Romania and Turkey). This involves being temporarily appointed for a trial period, which lasts from several months to several years. Permanent
employment
is
granted
after
the
final
assessment
(European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 50-51). Some European teachers in the state sector also work on fixed- or short-term teaching contracts (which terminate on a specific date or on the completion of a specific task) when there is a need to replace absent teachers, as well as in the case of teachers who are not yet fully qualified, or who are yet to acquire permanent employment status (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 52). Employment conditions of teachers in Polish state schools are regulated by the Teachers’ Charter (Karta Nauczyciela, Article 10, Act of 26.01.1982 with further amendments). Under this Act, teachers who begin work at school (trainees) are employed on a fixed-term contract for one year in order to serve the probation period required to obtain the status of contractual teacher. Contractual teachers are employed on the basis of a contract for an indefinite period. Appointed and chartered teachers are employed by appointment. In other words, trainee and contractual teachers in Poland have a contractual employment status, whereas appointed and chartered teachers have the Polish equivalent of career civil servant. 90
Polish teachers from private schools are not subject to this act, and are employed on the basis of the general labour law or civil code (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). The results of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS; OECD, 2008; in: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013) show that 80% of lower secondary school teachers in European countries are employed on a permanent contract basis, 16% have a fixed-term contract for one school year or less, and 4% have a fixed-term contract for more than one school year. In Poland 77% of teachers are permanently employed, 18% have a fixed-term contract for one school year or less, and 5% have a fixed-term contract for more than one school year. The data also show that some lower secondary teachers with 10 years’ teaching experience do not have a permanent contract, where 9% of those teachers have fixedterm contracts. Besides, 10% of teachers have a fixed-term contract for one school year or less, which is considerably higher from the European average of 6% (pp. 53-54). Moreover, according to GUS (2012) data, teachers form the following types of schools are usually employed on a full-time basis: kindergartens (93.5%), primary schools (85.1%) and lower secondary schools (81.0%). Job security in teaching is associated with long-term employment within one school. For example, TALIS data from 2008 show that European lower secondary school teachers had worked in the same school for a long period of time. On average, 37% had worked for the same school for more than 10 years (in Poland 23%), 22% had been employed for 6 to 10 years (in Poland 42%), 16% for a period of 3 to 5 years (in Poland 17%), 10% - 1 to 2 years (8%), and 15% had been there for less than a year (in Poland 10%) (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 55). What is more, teaching may be viewed as a secure post, regardless of one’s work performance. On average, 28% of European lower secondary school teachers believe that they would be dismissed for continued poor performance. In Bulgaria and Lithuania the rates are the highest (65% and 60% respectively), in Poland it is 34%, and the lowest are in Slovenia (9%), Turkey (10%), Norway (10.7%), and Ireland (11%) (OECD, 2008; in: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 56). As to the types of contract of the staff in the NVAL sector in Europe, they range from fixed-term, temporary, full-time or part-time, to voluntary basis, depending on the country, the type of institution (formal or non-formal), and the type of position (teaching, management, counseling, guidance, programme planning, support, media use). Part-time contracts are quite common as most teachers have their main workplace elsewhere. Staff working in formal NVAL organizations usually have permanent, full-time contracts, whereas staff working for 91
non-formal NVAL providers usually work freelance. As regards non-formal NVAL organizations, the staff employed in managerial and administrative positions have permanent contracts, while teaching staff work freelance, or have a contract for a short period or a single project and are paid by the hour. It is notable that in some countries there is a growing trend for teaching staff to work for several employers, working in adult education or in business. Most Polish teaching staff work freelance, with some permanent contracts in administration (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, pp. 101-105). In Poland, the indefinite period contract has been the most common form of employment, and from an employee’s perspective it is the most favourable employment status. A fixed-term contract may be concluded when an employer needs substitution for an employee. With current economic and social trends, other forms of employment have emerged, mainly in order to lower employment costs. Many employers, especially in the private sector, decide to conclude civil law agreements, such as commission contracts (umowa zlecenie), contracts for a specific task (umowa o dzieło), or to cooperate with the selfemployed. Such employment solutions are beneficial for employers because they do not have to pay social insurance premiums, or give paid holidays or sick pay (Państwowa Inspekcja Pracy, 2009). Obviously, such conditions are much less advantageous for employees. There are several reasons for the existence of freelancers in the NVAL sector. Firstly, when there is little demand for a specific service or subject, employers choose to hire staff according to the current demand, i.e. if clients appear for a specific service, they look for somebody who can do this work. Secondly, most current employers stopped employing staff in permanent positions in order to save on labour contracts, especially on social insurance contributions, shifting these costs onto the teaching staff. In Poland the situation of teachers working in private language schools is a case in point, where these costs are shifted onto the teaching staff who render services. In addition, as freelancers’ work contracts are usually renewed on course completion, employers have the freedom to reduce the pay if it is considered necessary for some reason (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, p. 105). Job insecurity, understood as perceived lack of control over future employment (Näswall, Lindfors, & Sverke, 2012) or “the overall concern about the continued existence of the job in the future” (Elst, De Cuyper, & De Witte, 2011, p. 216), is the result of less stable and increasingly unpredictable working conditions in general, and has been of growing concern in recent decades, mainly due to the economic situation. These economic conditions create unfavourable or even precarious work conditions for freelance teachers, especially with
92
regard to pay and job security, who are not protected by any legislation, as expressed in the ALPINE report (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008): The two most vexing challenges are “unstable incomes” and the “lack of benefits”. These problems are intertwined and put the chronic insecurity of freelancers into stark relief. The social safety net that protects many Europeans [state school teachers including – present author’s comment] from these hardships overlooks freelancers. Benefits such as health insurance and retirement savings vehicles are most often delivered through traditional employers. There is often no system in place for those who work in non-traditional arrangements (p. 111).
However, as true as this may be, it is vital to add that nowadays it is not only freelancers who are affected by perceived job insecurity - state school teachers also increasingly fear losing their position or job (Grzegorzewska, 2006, p. 62-63). As a consequence, a sense of job insecurity is one of the most salient stressors today (Näswall et al., 2012), and triggers four types of outcomes, i.e. those related to job attitudes, organizational attitudes, as well as health and work-related behaviours (Elst et al., 2011). Elst et al. (2011) found that job insecurity is stressful because it lowers one’s sense of control. Perceived control, i.e. “employees’ situational appraisal of his/her ability to control the (…) insecure [job] situation” (p. e225), appeared to partially mediate the relationship between job insecurity and the outcomes, such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological distress and intentions to leave. In another study by Näswall et al. (2012), who studied the effect of perceived job insecurity on health in Swedish women, it appeared that while no negative long-term physiological consequences were found, job insecurity was detrimental to immediate subjective well-being (assessed by means of self-reports) caused by increased levels of cortisol.
3.2.3. Conditions for professional development Conditions for in-service professional development constitute the third type of job resources. The following will be discussed with regard to this category: use of acquired professional competencies, development of professional competencies, mentoring, and advancement at work.
Use of acquired professional competencies Individuals need to be equipped with appropriate professional knowledge and skills in order to feel competent and to achieve the desirable teaching/learning outcomes. Moreover, according 93
to Sęk (2000b), building professional competence plays an important role in teacher burnout prevention. The literature provides various classifications of teacher competencies. As to language teachers, Komorowska enumerates the following (Komorowska, 2005, pp. 114-117): interactional skills, which involves teacher-student communication, pedagogic skills, which concerns overall organization of the learning process, linguistic skills, which refers to teachers’ knowledge of language and culture, didactic skills, which is connected with teachers’ ability to teach a foreign language. These appear to be teachers’ core competencies, which are constantly complemented and modified as a result of developments in language acquisition research, trends in foreign methodology research, as well as by regulations at national and European levels (Krajka, 2010, p. 242). As contemporary language classrooms become increasingly heterogeneous, teachers also need to have competencies with regard to teaching in multicultural and multilingual environments (Krajka, 2010, p. 242), and ICT skills are essential to teach in the modern-day knowledge-based society (Maciaszczyk, 2010, pp. 262-263). Competence gaps with regard to these competencies may result in difficulties at work, and – consequently – in increased levels of perceived stress in teachers. Some interesting pointers as to the problems that language teachers might have today are provided in the results of the ECML project (Rádai, 2003). Teachers (N=55) from 18 European and 3 Latin-American countries were asked, among other things, what their most burning questions put to their fellow language teachers were. It appeared that their main concerns were related to three areas: 1. this concerning language teachers, i.e. their status/prestige (“Why aren’t teachers treated as well as other professional categories?”), education (“Thinking of your initial training, are you happy with the way in which you were prepared to be a teacher?”), attitudes towards the learners/language acquisition (“How do you keep being inspired and how do you enthuse?”), roles and values (“What steps have you taken in your language classes to promote cooperation, tolerance, respect towards the [O]ther[,] and individual development? How responsible do you feel socially?”); 2. students’ motivation and ways to motivate; 3. didactics, methodology, and new technologies, in particular how to assess speaking skills, the importance of a good accent, work materials and methods to use with handicapped
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learners, classroom management (dealing with large classes), creating good learning habits, how technologies can foster cooperation, tolerance and respect (Rádai, 2003, p. 30). These results suggest that teachers are unsure, among other things, how to encourage an attitude of openness to the Other, how to motivate learners, how to respond to special needs, and how to implement new technologies in language classrooms. It is important to note that these competence deficiencies may considerably contribute to perceived work stress as they cause teachers to become unable to effectively perform some of their professional roles. As regards teachers of English in Poland, the findings from the study by Wysocka (2003) reveal that: 66% of teachers believe that they can select a coursebook and extra resources, 42% do not find lesson planning problematic, i.e. they know how to do it but they do not usually have to prepare lesson plans. Some teachers do not prepare lesson plans as they do not know how the lesson will progress; they act spontaneously in class. Yet, there are others who believe that a plan guarantees coherence in the lesson. 70% feel competent teaching vocabulary (especially kindergarten and primary school teachers), while 27% of teachers feel competent at teaching and explaining grammar (especially teachers with eight or more years of teaching experience), 85% feel that they know how to motivate students, a majority of teachers state that they should correct only those errors that impede understanding, and do not tend to correct much so as not to affect fluency; only five teachers (out of 80) claim that they can keep a balance between developing fluency and language accuracy, around 50% feel they can design, apply and assess tests on grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension, a great majority know how to teach teenagers at the intermediate level. Remarkably, some areas of incompetence unfold, and are as follows: some teachers indicate problems with lesson planning, i.e. inability to predict problems that might arise during the lesson or allot time to specific activities. It is especially difficult for kindergarten teachers, who are uncertain about the material choice and the number of activities - they cannot decide on the optimal number of lesson elements in this age group. Some teachers declare that they lack skills to plan a lesson on culture. Some of them report that they cannot plan and run revision lessons and, as a consequence, they simply follow the exercises from their coursebooks. 95
teachers who work with children and with false beginners indicate problems with choosing a coursebook; teachers working with children indicate that they do not know how to help children learn new words and how to be understood in this age group, most teachers do not know how to teach phonetics (intonation, pronunciation) and are aware of not being appropriate models for students, around 50% of respondents believe that they cannot successfully develop all language skills (especially writing skills), approx. 60% negatively assess their attempts at training students in learning strategies (they either do not know how to do it, or believe that it is redundant since it is too complicated for students to understand it), they admit that the level of their English is not very high and are afraid that they can make a mistake, teachers have problems while working with children, i.e. how to prepare lessons at the elementary level, they lack patience, have problems explaining language issues and keeping discipline, are irritated when children do not know why they are doing certain tasks in class, they also have problems with adults, i.e. they cannot explain grammar points to adults at the elementary level, teach pronunciation, help them overcome barriers in speaking and fears of making mistakes, are irritated when adults are late and when they say they do not have time to learn, teachers indicate problems while working with students at advanced levels, they are unable to maintain good relationships with parents, teachers with more than eight years’ experience indicate a deterioration in their language skills, “lower language fluency and simplified vocabulary and grammar” (Wysocka, 2003, p. 103; present author’s translation). What is important is that in many cases teachers’ responses positively evaluating various competencies did not match when their self-reports were compared with lesson observations conducted by research assistants. For example, despite previous declarations of being able to plan a lesson, the lesson pace appeared to be disturbed, it did not constitute a whole, there was chaos, a random choice of material, introducing new language material ten minutes before the lesson end, and not finishing with it. As to lesson materials, Wysocka notes that most teachers do not show much initiative and usually draw on supplementary 96
coursebook materials, lesson plans and other ready-made materials, which are in abundance on the market. Few teachers know how to creatively use the coursebook, prepare their own materials, or look for visuals or realia. What is more, despite having claimed that extra materials were used, lessons were run only with a coursebook, or even without it – with the board and chalk – as coursebooks had not yet been chosen. Regarding didactic methods and techniques, fifteen teachers’ behaviour did not match, e.g. they did not develop fluency, used metalanguage to explain grammar to kindergarten and primary school children, introduced vocabulary only by giving Polish equivalents, and heavily relied on coursebook grammar exercises. As regards error correction, teachers were very tolerant of mistakes, as stated in self-reports. However, twenty-five teachers manifested their irritation and anger when students made mistakes. What is more, teachers did not react to the mistakes made by children, and did not discuss the mistakes that were made in tests. As far as maintaining discipline, contrary to what had been reported, in many cases teachers’ helplessness was evident, where efforts to make students pay attention came to nothing. With regard to teacherstudent relations, teachers who assessed their relations appropriately were mainly those whose students were either afraid of them, or those who managed to win their students’ confidence and respect. Moreover, in the class of teachers who labeled themselves as “autocratic” there was chaos, teacher dominance prevailed in “liberal” teachers’ class, and there was a lack of an individual approach to students, in spite of previous declarations. Similarly, the results of studies on teaching intercultural competencies show that nowadays language teachers believe that they are well-prepared to develop such competencies in their learners. However, Aleksandrowicz-Pędich (2007) is skeptical about these evaluations, and notes that intercultural communication did not previously exist as a distinct course in the teacher training programmes, and only elements appeared in other courses such as literature, history, psychology, etc. As a result, such knowledge is sufficient to teach culture in the traditional sense but not to teach intercultural competence (p. 42-44). Apart from this, problems that teachers might have with the target language has also raised some concern. Wysocka (2003) expresses reservations concerning observed teachers’ grammar and pronunciation. What is worse, sometimes teachers miscorrected children’s pronunciation. And finally, the problem of using, or rather abusing, Polish in a foreign language class is pointed out by the author. As the observers reported, teachers spoke Polish almost all the time, which was described by one observer as “lessons of Polish with elements of English” (p. 110).
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That is to say that the issue of teachers’ competence (or incompetence) is very complex, where an individual teacher’s evaluation of his/her competence may be overly optimistic, and where lack of appropriate knowledge may impede an individual’s analysis of the quality and range of their professional competencies. As Wysocka showed, there may be a discrepancy between what teachers believe they know or can do vs. their actual performance. While teaching grammar and speaking, as well as the construction, application and evaluation of grammar tests do not raise the researcher’s concern, there are some doubts with regard to other competencies, such as maintaining discipline, course material selection and evaluation, teaching vocabulary, motivating techniques, the quality of error correction, and assessment of learning outcomes. Despite declaring competence in these domains in self-reports, observations provided evidence that this was not found in practice. Furthermore, problems concerning teachers’ incompetence may originate from a number of sources. According to Wysocka (2003), there are three types of incompetence: primary, secondary, and educational (pp. 128-134). Primary incompetence involves gaps in a teacher’s initial education programme (lectures, seminars, teaching practice) created as a result of an individual student teacher’s negligence in studying. Secondary incompetence refers to the skills and knowledge that gradually disappear or deteriorate as a result of lack of practice and, consequently, teachers do not perform certain activities despite being able to do so previously (e.g. target language fluency, range of vocabulary). Educational incompetence concerns the gaps in knowledge and skills caused by systematic deficiencies in teacher training (e.g. teaching adults, teaching at advanced levels, teaching young children). Bogucka (2007) also notes areas of incompetence in in-service early education teachers of English in Poland, which may be associated with knowledge and skill gaps resulting from their pre-service stage or inappropriate in-service professional development. Examples of the competencies required to effectively work with small children but often missing from teachers’ professional repertoire of competencies, according to the author, are as follows: being a good storyteller, being able to develop pupils’ communicative strategies, assess children’s language skills, develop intercultural competencies, and sensitize children to the differences between Polish and English. All things considered, competence gaps may be a source of great stress to teachers for two reasons. First, not being appropriately equipped to face modern education, teachers may have growing difficulties in meeting the teaching standards and societal expectations, as well as in maintaining satisfying teacher-student relationships. Secondly, not being aware of competence deficiencies, teachers may experience frustration and dissatisfaction, not realizing 98
why they encounter certain problems. That does not mean that such teachers should be excluded from work in schools. Development of the professional competencies of in-service teachers can and should eliminate these gaps, and improve the quality and extend the range of professional competencies, which issue will be overviewed in the next subsection.
Development of professional competencies Life in the contemporary society necessitates continuous development of knowledge and learning new skills. Teachers, in order to be effective in the constantly changing and evolving world, need to update their competencies concerning subject knowledge and didactic skills. Therefore, initial qualifications are expected to be further developed throughout teachers’ careers to follow the changing educational and societal needs (Komorowska, 1999; Wermke, 2012). Learning opportunities, regarded as a job resource, have been found to have stressreducing potential as they boost self-efficacy. By developing knowledge and skills individuals are better able to cope with job demands because experimenting with alternative modes of approaching a task or a problem may lead to more effective solutions or outcomes. Learning opportunities not only result in the quantitative increase of new knowledge, but also in the stimulation of existing skills and knowledge. Apparently, such opportunities enhance employees’ self-esteem, and an individual’s sense of control, self-efficacy, and optimism (Van Ruysseveldt et. al., 2011). Moreover, Pines (2000) indicates that “self-efficacy and a sense of competence are so important because they give professionals the sense of existence. If my work is important, I am also important” (p. 36; present author’s translation). Collie at al. (2012) found that perceptions of teaching efficacy related positively to job satisfaction. Besides, they found that stress created by student behaviour, when accompanied by a strong sense of teaching efficacy, does not decrease job satisfaction as the situation is then viewed as a challenge. State pre-primary to upper secondary education teachers are provided opportunities to develop within the so-called Continuing Professional Development (CPD) programmes, which vary from country to country in Europe. CPD may be a professional duty described in the job contract or other regulations (e.g. in Luxemburg, Hungary, Malta, Portugal, Romania and Finland) or a teacher’s optional right (e.g. in the Netherlands and Slovenia). In Poland (and in France) engagement in professional development is necessary for promotion. CPD plans are usually created at the school level (e.g. in Poland), though there are countries where such plans are established at the regional level (e.g. in Portugal, Turkey and Norway) or by 99
the top-level education authority (e.g. in France, Italy, the Netherlands, Hungary and Estonia). In thirteen countries state school teachers have to develop CPD plans individually (e.g. in the UK, Iceland, the Netherlands and Estonia) (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 57-59). In order to encourage teachers’ engagement in CPD, several incentives are employed: linking it to promotion prospects, i.e. advancement to a higher professional status (e.g. in Bulgaria, Greece and Spain), providing financial incentives (e.g. in Malta, Romania and Slovakia), making it necessary to retain an occupational status (e.g. in Turkey and Lichtenstein), giving time compensation instead of paid leave (e.g. in Greece, Italy and Portugal), paying out a one-time monetary allowance (e.g. in Spain and Malta), or making it important in job mobility or transfer (e.g. in Spain and Turkey). In Poland, as well as in a few other countries (e.g. in Estonia, France and Cyprus), there is only one incentive for CPD - it is directly linked to professional advancement, where it is vital for being considered for promotion. There are some countries, however, where teacher involvement in CPD is not encouraged by any incentives (e.g. the UK, Germany, Denmark, the Czech Republic, Latvia and Lithuania) (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 61). All European education systems financially support state teachers in CPD, which may take the form of free courses, awarding schools some funds to pay for their teachers’ CPD, covering travel expenses. Teachers may also apply for funding from public authorities. Finally, schools receive funding from state authorities to cover costs for teacher replacement. In Poland teachers may participate in free courses, apply to their schools for funding CPD and covering – in part or in their entirety - expenses for travel, accommodation and meals (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, p. 63). As regards CPD quality assurance, various bodies are involved in the process across Europe. In most countries top-level education authorities (ministries, educational authorities or government agencies) are responsible for accreditation and/or monitoring the quality of state CPD for pre-primary to upper secondary school teachers (e.g. in Hungary, Spain and Slovakia). In six countries there are specific inspectorates for CPD (e.g. in France and Ireland). Independent bodies that work on behalf of state authorities exist in other six countries (e.g. in Cyprus and Croatia). In Poland and three other countries (in Estonia, Bulgaria and Belgium - French community) other organizations are in charge of CPD accreditation. For example, the Education Superintendent (kurator) is responsible for it in Poland (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, pp. 64-65).
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It appears that teachers’ trust in CPD agents is essential as it influences teachers’ decisions regarding professional development. Wermke (2012) investigated German and Swedish teachers’ perception (N=711) of sources of knowledge (i.e. universities, institutions involved in school governance, textbook publishers, teacher unions, private and state CPD centres, and colleagues) in their CPD decisions. These decisions, concerning the choice of professional books, textbooks, reading about good practices, downloading policy documents, attending courses, etc., can provide teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary to solve their schools’ problems and to improve the quality of their work. It appeared that teachers assess sources of knowledge by their competence, understanding, and respect for the teachers’ role in the education system: “actors who are able to generate a climate of trust, characterized through competence, respect and understanding, gain access to the schools and therefore have better chances at influencing teacher practice” (p. 625). Thus, it might mean that teachers who do not recognize CPD agents’ authority in this respect will probably refrain from engaging in development programmes, considering them to be a waste of time (or money). According to the VITAE (Day et al., 2006) research project findings, primary and secondary school teachers in the UK are reasonably satisfied with the formal CPD they have. It occurred, however, that heavy workload, and lack of time and finances prohibit teachers from pursuing professional development. Additionally, depending on the teacher’s professional life phase, different needs regarding CPD are reported. Teachers with 0-3 and those of over 31 years’ work experience report a need to develop classroom knowledge, for teachers of 4-7 years’ experience personal development is of most importance, and for teachers of 8-30 years’ experience leadership/management skills that increase role effectiveness are most significant, alongside personal development needs. The results from the study conducted in 2000/2001 by Wysocka (2003) show that not many teachers of English working in Polish state and private schools (including private language schools) were involved in CPD at the time. As to language skills development, the main forms were watching TV (10%) and reading the popular press (7%). Much less frequent was participation in language courses and taking language tests (FC, CAE, TOEFL), going abroad, scholarships that enable learning a language abroad, foreign travel and contact with native speakers, reading books in English, continuing to study, reading books about the language, and learning via the Internet. With regard to didactic skills, teachers mainly participated in methodology workshops (11% of respondents). Other forms included: methodology courses organized by teacher training institutions, post-diploma studies, reading specialist books, participation in conferences, reading specialist literature (including teachers’ 101
books), discussions with colleagues, continuing studies, learning via the Internet, and working creatively (i.e. preparing their own resources). However, the author emphasizes that interest in CPD was very limited and not systematic in the group of state school teachers. Private language teachers were much more active and diversified in the scope of their CPD activities. Moreover, many teachers, especially young ones, had a negative attitude to this career, treating teaching as a temporary job, and were unwilling to invest time and effort in professional development (Wysocka, 2003). More recently, in a study on early education teachers of English (N=12) in Poland, Bogucka (2007) found that although teachers recognize the significance of CPD, it is not planned in a systematic way. Instead, they participate in random courses offered by local teacher development centres, whose offer is not sufficiently varied. Besides, Bogucka notes a lack of self-assessment of competencies and self-directed teacher development in those teachers. The issue of the organization and financing of teachers’ professional education and Continuing Professional Development in Poland was of interest to the Supreme Audit Office (Najwyższa Izba Kontroli; NIK). An inspection was carried out in 2012 and covered six Polish provinces in the 2009/2011 and 2010/2011 school years. Sixty two units were under scrutiny: the Ministry of Education, seven state higher schools, eight state teacher development centres, twenty three local government bodies responsible for schools, and twenty three state schools (primary, lower secondary and upper secondary). The Office negatively assessed the execution of teacher development programmes by the bodies responsible for schools, provincial teacher development centres, state schools, as well as higher schools. In particular, it appeared that teacher development centres offered mainly workshops and teaching staff training meetings and, to a lesser extent, conferences, courses and seminars. As to qualification courses offered by the inspected centres, these included: education of those with severe learning difficulties (oligofrenopedagogika), organization and management in education, pedagogic therapy, librarianship, courses in pedagogy for active teachers, education for family life, methodology of teaching English at preschool and primary education level, and pedagogic courses for theoretical vocational teachers. It was pointed out that the professional teacher training and development system did not sufficiently support schools and teachers. Secondly, it appeared that a significant number of teachers had not participated in any development programmes within the inspected period, despite the availability of state finances
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designated for teacher development. School heads explained this lack of teacher interest in professional development by a number of factors: when teachers get a chartered teacher status they are not interested in further professional development (in 2010/2011, chartered and appointed teachers constituted 79% of the teaching staff in the inspected schools), teachers already have formal qualifications to teach two subjects, they prefer school staff training meetings to external forms of training, there is a lack of suitable courses offered by teacher development centres, they are employed part-time, there is not sufficient financing for some teachers. Other aspects further emerged apart from the abovementioned. It was revealed that there were numerous cases of school heads who did not make use of teachers’ qualifications newly gained in professional training and development programmes. The results also show that local governments responsible for schools did not analyze the needs concerning professional teacher training and development, and did not prepare professional development plans. Finally, the report shows that 88% of students in their final year of teaching specialization felt well-prepared as far as theoretical subject knowledge and pedagogic knowledge were concerned, but 44% of them stated that their studies did not prepare them to solve educational problems (NIK, 2012). That is to say that state school teachers have professional development opportunities financed by the state, though it must be noted that in Poland many of them are unwilling to engage in CPD for various reasons. However, those teachers are still at an advantage, compared with teachers of adults, whose in-service system of training is not so developed or is not regarded as important by many NVAL providers. As the ALPINE report (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008) shows, there have been some European initiatives to promote adult educators’ professional development, such as Grundtvig, Leonardo, Phare, ADAPT, Tempus, Employment and Esprit, funded by the EU. Moreover, some countries (e.g. Poland, Denmark and Germany), report examples of organizations who outsource training programmes, or those who have their own in-service development programmes during which they train their own educators, depending on financial conditions and on how important the issue of staff training is to an organization. Nonetheless, in many European countries there are no programmes or measures to support lifelong learning in educators of adults, mainly caused by lack of funds and staff unwillingness to participate in 103
training (caused by working hours and by specific professional needs). Those individuals who want to develop usually have to pay “from their own pocket without their institutions’ support” (p. 140). The authors conclude that: “it is hardly surprising that organizations do not invest in learning organizations and career development. The practitioners, in most cases, are in their forties and have already had or have a career outside the sector” (p. 142). True as it might be for other specializations or other countries, some freelance language teachers working with adults in Poland treat their work in private language schools as a full-time occupation. As a result, neglecting such teachers’ professional development and not supporting them in this process may have undesirable consequences (e.g. outdated competencies, routine, boredom), where not only teachers will bear the costs of this situation. In summary, initial teacher training which is required to become a qualified teacher constitutes the first step in the teaching career. In-service development of professional competencies, involving formal, non-formal and informal subject and pedagogical training, is assumed to play a crucial role in teachers’ lifelong training and learning. However, it seems that the system of professional training and development for primary and secondary school teachers in Poland does not provide suitable opportunities. Young teachers may not be fully prepared to face current educational challenges, and more experienced teachers are unable or uninterested – for various reasons – in updating their skills and their own development. Finally, language teachers who work with adults are totally neglected by the state and are left on their own or at the mercy of private sector employers. From the work wellbeing perspective it is an undesirable situation, which may lead to professional stagnation and dissatisfaction with work.
Mentoring The induction phase and having a mentor (preferably throughout the whole career) are important in professional teacher development. Most usually mentoring is associated with the induction phase and is understood as cooperation between a trainee teacher and an experienced teacher, whose aim is to facilitate entry into school life and share knowledge and experience. At this time trainees prepare for independent and effective work. Mentors create opportunities for lesson observation and discussion in order to apply gained academic knowledge and confront it with practice (Kulińska, 2007, p. 213-224). In Europe, while general assumptions underlying the idea of the induction phase and the mentoring system are similar across the countries, there are various forms of its execution. Induction programmes (compulsory or not) for beginning teachers exist in 17 European 104
countries. They involve structured support provided for such teachers after completing their formal qualification course. During this period teachers may execute tasks appointed by experienced teachers, for which they are paid. In some countries (including Poland), where such induction programmes do not exist, more individualized support in the form of mentoring (i.e. the assistance of an experienced teacher appointed by the school head who is responsible for newly qualified teachers) is provided. This involves a mentor’s assistance in lesson planning and assessment, discussing problems and giving pedagogical advice, as well as lesson observations (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, pp. 39-41). Kulińska (2007) distinguishes two mentoring models in Poland. In the first (traditional) model, a trainee spends 3-4 weeks in a school, during which time he/she is supervised by a mentor (opiekun stażu), i.e. a subject teacher appointed by the head teacher. A trainee observes a specific number of classes and later conducts classes on his/her own. The other model assumes more time spent at the school, i.e. four semesters, for 2-3 hours per week. The mentor’s responsibilities involve the gradual introduction and preparation of a trainee for independent work. At first a trainee observes classes, later conducts a part of a lesson, and finally runs the whole class. This approach allows for secure gaining of experience, smooth introduction to teaching practice, the school system and documentation, as well as evaluation. A mentor can give a sense of security and support (p. 223-230), which can make the transition to teaching less difficult or traumatic. However, the literature provides little evidence on the mentoring opportunities for experienced teachers. It is not clear why a mentor’s assistance is reserved only for young teachers. Buchanan (2010), in the study on ex-teachers, showed that there is a need of “mentoring from a more experienced peer, somebody who understood (…) [the] circumstances” (Buchanan, 2010, p. 206), as expressed by one experienced teacher. But there were also skeptical voices with regard to mentoring, because “it is sometimes undertaken by the mentor for cynical, promotion-related reasons” (p. 206). As to the induction phase for staff in the NVAL sector in Europe, it varies from provider to provider. Some of them have introductory courses or guided career entry projects (e.g. Germany), but for some of them participation in these courses is voluntary for newcomers (e.g. Belgium) (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008). As in the case of experienced teachers, there is no evidence that experienced educators of adults may profit from having a career mentor.
Advancement at work 105
Professional advancement is usually associated with a sense of achievement and success, and for this reason it is an important factor that stimulates employees’ work satisfaction and motivation. In Poland, teachers’ professional progression in the state sector from pre-primary to post-secondary education level is regulated by the Teachers’ Charter (Karta Nauczyciela, Chapter 3a, Act of 26.01.1982 with further amendments). It is a four-grade system, which begins with the status of trainee teacher. After nine months of work and obtaining the qualification commission’s acceptance, a trainee teacher is awarded the status of a contractual teacher. In order to become an appointed teacher, one has to work for two years and nine months and pass a qualifying examination. The chartered teacher’s status is obtained on the qualifying commission’s acceptance, after analyzing the teacher’s professional output, and an interview. In addition, chartered teachers of significant professional accomplishment who have at least twenty years’ teaching experience, including a minimum of ten years as a chartered teacher, may be awarded the title Honorary professor of education. It appears that in 2012 in Polish state schools there were 46.6% chartered teachers, 27.9% appointed, 19.1% contractual, 4.7% trainee, and 0.8% with no status (SIO database; in: Federowicz et al., 2013). This shows that nearly half of the teacher population does not have further career opportunities, which can add to the sense of frustration and disappointment. The IBE report (Federowicz et al., 2013) on Polish teachers’ work time and conditions provides an indication that some teachers believe that the requirements connected with obtaining professional promotion contribute considerably to teachers’ professional development (58%), and that professional promotion involves a pay rise (39%). However, many teachers do not associate professional promotion with a great increase in a teacher’s prestige (53%). It is thought to involve a significant amount of intellectual effort (58%) and financial outlay (37%). Moreover, it is reported that documentation activities consume too much time (84%), and participation in training and conferences requires sacrificing teachers’ private time (82%) (Federowicz et al., 2013, p. 34). Also, the findings of a study on in-service early education teachers of English in Poland (Bogucka, 2007) show that teachers “resent the formal path of teacher development as it does not do justice to their true merits: creativity or devotion. Too often it is limited to formal filling of documents or the presentation of meaningless certificates” (p. 53). The author asserts that those teachers do not associate their professional development with climbing the administrative career ladder; becoming a head teacher is not their ultimate goal. Instead, they view their advancement opportunities as
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“gaining better self-understanding and a quest for, or constant discovery of, something new, a feeling of developing continuously and striving to become a more effective teacher” (p. 53). That might suggest that the system of teachers’ professional advancement in Poland may be inadequate for some teachers, especially those who have already achieved the ultimate status, as well as those who understand professional advancement in terms of horizontal (self) development. Furthermore, there are no teacher career advancement policies in the NVAL sector in Poland, where only some organizations have their own systems for staff ranking (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, p. 141). Consequently, many teachers do not profit from this job resource, which may have a significant impact on work wellbeing, that is work satisfaction and motivation.
3.2.4. Communication conditions The last category of job resources will comprise the following aspects: social support, evaluation, feedback and social praise.
Social support Social support, understood as various forms of help available to individuals in difficult situations (Sęk & Cieślak, 2004, p. 14), has proved to be beneficial to individual wellbeing and job satisfaction (Sęk, 2000b; Simbula, 2010). In stressful situations social support may have a buffering effect on the perception of strain, and may help overcome its negative influence (Sęk, 2004). Moreover, as the need of relatedness is one of the basic human needs (Deci & Ryan, 2008), social support may help fulfil the need for belonging (Bakker at al., 2008). However, it is important to note that an inappropriate kind of support may be burdening and demobilizing, especially in the case of autonomous and independent individuals who may have less or little need for being supported (Sęk & Cieślak, 2004). Teachers can use the following networks of support: family and friends, colleagues, head teachers, methodologists, school pedagogues and psychologists, trade unions, students, and students’ parents (Sęk, 2000b). In the Polish context this list can be complemented by leaders of in-school teacher development, external (local) centres of teacher CPD, and pedagogues and psychologists in external centres (Szczęsna, 2010). There are different support types, the main kinds being emotional, informational, instrumental and material support. Emotional support - the most common form - involves the communication of reassuring emotions that reflect care and a positive attitude towards the 107
supported person. Informational (cognitive) support fosters understanding of the problem, which may include giving feedback or sharing experience with individuals in a similar situation. Instrumental support involves help by providing information on procedures of conduct, such as how to effectively deal with problem. Finally, material support refers to material and financial aid (Sęk & Cieślak, 2004, p. 19). Accordingly, emotional and instrumental support appear to be of great importance to teachers, especially to the younger and less experienced ones, who have to become familiar with school regulations and face difficult students. Lack of social support was found to be one of the reasons for leaving the profession in the study by Buchanan (2010) on ex-teachers in Australia. It turned out that the teachers did not feel supported by the management, and felt isolated, “like a pawn” (p. 205), and suffered from low morale. They also indicated lack of colleagues’ support and collegial solidarity: “I couldn’t believe the people who delighted in watching you get eaten” (p. 206), as well as unwillingness to share resources. In 2003/2004 Szczęsna (2010) studied social support in Polish state primary, lower and upper secondary school teachers (N=359) in Lubuskie province. The majority of respondents (73%) reported average levels of perceived social support, but there were more teachers who declared a low level of support (16%), compared with those who assessed it as high (10%). In another study (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010) it was found that very few teachers declare total lack of support from other teachers. On the contrary, almost three quarters of respondents (73%) state that everybody or the majority of teachers lend the books or materials to do the job. Similarly, 72% of respondents point out that almost everybody or the majority support young teachers who are starting their careers, 68% indicate that there are colleagues who could give advice if there were education problems, and around the same (65%) valuable advice in everyday school work, 58% of teachers believe that their colleagues are pleased with others’ success. But one third of respondents do not have anybody to listen to or to console a teacher when in trouble, and 58% of teachers do not have enough confidence to share private problems with other teachers. For 39% of respondents there are very few or no teachers in the school who could be considered an authority in teaching, and for 49% there were few or no teachers who could have inspirational teaching ideas. As to school head support, most teachers’ opinions are positive. However, 14% of respondents state that their school head does not support them when they have personal problems, 12% do not think that their school head takes their opinion into consideration, 11% do not feel that they can talk with their school head about work problems, 10% do not think that the school head organizes their staff’s work 108
well, 8% do not agree that their school head can give good advice on professional issues, 9% that they adjust training courses to teachers’ needs, and 9% do not feel supported in dealing with parents. Unfortunately, the authors do not provide more details on the respondents who indicate poorly perceived social support in their schools, so it is unknown how they differ from the teachers who feel supported. There are some reports accounting for support measures available at country-level for teachers in pre-primary to secondary state education. The most common – support in the development of professional competencies – is present in 26 countries. In Poland it is the only support measure, where teaching methodology advisors assist teachers in the following areas: planning, organizing and assessment of teaching outcomes, selecting and/or developing curriculum and teaching materials, and improving teaching methods and introducing innovation. Support for teachers in dealing with interpersonal conflicts involving students, parents or colleagues is provided in 26 European countries. Support in dealing with personal matters exists in 20 countries and relates to the issues of work-life balance or problems of a psychological nature (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, pp. 72-73). As far as teachers’ support in Poland goes, the NIK report (2012) shows that not all teachers got suitable support due to the insufficient number of development centres and teacher advisors employed there. What is more, some centres did not respond to teachers’ reported problems and needs, e.g. of those employed in schools with language minorities or ethnic languages. Regrettably, no data are available on the support for teachers of adults working in the NVAL sector. In conclusion it can be stated that social support may be a valuable resource in teachers’ work as long as it is regarded as needed and suited to their contexts. Therefore, a highly individualized approach in supporting teachers would be desirable, taking into account their work experience, personality and work settings.
Evaluation, feedback and praise According to Deci and Ryan (2008), when people are evaluated or are under surveillance they feel controlled and pressurized, which has an influence on their perception of autonomy and satisfaction. It is assumed that feedback – associated with evaluation – promotes learning and, consequently, develops professional competence (Bakker at al. 2008). Positive performance feedback enhances motivation as it “directly conveys positive competence information, thus satisfying the need for competence, without being experienced as controlling. (…) [N]egative feedback tends to undermine intrinsic motivation by thwarting people’s need for competence” 109
(Deci & Ryan 2008, p. 15). For this reason quality feedback plays a decisive role in professional development, which may be further supported by the TALIS (OECD, 2009) findings suggesting that appraisal and the subsequent feedback have a positive influence on teachers and their work mainly because it increases their job satisfaction and, to some extent, job security. State school teachers’ appraisal serves for their evaluation and provides teachers with guidance and support in work performance. The criteria applied in teacher appraisal may be as follows: student test scores, retention and student pass rates, other student learning outcomes, student feedback on the teaching they receive, feedback from parents, the quality of teacher cooperation with the school head and their colleagues, direct appraisal of classroom teaching, innovative teaching practices, relations with students, undertaken professional development, classroom management, and knowledge and understanding of their subject. Various forms of regulated teacher evaluation exist across the countries in Europe. Most often it is the school head who is responsible for teacher appraisal, less commonly external evaluators, who examine teachers on a regular basis. In some countries teachers are evaluated under specific circumstances (e.g. for promotion) by school heads or external evaluators. Teachers’ selfevaluation is not very popular and exists only in seven European countries. In Poland, teachers are assessed by school heads when applying for promotion to a higher professional status (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013; OECD, 2009). However, there is evidence that the structure of evaluation and subsequent feedback is not quite efficient. For example, it appears that many TALIS countries do not have effective (or any) evaluation and feedback systems, where one third of teachers in Austria, Ireland or Portugal had not been evaluated in five previous years, and on average 13% of teachers in TALIS countries never received any evaluation or feedback in their schools (OECD, 2009). As to Polish teachers’ opinions on their evaluation and feedback, 14% of respondents do not think that their school head fairly evaluates their work (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010). There are also results showing that some early education teachers of English believe that their supervision is “unprofessional”, consisting in “mostly ungrounded criticism”, conducted by their head teachers, who usually do not know English (Bogucka, 2007). Systems of educator evaluation in the NVAL sector have not been developed in most European countries. If such models of evaluation exist, they are organization-specific formats for the evaluation of teaching staff, and they usually include internal assessment of performance. Sometimes it may involve writing self-assessment reports (e.g. in Hungary) (Research voor Beleid and PLATO, 2008, p. 144-146). In private language schools in Poland 110
lessons are usually observed and evaluated by a specialist in teaching foreign languages. These lesson evaluations, as well as students’ tests results and students’ feedback from questionnaires, have an influence on teachers’ status in the school and the assignment of further courses (Martin, 2011, p. 190). Praise and recognition, as well as appropriate evaluation and quality feedback, may also be regarded as significant factors contributing to teachers’ work wellbeing and improving performance. It appears that recognition for undertaken effort helps maintain motivation and shows the direction in which to continue with work (Bakker et al., 2007). Contrariwise, lack of it may be associated with lack of appreciation, which may lead to discouragement and a feeling that one’s work does not make sense. Unfortunately, this might be the case for many contemporary teachers. As the TALIS data show, most surveyed teachers believe that their effort is not rewarded by their schools, and innovative teaching would not be recognized by school authorities. What is more, it is also indicated that teachers who constantly underperform would not be dismissed from work (OECD, 2009). On the whole, if not approached appropriately, evaluation and feedback, as well as lack of praise may constitute a source of considerable stress and frustration in teachers. It is evident that conducting evaluation and feedback requires a lot of skill and tact, so people involved in this process need to be competent in order to make use of these job resources to effectively stimulate teachers at work.
3.3. Work-life interaction The discussion on job demands and job resources characteristic for the teaching profession would be incomplete without analyzing the work-life interplay with home (private) life, where one can affect the other either positively or negatively. Work-life interaction (also referred to as “work-home balance”) may involve a conflict when the demands in one area interfere with the demands in the other. In other words, it may be connected with the individual perception that work and home roles are incompatible, hindering participation in either of them. And it is the “spillover” effect from work to other domains of life that is particularly emphasized in the literature (Langballe et al., 2011). For example, Cox (2000) notes that “there are interactions between stressors (…) which do not respect the boundary between work and non-work domains”, and indicates the “spill over” or “carry-over” effect of work to home life and home life to work (p. 25). He underscores invalid assumptions that the two areas are separated. 111
Some acute stressful life events (e.g. a serious accident) may have an immediate and strong impact on an employee (and family, friends and colleagues). Chronic life stressors (rearing children, household chores) are less obvious and are “less frequently recognized and can be underestimated” (p. 25). Consequently, there has been some research interest in this type of interaction in the studies on burnout for some time now. There is empirical evidence that both work and home factors can influence an employee’s wellbeing. Work-life conflict was found to be a strong burnout predictor in Norwegian female physicians (Langballe et al., 2011). Hakanen et al. (2008), in their longitudinal study on Finnish dentists, found that home demands and resources did not have an influence on motivational or health impairment processes, implying that these processes are work-related. However, their results suggest a reverse relationship – that high job demands and burnout may affect home life over time. As teachers do much work at home (checking homework, grading tests, preparing lessons) the roles of a teacher and a parent are not easy to combine (Simbula, 2010). Difficulties in managing parental and teachers’ roles and their consequences have been demonstrated in some studies. For example, Buchanan (2010) reports on an ex-teacher (female): “teaching was not as parent-friendly as she had expected, and (…) out-of-school hours demands took her away from her children” (p. 204). Simbula (2010) showed that Italian teachers who were unable to manage their professional and family roles were more likely to be exhausted, which negatively influenced their job satisfaction and mental health. Negative aspects of teachers’ life outside school (e.g. personal problems, illness, etc.) may contribute to the perceived level of stress. Yet, in such situations work can also be regarded as a kind of escape from personal problems, as reported by one female interviewee in the study by Veldman et al. (2013). It appeared that a difficult period in her private life did not negatively affect her job satisfaction: “I had very big problems with my son, and in the same period my parents got sick and died. If I hadn’t had my work then, I would certainly have burned out. I noticed at that time that I was very happy when holidays were over and I could go back to work” (p. 60). So, it seems that in fact her work helped her get though the hardest times. All in all, work-life interaction constitutes a significant aspect in the teaching profession. As research in the Polish context largely neglects this area, our understanding of this problem is still rather limited. In addition, nothing is known about work-home interaction in freelance teachers or teachers of adult learners.
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Conclusion On the whole, although the problem of teachers’ work stress and burnout has received a lot of attention, the current state of research is still unsatisfactory and many questions emerge. What work aspects create stress in foreign language teachers? Since most demographic and professional background variables do not differentiate teachers’ stress and burnout, what does then? Perhaps taught student age group or the form of employment can be more informative in explaining these differences? Are teachers of adults different from teachers of children and teenagers in stress evaluations? Are state school teachers more burned out than freelancers? These and many other questions are still to be answered. In order to address these issues, the chapters to follow will present the findings of a study conducted on teachers of English in Poland.
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CHAPTER FOUR. STRESS AND BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH – AN EMPIRICAL STUDY
4.1. Statement of the problem As stated earlier, research into teacher occupational stress and burnout suffers from several deficiencies. First, teachers of adults, other than university students, working mainly in private language schools on a freelance basis, have been neglected in research work, despite the fact that they play a key role in the process of lifelong learning. It transpires that these teachers are particular for several reasons. Their work is characterized, amongst other factors, by high job insecurity (working on a freelance basis), by lack of a professional advancement system, and by limited theoretical and practical preparation at the pre-service stage to work with adults. Apparently, this occupational subgroup also runs the risk of developing stress and burnout symptoms. However, as the problems freelance teachers of adults have to cope with are quite different from those of teachers working with children and adolescents, it is likely that the results of prior research cannot be used in reference to freelance teachers of adults. Second, it appears that research on teachers’ working conditions has concentrated on many factors that contribute to teacher stress and burnout (e.g. excessive workload, inadequate salary, work conflict, technical / resource problems, insufficient recognition of professional competencies, etc.). Apparently, not taking into consideration work factors whose presence may have a motivating effect on teaching staff and whose lack might lead to burnout significantly limits our understanding of the problem. Third, little is known about the extent of the influence that teachers’ work has on private life and vice versa. Obviously, life outside work is important and does have an impact on employees, including teachers. Finally, teachers of English constitute a highly heterogeneous group, diversified by age and experience, the type of school they work in (pre-primary, primary, secondary, higher, private language school), the type of student they teach (children, adolescents, higher school students, adults). It is essential to pinpoint the existing differences in the working conditions among the subgroups if effective stress and burnout intervention strategies are to be developed. Therefore, investigating these issues is vital to presenting a more comprehensive view of the problem. It could be important in attempts to optimize English teachers’ working 114
conditions and wellbeing. It is hoped that the findings will raise the awareness of educational authorities and policy makers, whose initiative is vital in ameliorating working conditions and preparing appropriate programmes that would aim at improving teachers’ work wellbeing.
4.2. Purpose of the study This two-phase, sequential, explanatory mixed methods study seeks to bridge the abovementioned gaps in the research on teacher stress and burnout. In particular, its primary aim is to include language (English) teachers in the mainstream research. Second, it attempts to deal with work-related factors holistically, i.e. to encompass job demands operating in teachers’ work environment that lead to burnout, as well as job resources, a lack of which may also trigger burnout. Furthermore, it seeks to reveal the factors that contribute to stress and burnout in teachers of English who work with various types of learners in Poland, with special attention given to teachers of adult learners. Finally, it aims at investigating differences in working conditions between teachers employed in state schools on permanent or fixed-term contracts and freelance teachers who work in private language schools. Exploring these underresearched areas is important from the theoretical and practical points of view. At this point it is important to set the delimitation for the current study - the focus is only on the teachers’ perspective and on their interpretation of experience. Other agents’ perspectives – like supervisors, school owners or policymakers – are outside the scope of this study.
4.3. Procedures In order to address the aims of the study, mixed methods research procedures were adopted. The rationale for employing both qualitative and quantitative research methods was that in order to explain the findings obtained at the quantitative stage, the qualitative data were needed, as studies on stress and burnout in freelance teachers and teachers of adults are nonexistent and therefore could not be used in interpreting the results. 4.3.1. Characteristics of mixed methods research The idea of mixing methods originated in psychological studies in the 1950s and aimed at diversifying approaches in data collection. This was soon accepted in the field as researchers 115
realized that specific or single methods have their limitations, and it was believed that “biases inherent in any single method could neutralize or cancel the biases of other methods” (Creswell, 2003, p. 15). Other terms used to refer to mixed methods found in the literature are as follows: integrating, synthesis, quantitative and qualitative methods, multimethod, multimethodology (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003; Creswell, 2003). Mixed methods research involves collecting and analyzing qualitative and quantitative data within one study. This approach makes pragmatic knowledge claims, i.e. researchers adopting this approach are problem- or real-world practice oriented, as well as pluralistic in the way they conduct their inquiry. They do not limit themselves to one “school” (qualitative vs. quantitative) but they choose from the methods and techniques that best match their research needs in order to understand the problem. Two general strategies of collecting and analyzing data are associated with mixed methods: sequential, where a researcher bases, confirms and/or expands the results of one method with another method (e.g. starting with a qualitative study in order to explore a problem, and following with a quantitative study to generalize the results to a population, or beginning with a quantitative survey followed by in-depth interviews to further explore the problem), concurrent, where a researcher collects the qualitative and quantitative data simultaneously. With regard to research methods, this approach makes use of a variety of options, ranging from open- to closed-ended questions, textual to numeric data collection, all with the intent to best address the research problem (Creswell, 2003, pp. 4-21). As Creswell (2003) puts it: A mixed method design is useful to capture the best of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. For example, a researcher may want to both generalize the findings to a population and develop a detailed view of the meaning of a phenomenon or concept for individuals. In this research the inquirer first explores generally to learn about what variables to study and then studies those variables with a large sample of individuals. Alternatively, researchers may first survey a large number of individuals, then follow up with a few of them to obtain their specific language and voices about the topic. In these situations, the advantages of collecting both closed-ended quantitative data and open-ended qualitative data prove advantageous to best understand a research problem (p. 22).
Presently, interest in mixed methods is growing, as evidenced by the number of books and journal articles devoted to this approach in various disciplines, e.g., Research methods in applied linguistics: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies (Dörnyei, 2011), or 116
Research and evaluation in education and psychology: integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods (Mertens, 2010), as well as journals, e.g. Journal of Mixed Methods Research. However, this approach poses a number of challenges for researchers wishing to employ mixed methods as a strategy of inquiry. Creswell emphasizes extensive data (text and numeric) collection, “time-intensive” analysis of both types of data, and the need for the researchers to have knowledge and skills in both qualitative and quantitative procedures (Creswell, 2003, p. 210).
4.3.2. Type of applied mixed methods strategy The sequential explanatory strategy was applied in the process of data collection and analysis in the current study. It comprises two phases: quantitative data collection and analysis, and qualitative data collection and analysis. Integration of the two types of data occurs at the interpretation (Discussion) phase of the study (Creswell, 2003, pp. 210-216). The steps of this strategy are shown in Figure 4.1.
Quantitative Data Collection
Quantitative Data Analysis
Qualitative Data Collection
Qualitative Data Analysis
Interpretation
Figure 4. 1. Visual model of the sequential explanatory study design (Creswell, 2003, p. 213) This type of mixed methods strategy was employed because it allowed for investigating the under-researched problem (i.e. stress and burnout in teachers of English, particularly in freelance teachers working with adults), where the qualitative findings were used to help interpret the results obtained in the quantitative phase. The subsequent chapters of the empirical part describe the employed procedures and their results in detail. Chapter Five presents the methodology of the quantitative stage and its results, while Chapter Six gives an account of the methodology and results of the qualitative study. Chapter Seven discusses the findings of both phases and makes an attempt at their interpretation.
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CHAPTER FIVE. THE QUANTITATIVE STUDY ON STRESS AND BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH
5.1. Purpose of the quantitative study and research questions The quantitative phase involved surveying teachers of English from various educational settings across Poland. The main aim of this stage was to find the regularities in a wider population, where it was more possible to assume the role of an objective observer, eliminating the influence of the researcher’s values, opinions and convictions. Specifically, it was hoped to determine the relationship between demographic and work variables (such as gender, work experience, education level, taught age group, type of employment contract, school location, etc.) and teachers’ subjectively perceived work wellbeing (stress and satisfaction). Second, it was to investigate how teachers’ perceptions of job demands and resources are associated with the type of contract they have and the age group they teach. Finally, the study sought to explore the consequences of stress and burnout in terms of teachers’ career intentions. Two groups of research questions guided the quantitative stage: descriptive and inferential questions.
Descriptive Questions: 1. How do teachers assess their work wellbeing (work stress, work satisfaction, private stress)? 2. What are teachers’ career intentions (to change the workplace, the position, the profession)? 3. What is the level of burnout in teachers? 4. How do teachers rate their professional job resources? 5. How do teachers rate their professional job demands? 6. How do teachers rate work-life interaction?
Inferential Questions: 7. Are there differences among teachers with regard to subjective work wellbeing (work stress, work satisfaction, private stress) according to demographic and professional background? If so, what is subjective work wellbeing associated with?
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8. Are there differences among teachers with regard to their career intentions (intentions to change the workplace, the work position, the profession) according to demographic and professional background? If so, what are those intentions associated with? 9. Are there differences among teachers in their evaluation of job resources according to the form of employment and taught age group? If so, what are they and what is the relationship between job resources, work wellbeing (work stress, work satisfaction, private stress) and career intentions? 10. Are there differences among teachers in their evaluation of job demands according to the form of employment and taught age group? If so, what are they and what is the relationship between job demands, work wellbeing and career intentions? 11. Are there differences among teachers in their evaluation of work-life interaction according to the form of employment and taught age group? If so, what are they and what is the relationship between work-life interaction, work wellbeing, career intentions, job resources and job demands? 12. Are there differences among teachers with regard to their evaluation of disengagement, exhaustion and total burnout according to the form of employment and taught age group? If so, what is burnout associated with? 13. What types of teachers can be distinguished according to perceived work well/ill-being? What is each type characterized by?
5.2. Quantitative data collection
5.2.1. Data collection procedure The data were collected in the 2012/2013 academic year. State primary and secondary school head teachers, language school (private and state) directors of studies, and academics involved in English language teacher training across Poland were e-mailed preliminary details of the study, including the purpose of the study and the guarantee of confidentiality. Those who agreed to mediate in recruiting the participants were sent a link to the web-based questionnaire, and these next forwarded the e-mail invitation and the link to teachers of English. Additionally, respondents were recruited directly via employing the present author’s personal and professional networks. The questionnaire was available via a secured website (www.ankietka.pl). Moreover, fourteen teachers completed a pen-and-paper version of the questionnaire. 119
This enabled the collection of data from teachers working in a variety of school types from various regions in Poland (e.g. Białystok, Lublin, Kielce, Wrocław, Opole, Warszawa, etc.).
5.2.2.Sample The sample consisted of 260 teachers of English working across Poland (N=260). There were 224 female and 36 male teachers. This ratio is similar to the general teacher population and is explained by the fact that the teaching profession is dominated by females. Participants’ ages ranged from 23 to 66 (M=34.7; SD=7.8). 27% of the surveyed teachers had been in the teaching (English) profession for less than 5 years, 30% - from 6 to 10 years, 19% - from 11 to 15 years, 15% - from 16 to 20, and 9% had been teaching for more than 21 years (M=11; SD=7.1). The teachers’ workload ranged from 1 to 70 school hours per week (M=25.9; SD=11.8). The maximum number of schools the teachers had worked for in their career (including the current school) was 16 (M=4; SD=2.7), and the maximum time teachers had been with their current school was 41 years (M=8; SD=6.6). As to school location, the teachers under study were working in the following regions: the countryside (12%), a town of up to 20 thousand inhabitants (7%), a town of 21-50 thousand inhabitants (6%), a town of 51100 thousand inhabitants (6%), a town of over 100 thousand inhabitants (69%), in the following types of schools: kindergarten (3%), primary school (17%), lower secondary school (8%), upper secondary school (11%), higher school (21%), language school (41%). The teachers worked with students of the following age groups: up to 5 years old (3% ), 6-12 (22%), 13-15 (11%), 16-18 (13%), over 18 years old – higher school students (20%), and over 18 – other adults (32%). The indicated forms of employment were as follows: selfemployment (25%), on a commission contract (umowa-zlecenie) (10%), a contract for a specific task (umowa o dzieło) (13%), a fixed-term contract of employment (15%), a contract of employment for an indefinite period (34%), other (3%). 8.08 % of teachers held a BA degree, 85 % an MA degree, 5% a PhD degree, and 2% had completed only secondary education. As regards professional status, 4 % of the teachers were trainees, 22% contractual teachers, 13% appointed teachers, 10% chartered, and 50% were outside this professional status system. 48% of the sample worked in the state sector and 52% in the private sector. As to the survey questions concerning taught age group, the type of school, the sector, and the form of employment, teachers were asked to indicate the main group, school, sector and form. It was recognized that most teachers work under more complex circumstances, but 120
by means of this strategy it was hoped to capture the option teachers’ mainly identify with. Full demographic and professional characteristics of the participants are displayed in Table 5.1.
Table 5. 1. Demographic and professional characteristics of study participants Variable
Category
Gender
female
Frequency 224
86.15
36
13.85
260
100
< 29
80
30.77
30-39
115
44.23
40-49
52
20
>50
13
5
260
100
5
1.92
BA
21
8.08
MA
222
85.38
PhD
12
4.62
260
100
male Total Age
Total Education
Percent
secondary
Total Teaching
< 5 years
70
27.02
experience
6-10 years
78
30.11
11-15 years
50
19.30
16-20
38
14.67
>21
23
8.88
1
0.38
260
100
countryside
31
11.92
town < 20 thousand inhabitants
18
6.92
thousand
16
6.15
100 thousand
15
5.77
thousand
180
69.23
Total
260
100
missing data Total School location
town
21
–
50
inhabitants town 51
–
inhabitants town
>
100
inhabitants
121
Professional
trainee
10
3.85
status
contractual
58
22.31
appointed
34
13.08
chartered
27
10.38
131
50.38
260
100
8
3.08
6-12
56
21.54
13-15
29
11.15
16-18
33
12.69
>18 (higher school students)
51
19.62
>18 (other students)
83
31.92
260
100
8
3.08
not applicable Total Student age group 51
7
2.69
260
100
101
39.00
Total Seniority
< 4 years
(employed in
5-9
80
30.89
current school)
10-14
44
16.99
15-20
21
8.11
> 21
13
5.02
122
missing data Total
1
0.38
260
100
Main form
self-employment
65
25
of employment
commission contract (umowa-
25
9.62
33
12.69
of
39
15
contract of employment for an
89
34.23
9
3.46
260
100
0-1
26
10.04
(number of schools 2-3
103
39.77
4-6
91
35.13
7-10
31
11.97
> 11
8
3.08
missing data
1
0.38
260
100
zlecenie) contract for a specific task (umowa o dzieło) fixed-term
contract
employment
indefinite period other Total Turnover
in career)
Total
5.2.3. Data collection variables and instruments Six main groups of variables were considered in the current study: demographic/professional background, job resources, job demands, work-life interaction, work wellbeing (i.e. work stress, work satisfaction, private stress), burnout, career intentions (i.e. intentions concerning workplace, position, profession change). Drawing on the theory presented in the first part of the thesis, a research model was developed. The model, which conceptualizes the relationships among study variables, is graphically displayed in Figure 5.1.
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Demographic and professional background gender, age, education, school location, professional status, work experience, taught age group, main workplace, sector of education, weekly workload, years of employment in current workplace, form of employment, number of schools so far;
Work wellbeing
Work stress Burnout Job characteristics (1) Job resources organizational , economic, professional development and communication conditions
Job characteristic (2) Job demands socio-organization factors, physical environment factors, mental and sensory challenges
Work satisfaction
Exhaustion (Energy dimension)
Private stress
Disengagement (Identification dimension)
Career intentions Workplace change Position change Profession change
Work – life interaction
Figure 5. 1. Conceptual framework for data collection Demographic and professional background, job resources, job demands and work-life interaction variables are assumed to have an influence - via subjectively perceived work wellbeing (work stress, work satisfaction and private stress) - on teacher burnout and, consequently, their career intentions. The focus is on teachers’ subjective perceptions of existing job demands and resources, rather than on more objective measures of actual job demands and resources, assuming the transactional nature of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The study design – not the only one possible – does not allow for causal claims about
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the relationships between the variables. They are shown in order to organize the study design and its results. The data were gathered by means of a questionnaire (Appendix D) requiring selfreporting, and consisted of the scales specially designed for the study purposes as well as a generally available tool for measuring burnout (Oldenburg Burnout Inventory). The finalized version of the questionnaire was administered in a pilot study on a sample of six teachers of English (PhD seminar group). Demographic and professional background variable (questionnaire items A1-A13). The first part of the questionnaire collected relevant demographic (gender, age) and workrelated characteristics (education, location of school, professional status, work experience, taught age group, main workplace, sector of education, weekly workload, years of employment in current workplace, form of employment, number of schools in career). Although in many cases participants could indicate multiple responses (e.g. taught age group, form of employment, sector, etc), teachers were asked to choose one answer in order to determine the option respondents identified with most. Work wellbeing variable (items A17-A19). Following the results by Wanous et al. (1997), who found that single-item scale measures of overall job satisfaction are equally robust and acceptable, compared with multi-item scales, three single items measuring overall work satisfaction, work stress, and private stress were included in the questionnaire. The questions about teachers’ subjectively perceived level of professional stress (“How stressful is your current professional situation?”), the level of professional satisfaction (“How satisfying is your current professional situation?”), and the level of personal stress (“How stressful is your current personal situation?”) were included. The intensity was assessed by using a tenpoint scale, ranging from 0 – “not stressful / satisfying at all” to 10 – “so stressful I can hardly manage / extremely satisfying”. Job resources (items B11-B40), job demands (items B51-B84), work-life interaction (items B91-B93) variables. These were measured using the scales that were developed with the intent of capturing the specificity of job demands, job resources and worklife interaction in the English teaching profession, i.e. contract-employed and freelance teachers. In order to assess teachers’ subjective perceptions of work conditions, nine groups of theoretically (Yeung et al., 2005; Jaworek et al. 2010) derived factors were included in the questionnaire. The language of the questionnaire was Polish. The participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed with each statement, using the four-point Likert-type response scale: 1 – “disagree”, 2 – “partly disagree”, 3 – “partly agree”, 4 – “agree”. The 125
responses were coded so that high scores were indicative of high job demands and high evaluation of job resources’ availability. Inverted items were reverse-coded. The option “neither disagree nor agree” was not included, with the intention of avoiding tentative answers. Job resources were measured by four scales which consisted of a number of subscales: 1. Organizational conditions scale (6 items): work autonomy subscale (determining one’s own schedules and procedures, e.g. “I feel free to decide which methods and techniques to choose while working with my students”),
organization autonomy subscale (influencing organizational policies and procedures, participation in important decision-making, e.g. “I have an influence on my school's policies and its procedures”), work meaningfulness subscale (task significance, e.g. “I think that my work is important”); 2. Economic conditions scale (9 items): basic salary subscale (e.g. “I feel I am a well-paid employee in my profession”), benefits subscale (e.g. “I receive benefits with my salary”), job security subscale (e.g. “My school gives me a sense of stability”), financial incentives subscale (e.g. “In my school there are financial incentives that motivate teachers to work better”), promotion increases subscale (e.g. “My pay increases with my experience and achievements”); 3. Professional development conditions scale (13 items): development and use of skills and knowledge subscale (e.g. “In my current workplace I have opportunities to fully use my knowledge and skills”), mentoring subscale (e.g. “In my workplace there is a person who helps me to develop”), advancement at work subscale (e.g. “In my workplace I have promotion opportunities”); 4. Communication conditions scale (10 items): social support subscale (e.g. “In my workplace I feel I have my methodologist's support”), social praise subscale (e.g. “I hear praise for my work from my students”),
126
feedback subscale (e.g. “I get constructive feedback on my work from my methodologist”), communication of job and organizational goals subscale (e.g. “My school clearly communicates what its expectations of me are”); Job demands were examined by means of four scales and additional subscales: 1. Socio-organization factors scale (18 items): work conflict subscale (e.g. “Sometimes I have problems with my colleagues”), work schedule subscale (time pressure, teaching load, e.g. inverted “The number of teaching hours in my schedule satisfies me”), work responsibility subscale (e.g. “I think I could have a bigger range of work responsibilities”), work climate subscale (e.g. “At work I sometimes feel like a tool which can be got rid of when no longer needed”), technical requirements subscale (inadequate, faulty equipment and facilities, e.g. inverted “I have the right didactic base in my school (library, coursebooks, CDs)”); 2. Physical environment factors scale (2 items): workspace arrangement subscale (e.g. inverted “The arrangement of furniture in the classrooms where I work is satisfactory”), physical agents (e.g. inverted “The conditions in the classrooms where I work (lighting, temperature, equipment) are satisfactory”); 3. Mental challenges scale (10 items): information processing subscale (e.g. “I sometimes find it hard to think during the lesson because of tiredness”), memory-related challenges subscale (e.g. inverted “I usually remember the things I have to do at work”), cognitive (explaining) challenges subscale (e.g. “I feel uncomfortable when I can't explain a language issue to my students”), problem solving subscale (e.g. “Solving interpersonal problems while working with my students is a strain for me”); 4. Sensory challenges scale (4 items): sight, voice, noise, odour (e.g. “It sometimes happens that because of an unpleasant smell it is hard for me to work”). Work-life interaction was assessed by a four-item scale (e.g. “My home life causes exhaustion at work”). 127
Burnout variable (items C1-C16). Burnout was assessed by means of the sixteen-item Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI). This tool measures burnout on two dimensions (subscales): exhaustion and disengagement. The eight-item exhaustion subscale refers to a need to rest and physical exhaustion (e.g. negatively framed: “After work, I usually feel worn out and weary”; positively framed: “After working, I have enough energy for my leisure activities”). The disengagement subscale refers to one’s distancing oneself from work, and negative attitudes to various aspects of one’s work (e. g. negatively framed item: “It happens more and more often that I talk about my work in a negative way”; a positively framed item: “I find my work to be a positive challenge”) (Demerouti et al., 2001). This measure seemed to be more suitable than the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Educator Survey (MBI-ES) for the purpose of the present study, because it was assumed that burnout is comprised of two dimensions and is characterized by low levels of energy and low identification with one’s work. The items were rated on the four-point Likert-type response scale: 1 – “disagree”, 2 – “partly disagree”, 3 – “partly agree”, 4 – agree”. The questionnaire was translated from English to Polish by the present author. Career intentions variable (items A14-A16). This variable was operationalized by means of three questions (“Are you thinking about changing your workplace?” “Are you thinking about changing your position within your current workplace?” “Are you thinking about changing your profession?”). The respondents were asked to answer the questions using the following response categories: “no”, “not really”, “possibly”, “yes”. The option “neither yes nor no” was not included, with the intention of avoiding tentative answers.
5.3. Quantitative data analysis procedures The data obtained were analyzed by means of the software IBM SPSS (version 21.0). Differences among groups of teachers according to demographic and job characteristics variables were tested by means of the Mann-Whitney U test (for two independent groups) and the Kruskal-Wallis test (for three or more independent groups). These nonparametric alternatives had to be used because the analyzed group sizes were markedly not equal and non-normal, thus precluding the application of parametric tests (tStudent and ANOVA). The Bivariate Correlations procedure was employed to calculate Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients (r-Pearson, rho-Spearman). The Pearson correlation 128
coefficient was used to measure the linear association between two numeric variables, while the Spearman correlation coefficient was calculated for ordinal variables (were data values are replaced with ranks). Cluster analysis (k-means clustering method) was used to identify groups of teachers that were similar to each other within the group but different from teachers from other groups. This method allowed the classification of teachers into subgroups that were characterized by similar responses (Norušis, 2005).
5.4. Results 5.4.1. Teachers’ work wellbeing The results of teachers’ subjectively perceived work wellbeing are shown in Tables 5.2 – 5.4. Teachers assess their work stress as quite moderate - the mean value in the sample is 4.93; the dominant value (mode) is 5. They are quite satisfied with their work - the mean value is 6.20 and the dominant value (mode) is 8. The teachers are not really stressed by private life - the mean value is 3.98 and the dominant value (mode) is 1, but teachers differ most in their responses to this question (SD= 3.01). Table 5. 2. Frequencies for work stress in the sample How stressful is your current work situation? 0=not stressful, 10 = I can hardly manage Stress level
Frequency
Percent
0
9
3.46
1
20
7.69
2
24
9.23
3
32
12.31
4
20
7.69
5
40
15.38
6
34
13.08
7
39
15.00
8
25
9.62
9
10
3.85
10
7
2.69
Mean
4.93
Mode
5
Std. dev.
2.53
129
Table 5. 3. Frequencies for work satisfaction in the sample How satisfying is your current work situation? 0=not satisfying, 10 = extremely satisfying Satisfaction
Frequency
Percent
level 0
5
1.92
1
6
2.31
2
15
5.77
3
16
6.15
4
17
6.54
5
35
13.46
6
30
11.54
7
36
13.85
8
60
23.08
9
26
10.00
10
14
5.38
Mean
6.20
Mode
8
Std. dev.
2.43
Table 5. 4. Frequencies for private stress in the sample How stressful is your current personal situation? 0=not stressful, 10 = I can hardly manage Stress level
Frequency
Percent
0
37
14.23
1
39
15.00
2
29
11.15
3
30
11.54
4
18
6.92
5
27
10.38
6
19
7.31
7
16
6.15
8
23
8.85
9
13
5.00
10
9
3.46
Mean
3.89
Mode
1
Std. dev.
3.01
130
5.4.2. Teachers’ career intentions The results for teachers’ career intentions are shown in Table 5.5. It emerges that the majority of teachers are not thinking about making any career changes. However, one third of respondents (34%) indicated their willingness to change the workplace, around 21% would like to change the position in the current workplace, and one quarter of teachers (26%) admitted that they are thinking about changing their profession. Table 5. 5. Teachers’ career intentions no
N Are you thinking about changing your workplace? Would you like to change the position within your current workplace? Are you thinking about changing your profession?
not really
%
N
%
no and possibly not really % N %
yes
N
%
71 27.31% 100 38.46% 65.77% 53 20.38% 36 13.85%
yes and possibly % 34.23%
111 42.69%
94 36.15% 78.85% 31 11.92% 24
9.23%
21.15%
94 36.15%
99 38.08% 74.23% 47 18.08% 20
7.69%
25.77%
5.4.3. Teachers’ burnout In order to determine the level of burnout in teachers, three ranges of results (high, average, low) were set according to disengagement, exhaustion and total burnout (comprising disengagement and exhaustion). These ranges were determined on the basis of sten scores, where the scores ranging from 1 to 4 constituted a low level, from 5 to 6 an average level, and from 7 to 10 – a high level (Brzeziński, 1997, pp. 542-543). The results of raw scores’ transformation into sten scores are presented in Table 5.6.
131
Table 5. 6. Burnout sten score ranges in the sample Exhaustion Disengagement (0-32) (0-32)
Total burnout (0-64)
Raw
Sten
Raw
Sten
score
score
score
score
29-32
10
28
Level
Raw
Sten
Level
Level
score
score
high
30-32
10
high
56-64
10
high
9
high
26-28
9
high
54-55
9
high
23-27
8
high
23-25
8
high
64-53
8
high
22
7
high
20-22
7
high
41-45
7
high
19-21
6
average
18-19
6
average
37-40
6
average
17-18
5
average
15-17
5
average
32-36
5
average
14-16
4
low
12-14
4
low
27-31
4
low
11-13
3
low
10-11
3
low
23-26
3
low
9-10
2
low
9
2
low
18-22
2
low
8
1
low
8
1
low
16-17
1
low
Descriptive statistics of engagement, exhaustion and total burnout in teachers are shown in Table 5.7. It appears that mean scores on all dimensions are located in the “average” range, which means that these teachers are characterized by average levels of exhaustion, disengagement and total burnout.
Table 5. 7. Descriptive statistics of disengagement, exhaustion and total burnout in the sample Mean
Standard deviation
Minimum value
Maximum value
Skewness
Kurtosis
Disengagement
17.76
5.10
8.00
32.00
0.353
-0.229
Exhaustion
18.88
4.98
8.00
31.00
0.097
-0.158
Total Burnout
36.64
9.39
16.00
62.00
0.171
-0.249
An additional analysis allowed for a more specific description of the sample, as presented in Tables 5.8 – 5.10. As far as the level of exhaustion goes, 30% of teachers in the sample are characterized by a low level of exhaustion, 39% are quite exhausted, and 31% are very exhausted. With regard to work disengagement, 27% of teachers indicate low levels of disengagement from work, 38% are quite disengaged, and 35% reveal high levels of disengagement. Finally, as to total burnout, 30% of teachers are characterized by a low level 132
of burnout, 37% are at an average level, and 33% of teachers in the sample indicate a high level of burnout.
Table 5. 8. Frequencies for the level of exhaustion in the sample
Sten 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
N 5 8 28 37 46 56 21 41 6 12
% % cumul 1.9 1.9 3.1 10.8 14.2 17.7 21.5 8.1 15.8 2.3 4.6
260 100.0
5.0 15.8 30.0 47.7 69.2 77.3 93.1 95.4 100.0
Table 5. 9. Frequencies for the level of disengagement in the sample Sten 1
N 4
Table 5. 10. Frequencies for the level of total burnout in the sample
% % cumul 1.5 1.5
Sten 1 2 3 4
2 3 4
5 20 42
1.9 7.7 16.2
3.5 11.2 27.3
5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
59 39 48 21 16 6
22.7 15.0 18.5 8.1 6.2 2.3
50.0 65.0 83.5 91.5 97.7 100.0
260 100.0
5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
N 4 12 24 38 50 47 41 26 9 9
% % cumul 1.5 1.5 4.6 9.2 14.6 19.2 18.1 15.8 10.0 3.5 3.5
6.2 15.4 30.0 49.2 67.3 83.1 93.1 96.5 100.0
260 100.0
5.4.4. Teachers’ evaluation of job resources Teachers’ evaluation of job resources, i.e. organizational conditions, economic conditions, professional development conditions, and communication conditions are presented in Tables 5.11 – 5.14. With regard to organizational conditions, it appears that while an overwhelming majority of respondents feel a certain degree of autonomy in determining work procedures (90%), much fewer, 41%, can determine their own work schedule. Around one quarter report having an influence on school policies and participation in important decision making. Most teachers think that their work is important (86%), but at the same time many (60%) believe that the teaching profession does not have a high status in the society now. In terms of economic conditions, 71% of respondents are not satisfied with the salary they receive. Financial insecurity is indicated by 54%. The financial situation deteriorates in the summer in the case of 68% of respondents, and 47% report that then they worry about their income. Approximately two thirds are not awarded financial benefits additional to their basic salary, and in most respondents’ schools there are neither motivational incentives (87%) nor pay increases (62%). 61% declared that their school does not give them a sense of 133
stability. Moreover, 31% sometimes feel their schools are unfair when it comes to their salaries. As to conditions for professional development, one third of respondents do not feel that they fully use their knowledge and skills at work. Only 9% of teachers feel insecure about the level of their English; some more (21%) are insecure about it when they teach ESP. Around 40% declare that their studies did not prepare them to work with the age group they work with, and 11% developed professional competencies hands-on over time. Almost all teachers feel that they know how to plan and execute a lesson. 27% of respondents do not have opportunities to develop professional knowledge and skills; 17% do not see any areas worth developing. However, 85% would be satisfied if they could develop their areas of interest. Around two thirds of teachers lack a person who could help them develop (65%), as well as promotion opportunities (66%). 37% of teachers think that teaching does not have career prospects (37%). As regards communication conditions, nearly half of the teachers do not feel they have their boss’s support, 60% feel they have colleagues’ support, and 40% report their methodologist’s support. Less than half are praised by their bosses (47%) or by a methodologist (43%), but a great majority feel praised by their students (85%). Similarly, fewer teachers receive quality feedback from their bosses (42%) and methodologist (42%), compared with feedback from students (72%). Again, around every third teacher does not feel that their school’s expectations are clearly communicated.
Table 5. 11. Organizational conditions (job resources) reported by teachers disagree
partly disagree
%
%
N
1) I myself decide which 37.69% 98 21.54% days and when I work at the school. 2) I feel free to decide 3.08% 8 6.54% which methods and techniques to choose while working with my students. 3) I have an influence on 40.77% 106 37.69% my school's policies and its procedures. 4) I participate in my 42.69% 111 30.77% school's important decision making. 5) I think that my work 2.69% 7 11.15% is important.
N 56
17
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N 59.23% 29.23%
agree
%
76 11.54%
N
agree and partly agree %
30 40.77%
9.62% 45.77% 119 44.62% 116 90.38%
98
78.46% 15.77%
41
5.77%
15 21.54%
80
73.46% 19.23%
50
7.31%
19 26.54%
29
13.85% 43.08% 112 43.08% 112 86.15%
134
6) My profession has a high status in the society.
18.46%
48 41.15% 107
59.62% 33.08%
86
7.31%
19 40.38%
Table 5. 12. Economic conditions (job resources) reported by teachers disagree
%
partly disagree
N
%
N
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N
agree
%
N
agree and partly agree %
1) I feel I am a wellpaid employee in my profession. 2) The insecurity about the level of my monthly pay is a big mental strain for me. 3) My financial situation significantly deteriorates in the summer time. 4) I receive (extra) financial benefits with my salary. 5) My school gives me a sense of stability.
31.15%
81 39.62% 103
70.77% 24.62%
64
4.62%
12 29.23%
16.92%
44 29.23%
76
46.15% 29.62%
77 24.23%
63 53.85%
10.38%
27 21.92%
57
32.31% 23.85%
62 43.85% 114 67.69%
55.38% 144 10.00%
26
65.38% 14.23%
37 20.38%
53 34.62%
33.46%
87 27.31%
71
60.77% 31.54%
82
7.69%
20 39.23%
6) My form of employment deprives me of the right to rest because when I rest I worry that I don't earn money. 7) In my school there are financial incentives that motivate teachers to work better. 8) My pay increases with my experience and achievements. 9) Sometimes I get the impression that my school is trying to pay me less than they should by using legal tricks in our work contracts.
21.54%
56 31.54%
82
53.08% 18.85%
49 28.08%
73 46.92%
60.00% 156 26.54%
69
86.54% 10.38%
27
3.08%
8 13.46%
41.15% 107 21.15%
55
62.31% 28.46%
74
9.23%
24 37.69%
31.92%
97
69.23% 16.54%
43 14.23%
37 30.77%
83 37.31%
135
Table 5. 13. Professional development conditions (job resources) reported by teachers
1) In my current workplace I have opportunities to fully utilize my knowledge and skills. 2) The level of my General English sometimes causes me to feel insecure at work. 3) The level of my English for Specific Purposes sometimes causes me to feel insecure at work. 4) Contentwise, my studies prepare(d) me well for working with the age group I teach. 5) I gained the professional competencies to work with the age group I teach by actively doing this job. 6) I feel I can appropriately plan and execute a lesson. 7) In my workplace I have opportunities to develop my professional knowledge and skills. 8) I can see the areas of competence in my profession in which I can develop. 9) Developing these areas will be satisfying for me. 10) The training sessions which I attend contribute to the development of my competencies. 11) In my workplace there is a person who helps me to develop.
disagree
partly disagree
%
%
8.08%
N
N
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N
21 24.23%
63
32.31% 45.77%
53.85% 140 37.31%
97
91.15%
agree
%
119 21.92%
N
agree and partly agree %
57 67.69%
7.31%
19
1.54%
4
46
3.46%
9 21.15%
57 60.77%
38.08%
99 40.77% 106
78.85% 17.69%
16.54%
43 22.69%
59
39.23% 38.85%
101 21.92%
8.85%
2.31%
6
8.46%
22
10.77% 38.46%
100 50.77% 132 89.23%
0.00%
0
1.15%
3
1.15% 37.69%
98 61.15% 159 98.85%
5.77%
15 21.54%
56
27.31% 48.85%
127 23.85%
62 72.69%
2.69%
7 13.85%
36
16.54% 46.92%
122 36.54%
95 83.46%
2.31%
6 12.69%
33
15.00% 41.15%
107 43.85% 114 85.00%
13.46%
35 17.69%
46
31.15% 45.00%
117 23.85%
62 68.85%
34.23%
89 30.77%
80
65.00% 22.69%
59 12.31%
32 35.00%
136
12) In my workplace I have promotion opportunities. 13) Teaching is a job without prospects.
43.08% 112 23.08%
60
66.15% 19.23%
50 14.62%
38 33.85%
27.31%
93
63.08% 25.00%
65 11.92%
31 36.92%
71 35.77%
Table 5. 14. Communication conditions (job resources) reported by teachers disagree
%
partly disagree
N
%
N
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N
agree
%
N
agree and partly agree %
1) In my workplace I feel I have my boss's support. 2) In my workplace I feel I have my colleagues' support. 3) In my workplace I feel I have my methodologist's support. 4) I hear praise for my work from my boss.
19.23%
50
27.69%
72
46.92% 35.38%
92 17.69%
46 53.08%
15.77%
41
23.85%
62
39.62% 41.92% 109 18.46%
48 60.38%
33.46%
87
26.54%
69
60.00% 25.77%
67 14.23%
37 40.00%
24.23%
63
28.85%
75
53.08% 30.00%
78 16.92%
44 46.92%
5) I hear praise for my work from my methodologist. 6) I hear praise for my work from my students. 7) I get constructive feedback on my work from my boss. 8) I get constructive feedback on my work from my methodologist. 9) I get constructive feedback on my work from my students. 10) My school clearly communicates what their expectations are of me.
35.77%
93
21.54%
56
57.31% 25.77%
67 16.92%
44 42.69%
2.31%
6
12.69%
33
15.00% 38.85% 101 46.15% 120 85.00%
29.23%
76
28.85%
75
58.08% 26.54%
69 15.38%
40 41.92%
38.46% 100
20.00%
52
58.46% 22.69%
59 18.85%
49 41.54%
8.85%
23
19.62%
51
28.46% 42.31% 110 29.23%
76 71.54%
13.08%
34
23.08%
60
36.15% 36.54%
71 63.85%
95 27.31%
5.4.5. Teachers’ evaluation of job demands Results for teachers’ evaluation of job demands, i.e. socio-organization factors, physical environment factors, mental challenges, and sensory challenges are presented in Tables 5.15 – 5.18. With regard to socio-organization factors, only 2% of respondents report interpersonal problems with a methodologist, 7% - with colleagues, 11% - with students, and 12% - with a 137
boss (e.g. a head teacher, a school owner, etc). Approximately one third of respondents are not satisfied with their teaching load (34%) and with the class arrangement during the day (33%). Most teachers are under constant time pressure (76%) and are nervous when they are late (76%). One quarter of teachers would welcome more responsibility at work, and 8% think that their job is undemanding. Responsibility to keep students in the school is a big strain for 37%. Responsibility for promoting students to the next level / class and evaluating their progress is challenging for 31%. Around one third of teachers do not feel significant for the school (33%) and feel objectified (30%). At the same time, 65% indicate a need for belonging to a school. Three quarters of respondents positively assess the availability of didactic resources, but the equipment “leaves a lot to be desired” in 47% of respondents’ opinions. Exactly half of the respondents agree or partly agree that the teachers’ room provides good working conditions, though it is notable that 32% do not agree with this statement. As regards physical environment factors, nearly every third teacher is not satisfied with the arrangement of the furniture in the classrooms (30%), nor with the lighting and temperature there (31%). Concerning mental challenges, information processing (understanding) does not pose a problem for the majority (94%). Thinking is more difficult when tired for 24% of respondents. Remembering work-related issues is easy for 94%. Similarly, learning and remembering new language items and structures is easy for 97%. However, 31% of teachers are anxious that they might be considered incompetent when unable to remember a word on students’ demand. As to explaining, 55% feel uncomfortable when they cannot explain something to their students. Solving problems of an interpersonal nature is difficult for 35%, problems connected with schools procedures – for 43%, one quarter of teachers have to deal with problems arising from students’ unpreparedness, and 36% face problems with students’ attendance. As to sensory challenges, most teachers indicate problems with noise (39%) and smell (22%). Fewer teachers declare problems related to their voice (15%) and eyesight (7%). Table 5. 15. Socio-organization factors (job demands) reported by teachers disagree
partly disagree
%
%
N
1) Sometimes I have 54.23% 141 38.08% problems with my colleagues. 2) Sometimes I have 51.15% 133 36.92% problems with my
N
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N
agree
%
99
92.31%
5.00%
13
2.69%
96
88.08%
7.31%
19
4.62%
N 7
agree and partly agree % 7.69%
12 11.92%
138
boss. 3) Sometimes I have problems with my methodologist. 4) Sometimes I have problems with my students. 5) The number of teaching hours in my schedule satisfies me. 6) I am satisfied with the arrangement of my classes during the day. 7) I feel that because of my work I am in a constant hurry. 8) I am very nervous when I come late to my class. 9) I think I could have a bigger range of work responsibilities. 10) I think that my work is undemanding. 11) The responsibility for keeping students in the school is a big strain for me. 12) Promoting my students to the next level / class and evaluating their progress is difficult for me. 13) I feel that my school wants me to work for them. 14) At work I sometimes feel like a tool which can be got rid of when no longer needed. 15) I have a need of belonging to school / organization. 16) I have the right didactic base in my school (library,
74.62% 194 23.46%
61
98.08%
1.54%
4
0.38%
1
44.62% 116 44.62% 116
89.23%
7.69%
20
3.08%
8 10.77%
15.77%
41 18.08%
47
33.85% 44.62% 116 21.54%
56 66.15%
15.00%
39 18.08%
47
33.08% 45.38% 118 21.54%
56 66.92%
10.00%
26 14.23%
37
24.23% 36.15%
94 39.62% 103 75.77%
9.62%
25 14.23%
37
23.85% 24.62%
64 51.54% 134 76.15%
90 39.62% 103
74.23% 16.15%
42
9.62%
16
2.31%
34.62%
25 25.77%
63.46% 165 28.08%
73
91.54%
31.15%
81 31.92%
83
63.08% 23.08%
60 13.85%
36 36.92%
26.54%
69 42.31% 110
68.85% 23.08%
60
8.08%
21 31.15%
14.62%
38 18.85%
33.46% 52.69% 137 13.85%
36 66.54%
30.38%
79 39.23% 102
69.62% 15.77%
41 14.62%
38 30.38%
14.23%
37 20.77%
54
35.00% 38.08%
99 26.92%
70 65.00%
13.08%
34 11.92%
31
25.00% 46.54% 121 28.46%
74 75.00%
49
6.15%
1.92%
6
8.46%
139
coursebooks, CDs). 17) The equipment in my school leaves a lot to be desired (photocopier, CD players, computers). 18) The teachers' room provides good working conditions.
16.54%
43 36.92%
96
53.46% 23.46%
61 23.08%
60 46.54%
31.92%
83 18.08%
47
50.00% 34.62%
90 15.38%
40 50.00%
Table 5. 16. Physical environment factors (job demands) reported by teachers disagree
% 1) The arrangement of the furniture in the classrooms where I work is satisfactory. 2) The conditions in the classrooms where I work (lighting, temperature, equipment) are satisfactory.
N
partly disagree
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N
agree
%
agree and partly agree %
%
N
N
11.54% 30
18.46%
48
30.00% 43.85% 114 26.15% 68
70.00%
13.85% 36
17.31%
45
31.15% 46.54% 121 22.31% 58
68.85%
Table 5. 17. Mental challenges (job demands) reported by teachers disagree
partly disagree
%
%
N
N
1) I’m worried that I 61.54% 160 32.69% 85 sometimes have problems understanding language items which are new for me. 2) I sometimes find 34.62% 90 41.54% 108 it hard to think during the lesson because of my tiredness. 3) I usually 2.31% 6 3.46% 9 remember the things I have to do at work. 4) I learn new 1.15% 3 2.31% 6 English grammar
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N 94.23%
agree
%
3.85%
10
1.92%
76.15% 18.46%
48
5.38%
N 5
agree and partly agree % 5.77%
14 23.85%
5.77% 53.85% 140 40.38% 105 94.23%
3.46% 42.31% 110 54.23% 141 96.54%
140
and vocabulary easily. 5) I am afraid that my students find me incompetent when I am not able to give them the word they are asking me about. 6) I feel uncomfortable when I can't explain a language issue to my students. 7) Solving interpersonal problems while working with my students is a strain for me. 8) Problems connected with school procedures are a strain for me. 9) I often have a problem with what to do when my students come unprepared to class. 10) I often have a problem with what to do when my students come to class irregularly.
34.23%
89 35.00%
91
69.23% 20.38%
53 10.38%
27 30.77%
23.08%
60 21.54%
56
44.62% 36.92%
96 18.46%
48 55.38%
31.92%
83 33.46%
87
65.38% 25.38%
66
9.23%
24 34.62%
23.85%
62 33.46%
87
57.31% 26.15%
68 16.54%
43 42.69%
33.46%
87 41.54% 108
75.00% 16.92%
44
8.08%
21 25.00%
30.00%
78 33.85%
63.85% 24.23%
63 11.92%
31 36.15%
88
Table 5. 18. Sensory challenges (job demands) reported by teachers disagree
% 1) Problems with my eyesight make my work difficult. 2) Problems with my voice make my work difficult. 3) Noise at work is a big strain for me.
N
partly disagree
%
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % N % N
agree
%
agree and partly agree %
N
68.08%
177 25.00% 65
93.08%
5.00%
13 1.92%
5
6.92%
57.31%
149 27.31% 71
84.62% 11.54%
30 3.85%
10 15.38%
39.62%
103 21.92% 57
61.54% 28.85%
75 9.62%
25 38.46%
141
4) It sometimes happens that because of unpleasant smells it is hard for me to work.
51.54%
134 26.54% 69
78.08% 14.23%
37 7.69%
20 21.92%
5.4.6. Teachers’ evaluation of work-life interaction Results for teachers’ evaluation of work-life interaction are presented in Table 5.19. It appears that in the case of 33% of respondents work has a negative influence on their private life. However, a great majority do not report an opposite relation, i.e. most teachers do not agree with the statement that their private life makes them feel tired (90%) or influences the quality of their work (93%). One quarter of respondents believe that their work is unsuitable for people with children. Table 5. 19. Work – life interaction as indicated by teachers
1) My work negatively influences my private life. 2) My private life causes me to feel exhausted at work. 3) My private life causes the quality of my work to be worse. 4) I think that my work is unsuitable for people bringing up children.
disagree
partly disagree
%
%
30.00%
N
N
disagree partly agree and partly disagree % % N
agree
%
agree and partly agree %
N
78 36.92%
96
66.92% 23.85%
62
9.23%
24
33.08%
56.15% 146 33.46%
87
89.62%
8.85%
23
1.54%
4
10.38%
58.46% 152 34.23%
89
92.69%
6.15%
16
1.15%
3
7.31%
41.54% 108 32.69%
85
74.23% 13.85%
36 11.92%
31
25.77%
5.4.7. Participants’ comments Participants’ comments (Appendix E) that were made after completing the questionnaire allowed the extension of the evaluation made by this research project, especially with regard to work in private language schools. For example, Respondent KK indicates lack of bonuses, 142
paid holidays, or influence on school policies (school’s offer), as well as limited influence on her work schedule in terms of the teaching load, place and time of classes (which are imposed by the school: “Take it or you won’t get anything”), and job insecurity (“In June I don’t know if I will have courses in October”). Besides, it is noted that it is not a good job for people who have children (“I work from 9 am to 11 am, from 4 pm to 8 pm, and from 9.30 pm I have Internet classes”). Moreover, Respondent Kielczanka does not feel appreciated for her work when she keeps her students satisfied. Frustration is also evident when it comes to professional prospects, as revealed by some respondents. For instance: If I am a super teacher and my students are satisfied with my work, where will I be in five years’ time with my professional development? Answer: I will be doing exactly the same. And it is the worst aspect of working in a language school (KK).
The problem of work conditions is brought up by Respondent Profe, who finds working on a specific task contract basis difficult in the long run but the costs of being selfemployed – an alternative employment option - are too threatening, especially in the summer, when social contributions have to be paid, and the summer rates are “ridiculous”. Moreover, it appears that the nature of the teacher–student interaction – one of the main job demands in teaching according to the literature - is not the most salient problem for the teachers of English, as there are other difficulties. First, the workload, including bureaucracy and evaluation (“thieves of time”), is a significant issue raised by the respondents. For instance, Respondent Monika emphasizes that: My main workplace, the secondary school, does not really generate stress and does not make me tired. It is extra workplaces that make me gradually feel burned out. I am exhausted to the limit and I do not have time for private life.
The teachers also feel that they must be flexible and have an instinct that “allows us to change the method ‘off-the-shelf’ – depending on students’ demands. Either you have the instinct or your lessons suck”, as put by Student-Oriented Teacher. Next, two respondents mention the problem of quality in private language schools, fighting for which is stressful. Respondent Lektorka points out that: [U]nfortunately, financial profit matters most in a private company: [the aim is] to create a maximum number of groups with people who pay. So they go to a group at an inappropriate level just because the time is suitable for them.
143
Respondent Human adds that “profit-making orientation in private language schools may slowly kill quality”. Finally, some respondents mention the fact that they are not observed by a methodologist, and indicate a lack of teachers’ rooms is some schools.
5.4.8. Work wellbeing vs. demographic and professional background The overall results of teachers’ subjectively perceived work wellbeing (Tables 5.2 – 5.4) show that teachers are moderately stressed by their work (M=4.93), quite satisfied with it (M=6.20) and are not particularly stressed in private life (M=3.98). But do teachers vary with regard to their work wellbeing according to the demographic and professional background? In order to see if such differences exist, groups of teachers were compared and tested by means of the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests according to the following variables: gender, age, experience, school location, education, professional status, student age group, type of school, sector, form of employment, weekly workload, seniority (years in current school), turnover (number of schools in a career). Work wellbeing comprises: work stress, work satisfaction and private stress. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) presented in the tables below were calculated on the basis of a scale ranging from 0 to 10, where 0 = “not stressful / satisfactory at all” and 10 = “extremely stressful / satisfying”. No statistically significant differences in work wellbeing between men and women were observed, which means that gender does not differentiate the participants (Table 5.20). However, as the group sizes are not equal, this conclusion should be treated with caution. Despite that, it is worth noting that both male and female teachers in the studied sample are moderately stressed about work, with female teachers being slightly more stressed (M=4.95) than male (M=4.78). As to work satisfaction, both sexes are quite satisfied with their work, but female teachers tend to be more satisfied in this respect (M=6.25) than male (M=5.92). As regards average private stress, it is reported to be at a relatively low level, with male teachers feeling more stressed about their private situation (M=4.14) than female (M=3.85). Table 5. 20. Teachers’ work wellbeing by gender Variables
Female
Male
N= 224
N= 36
Mann-Whitney U
M
SD
M
SD
U
p
Work stress
4.95
2.54
4.78
2.52
3833.50
0.633
Work satisfaction
6.25
2.46
5.92
2.32
3663.00
0.373
Private stress
3.85
2.99
4.14
3.17
3841.00
0.646
144
The data presented in Table 5.21 show that age has significance only for perceived work stress. Teachers’ work stress increases with age, from M=4.5 in the group of up to 29year-olds, M=5.01 in the group of teachers in the 30-39 age bracket, reaching the highest level at 40-49 (M=5.75), but then it decreases in the group aged over 50 (M=3.54). Work satisfaction and private stress did not differentiate the groups. However, it is interesting to observe that young teachers in the sample are quite satisfied with their work (M=6.4). The level of satisfaction drops in the next age group 30-39 (M=5.92), and then it continues to increase in the remaining age groups (M=6.5 in 40-49, M=7.08 in >50). Private stress increases with teachers’ age, the highest being in the 40-49 age group (M=4.48), after which it decreases in the group aged over 50 (M=3.54). Table 5. 21. Teachers’ work wellbeing by age 50
N=80
N=115
N=52
N=13
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
(df=3) Work stress
4.5
2.3
5.01
2.36
5.75
2.89
3.54
2.93
11.56
0.009**
Work
6.4
2.34
5.92
2.39
6.31
2.59
7.08
2.78
5.12
0.163
3.42
3.00
3.98
2.96
4.48
3.10
3.54
3.02
4.11
0.249
satisfaction Private stress
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 Similarly to the results on age, teachers’ experience has significance only for perceived work stress (Table 5.22). Work stress increases with experience, with its peak among teachers of the 16-20 years’ work experience group (M=6.00) and drops to the lowest level (M=4.22) in the most experienced group. Other aspects did not achieve statistical significance, but it is interesting to note that as to work satisfaction there is a fluctuating trend across the groups in this sample, where least satisfied are teachers of 6-10 (M=5.91) and 16-20 (M=5.89) years of experience, and the most satisfied are teachers with over 21 years of experience (M=7.09). The perception of private stress also increases with teachers’ experience. From a rather low level of M=3.31 in the least experienced teachers, it increases to the level of M=4.45 in the group of 16-20 years, and decreases in teachers with over 21 years of experience.
145
Table 5. 22. Teachers’ work wellbeing by teaching experience (in years) 21
Kruskal-Wallis
N=70
N=78
N=50
N=38
N=23
H
SD
M
M
SD
SD
M
SD
M
M
SD
2
p
(df=4) Work stress
4.55
2.11
4.93
2.46
4.98
2.67
6.00
2.54
4.22
3.23
10.31
0.035*
Work
6.41
2.30
5.91
2.42
6.18
2.26
5.89
2.76
7.09
2.78
6.39
0.172
3.31
2.80
4.00
3.13
4.08
3.06
4.45
2.84
4.09
3.31
4.11
0.392
satisfaction Private stress
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001
Statistical tests reveal no significant differences in work wellbeing in teachers distinguished by school location (Table 5.23). In spite of this, mean scores show interesting differences in the teachers in this sample. It appears that teachers who work in medium-sized towns are most stressed about their work and in private life (M=5.55, M=4.55), and the least stressed teachers – both in terms of work and private life - work in the countryside and small towns (M=4.63, M=3.27). Teachers who work in big towns are least satisfied with their work (M=6.03), whereas teachers from the countryside are most satisfied (M=6.71). Table 5. 23. Teachers’ work wellbeing by school location Village/town up to
Town 20 – 100 thous.
Town over 100
20 thous. inh.
inh.
thous. inh.
N=49
N=31
N=180
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Kruskal-Wallis H
2
p
(df=2) Work stress
4.63
2.43
5.55
2.29
4.90
2.59
3.04
0.219
Work satisfaction
6.71
2.15
6.39
2.20
6.03
2.53
2.16
0.340
Private stress
3.27
2.93
4.55
3.22
3.94
2.98
3.45
0.179
Statistical test results show that education does not differentiate the participants (Table 5.24). It may be noted, however, that in this sample the mean level of stress increases significantly with the level of education, from M=3.6 (secondary education) to M=6.00 (PhD). Work satisfaction is highest among teachers who completed secondary education (M=7.8) and teachers with a PhD degree (M=7.00), and it is lowest in teachers with an MA (M=6.08). Private stress is reported to be highest in teachers with secondary education (M=5.6) and lowest in teachers with an MA degree (M=3.7). 146
Table 5. 24. Teachers’ work wellbeing by education Secondary
BA
MA
PhD
Kruskal-Wallis
N= 5
N=21
N=222
N=12
H
SD
M
M
SD
SD
M
SD
M
2
p
(df=3) Work stress
3.60
1.14
4.33
2.43
4.95
2.57
6.00
1.95
5.26
0.154
Work
7.80
1.92
6.67
2.15
6.08
2.44
7.00
2.83
4.92
0.178
5.60
3.65
4.67
3.04
3.76
2.98
4.08
3.20
3.31
0.346
satisfaction Private stress
The results show that professional status has significance in teachers’ perceived stress (Table 5.25). It is evident that teachers who are outside the state professional grading system are less stressed (M=4.53) compared with teachers who are ranked. As regards teachers within the grading system, trainee teachers are least stressed (M=5.20) and contractual teachers are most stressed (M=5.36). Other aspects are not statistically significant, but it may be noted that the teachers in this sample who are outside the state professional system are less satisfied (M=6.03) than all those teachers who are, where chartered teachers are most satisfied (M=7.27); contractual least (M=6.09). The perception of private stress is highest among appointed teachers (M=4.73) and lowest in trainee teachers (M=3.20). Table 5. 25. Teachers’ work wellbeing by professional status n/a
trainee
contractual
appointed
chartered
N=131
N=10
N=58
N=34
N=27
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Kruskal-Wallis H 2
p
(df=4) Work stress
4.53
2.55
5.20
2.15
5.36
2.41
5.29
2.54
5.33
2.64
7.77
0.100#
Work
6.03
2.56
6.30
2.31
6.09
2.15
6.20
2.84
7.27
1.74
5.21
0.267
4.04
3.04
3.20
3.39
3.41
2.86
4.73
3.07
3.37
2.87
6.10
0.192
satisfaction Private stress
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 No statistically significant differences in work wellbeing among teachers working with different student age groups were observed, which means that students’ age does not differentiate the participants. However, differences in mean scores, presented in Table 5.26, show that the level of stress is lowest in teachers working with children up to 5 years old (M=4.25), and it is highest in teachers working with students aged 16-18 (M=5.75). Teachers of the 13-15 age group are least satisfied (M=5.90) with their work, and teachers of 16-18147
year-olds are the most satisfied (M=6.79) in the whole sample. As to adult learners, teachers who work with higher school students are slightly less stressed (M=4.65) than teachers working with other adults (M=4.73) and are more satisfied with their work (M=6.45) than teachers of other adults (M=5.78). In fact teachers of adult learners are the least satisfied teachers in the whole sample. Teachers of the 13-15 age group are most stressed about their private life (M=4.31), and teachers of the 6-12 age group are least stressed (M=3.57). Table 5. 26. Teachers’ work wellbeing by type of students Children
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher
Adults
Kruskal-Wallis
up to 5
N=56
N=29
N=33
school
N=83
H
N=8 M
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
(df=5) Work
4.25
2.37
5.00
2.43
5.07
2.00
5.75
2.08
4.65
2.80
4.73
2.74
6.25
0.282
6.62
1.99
6.66
2.25
5.90
2.22
6.79
1.83
6.45
2.55
5.78
2.70
8.22
0.144
4.00
3.29
3.57
3.18
4.31
3.19
3.67
2.87
4.06
3.22
3.93
2.78
1.70
0.888
stress Work satisf. Private stress
No statistically significant differences in work wellbeing among teachers working in various types of school were shown (Table 5.27). Despite that, it is worthwhile to notice that kindergarten (M=4.25) and language school (M=4.54) teachers are the least stressed teachers in the sample, whereas upper secondary school teachers feel most stressed (M=5.75). Lower secondary (M=5.62) and language school (M=5.91) teachers are the least satisfied teachers, while upper secondary school teachers feel most satisfied (M=7.07) with their work. Primary school teachers feel least stressed (M=3.35) in private life, and language school teachers are most stressed (M=4.10).
148
Table 5. 27. Teachers’ work wellbeing by type of school Kinder-
Primary
Lower
Upper
Higher
Language
Kruskal-Wallis
garten
school
secondary
secondary
school
school
H
N=8
N=43
N=21
N=28
N=54
N=106
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
SD
M
SD
M
M
SD
2
p
(df=5) Work
4.25
2.37
5.32
2.46
5.05
2.07
5.75
1.88
4.98
2.97
4.54
2.52
7.48
0.187
6.62
1.99
6.37
2.29
5.62
2.29
7.07
1.76
6.35
2.70
5.91
2.54
6.47
0.263
4.00
3.29
3.35
2.23
3.52
2.96
3.82
2.78
4.05
3.03
4.10
2.30
2.91
0.714
stress Work satisf. Private stress
Sector does not differentiate participants as to their work wellbeing (Table 5.28). Nevertheless, it is interesting to observe that mean scores obtained in this sample show that state school teachers are more stressed (M=5.19) than private school teachers (M=4.68), but they are also more satisfied (M=6.35) than private school teachers (M=6.06). Teachers from the private sector feel more stressed about their private life (4.09) than state teachers (M=3.66). Table 5. 28. Teachers’ work wellbeing by sector Variable
State
Private
N=124
N=136
Mann-Whitney U
M
SD
M
SD
U
p
Work stress
5.19
2.59
4.68
2.46
7471.50
0.110
Work satisfaction
6.35
2.40
6.06
2.47
7926.50
0.399
Private stress
3.66
3.09
4.09
2.93
7645.00
0.191
The data presented in Table 5.29 show that teachers’ type of contract has significance only for work stress. It becomes evident that all freelance teachers (self-employed, commission, specific task) are less stressed with work, compared with teachers who have a fixed- or indefinite period contract. Other aspects are not statistically significant, but it is interesting to see that teachers in the sample whose main form of employment is a commission contract feel least satisfied (M=5.80), while teachers who have other work arrangements (e.g. PhD students) are the most satisfied teachers in the sample (M=7.33). Freelance teachers report higher levels of private stress in comparison with teachers who have a contract (fixed or indefinite) or who are employed differently. 149
Table 5. 29. Teachers’ work wellbeing by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-Wallis
employed
N=25
task
N=39
period
N=9
H
N=65 M
N=33 SD
M
SD
M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
(df=5) Work
4.74
2.80
3.84
2.05
4.64
2.07
5.13
2.26
5.43
2.67
4.55
2.01
9.88
stress Work
0.079 #
6.20
2.54
5.80
2.55
6.09
2.39
6.28
2.35
6.21
2.45
7.33
2.06
2.44
0.785
4.00
3.06
4.24
2.82
4.09
2.78
3.82
3.20
3.67
3.00
3.78
3.86
1.53
0.909
satisf. Private stress
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 No statistically significant differences in work wellbeing among teachers of various amounts of workload were observed, which suggests that weekly workload does not differentiate the participants (Table 5.30). Nevertheless, mean scores show that teachers who work 41 hours per week and more are the most stressed teachers in the sample (M=5.58) and are also least satisfied (M=5.21). Teachers who work 11-20 are least stressed (M=4.55) and also the most satisfied (M=6.56). Teachers who work 21-30 hours per week report the lowest private life stress (M=3.55), whereas teachers working more than 41 hours report the highest (M=4.71). Table 5. 30. Teachers’ work wellbeing by weekly workload (in school hours) Up to 10
11-20
21-30
31-40
41
N=23
N=80
N=89
N=44
more
and Kruskal-Wallis H
N=24 M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
(df=4) Work
5.09
2.64
4.55
2.39
5.10
2.59
4.82
2.50
5.58
2.70
4.16
0.385
6.26
2.05
6.56
2.45
6.02
2.40
6.43
2.25
5.21
3.01
5.45
0.244
4.52
3.37
3.73
3.05
3.55
2.84
4.09
2.99
4.71
3.15
4.05
0.400
stress Work satisf. Private stress
No statistically significant differences in work wellbeing among teachers of varied seniorities (years in current schools) were observed (Table 5.31). Again, looking at the mean scores obtained in this sample it appears that the level of work stress increases till 10-14 years 150
of working in the same school (M=5.39) and decreases in the group of 15 and more years in the same school (M=4.94). Work satisfaction decreases with seniority, from M=6.21 (up to 4 years) to M=5.95 (in the group of 10-14 years) and then increases in long-serving teachers, i.e. M=6.74 in teachers working in the same school for 15 years and more. The level of personal stress is highest in teachers working 10-14 years in the same school (M=4.14). Table 5. 31. Teachers’ work wellbeing by seniority (years in current school) Up to 4
5-9
10-14
15 and more
Kruskal-Wallis
N=101
N=80
N=44
N=34
H
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
2
SD
M
p
(df=3) Work stress
4.64
2.26
5.06
2.52
5.39
2.69
4.94
3.04
3.20
0.361
Work
6.21
2.41
6.10
2.31
5.95
2.73
6.74
2.48
2.52
0.472
3.77
3.08
3.82
2.88
4.14
3.05
3.88
3.03
0.53
0.912
satisfaction Private stress
No statistically significant differences were shown in work wellbeing among the groups of teachers distinguished according to the number of schools they have worked for (Table 5.32). However, as there are differences in the mean scores in the sample, it is worth noting that the perceived level of stress increases with the number of schools teachers have worked for, from M=4.58 in teachers who have worked for one school to M=5.18 for teachers who have worked for seven or more schools. Teachers who have worked for a maximum of three schools are most satisfied (M=6.35), and teachers who have worked for seven or more schools in their careers are least satisfied (M=5.87). The level of reported stress in private life is highest in teachers who have worked for four to six schools (M=4.41) and lowest in teachers who have worked for two or three schools (M=3.41). Table 5. 32. Teachers’ work wellbeing by turnover (number of schools in a career) 0-1
2-3
4-6
>7
N=26
N=103
N=91
N=39
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
(df=3) Work stress
4.58
2.80
4.67
2.42
5.19
2.44
5.18
2.82
3.04
0.386
Work satisfaction
6.08
2.48
6.35
2.19
6.20
2.68
5.87
2.52
0.99
0.803
Private stress
4.00
3,10
3.41
2.87
4.41
3.06
3.79
3.11
5.29
0.152
151
Correlation coefficients of demographic and professional background characteristics with work wellbeing (r-Pearson for numeric variables, rho-Spearman for ordinal variables) were calculated (Table 5.33). A weak but statistically significant positive relationship between work stress and the level of teachers’ education (r= 0.13) and teachers’ professional status (r= 0.16) were revealed. This means that the higher the teachers’ education level, the more work stress they experience. Similarly, the higher their professional status, the higher the level of work stress. A correlation between work satisfaction and student age group was revealed (r= 0.12), which means that the older the students are, the less satisfaction is derived from work. Moreover, work stress is moderately correlated with work satisfaction (r= -0.36), so the more teachers feel stressed, the less satisfied they are with their work. Private stress appears to be correlated with work stress (r= 0.29). This would imply a moderate strength of work-life interaction, where with increasing levels of private stress teachers also experience more work stress, but the direction of this influence cannot be determined.
Table 5. 33. Correlations of demographic and professional background with work wellbeing variables Work stress
Work satisfaction
Private stress
Age
r-Pearson
.011
.036
.053
Experience
r-Pearson
.001
.061
.077
Workload
r-Pearson
.073
-.079
.040
Seniority
r-Pearson
.038
.053
-.002
Turnover
r-Pearson
.097
-.047
.090
Region
rho-Spearman
.008
-.097
.052
Education
rho-Spearman
.133*
-.031
-.082
Professional status
rho-Spearman
.165**
.092
-.027
Type of contract
rho-Spearman
.06
.07
-.03
Taught age group
rho-Spearman
-.045
-.122*
.040
Work stress
rho-Spearman
-.363**
.298**
Work satisfaction
rho-Spearman
-.120
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01
152
5.4.9. Career intentions vs. demographic and professional background The overall results of teachers’ career intentions (Table 5.5) show that a majority of teachers are not thinking about changing their workplace, almost 80% of the teachers would not like to change their position in the current workplace, but one quarter of teachers (26%) admitted that they are thinking about changing their profession. In order to find differences with regard to teachers’ demographic and professional background characteristics and their career intentions, groups of teachers were compared and tested by means of the Kruskal-Wallis and MannWhitney tests according to the following variables: gender, age, experience, school location, education, professional status, student age group, type of school, sector, form of employment, weekly workload, seniority (years in current schools), and turnover (number of schools in a career). Career intentions comprise: intentions to change the workplace, the position and the profession. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) presented in the tables below were calculated on the basis of the four-point Likert-type response scale: 1 – “no”, 2 – “not really”, 3 – “possibly”, 4 – “yes”. The higher the result is, the higher the intention to change the given aspect. No statistically significant differences in career intentions between men and women were observed (Table 5.34). However, as group sizes are markedly not equal, this result should be treated with caution. Differences in mean scores in this sample are worth noting. It appears that female teachers are slightly more inclined to change the workplace (M=2.21) than male teachers (M=2.19), but less willing to change the position (female M=1.86, male M=1.97) and the profession (female M=1.96, male M=2.08).
Table 5. 34. Career intentions by gender Female
Male
N= 224
N= 36
Mann-Whitney U
M
SD
M
SD
U
p
changing workplace
2.21
0.99
2.19
1.06
3975.50
0.888
changing position
1.86
0.95
1.97
0.97
3751.50
0.473
changing profession
1.96
0.90
2.08
1.05
3830.00
0.609
As presented in Table 5.35, there appear statistically significant differences as to teachers’ career intentions and their age, i.e. the older they are, the less they think about workplace and profession change. A similar tendency with regard to position change was
153
revealed, but the Kruskal-Wallis H test does not show statistically significant differences among the groups.
Table 5. 35. Career intentions by age 50
N=80
N=115
N=52
N=13
SD
M
M
SD
M
SD
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
M
2
p
(df=3) changing
2.51
0.98
2.18
0.96
2.02
1.01
1.31
0.48
21.88
0.001***
2.01
0.97
1.85
0.92
1.83
0.98
1.46
0.87
5.66
0.129
2.18
1.02
1.97
0.87
1.85
0.87
1.23
0.44
13.75
0.003**
workplace changing position changing profession
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001
Teachers who have less than five years of work experience are the most likely to change the workplace. This tendency slightly decreases in teachers who have 6-10 years of experience, but they are most willing to change the profession then, compared with the rest of the teachers. Teachers who have 11-15 years of experience tend not to think about changing their workplace nor the profession. Teachers who have 16-20 years of experience score higher compared with the teachers from the previous group. The situation is considerably different in teachers of over 21 years of experience, who least in the sample want to change the workplace and the profession. Table 5.36 presents the discussed results.
Table 5. 36. Career intentions by teaching experience (in years) 21
N=70
N=78
N=50
N=38
N=23
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
(df=4) changing
2.49
0.99
2.36
0.94
1.84
0.93
2.37
1.00
1.43
0.73
31.98
0.001***
1.89
0.89
2.01
0.95
1.72
0.99
1.84
0.91
1.83
1.11
5.26
0.261
2.04
0.97
2.19
0.94
1.84
0.84
1.95
0.87
1.39
0.72
16.94
0.002**
workplace changing position changing profession
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 154
School location differentiates the groups as to teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and the profession (Table 5.37). The intentions to change both aspects are strongest in teachers working in big towns (workplace change M=2.31, profession change M=2.06), followed by teachers from medium-sized towns (workplace change M=2.10, profession change M=1.90). Teachers working in the countryside or small towns are least willing to change their workplace (M=1.92) and profession (M=1.71).
Table 5. 37. Career intentions by school location Village/town up to 20
Town 20 – 100 Town
thous. inh.
thous. inh.
thous. inh.
N=49
N=31
N=180
M
SD
M
SD
M
over
100
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
(df=2) changing
1.92
0.90
2.10
0.98
2.31
1.01
6.48
0.039*
changing position
1.76
0.83
1.90
0.98
1.91
0.98
0.52
0.773
changing
1.71
0.87
1.90
0.87
2.06
0.94
6.06
0.048*
workplace
profession
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 No statistically significant differences in teachers’ career intentions among the groups of teachers were distinguished according to their level of education (Table 5.38). This means that teachers’ educational attainment does not differentiate the respondents. However, this result should be treated with caution as the compared groups varied considerably in size. In spite of that, looking at the mean scores in this sample, it appears that teachers with a BA degree display the strongest wish to change the workplace (M=2.43), and teachers with secondary education or a PhD degree do not tend to think about such a change (M=2.00 for both). Teachers who have a PhD degree are the teachers most willing to change the position within their organization, while teachers with secondary education and an MA degree are the least willing (M=1.80, M=1.83 respectively). Teachers with an MA degree would most like to change the profession (M=2.02) and teachers with a PhD degree the least (M=1.42).
155
Table 5. 38. Career intentions by education Secondary
BA
MA
PhD
N= 5
N=21
N=222
N=12
SD
M
SD
M
M
SD
M
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
(df=3) changing
2.00
1.23
2.43
0.93
2.20
0.98
2.00
1.28
2.74
0.434
1.80
1.30
1.95
0.97
1.83
0.90
2.27
1.37
4.94
0.176
1.80
1.30
1.81
0.87
2.02
0.93
1.42
0.52
6.23
0.101
workplace changing position changing profession
As presented in Table 5.39, professional status is associated with all career intentions. The higher the professional status, the lower the intention to change the workplace. Teachers who do not have such a status are most willing to change the workplace (M=2.40) and change the position (M=2.07). The strongest wish to change the profession is shown by contractual teachers (M=2.17), followed by teachers who are outside this system (M=2.05). Chartered teachers are least willing to change the workplace (M=1.52) and the profession (M=1.33).
Table 5. 39. Career intentions by professional status n/a
trainee
contractual
appointed
chartered
N=131
N=10
N=58
N=34
N=27
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Kruskal-Wallis H 2
p
(df=4) changing
2.40
1.01
2.30
0.95
2.22
1.03
1.94
0.92
1.52
0.58
21.05
0.001***
2.07
1.05
1.50
0.85
1.71
0.73
1.65
0.85
1.74
0.90
9.52
0.049*
2.05
0.96
1.90
0.99
2.17
0.90
1.88
0.88
1.33
0.48
18.17
0.001***
workplace changing position changing profession
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 The type of taught student age group differentiates the groups with regard to teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and the profession (Table 5.40). It appears that teachers who work with children under the age of five would like to change the workplace most (M=2.75), followed by teachers who work with adults (M=2.53), while teachers of higher school students would like to do so the least (M=1.92). Teachers who work with adults would
156
most like to change the profession (M=2.37) and teachers of higher school students least (M=1.73). Table 5. 40. Career intentions by type of student Children
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher
Adults
Kruskal-
up to 5
N=56
N=29
N=33
school
N=83
Wallis H
N=8
students N=51
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 changing
2.75
1.03
2.04
0.93
2.21
0.94
2.00
1.03
1.92
0.91
2.53
1.00
19.03
workplace changing
0.002 **
2.25
1.03
1.75
0.81
1.72
0.84
1.67
0.82
2.14
1.22
1.90
0.90
5.36
0.374
1.75
0.71
1.75
0.86
1.93
0.88
1.82
0.98
1.73
0.80
2.37
0.93
24.79
0.001
position changing profession
***
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 The type of school has significance in teachers’ career intentions, as displayed in Table 5.41. Teachers working in kindergartens are most willing to change the workplace (M=2.75), followed by teachers working in language schools (M=2.50), and lower secondary school teachers (M=2.10). Teachers who work in higher schools and kindergartens are the ones who would most like to change their position (M=2.26, M=2.25 respectively). Language school teachers are among the teachers who would most like to change profession (M=2.25). On the other hand, teachers who work in upper secondary schools are least willing to change any aspect in their careers (changing the workplace M=1.86, the position M=1.54, the profession M=1.71).
157
Table 5. 41.
Career intentions by type of school Kinder-
Primary
Lower
Upper
Higher
Language
Kruskal-
garten
school
secondary
secondary
school
school
Wallis H
N=8
N=43
N=21
N=28
N=54
N=106
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
SD
M
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 changing
2.75
1.03
1.95
0.92
2.10
0.99
1.86
0.89
1.98
0.92
2.50
1.01
21.19
***
workplace changing
0.001
2.25
1.03
1.70
0.80
1.76
0.77
1.54
0.64
2.26
1.25
1.84
0.87
9.28
0.099 #
position changing
1.75
0.71
1.77
0.72
1.95
0.97
1.71
0.85
1.78
0.84
2.25
1.00
14.43
0.013 *
profession
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 The sector is associated with teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and the profession (Table 5.42). Teachers from the private sector scored higher in both aspects, compared with teachers from the state sector. As regards intentions to change the workplace: state school teachers M=1.91, private school teachers M=2.48, intentions to change the profession: state school teachers M=1.71, private school teachers M=2.20.
Table 5. 42. Career intentions by sector State
Private
N=124
N=136
Mann-Whitney U
M
SD
M
SD
U
p
changing workplace
1.91
0.94
2.48
0.97
5658.50
0.001***
changing position
1.84
0.98
1.91
0.92
7884.00
0.333
changing profession
1.71
0.80
2.20
0.97
6126.50
0.001***
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 The type of contract differentiates the groups as far as teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and the profession (Table 5.43). Teachers with the highest scores in the intentions to change the workplace are those employed on a freelance basis: a commission contract (M=2.68), a contact for a specific task (M=2.58), other forms (e.g. PhD students) (M=2.44) and the self employed (M=2.29). A similar tendency is revealed regarding teachers’ intentions to change the profession: a commission contract (M=2.28), a contact for a specific task (M=2.06), the self employed (M=2.05), but the teachers of “other” employment status
158
score the highest (M=2.56). Teachers who have an indefinite-period contract are those who least intend to change the workplace (M=1.92) and the profession (M=1.96).
Table 5. 43. Career intentions by type of contract Self-
Commissio
Specific
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
n
task
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65
N=25
N=33
SD
M
SD
M
M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
SD
M
p
df=5 changing
2.29
1.04
2.68
0.99
2.58
0.83
2.05
0.92
1.92
0.98
2.44
0.88
22.16
workplace changing
0.001 ***
1.69
0.81
2.28
1.14
2.06
1.00
1.90
0.85
1.79
0.98
2.22
0.97
9.93
0.77
2.05
0.96
2.48
1.05
2.12
1.02
1.92
0.90
1.69
0.73
2.56
0.88
19.14
0.002
position changing profession
**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 The amount of workload differentiates the groups only as far as teachers’ intentions to change the workplace (Table 5.44). Teachers who work for over 41 hours per week are most inclined to change the workplace (M=2.71), followed by teachers whose workload amounts to less than ten hours per week (M=2.52). Teachers who work 31-40 hours per week reveal the lowest intentions of workplace change (M=1.91).
Table 5. 44. Career intentions by weekly workload (in school hours) < 10
11-20
21-30
31-40
>41
Kruskal-Wallis
N=23
N=80
N=89
N=44
N=24
H
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=4 changing
2.52
0.99
2.04
0.97
2.29
0.96
1.91
0.88
2.71
1.16
14.48
0.006**
2.30
1.10
1.88
1.00
1.87
0.91
1.64
0.75
1.96
1.04
6.21
0.184
2.13
0.92
1.78
0.86
2.03
0.96
1.95
0.89
2.29
1.00
7.59
0.108
workplace changing position changing profession
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001
159
The length of teachers’ service in one school (seniority) differentiates the groups as far as intentions to change the workplace and the profession. As presented in Table 5.45, teachers’ intentions to change the workplace decrease with the length of service in the school. Similarly, teachers’ intentions to change the profession decrease over time, though there is a slight increase from M=2.10 in teachers working in the school for up to four years to M=2.13 in teachers of 5-9 years of service. Teachers who work for more than ten years in the current school do not tend to think about profession change.
Table 5. 45. Career intentions by seniority (years in current school) 15
N=101
N=80
N=44
N=34
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
df=3 changing workplace
2.40
0.98
2.31
1.00
1.93
0.97
1.71
0.80
18.01
0.001***
changing position
1.92
0.97
1.98
0.95
1.66
0.94
1.82
0.90
4.72
0.193
changing profession
2.10
0.94
2.13
0.93
1.75
0.84
1.56
0.79
14.73
0.002**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001
Although no statistically significant differences in career intentions among teachers of various number of schools in their careers were observed (Table 5.46), mean scores reveal that teachers who are working in their first school display the greatest intention to change the workplace (M=2.42) and the least intention to change the profession (M=1.65), whereas teachers who have worked for over seven schools in their careers would most like to change the position (M=2.05) and their profession (M=2.13), compared with other teachers in the sample.
Table 5. 46. Career intentions by turnover (number of schools in career) 0-1
2-3
4-6
>7
N=26
N=103
N=91
N=39
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
Kruskal-Wallis H
SD
2
p
df=3 changing workplace
2.42
1.14
2.19
0.98
2.14
0.98
2.26
0.99
1.48
0.687
changing position
1.96
1.00
1.78
0.84
1.89
0.98
2.05
1.12
1.29
0.732
changing profession
1.65
0.89
2.03
0.92
1.93
0.90
2.13
0.98
5.42
0.143
160
Correlation coefficients (rho-Spearman) of demographic, professional background and work wellbeing variables with career intentions were calculated, and largely confirm the results presented above (Table 5.47). Teachers’ intention to change the workplace is negatively correlated with teachers’ age (r= -0.29), experience (r= -0.26), the length of service in the current school (r= -0.25) and professional rank (r= -0.26), which means that with time and higher professional status teachers are less willing to change their workplace. It also appears that as the size of the town (r= 0.17) as well as the students’ age (r= 0.13) increase, so does teachers’ intention to change the workplace. What is more, there is a correlation between work stress and intention to change the workplace (r= 0.26) and an even stronger relationship between (lack of) work satisfaction and intention to change the workplace (r= -0.44). Teachers’ intention to change the position decreases with their professional rank (r= 0.16). It is also correlated with teachers’ work wellbeing, i.e. work stress (r= 0.13), work satisfaction (r= -0.24 ) and private stress (r= 0.17). Moreover, teachers who want to change the position also often want to change the workplace (r=0.27). Teachers’ intention to change the profession is correlated with the highest number of factors. It is negatively associated with teachers’ age (r= -0.29), experience (r= -0.20), the length of service in the current school (r= -0.20) and professional rank (r= -0.14), which means that with time and higher professional status, teachers are less willing to change their profession. Also, when they are satisfied with their work, they are less likely to think about change (r= -0.48). Moreover, as the size of the town (r=0.16) as well as students’ age (r=0.26) increase, so does teachers’ intention to change the profession. Work stress is associated with teachers’ intention to change the profession (r=0.26), and no correlation was found between private stress and intentions to change the profession. Finally, teachers who want to change the profession also want to change the workplace (r=0.55) and the position (r=0.30).
161
Table 5. 47. Correlations of demographic, professional background and work wellbeing variables with career intentions Workplace change
Position change
Profession change
Age
rho Spearman
-.272**
-.113
-.206**
Experience
rho Spearman
-.245**
-.066
-.155*
Workload
rho Spearman
.009
-.077
.075
Seniority
rho Spearman
-.231**
-.056
-.153*
Tunover
rho Spearman
-.031
.061
.072
Region
rho Spearman
.167**
.047
.160**
Education
rho Spearman
-.074
.063
-.015
Status
rho Spearman
-.257**
-.165**
-.142*
.134*
.054
.246**
.257**
.128*
.265**
-.437**
-.245**
-.482**
-.022
.170**
.017
.266**
.549**
Taught age group rho Spearman Work stress
rho Spearman
Work satisfaction rho Spearman Private stress
rho Spearman
Workplace change Position change
rho Spearman rho Spearman
.350**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01
5.4.10. Job resources vs. form of employment and taught age group Job resources play a significant role in the motivational process (Demerouti et al., 2001). However, research on teachers’ job resources is rather fragmentary. What is more, freelance teachers working with adult learners have been neglected in research work. Therefore, to fully understand the problem, analyzing this area more globally is indispensible. In order to see if differences with regard to teachers’ job resources exist, groups of teachers were compared and tested by means of the Kruskal-Wallis test according to teachers’ forms of employment and the type of student they work with. Job resources comprise: organizational conditions, economic conditions, professional development conditions and communication conditions. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) presented in the tables below were calculated on the basis of the four-point Likert-type response scale: 1 – “disagree”, 2 – “partly disagree”, 3 162
– “partly agree”, 4 – “agree”. The higher the result, the more positive the evaluation of a specific aspect of the category. Organizational conditions were assessed by means of three variables: work autonomy (which reflects teachers’ freedom in determining their schedules and work procedures), organizational autonomy (in which teachers report the extent to which they can influence organizational policies and their participation in important decision-making), and work meaningfulness (where teachers assess the significance of their work). Statistical analyses reveal that type of contract is statistically significant only in evaluating work and organizational autonomy, whereas the type of student is significant in all three aspects. As presented in Table 5.48 and Table 5.49, work autonomy is most highly assessed by the self-employed (M=3.16) and lowest by teachers who have a fixed-term (M=2.51) or indefinite-period contract (M=2.52). Teachers of adult learners score highest (M=3.02) and teachers of children under five (M=2.25) and 13-15 (M=2.36) lowest. As to organizational autonomy, teachers who have an indefinite-period contract and “other” teachers (i.e. PhD students) score highest
(M=2.14 and M=2.22 respectively),
whereas teachers who have a commission or specific task contract - lowest (M=1.56 and M=1.50). Teachers of the 6-12 and 13-18 student age groups assess this aspect highest (M=2.18 and M=2.01); teachers of the youngest children - lowest (M=1.31). Regarding work meaningfulness, teachers of higher school students (M=2.99) and children under five (M=2.94) rate this aspect highest in the sample, compared with teachers who work with students aged 16-18, who rate it lowest (M=2.62).
163
Table 5. 48. Organizational conditions by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65 M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Work
3.16
0.58
2.88
0.71
2.71
0.60
2.51
0.68
2.52
0.60
2.67
0.66
27.20
autonomy
0.001 ***
Organizatio
1.83
0.98
1.56
0.75
1.50
0.64
1.87
0.84
2.14
0.79
2.22
0.75
25.79
nal
0.001 ***
autonomy Work
2.77
0.73
2.88
0.70
2.65
0.62
2.67
0.75
2.84
0.58
2.89
0.60
2.78
0.734
2.57
0.58
2.44
0.47
2.29
0.46
2.35
0.50
2.50
0.46
2.59
0.50
8.23
0.144
meaningful ness Overall organizatio nal conditions
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 Table 5. 49. Organizational conditions by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8
N=51 2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2.25
0.84
2.51
0.69
2.36
0.64
2.57
0.49
2.89
0.64
3.02
0.56
41.47
1.31
0.70
2.18
0.90
1.93
0.56
2.01
0.90
1.77
0.84
1.75
0.86
17.00
p
df=5 Work autonomy
0.001 ***
Organizatio nal
0.005 **
autonomy Work
2.94
0.56
2.79
0.65
2.74
0.54
2.62
0.62
2.99
0.67
2.70
0.71
10.86
meaningful
0.054 #
ness Overall
2.17
0.42
2.49
0.50
2.34
0.39
2.40
0.51
2.55
0.53
2.49
0.53
8.54
0.129
organizatio nal conditions
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 Economic conditions were assessed by means of five variables: salary, benefits, job security, financial incentives, and promotion increases. All variables prove to be statistically significant in differentiating groups of teachers by type of contract and taught age group, as shown in Table 5.50 and Table 5.51. Self-employed teachers assess their salary – including the summer period – most favourably (M=3.11), whereas teachers who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) 164
least (M=2.51 and M=2.52). Teachers who work with students of the 6-12 and 13-15 age groups most positively assess their salary (M=2.35 and M=2.30 respectively), while teachers of children under 5 and adults least (M=1.83 and M=1.97 respectively). As to benefits, teachers who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) and “other” employment status scored highest (M=2.46, M=2.85 and M=3.11 respectively), as opposed to freelance teachers, i.e. self-employed (M=1.14), working on commission (M=1.20) or specific task contracts (M=1.12). Teachers of higher school students and the 1315 student age group regard this aspect most positively (M=2.53 and M=2.72) but teachers of adults and children under five most negatively (M=1.22 and M=1.00). Perceived job security is greatest among teachers who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) and “other” employment status, and they score highest in the sample (M=2.79, M=2.81 and M=2.95, respectively), compared with freelance teachers, i.e. selfemployed (M=2.17), working on commission (M=2.11) and specific task contracts (M=2.07), where it is much lower. The greatest job security is indicated by teachers of the 13-15 student age group (M=2.85), followed by teachers of the 6-12 student age group (M=2.72). The lowest job security is indicated by teachers of children under five (M=1.92) and adults (M=2.16). Financial incentives motivating teachers to work better are non existent in the teachers’ view. Those who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) assess their incentives better (M=1.80 and M=1.90), compared with teachers who have a specific task contract (M=1.15). The situation is most positively regarded by teachers of the 13-15 student age group (M=2.07) and worst by teachers of adults (M=1.30). Promotion increases are most positively ranked by teachers who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) (M=2.74 and M=2.52) and least by all freelance teachers, i.e. self-employed (M=1.49), working on commission (M=1.56), and specific task contracts (M=1.45). The salary of teachers who work with students aged 6-15 is reported to increase with time and experience most (6-12 M=2.59, 13-15 M=2.62). It is not really true for teachers of adults (M=1.48) and children under 5 (M=1.38). Overall economic conditions are most favourably assessed by teachers who have a contract (fixed-term M=2.50 or indefinite-period M=2.51) or “other” employment status (M=2.60), compared with all freelance teachers, i.e. self-employed (M=1.82), working on commission (M=1.75) or specific task contracts (M=1.71). Teachers of the 6-15 student age group assess their economic conditions quite positively, i.e. 6-12 - M=2.43, 13-15 - M=2.54,
165
while teachers of adults and teachers of children under five assess them rather negatively (M=1.82 and M=1.67 respectively).
Table 5. 50. Economic conditions by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-Wallis
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
H
N=65
N=89 2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Salary
3.11
0.58
2.88
0.71
2.71
0.60
2.51
0.68
2.52
0.60
2.67
0.66
27.12
Benefits
1.14
0.50
1.20
0.64
1.12
0.54
2.46
1.19
2.85
1.70
3.11
1.05
121.28
Job
2.17
0.73
2.11
0.55
2.07
0.57
2.79
0.68
2.81
0.71
2.95
0.49
56.89
1.32
0.53
1.36
0.64
1.15
0.44
1.90
0.97
1.80
0.89
1.67
0.87
30.26
1.49
0.69
1.56
0.87
1.45
0.71
2.74
1.02
2.52
1.00
2.22
0.97
70.61
1.82
0.48
1.75
0.37
1.71
0.39
2.50
0.59
2.51
0.59
2.60
0.45
93.09
p
df=5 0.001 *** 0.001 *** 0.001
security Financial
*** 0.001
incentives Promotion
*** 0.001
increases Overall
*** 0.001
economic
***
conditions
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001
Table 5. 51. Economic conditions by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8 M
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Salary
1.83
0.47
2.35
0.73
2.30
0.75
2.09
0.71
2.14
0.77
1.97
0.71
11.12
0.49*
Benefits
1.00
0.00
2.27
1.29
2.72
1.33
2.27
1.18
2.53
1.27
1.22
0.70
66.92
0.001 ***
Job
1.92
0.58
2.72
0.72
2.85
0.68
2.66
0.67
2.55
0.81
2.16
0.65
37.23
security Financial
*** 1.38
0.52
1.80
0.92
2.07
0.88
1.70
0.98
1.39
0.63
1.30
0.56
28.59
incentives Promotion
0.001 ***
1.38
0.74
2.59
1.07
2.62
1.05
2.42
1.03
1.96
0.94
1.48
0.69
55.41
increases Overall
0.001
0.001 ***
1.67
0.38
2.43
0.65
2.54
0.64
2.29
economic
0.54
2.22
0.63
1.82
0.47
51.47
0.001 ***
conditions
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001
166
Professional development conditions were measured by three variables: use and development of skills and knowledge, mentoring, and advancement/promotion opportunities. As presented in Table 5.52 and Table 5.53, the type of contract is significant only for teachers’ advancement opportunities, while the type of student yields statistically significant results for all the aspects in this category. As far as teachers’ evaluation of their professional skills and knowledge goes, those who work with higher school students score highest (M=3.03), whereas teachers of children under five lowest (M=2.75). Although differences with regard to the form of employment did not achieve statistical significance, it is interesting to see that teachers who have “other” types of employment status (i.e. PhD students) (M=3.05) and the self-employed (M=2.99) rate this aspect rather highly compared with teachers who have a commission (M=2.82) or a specific task contract (M=2.84). Mentoring opportunities are best assessed by teachers of students aged 6-15 (6-12 M=2.75 and 13-15 M=2.60), whereas teachers of children under five (M=1.75) and 16-18 (M=1.82) least. No statistically significant results were obtained with regard to the form of employment, but it is notable that in this sample teachers of “other” types of employment status (M=2.44) and teachers who have a fixed-term contract (M=2.33) assess this aspect most positively, while teachers who have an indefinite-period contract assess it least (M=1.98). Concerning advancement opportunities, teachers who have a fixed-term or indefiniteperiod contract see more promotion opportunities (M=2.74 and M=2.72), compared with all freelance teachers, i.e. self-employed (M=2.11), commission contract (M=2.06) and specific task (M=2.11). Moreover, teachers of the 6-12 student group age regard this aspect most positively (M=2.75), compared with all other teachers, especially teachers of adults (M=2.02), who assess it least positively. With reference to overall professional development conditions, teachers of the 6-12 student age group indicate the highest scores (M=2.91), whereas teachers of children under five, lowest (M=2.57). Interestingly, even though differences with regard to the form of employment did not achieve statistical significance, teachers in this sample who have a fixedterm or indefinite-period contract (M=2.87 and M=2.84), as well as “other” employment status M=2.93) assess their professional development conditions highest in the sample, whereas teachers who work on a commission (M=2.64) and specific task contract basis (M=2.67) assess it lowest.
167
Table 5. 52. Professional development conditions by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65 M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Skills
and
2.99
0.38
2.82
0.39
2.84
0.40
2.95
0.45
2.96
0.40
3.05
0.53
6.22
0.285
Mentoring
2.25
1.10
2.00
1.04
2.09
1.04
2.33
1.03
1.98
0.90
2.44
1.33
4.81
0.439
Advanc.
2.11
0.71
2.06
0.75
2.11
0.76
2.74
0.76
2.71
0.80
2.55
1.01
35.84
0.001
2.80
0.41
2.64
0.40
2.67
0.42
2.87
0.46
2.84
0.42
2.93
0.58
9.36
knowledge
opport.
***
Overall
0.095
profess. develop.
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 Table 5. 53. Professional development conditions by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8
N=51 2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2.75
0.41
2.99
0.41
2.93
0.41
2.97
0.36
3.04
0.42
2.85
0.40
10.70
Mentoring
1.75
0.70
2.43
0.99
2.31
1.10
1.82
0.95
2.12
1.05
2.04
1.02
10.77
Advanc.
2.06
0.56
2.75
0.77
2.60
0.86
2.62
0.86
2.52
0.84
2.02
0.68
32.75
2.57
0.37
2.91
0.43
2.83
0.43
2.83
0.37
2.89
0.45
2.66
0.41
18.52
p
df=5 Skills
and
knowledge
0.058 # 0.056 #
opport. Overall
0.001 ***
profess.
0.002 **
develop.
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 Communication conditions were measured by four variables: social support (received from supervisors, colleagues, methodologists), social praise (received form supervisors, methodologists, students), feedback (received form supervisors, methodologists, students), and communication of expectations by the school. As presented in Table 5.54 and Table 5.55, there are no differences among the groups in terms of social support. The type of contract differentiates the groups with regard to social praise, feedback and overall communication conditions, while the type of student differentiates the teachers as regards feedback and communication of expectations only. Although social support did not achieve statistical significance, it is interesting to observe that teachers who are employed on a commission contract basis score highest 168
(M=2.67) and teachers who have an indefinite-period contract lowest (M=2.33). Moreover, teachers of students aged 6-15 feel most supported (6-12 and 13-15 M=2.56), while teachers of higher school students least supported (M=2.34) in the sample. As to praise, it is most highly rated by teachers of students aged 6-12 (M=2.71) and least by teachers of students aged 15-18 (M=2.51). The scores are highest in the group of teachers who have a commission contract (M=2.95) and lowest in the group of teachers employed on a specific task contract (M=2.47), but this result is not statistically significant. The existence and quality of feedback is best assessed by self-employed teachers (M=2.73) and worst by teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.07). Teachers working with students aged 6-12 rate it most positively (M=2.71), compared with teachers of higher school students (M=2.22) and students aged 16-18 (M=2.21), who indicate the lowest scores. Teachers working with students aged 6-12 feel their school’s communicated expectations best (M=3.14); teachers who work with higher school students, least (M=2.61). Teachers of “other” employment status understand best what is expected from them in their workplace (M=3.00), whereas teachers who work on a specific task contract - worst (M=2.61), but this result is not statistically significant. Overall communication conditions are most positively assessed by teachers working on commission contacts (M=2.78), followed by the self-employed (M=2.73), whereas most negatively by teachers who have an indefinite-period contract (M=2.41) or a specific task contract (M=2.44).
Table 5. 54. Communication conditions by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65 M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Social
2.55
0.90
2.67
0.97
2.38
0.79
2.43
0.74
2.33
0.71
2.59
0.52
5.73
0.333
2.86
0.78
2.95
0.68
2.47
0.68
2.52
0.83
2.49
0.64
2.78
0.90
15.98
0.007
support Social praise
** Feedback
2.73
0.82
2.67
0.88
2.40
0.78
2.42
0.87
2.32
0.66
2.07
0.98
11.64
0.040 *
Communic.
2.88
1.02
2.92
1.00
2.61
0.97
2.82
1.05
2.70
0.96
3.00
1.00
3.73
0.589
2.73
0.73
2.78
0.69
2.44
0.64
2.49
0.74
2.41
0.58
2.53
0.60
10.46
0.063
expectations Overall communic.
#
conditions
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 169
Table 5. 55. Communication conditions by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8 M
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Social
2.42
0.71
2.56
0.73
2.56
0.85
2.39
0.72
2.34
0.81
2.43
0.87
2.53
0.772
Social praise
2.62
0.63
2.71
0.73
2.69
0.71
2.51
0.70
2.54
0.84
2.69
0.73
2.63
0.757
Feedback
2.33
0.73
2.71
0.73
2.52
0.82
2.21
0.71
2.22
0.82
2.57
0.81
15.27
0.009
Communic.
2.88
0.83
3.14
0.96
2.86
0.95
2.64
0.96
2.61
1.02
2.66
0.99
11.68
2.50
0.64
2.71
0.67
2.62
0.65
2.40
0.61
2.39
0.69
2.57
0.69
7.52
support
**
expectations Overall
0.039 * 0.185
communic. conditions
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001 Correlation coefficients (rho-Spearman) of work wellbeing and career intentions with job resources were calculated (Table 5.56). Nearly all results are statistically significant. Work stress is negatively correlated with all job resources categories, which implies that work stress increases as the availability of job resources decreases. Work satisfaction is positively associated with all job resources categories, most strongly with professional development conditions (r= 0.55) and organizational conditions (r= 0.49). This means that work satisfaction is accompanied by good organizational, economic, and professional development, and communication conditions provided in teachers’ workplaces. There is a weak negative correlation between private stress and economic conditions (r= -0.17), indicating that unfavourable economic conditions may be associated with teacher strain in private life. Workplace change is negatively correlated with all job resources categories, i.e. the worse teachers perceive the conditions (especially economic and professional development), the more they think about changing their workplace. Similarly, there are weak but statistically significant negative correlations between position change and all job resources, except for communication conditions, which did not achieve statistical significance. Profession change is correlated with all job resources, in particular with (absence of) professional development conditions (r= -0.48).
170
Table 5. 56. Correlations of work wellbeing and career intentions with job resources Overall organizational conditions Work stress
Overall economic conditions
Overall professional development conditions
Overall communication conditions
rho Spearman
Work satisfaction
rho Spearman
Private stress
rho Spearman
Workplace change
rho Spearman
Position chanage
rho Spearman
Profession change
rho Spearman
Overall organizational conditions
rho Spearman
Overall economic conditions
rho Spearman
Overall professional development conditions
rho Spearman
-.333**
-.207**
-.286**
-.248**
.491**
.260**
.546**
.296**
-.054
-.170**
-.046
-.065
-.315**
-.468**
-.422**
-.135*
-.233**
-.205**
-.161**
-.079
-.318**
-.320**
-.483**
-.171**
.344**
.464**
.334**
.368**
.084
.486**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01
5.4.11. Job demands vs. form of employment and taught age group Job demands, commonly known as stressors, have been of interest to researchers ever since the beginning of research on burnout. However, the focus has only been on analyzing social or organizational strains (e.g. work conflict, workload, physical requirements, etc.), ignoring other sources of strain such as mental challenges (e.g. memory, thinking, etc.). What is more, freelance teachers and teachers working with adults learners have been excluded from research work. Therefore, to fully understand teachers’ work context, analyzing this problem more holistically is vital. In order to see if differences with regard to job demands exist, groups of teachers were compared and tested by means of the Kruskal-Wallis test according to teachers’ forms of employment and the type of student they work with. Job demands comprise four categories: socio-organizational factors, physical environment factors, mental challenges 171
and sensory challenges. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) presented in the tables below were calculated on the basis of the four-point Likert-type response scale: 1 – “disagree”, 2 – “partly disagree”, 3 – “partly agree”, 4 – “agree”. The higher the result, the more uncomfortable a specific factor is reported to be. The results are shown in Tables 5.57 – 5.58. The following were taken into account when evaluating socio-organization factors: work conflict, work schedule (which includes the teaching load and time pressure), work responsibility, work climate, and technical conditions (faulty equipment and inadequate facilities). Statistical analyses show that the type of contract differentiates the groups only with regard to work conflict, work responsibility and work climate, while the type of students teachers work with reveals a statistical tendency in terms of work responsibility and overall socio-organization factors. Work conflict is highest in the workplace of teachers employed on a fixed (M=1.63) or indefinite period (M=1.66) contract basis, whereas teachers who work on a freelance basis rate it much lower. Despite lack of statistical significance, it is worthwhile to note that teachers of the 13-15 student age group indicate the highest means (M=1.75) and teachers of higher school students, the lowest (M=1.47). No statistically significant differences in work schedules among teachers were observed, which means that this variable does not differentiate the participants. Interestingly, the mean results scored in this sample show that the work schedule is most demanding for teachers employed on specific task contracts (M=2.98) and least demanding for teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.55). Teachers of adults find their work schedule most demanding (M=2.79), while teachers of higher school students find it least demanding (M=2.50). Teachers employed on specific task contracts feel most strained by their work responsibility (M=2.20), while teachers who have a commission or an indefinite period contract feel least strained (M=1.90). What is more, teachers of the 13-15 student age group feel most burdened by work responsibility (M=2.05), while teachers of higher school students feel least burdened (M=1.75). Work climate is least favourable for teachers who have a fixed-term contract (M=2.59) and most favourable for teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.00). Although the results are not statistically significant, teachers of the 16-18 student age group assess their work atmosphere as most favourable (M=2.59) and teachers of children up to five least favourable (M=2.12). 172
No statistically significant differences in technical conditions among teachers were observed. The mean scores show, however, that in this sample technical conditions are most severely felt by teachers who have a specific task (M=2.52) and an indefinite period contract (M=2.52), and least by teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.04). Teachers of children up to five feel most strained by technical conditions (M=2.83) and teachers of 6-12 student age group - least strained (M=2.31). Overall socio-organization factors are rated as most demanding by teachers working with the 13-15 student age group (M=2.31), and lowest in the group of higher school students teachers (M=2.07). Besides, albeit not statistically significant, teachers who have a specific task contract (M=2.31) assess this aspect highest, while for teachers of “other” employment status it is the least demanding category (M=2.04).
Table 5. 57. Socio-organization factors by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65 M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Work
1.43
0.42
1.36
0.41
1.48
0.46
1.63
0.63
1.66
0.46
1.58
0.47
14.51
conflict Work
0.013 *
2.71
0.67
2.65
0.61
2.89
0.63
2.64
0.63
2.66
0.59
2.55
0.57
4.50
0.480
1.91
0.50
1.90
0.64
2.20
0.48
1.95
0.51
1.90
0.51
2.00
0.71
9.78
0.082
schedule Work responsib. Work
# 2.27
0.61
2.31
0.65
2.56
0.79
2.59
0.62
2.48
0.60
2.00
0.53
10.57
climate Technical
0.061 #
2.39
0.86
2.36
0.89
2.52
0.80
2.34
0.92
2.52
0.81
2.04
0.59
4.63
0.462
2.12
0.39
2.09
0.35
2.31
0.34
2.20
0.38
2.22
0.38
2.04
0.32
8.79
0.118
condit. Overall s-o condit.
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1
173
Table 5. 58. Socio-organization factors by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8 M
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Work
1.53
0.36
1.52
0.51
1.75
0.57
1.58
0.51
1.47
0.43
1.53
0.47
5.05
0.409
2.78
0.67
2.67
0.61
2.77
0.61
2.76
0.49
2.50
0.60
2.79
0.67
7.45
0.189
2.00
0.78
2.01
0.50
2.05
0.43
1.94
0.44
1.75
0.56
2.00
0.55
9.60
0.087
conflict Work schedule Work responsib.
#
Work
2.12
0.59
2.41
0.54
2.46
0.56
2.52
0.69
2.41
0.69
2.41
0.70
3.33
0.649
2.83
1.07
2.31
0.80
2.37
0.87
2.51
0.85
2.36
0.88
2.50
0.80
3.97
0.554
2.23
0.32
2.17
0.36
2.26
0.39
2.24
0.33
2.07
0.39
2.22
0.39
9.28
0.098
climate Technical condit. Overall s-o condit.
#
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 Physical environment was measured by two variables: workspace arrangement and physical conditions (lighting, temperature and equipment). No statistically significant differences among teachers were observed (Table 5.59 and Table 5.60), which implies that physical environment factors do not differentiate these teachers. Looking at the mean scores in this sample, however, it emerges that the arrangement of furniture in the classrooms is most unsatisfactory for teachers who have a fixed-term (M=2.28) or an indefinite period contract (M=2.27), while self-employed teachers consider it to be least demanding (M=1.94). Also, teachers of children up to five find it most unfavourable (M=2.88), whereas teachers of the 6-12 student group find it least unfavourable (M=2.02). Physical conditions in the classrooms are most demanding for teachers who have a specific task contract (M=2.42), and least demanding for teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.11). Teachers of children up to five find them most unfavourable (M=2.88), whereas teachers of the 6-12 student group find them least unfavourable (M=1.98). Overall physical environment requirements are assessed as most unfavourable by teachers who have a specific and a fixed-term contract (M=2.33), and least unfavourable by teachers who are self-employed (M=2.03). Again, teachers of children up to five find them most unfavourable (M=2.87), whereas teachers of the 6-12 student age group find them least unfavourable (M=2.00).
174
Table 5. 59. Physical environment factors by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65 M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
2
SD
p
df=5 Workspace
1.94
arrangement Physical
0.8
2.00
0.82
2.24
1.03
2.28
1.05
2.27
0.99
2.11
0.78
5.27
0.383
2.12
0.93
2.42
1.06
2.38
1.07
2.20
0.96
2.11
0.78
2.75
0.739
2.06
0.78
2.33
1.00
2.33
0.99
2.24
0.93
2.11
0.78
3.05
0.693
1 2.12
conditions
0.8 4
Overall
2.03
physical
0.7 1
environment factors
Table 5. 60. Physical environment factors by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8 M
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Workspace
2.88
0.99
2.02
0.86
2.07
0.80
2.30
1.04
2.27
1.06
2.07
0.89
6.59
0.253
2.88
0.99
1.98
0.90
2.17
0.85
2.36
1.05
2.25
1.07
2.28
0.86
7.95
0.159
2.87
0.95
2.00
0.81
2.12
0.77
2.33
0.98
2.26
1.04
2.17
0.79
6.81
0.235
arrangement Physical conditions Overall physical environment factors
Mental challenges were assessed by four variables: information processing challenges (thinking, understanding), memory-related challenges (recalling knowledge, remembering work-related tasks), cognitive challenges (explaining), and problem solving challenges (interpersonal, procedural, problems related to students’ lack of preparedness or attendance). As shown in Table 5.61 and Table 5.62, no statistically significant differences in mental challenges among teachers were found, with the exception of “explaining”, which suggests that teachers differ only in the perceived level of difficulty they have when they explain language issues to their students. Explaining these is most demanding for teachers of children up to five (M=3.25), while teachers of higher school students find it least demanding (M=2.29).
175
However, comparing the mean scores in the sample, it may be noted that teachers’ powers to understand new issues and think during the lesson are of greatest concern to teachers of “other” employment status (M=1.89) and of least concern to teachers who have a specific task contract (M=1.57). Also, teachers of the 13-15 student age group find it most demanding (M=1.84), while teachers of higher school students find it least demanding (M=1.59). Recalling knowledge and remembering work-related tasks are most demanding for teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.11) and least demanding for the self-employed (M=1.62). Teachers of children up to five rank them highest (M=2.00); teachers of higher school students - lowest (M=1.69). Problem-solving issues are most difficult for teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.36) and least difficult for teachers who have a specific task contract (M=1.97). Teachers of the 16-18 student age group also find it most difficult (M=2.37), while teachers of higher school students find it least difficult (M=2.01). Overall mental challenges are most demanding for teachers of “other” employment status (M=2.23) and least demanding for teachers who have a specific task contract (M=1.89). Teachers of children up to five find them most demanding (M=2.19) and teachers of higher school students find them least demanding (M=1.86).
Table 5. 61. Mental challenges by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
N=65
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=89 2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
p
1.63
0.59
1.68
0.77
1.57
0.61
1.67
0.52
1.81
0.63
1.89
0.70
6.48
0.262
1.62
0.53
1.89
0.62
1.72
0.53
1.71
0.47
1.79
0.54
2.11
0.67
8.92
0.112
2.37
1.08
2.68
0.99
2.73
0.98
2.64
1.11
2.39
1.00
2.78
1.20
5.64
0.343
2.14
0.72
2.02
0.81
1.97
0.63
2.18
0.81
2.26
0.80
2.36
0.93
5.03
0.412
1.91
0.50
1.98
0.57
1.89
0.48
1.99
0.54
2.04
0.55
2.23
0.76
4.82
0.438
df=5 Info. processing Memory related Cognitive /explaining Problem solving Overall mental challenes
176
Table 5. 62. Mental challenges by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
N=8 M
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Info.
1.62
0.35
1.74
0.62
1.84
0.64
1.82
0.68
1.59
0.57
1.66
0.64
4.84
0.435
2.00
0.36
1.82
0.49
1.85
0.55
1.70
0.50
1.69
0.58
1.70
0.58
6.76
0.239
3.25
0.71
2.61
1.07
2.76
0.95
2.61
0.97
2.29
1.10
2.37
1.03
11.00
0.073#
2.34
1.08
2.06
0.74
2.34
0.89
2.37
0.82
2.01
0.72
2.16
0.70
6.43
0.267
2.19
0.44
1.98
0.53
2.13
0.63
2.08
0.51
1.86
0.52
1.94
0.53
6.98
0.222
processing Memory related Cognitive /explaining Problem solving Overall mental challenges
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1
Sensory challenges were assessed by four variables: sight, voice, noise, and odour. Statistical analyses show that the type of contract differentiates the groups with regard to voice, noise and overall sensory challenges, while the type of student differentiates the groups with regard to noise, odour and overall sensory challenges (Table 5.63 and Table 5.64). No statistically significant differences were found with regard to the sense of sight. But comparing the mean scores in this sample it appears that teachers who most agree that they have problems with sight at work are those employed on a specific task contract (M=1.52); least, the self-employed and teachers employed on a commission contract (M=1.32). Also, teachers of the 13-15 student age group find it most demanding (M=1.59), while teachers of children up to five find it least demanding (M=1.13). Problems with the voice are most pronounced in teachers who have “other” employment status (M=2.00) and least pronounced in teachers on commission contracts (M=1.44). They are also most straining, though not statistically significant, for teachers working with the 13-15 student age group (1.90), and least straining for teachers working with adults (M=1.51). Noise is most severely felt by teachers employed on a fixed-term contract basis (M=2.41) and least felt by teachers of “other” employment status (M=1.78). Teachers of children up to five score very high (M=3.25), and teachers of higher school students score rather low (M=1.71).
177
Odour is most acute for teachers of the 13-15 student age group, who score highest (M=2.17); teachers of university students - lowest (M=1.33). Though not statistically significant, those who have fixed-term or indefinite-period contracts (M=1.87) have the greatest problem with this aspect, and teachers employed on a specific task contract basis have the least problem (M=1.64). Overall sensory challenges are assessed as most demanding by teachers who have a fixed-term contract (M=1.87) and least demanding by the self-employed (M=1.57). Teachers of children up to five rate them highest (M=2.03), whereas teachers of higher school students rate them lowest (M=1.53).
Table 5. 63. Sensory challenges by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
Kruskal-
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
Wallis H
N=65 M
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Sight
1.32
0.69
1.32
0.75
1.52
0.75
1.46
0.68
1.43
0.64
1.44
0.53
5.33
0.377
Voice
1.45
0.79
1.44
0.87
1.73
0.76
1.74
0.88
1.66
0.84
2.00
1.00
11.11
0.049
Noise
1.80
0.97
1.92
1.08
1.88
0.99
2.41
1.02
2.30
1.05
1.78
0.97
17.00
Odour
1.71
0.95
1.76
1.05
1.64
0.89
1.87
1.06
1.87
0.93
1.67
1.00
2.91
0.713
Overall
1.57
0.52
1.61
0.65
1.69
0.53
1.87
0.67
1.81
0.59
1.72
0.67
9.57
0.088
* 0.007 **
sensory
#
challen.
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 Table 5. 64. Sensory challenges by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
Kruskal-
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
Wallis H
N=8
N=51 2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
p
Sight
1.13
0.35
1.45
0.71
1.59
0.73
1.45
0.71
1.47
0.56
1.29
0.57
7.23
0.204
Voice
1.88
0.99
1.63
0.84
1.90
0.98
1.61
0.83
1.61
0.78
1.51
0.80
5.74
0.332
Noise
3.25
0.71
2.52
0.95
2.31
1.10
2.21
1.02
1.71
0.92
1.78
0.95
36.11
0.001
Odour
1.88
1.13
1.82
0.90
2.17
1.07
2.00
0.67
1.33
0.68
1.80
1.00
19.66
Overall
2.03
0.36
1.85
0.58
1.99
0.78
1.82
0.62
1.53
0.49
1.59
0.53
19.59
df=5
*** 0.001 ***
sens. req.
0.001 ***
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1
178
Correlation coefficients (rho-Spearman) of job demands with teachers’ work wellbeing and career intentions were calculated (Table 5.65). A rather strong correlation between work stress and socio-organization factors was found (r= 0.55), and moderate for mental challenges (r= 0.36), sensory challenges (r= 0.30), and physical environment factors (r= 0.22). Work satisfaction increases with a decreasing level of perceived job demands, i.e. socioorganization (r= -0.39), mental (r= -0.30), sensory (r= -0.25), and physical environment factors (r= -0.24). Rather weak, but statistically significant, correlations were found between private stress and socio-organization factors (r= 0.17) and mental challenges (r= 0.16). Workplace change is most strongly associated with socio-organization (r= 0.35) and physical environment factors (r= 0.17) as well as mental challenges (r= 0.17), but not with sensory challenges, which did not achieve statistical significance. Position change and profession change are correlated only with socio-organization factors (r= 0.15 and r= 0.28 respectively) and mental challenges (r= 0.19 and r= 0.26). Interestingly, with increasing socio-organization demands, the level of remaining job demands increases as well, i.e. for physical requirements r= 0.40, mental challenges r= 0.46, and sensory challenges r= 0.34. However, causal relationships cannot be determined.
179
Table 5. 65. Correlations of work wellbeing and career intentions with job demands Overall socioorganisation factors Work stress
Work satisfaction
Private stress
Workplace change
Position change
Profession change
Overall physical environment factors
Overall mental challenges
Overall sensory challenges
rho Spearman .554**
.221**
.359**
.305**
-.387**
-.241**
-.300**
-.255**
.174**
.045
.160**
.052
.349**
.169**
.170**
.060
.149*
.066
.186**
.106
.284**
.068
.260**
.081
.397**
.457**
.339**
.207**
.253**
rho Spearman
rho Spearman
rho Spearman
rho Spearman
rho Spearman
Overall socioorganisation factors
rho Spearman
Overall physical environment factors
rho Spearman
Overall mental task rho Spearman challenges
.429**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01
5.4.12. Work-life interaction vs. form of employment and taught age group Work-life interaction, although recognized as contributing to stress, has been neglected in the research on teachers in Poland. Work-life interaction consist of two variables: work influence on private life, and private life influence on work. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) presented in Table 5.66 and Table 5.67 below were calculated on the basis of the fourpoint Likert-type response scale: 1 – “disagree”, 2 – “partly disagree”, 3 – “partly agree”, 4 – “agree”. The higher the result, the higher the perceived negative influence. The data show that only the type of contract has significance for work-life interaction. It appears that work influence on private life is most pronounced among teachers employed on a specific task contract (M=2.26) and least pronounced among teachers on commission contracts (M=1.72). Private life influence on work is greatest among teachers who have “other” employment status (M=1.83) and smallest in self-employed teachers (M=1.38). 180
Although the results are not statistically significant as regards students’ age group, it is interesting to see that the mean scores achieved by teachers of adults in this sample indicate the greatest influence of their work on private life (M=2.17) and teachers of 15-18 student age group the least influence (M=1.91). Teachers of higher school students report that their life has the greatest influence on their work (M=1.68), and teachers of adults, as well as teachers of the 16-18 student age group, the smallest influence (M=1.45). Table 5. 66. Work – life interaction by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
N=65 M
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Work
2.21
0.91
1.72
0.75
2.26
0.78
2.01
0.70
1.96
0.82
1.89
0.60
10.45
0.063#
1.38
0.53
1.56
0.70
1.61
0.62
1.40
0.68
1.62
0.68
1.83
0.71
10.54
0.061#
life Life
work
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 Table 5. 67. Work – life interaction by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
N=8
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=51 2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
p
2.00
0.60
1.98
0.76
2.05
0.71
1.91
0.84
1.98
0.86
2.17
0.87
3.61
0.606
1.62
0.52
1.49
0.61
1.62
0.59
1.45
0.62
1.68
0.82
1.45
0.58
4.18
0.524
df=5 Work life Life
work
Correlation coefficients (rho-Spearman) of work-life interaction with work wellbeing, career intentions, job resources and job demands were calculated (Table 5.68). It appears that work stress is accompanied by an increasing influence of work on private life (r= 0.42). The correlation for work satisfaction shows that the greater the negative influence of work on private life, the more teachers are dissatisfied with their work (r= -0.34). Private stress is moderately associated with the influence of private life on work (r= 0.37). As to career intentions, workplace and profession change are associated with the influence that work has on teachers’ private life (r= 0.29 and r= 0.27 respectively), while position change is associated with the influence of private life on work (r= 0.22). All job demands and job resources, with the exception of communication conditions, are correlated with work influence on private life, 181
in particular the presence of socio-organization factors (r= 0.49) and absence of professional development conditions (r= -0.34). The influence of private life on work is associated with fewer aspects, especially with socio-organization (r= 0.24) and sensory challenges (r= 0.22). However, this influence is most strongly accompanied by mental challenges (r= 0.37), which may imply that teachers burdened and tired by their private duties (e.g. childcare) may find it difficult to perform various cognitive tasks at work. Table 5. 68. Correlations of work-life interaction with work wellbeing, career intentions, job resources and job demands Work life Work stress
rho-Spearman
Work satisfaction
rho-Spearman
Private stress
rho-Spearman
Workplace change
rho-Spearman
Position change
rho-Spearman
Profession change
Life work .419**
.157*
-.345**
-.179**
.226**
.369**
.291**
.082
.063
.218**
rho-Spearman
.274**
.089
Overall organisational conditions Overall economic conditions
rho-Spearman
-.298**
-.067
rho-Spearman
-.297**
-.054
Overall professional development conditions Overall communication conditions Overall socio-organization factors Overall physical environment factors Overall mental challenges
rho-Spearman
-.354**
-.127*
-.076
-.102
rho-Spearman
.490**
.245**
rho-Spearman
.271**
.083
rho-Spearman
.325**
.366**
Overall sensory challenges
rho-Spearman
.319**
.216**
Work life
rho-Spearman
rho-Spearman
.344**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01
5.4.13. Disengagement, exhaustion and total burnout vs. form of employment and taught age group The mean scores obtained by teachers in the sample are at an average level on all dimensions (Table 5.7). But do those teachers differ in any respect? In order to investigate this problem 182
and to see if such differences with regard to burnout (comprising exhaustion and disengagement) are present, groups of teachers were compared and tested by means of the Kruskal-Wallis test according to teachers’ forms of employment and the type of student they work with. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) presented below were calculated on the basis of the four-point Likert-type response scale: 1 – “disagree”, 2 – “partly disagree”, 3 – “partly agree”, 4 – “agree”. The higher the mean (M) result, the more severe the burnout symptoms. The data presented in Table 5.69 and Table 5.70 show that only the type of students teachers work with has significance in differentiating teacher burnout. Teachers of adults score highest on the disengagement dimension (M=18.85) and teachers of children aged 6-12 score lowest (M=16.41). Moreover, teachers of the 13-15 student age group are most exhausted (M=20.41), while teachers of the 6-12 age group are least exhausted (M=18.02). As regards total burnout, teachers of the 13-15 student age group score highest (M=39.10), whereas teachers of the 6-12 student age group score lowest (M=34.43). Although no statistical significance was achieved for the type of contract, it is interesting to note that teachers who have an indefinite-term contract are most disengaged from their work in the sample (M=19.24), and teachers employed on a commission contract basis are least disengaged (M=18.08). The highest exhaustion levels are indicated by teachers employed on specific task contracts (M=18.12), whereas the lowest are indicated by teachers who have fixed-term contracts (M=17.41). Total burnout is most pronounced in teachers who have indefinite period contracts (M=37.01), and least pronounced in teachers employed on commission contracts (M=35.96).
Table 5. 69. Disengagement, exhaustion, and total burnout by type of contract Self-
Commission
Specific task
Fixed-term
Indefinite
Other
employed
N=25
N=33
N=39
period
N=9
N=65 M
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=89 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Disengag
18.60
5.15
18.08
4.75
18.79
4.90
19.15
4.87
19.24
5.12
18.78
4.71
0.59
0.988
17.69
5.50
17.88
5.36
18.12
4.81
17.41
5.06
17.77
4.96
17.89
5.42
0.61
0.987
36.29
9.89
35.96
9.29
36.91
8.86
36.56
9.37
37.01
9.47
36.67
9.71
0.32
0.997
ement Exhausti on Total burnout
183
Table 5. 70. Disengagement, exhaustion, and total burnout by type of student Children up to
6-12
13-15
16-18
Higher school
Adults
5
N=56
N=29
N=33
students
N=83
N=8 M
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=51 SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=5 Disengag
16.62
4.27
16.41
4.51
18.69
5.52
18.27
5.49
16.76
4.81
18.85
5.21
11.07
0.050*
18.50
5.21
18.02
4.36
20.41
5.00
20.03
4.93
18.12
5.27
18.97
5.11
9.42
0.093#
35.12
8.10
34.43
8.20
39.10
10.20
38.30
9.51
34.88
9.51
37.83
9.58
1.72
0.039*
ament Exhausti on Total burnout
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001, #p≤0.1 Correlation coefficients (rho-Spearman) of burnout with work wellbeing, career intentions, job demands, job resources and work-life interaction were calculated, where almost all results achieved statistical significance (Table 5.71). First, it appears that burnout is strongly correlated with subjective work wellbeing. In particular, the exhaustion dimension is strongly associated with work stress (r= 0.56), and disengagement is even more strongly associated with teachers’ work (dis)satisfaction (r= -0.68). Private stress is weakly associated with burnout (r= 0.16), and only on the exhaustion dimension (r= 0.24). Workplace and position change are quite strongly correlated with burnout, especially with the disengagement dimension (r= 0.50 and r= 0.58 respectively). Absence of job resources is associated with burnout. Interestingly, burnout is most strongly correlated with professional development conditions (r= -0.65), where both exhaustion and disengagement increase with decreasing availability of professional development conditions. What is more, economic conditions are most weakly correlated with burnout of all job resources and job demands (r= -0.25). Presence of job demands is quite strongly associated with burnout, in particular with socio-organization factors (r= 0.53). What is interesting is that mental challenges are strongly associated with teachers’ exhaustion (r= 0.54) and with disengagement (r= 0.45). Even sensory challenges are associated with burnout, especially on the exhaustion dimension (r= 0.43). The influence of work on private life is associated with burnout, particularly on the exhaustion dimension (r= 0.60). The reverse tendency, i.e. the influence of private life on work (exhaustion dimension) also exists but it is much weaker (r= 0.37).
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Table 5. 71. Correlations of burnout with work wellbeing, career intentions, job demands, job resources and work-life interaction Exhaustion Work stress
rho Spearman
Work satisfaction
rho Spearman
Private stress
rho Spearman
Workplace change
rho Spearman
Position change
rho Spearman
Profession change
rho Spearman
Overall organisation conditions
rho Spearman
Overall economic conditions
rho Spearman
Overall professional development conditions
rho Spearman
Overall communication conditions
rho Spearman
Overall socio-organization factors
rho Spearman
Overall physical environment rho Spearman factors Overall mental challenges
rho Spearman
Overall sensory challenges
rho Spearman
Work life
rho Spearman
Life work
rho Spearman
Exhaustion
rho Spearman
Disengagement
rho Spearman
Disengagement
Total Burnout
.558**
.428**
.537**
-.493**
-.676**
-.632**
.243**
.074
.162**
.282**
.497**
.429**
.097
.227**
.174**
.385**
.580**
.525**
-.347**
-.410**
-.416**
-.217**
-.246**
-.253**
-.545**
-.648**
-.645**
-.310**
-.359**
-.367**
.499**
.486**
.534**
.308**
.284**
.323**
.541**
.452**
.527**
.431**
.335**
.416**
.600**
.467**
.568**
.366**
.235**
.313**
.727**
.923** .928**
Significance: *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01
5.4.14. Types of teachers according to perceived work well/ill-being Showing differences in work wellbeing among teachers in the sample would be incomplete without considering its structure. In order to find out what systematically distinguishes teachers in the sample, a cluster analysis (k-means method) was run. As a result, five 185
homogeneous types (clusters) of teachers were derived, as presented in Table 5.72 and Figure 5.2. The order of the types presented below is motivated by its size, i.e. Type 1 is most numerous, while Type 5 is least numerous. Full results are shown in Appendix F.
Table 5. 72. Types of teachers distinguished by perceived work well/ill-being SATISFIED NOT SATISFIED STRESSED
Type 3 (N=58, 22.3%):
Type 1 (N=71, 27.3%): Teachers
Challenged teachers (stressed
affected by home life (very
mainly at work)
stressed by home life)
Type 5 (N=29, 11.1%): Distressed at work teachers (very stressed at work) NOT
Type 2 (N=62, 23.8%): Relaxed Type 4 (N=40, 15.3%):
STRESSED
teachers
Unchallenged teachers
Figure 5. 2. Types of teachers distinguished by perceived work well/ill-being Type 1: Teachers affected by home life These teachers constitute nearly one third of the sample (27.3%), which is the biggest of all the distinguished groups. They are characterized by a high level of private stress (M=7.58), a higher than average level of work stress (M=6.48), and an average level of work satisfaction (M=5.08). They do not tend to think about changes in their careers, but they show the highest tendency in the sample in their willingness to change their position. Most of these teachers 186
(64%) have worked for 6-15 years in this profession, and they often work with adult learners (29%), with higher school students (21%) or with students aged 6-12 (21%). They frequently work in a language school (41%), in higher schools (22%), and in primary schools (15.5%). They are employed on an indefinite term contract basis (28%) or are self-employed (21%). 41% of teachers in this group have worked for 4-6 schools in their careers. As regards job resources, these teachers indicate that they have a degree of autonomy as far as work methods are concerned, and that their work is quite important, but they do not tend to feel that they can influence schools’ policies. They negatively assess their salary (lowest in the sample), financial incentives (lowest in the sample) and job security. They quite positively view their skills and knowledge, but advancement prospects and mentoring opportunities are regarded rather negatively. Social support and feedback are seen less positively, compared with social praise, and communication of schools’ expectations. As to job demands, they indicate rather low levels of work conflict (though they score highest in the whole sample) and work responsibility, low strain concerning information processing, memory-related and problem solving challenges (but in both cases they also score highest in the sample), and are relatively unaffected by sight, voice and odour requirements, though noise appears to be most disturbing. However, they are rather concerned with the quality of their work schedule and amount of workload, work responsibility (similarly to “distressed” teachers), work atmosphere, technical conditions, workspace arrangement, physical conditions (light, temperature), and explaining. Work tends to have an influence on these teachers’ private life more than private life does on their work. It is important to note that this influence is the highest in the whole sample. These teachers are quite exhausted and disengaged from their work (more exhausted than disengaged). In fact, burnout results position these teachers in second place (after “distressed” teachers) regarding the most exhausted and disengaged teachers in the sample.
Type 2: Relaxed teachers This is a group represented by 24% of teachers, the second, size-wise in this sample. They are very satisfied with their work (M=8.27), not stressed by work (M=1.95), nor by their private life (M=3.13). They are the least likely to make any career changes in the whole sample. Interestingly, among these teachers there are the fewest teachers who have worked in this profession for 16-20 years. Many of these teachers teach adults (39%), higher school students (23%), or students aged 6-12 (23%), and work in private language schools (50%), are selfemployed (40%) or have an indefinite period contract (27%). These teachers have worked for 187
2-3 (39%) or 4-6 (39%) schools in their careers. Almost all job resources are assessed positively by these teachers, with the exception of their influence on school decision making, financial incentives, promotion increases, and mentoring opportunities. No job demand is considered to be straining. In fact these teachers assess all job demands lowest in the whole sample. They are most affected, though still at a low level, by work schedule, work atmosphere, technical conditions, and explaining language issues. These teachers’ private lives are relatively unaffected by work, and their work is relatively unaffected by their private lives, and the score is the lowest in the sample. They are not affected by burnout, and their results are lowest in the whole sample.
Type 3: Challenged teachers These teachers constitute 22% of the sample. They are characterized by high work satisfaction (M=7.86) and low private stress (M=2.64), but also by a higher than average level of work stress (M=6.03). They are unwilling to change their workplaces, positions or profession. Among the “challenged” teachers are mostly teachers who have worked for less than 5 years (34%) and those with 6-10 years of experience (29%). They often work with students aged 612 (28%), 16-18 (22%) or adults (19%), and they indicate that they mainly work in private language schools (28%), primary (19%), upper secondary schools (17%), but also higher schools (21%), where they are employed on an indefinite period (41%) or fixed term (17%) contract basis, or are self employed (17%). Almost every second teacher (47%) has worked in two or three schools in their careers. As regards job resources, “challenged” teachers feel that they have some work autonomy, that their work is important, but they do not tend to feel that they are involved in school decision making. All economic conditions are assessed rather negatively. What is interesting is that these teachers rate their financial incentives highest in the sample (though at a low level). These teachers positively assess their skills and knowledge, as well as advancement prospects. Mentoring opportunities, although not very highly rated, are still higher than in the case of “affected by home life” and “unchallenged” teachers. All communication conditions are rated quite positively (social support, social praise, feedback, communication of expectations). As to job demands, only work schedule and explaining language issues can be of a bit of a strain for these teachers. Work does not have a negative impact on their life, and their private life does not affect their work, though work is reported to have a stronger influence on their life than vice versa. These teachers indicate a relatively low level of burnout; lower when compared with teachers “affected by home life”, or “unchallenged” teachers, and they are more exhausted than disengaged. 188
Type 4: Unchallenged teachers This type comprises 15% of teachers. They are stressed neither by work (M=3.20) nor by private life (M=1.58), and they are rather unsatisfied with their work (M=4.75) but they do not tend to think about changes in their careers. Most often they have less than 5 years of teaching experience (41%), followed by teachers of 6-10 years (25.6%). They teach adults (27%), higher school students (20%), the 13-15 student age group (20%), and they work in language schools (37%), in primary schools (17%), or in higher schools (17%), on contracts of indefinite period (45%) or a freelance basis (45%). Over half of them (55%) have worked for two or three schools in their careers. As to job resources, they have some autonomy as regards methods and working hours, and tend to believe that their work is important, but they do not feel that they can participate in important school decision-making. Their salary, although not quite satisfactory, is assessed better than by “affected by home life” teachers. They feel quite secure in their schools, but they do not receive financial incentives to work better. They quite positively assess their skills and knowledge, but they see fewer promotion opportunities than “affected by home life” teachers and, the least in the sample, mentoring opportunities. They tend to positively regard social praise and communication of expectations by their schools, but social support and feedback are viewed rather negatively. Regarding job demands, work conflict, work responsibility, work atmosphere and technical conditions are not considered to be a strain for them, but work schedule is assessed as a bit demanding. They are not particularly affected by workspace arrangement and physical conditions (lighting and temperature). While information processing, memory-related challenges and problem solving do not usually pose a problem for these teachers, they may have problems explaining language issues. Only noise may be a problem to these teachers out of all sensory challenges. These teachers feel affected neither by work nor by private life. They experience average levels of burnout and feel more disengaged than exhausted at work.
Type 5: Distressed teachers This is the smallest group in the sample (11%). These teachers are most stressed (M=7.66) and least satisfied with work (M=3.21) in the whole sample, whose overall level of personal stress is very low (M=1.58). This is the only group which is likely to change the workplace and the profession, although they are rather unwilling to change their position. Most of those teachers have worked for 6-10 (34.5%), 11-15 (17.5%) or 16-20 (27.6%) years in the profession, they often teach adults (55%), work in private language schools (52%), and are 189
self-employed (45%) or have an indefinite period contract with their school (34%). Most often they have worked for 4-6 schools (41%) or 2-3 (31%) in their careers. Almost all job resources are assessed negatively, except for work autonomy (determining schedule and work methods) and their professional skills and knowledge, but even these aspects are assessed lowest in the sample. Nearly all job demands are assessed as more straining, compared with other teachers (with the exception of teachers “affected by home life”), though still at a low level. What they find demanding is work schedule, work atmosphere, technical conditions, explaining language issues and problem solving. Moreover, these teachers strongly indicate that their work has an influence on their private life. Finally, they score highest on all burnout dimensions, where disengagement is higher than exhaustion, as opposed to teachers “affected by home life” (second in the results on the highest level of burnout), who also indicate a high level of burnout but who score higher on the exhaustion dimension than on disengagement.
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CHAPTER SIX. A QUALITATIVE STUDY ON JOB RESOURCES, JOB DEMANDS AND HOME-LIFE INTERATION IN THE ACCOUNTS OF FREELANCE TEACHERS OF ADULTS
6.1. Purpose of the qualitative study and research questions This phase is a qualitative exploration of work conditions (job resources, job demands, worklife interaction) as characteristic for freelance teachers of English working with adult learners in private language schools. This study was conducted with the intention of explaining the results obtained at the quantitative stage because lack of prior research concerning freelance teachers and educators of adults makes the interpretation of the data difficult, if not impossible. Conversely, the interpretation of other teachers’ results did not pose a problem because of plentiful available literature. The following questions determined the qualitative phase: 1. How do freelance teachers of adults perceive job resources available in their work settings? a. Do organizational conditions in schools constitute a source of positive or negative emotions (stress) in teachers? b. Do economic conditions constitute a source of positive or negative emotions (stress) in teachers? c. Do conditions for professional development constitute a source of positive or negative emotions (stress) in teachers? d. Do communication conditions constitute a source of positive or negative emotions (stress) in teachers? 2. What do freelance teachers of adults consider to be their job demands? a. What socio-organization factors constitute a source of negative emotions (stress) in teachers? b. What mental challenges constitute a source of negative emotions (stress) in teachers? c. What sensory challenges constitute a source of negative emotions (stress) in teachers? 3. Is work-life interaction affected in freelance teachers?
191
6.2. Role of the researcher Bearing in mind the fact that this qualitative stage is interpretative in nature, where looking for meanings and giving it significance comes into the foreground, the issues of the researcher’s personal bias, values and interests need to be addresses (Creswell, 2003). The research problem originated from the observation of practitioners in the field. Having been a teacher of English in various settings (mainly teaching adults in private language schools), the present author observed diminishing levels of engagement in teachers, who were enthusiastic about teaching at earlier stages of their careers. Although professional experience and expertise were increasing over time, their work satisfaction was declining, and voices bringing up the problem of teacher stress and burnout were heard from various sources. Many colleagues working with adults had decided to leave teaching adults and moved on to state primary or secondary schools, or to publishing houses in search of more job security and pay predictability. Others stayed in the job, experiencing rising levels of frustration and dissatisfaction. Both situations seemed to be undesirable for adult teaching professionals as well as adult students. It was not difficult to gain access to the interviewees. The present author knew many teachers of adults and contacted them directly. Seven participants were recruited from the existing professional network, three other interviewees were found owing to two colleagues (one actual interviewee and one colleague who did not participate in the study). Second, when the purpose of the study was explained, the approached people were willing to participate and contribute to the study, remarking that it is an important problem that should be dealt with. Interestingly, after the interviews some participants felt enriched by this experience, stating that it had raised the issues that made them think about their careers as teachers of adults. However, it has to be admitted that it was difficult to separate the participants’ viewpoints from present author’s own convictions, who strongly identified with interviewees’ problems. What is more, feeling knowledgeable of the context, initially, certain presuppositions were brought by the author to the interview situations. Consequently, all this was likely to create some personal bias in the process of interpretation. However, strenuous efforts were made to maximize the accuracy of findings (as described in section 6.6. Validating the accuracy of findings).
6.3.Qualitative data collection procedure
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In order to collect the data at this stage the following steps were taken: designing the protocol for recording information, selecting participants (self-employed and other freelance teachers of English, teachers of adults, diversified in age, teaching experience, marital status), recording the interviews, and analysis of the gathered data. 6.3.1. Participants A purposive sampling strategy was employed in order to select the interviewees who could best help understand the problems under study. The interviewees were diversified within age, work experience and marital status as it was believed that this would provide varied and important results. The number of interviews was determined by the input they brought to the study, i.e. the interviews continued until the categories of interest were saturated and further interviews did not contribute new data any longer. The sample consists of ten teachers of adults (N=10). The teachers worked for private language schools in Warsaw, except for one who at the time of the interview offered her teaching services directly to companies, her clients (i.e. she did not render services via any language schools). There were three male and seven female teachers. Their ages ranged from 25 to 43 (M=31). The teaching experience ranged from 1.5 to 20 years (M=8.25). Six respondents were single, two were married without children, and two respondents were married and had children. Eight participants were self-employed, and two participants cooperated with language schools on other contract bases (umowa o dzieło, umowa zlecenie). In order to guarantee anonymity the interviewees’ names were masked. Instead of their original initials, new initials were assigned and consisted of two consonants in the case of female interviewees and two vowels (including a semivowel “y”) for male interviewees. Additionally, as age seemed to be important in this study, two digits were added to each set of initials in order to represent the participant’s age. The following female interviewees (N=7), listed according to age, participated in the study: 1. BC25 – one and a half years of professional experience, single, employed on the basis of a contract for a specific task (umowa o dzieło), previously unknown to the present author and recruited to the study by GH26; 2. DF25 - four years of professional experience, married, no children, employed on the basis of a commission contract (umowa-zlecenie), previously unknown to the present author and recruited to the study by a colleague;
193
3. GH26 - four years of professional experience, married, no children, self-employed, recruited from the author’s own professional network; 4. JK27 - three years of experience working with adults - before that she worked in a state school with adolescents and quit because of demanding work conditions. Single, self-employed, previously unknown to the present author and recruited to the study by a colleague; 5. LM30 - eight years of professional experience, single, self-employed, renders her own teaching services directly to companies, recruited from the author’s own professional network; 6. NP34 - twelve years of professional experience, single, self-employed, recruited from the author’s own professional network; 7. RS43 – approximately twenty years of professional experience, married, one child, self-employed, recruited from the author’s own professional network. There were the following male interviewees (N=3): 1. AE31 - nine years of professional experience, single, self-employed, recruited from the author’s own professional network; 2. IO32 - eleven years of professional experience, single, self-employed, recruited from the author’s own professional network; 3. UY37 - ten years of professional experience, has children, self-employed, also works for a state higher school and a private company not connected with language teaching. Recruited from the author’s own professional network.
6.3.2. Data collection strategy Instead of individual interviews, obtaining data by means of focus group interviews was considered at the study planning stage, where participants could discuss the issue in question. However, suspecting that some participants might be too reserved to discuss such an individual matter in front of the others, the present author disregarded this idea. Moreover, it was assumed that face-to-face meetings, instead of discussing the answers online or by phone, would be more informative because the participants’ body language could be considered as an additional indicator of the directions towards which the interview could be heading. As a consequence, the method of semi-structured face-to-face interviews was chosen as it appeared to be most appropriate in investigating research problems. Since previous research is non-existent, semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were better194
suited to elicit views and opinions from the interviewees. This method appeared to be most advantageous because participants can provide the researcher with the information of interest, especially when they cannot be observed in the field. Moreover, the researcher can control the interview in order to obtain necessary information. However, it is important to note that this method is not free from limitations, such as participants’ personal bias, researcher’s influence on the interviewee, or varying levels of people’s articulacy and perceptiveness (Creswell, 2003, p. 186-187), which should be considered in the process of data collection and analysis. Before the interviews began, the Interview Protocol for recording information was established (Appendix A). It consisted of the following parts: 1. introduction, i.e. where the participant was informed (in fact reminded) of the aim of the study and the interview, the researcher guaranteed anonymity and asked if the participant needed to know anything else before the interview began; 2. probing questions about stress, i.e. what participant’s understanding of occupational stress was, emotions associated with stress, when he/she was stressed last time, how stressed he/she was (on a scale 0 = not stressed at all, to 100 = extremely stressed), and how he/she dealt with it, etc; 3. providing the definition of stress that would create a common ground for the understanding of the phenomenon; 4. key research themes on job demands, job resources, and home-life interaction, generated on the basis of the work-factor classification system described by Yeung, et al. (2005, p. 87-88) and next divided into job resources (four factors) and job demands (four factors), as presented by Jaworek et al. (2010, p. 370); 5. question inviting any other issues that were not discussed during the interview; 6. closing remarks. Apart from the Interview Protocol, the Interview Sheet (Appendix B) was prepared, which allowed for recording the interviewee’s background information (name, date, age, work experience, e-mail address), and which provided space for comments to be noted during or after the interview.
6.4. Data recording procedure All the interviews were conducted in the 2012/2013 academic year. A neutral venue was chosen so that the interviewees’ responses would not be influenced by the environment – they were invited to a café. The interviews lasted 45 and 65 minutes and were digitally recorded. 195
The interviews were carried out in Polish to allow the interviewees to concentrate on their answers and not on their language, English being for them a foreign/second language. In order to collect the empirical data tools ordering the interview were employed (the Interview Protocol, Appendix A; the Interview Sheet, Appendix B). However, the questions exploring key research themes (job demands, job resources and work-life interaction) were not structured in a fixed order as it was assumed that such established sequences were not suitable for all participants. It was not supposed that the present author had a full range of questions the participants could answer, either. Instead, the interviewees were allowed to raise the issues that were important to them, and the author was willing to depart from the prepared list in order to explore and better understand the participants’ perspectives.
6.5. Qualitative data analysis Qualitative data analysis comprised six steps (cf. Creswell, 2003). Step 1. The interviews were transcribed verbatim. The participants’ names were masked, names of the people and institutions mentioned in the interviews were deleted, and full transcripts were sent out to the interviewees. A total of 147 pages of transcripts were created (extracts - Appendix C). Step 2. A list of categories (codes) was prepared deductively, drawing on the existing theory and on the themes raised by the participants (e.g. professional development, social support, feedback, praise, job security, work prestige, work roles, work influence on private life, etc.) . Step 3. Data analysis started with the coding process by means of Weft QDA - a software tool for textual data. It involved organizing chunks of text into categories prepared at Step 2 (e.g. professional development, social support, feedback, praise, stimulation, job security, work prestige, work roles, work influence on private life, etc). Step 4. Each category was analyzed for each participant and across the participants in order to capture similarities and differences among the participants and to present the multiple perspectives. Moreover, quotations were included to support the presented points. Step 5. At this stage, qualitative data were quantified. This involved counting the teachers who indicated a category as a source of negative or positive emotions and marking it in the frequency table to show the scale of the phenomenon.
196
Step 6. The qualitative data were combined with the quantitative data to help interpret the results, as discussed in Chapter Seven.
6.6. Validating the accuracy of findings With the intention of eliminating researcher bias, ensuring the accuracy and credibility of the findings, some steps were undertaken, as proposed by Creswell (2003). To achieve this, a rich description of the findings, including negative (contrary) information and quotations, has been provided so that the Readers can assess the accuracy of the attempted interpretations. Second, by positioning the present author as a researcher (cf. section 6.2. Role of the researcher) it was hoped to explain the bias that might be brought to the study.
6.7. Results
6.7.1. Job resources in teachers’ accounts 6.7.1.1. Organizational factors The interviewees indicated various aspects within this category as a source of positive emotions sixteen times, nineteen times as a source of negative emotions (stress), and ten times as not being a problem for them (Table 6.1).
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Table 6. 1. Organizational factors as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults determining their own schedule determining procedures
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
- +
-
-
-0
bn+
+
-
-
b+ n-
+
+
0
+
bn+
+
-
0
0
0
participation in organizational decisionmaking work/task meaningfulness
0
+
-
0
bn+
+
-
-
0
0
0
-
-
+-
-
+
+
-
+
Total
+ 2 - 1 0 2
+ 2 - 2
- 3 0 1
+ 2 - 2 0 2
+ 3n - 1n 3b
+ 4
+ 1 0 2
- 2 0 2
+ 1b 1n - 1 0 2
- 2 0 1
Total
+ 0 + 0 + 0
4 8 1 5 2 4 3 4 4
+ 0 + 0
4 5 1 16 19 10
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”, (b) before - in the previous school, (n) now Autonomy in determining teachers’ schedules Flexibility in determining one’s own schedule seems to be one of great advantages of the job, as pointed out by RS43: “Freedom is, or at least used to be up to a certain point in the past, the thing that kept many people in the job”. However, it has been a source of negative emotions for eight interviewees. Only three informants are satisfied with this aspect of their job now. It appears that there are noticeable differences in teachers’ perceptions of autonomy in determining their schedules. As indicated by the three youngest teachers, they usually accept whatever is offered to them because they want to have any work, and they fear that rejection of a course may mean no job for them, as indicated by JK27: “When we don’t work, we don’t earn. So sometimes the choice is limited, or perhaps there is no choice. If someone offers me a course, I take it because I want to have a sufficient number of teaching hours”. So, it seems that new teachers are able to sacrifice some of their work comfort to have any job. In BC25’s view, their choice is narrowed down due to the fact that teachers who work in the school longer are given priority in course selection over new teachers. GH26 appears to expect a schedule more corresponding to her preferences, and is ready to negotiate working hours or days when she would like to work, but only in the case of one of the two schools she works 198
for. She points out that rejecting courses means a loss of money and groups. On such occasions she reports that: “Then I wonder whether I shouldn’t get a job in a school”, by which she means a full time job with a contract of permanent employment at a state school. Six more experienced teachers take a more active approach to determining their schedule. They are usually offered a wider range of courses to choose from, and they sometimes reject the courses which are not convenient without worrying that they will not be offered anything in the future. This situation has deteriorated recently, however, allegedly due to the economic crisis, and these teachers are increasingly being forced to take whatever is given by the school, as stated by RS43: “Now this freedom [of choice] is limited. In fact there is no freedom. (…) I have to, I am forced to, adjust to the market. And the market makes me take whatever comes. At least in my case”. Only two interviewees are satisfied with this aspect of their job. AE31 reports that his school provides him with courses within the working hours determined by himself. Also LM30, who is now cooperating with clients directly (without a language school’s mediation), is pleased, indicating that autonomy in this area is crucial to her: “I really like to be my own boss and have this freedom. And when I have it, I am much more satisfied with work, definitely”. But she remembers that: When I worked in [a language school] the working hours were horrible. (…) It was absurd to start one day at 7am, finish at 9 pm, and begin at 7 am the next day. I don’t know who was to do that job and what one was to do in the middle of the day – to go home or not to go home? I had to prepare classes after all. It is very tiring when you don’t have an influence on your schedule.
It is notable that in the summertime all the teachers have a much more limited choice in course selection, and either take whatever is offered to them or give up working in order to have a rest, without any income at that time (cf. subsection 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors: Work schedule).
Autonomy in determining work procedures Although teachers working in private language schools are obliged to work within the framework of the school syllabus and coursebooks, it does not usually pose a problem for them. Only LM30 and IO32 have some reservations as to the usefulness or legitimacy of teaching certain items from the syllabus. On the whole, teachers find this aspect either satisfying, especially in the case of the younger teachers, or at least not troublesome. The interviewees report that they can determine their work procedures, i.e. class activities, extra resources selection, techniques and methods, the range of course material to cover, etc., as long as their students are satisfied, interested, and there are desirable learning 199
outcomes (cf. subsection 6.7.1.4. Communication conditions: Evaluation and feedback). Their selection and choice depend on the individual teacher’s creativity and experience, which is positively regarded by the interviewees. RS43 reports that: When I was younger I certainly had less freedom because I was constantly controlled, limited by the syllabus. But with time I had an impression that I had more and more freedom, that I could make use of various things freely, that I could teach something and I didn’t have to teach something else.
DF25, feeling that she has an influence on what her courses look like, states that: “It is super, because then I feel that I have control over something I should have, that is over work with students as a teacher”. Two teachers (AE31 and LM30) expect that their schools will trust their competencies and experience by giving them more independence in deciding how they want to work, and they feel dissatisfied when the school tries to restrict or modify this domain. AE31 explains why it is important to grant autonomy to teachers in this area: I have to establish individual contact with each group, and each lesson will be a little different in each group. (…) I don’t like regulations, unifying everything, (…) that I have that much time for this and that much for that. With experience I can see that it doesn’t always work out. One has to “learn” one’s students. Someone needs more revision exercises, another one fewer, yet another one has to speak more, etc. I like to have the freedom to decide and to be responsible for the results. I don’t like it when someone butts in.
Lack of perceived autonomy and independence may be stressful, which - in the case of one participant who found the imposed syllabi and the methodologist’s supervision unbearable - led to her quitting her school: I had enough of control, those lesson observations, announced or not. I had been working there for some years and it really bothered me that there was no trust. When there is no trust in the employee then motivation declines and one doesn’t feel like doing anything.
Another teacher explicitly states that having control over work procedures is of paramount importance to him, and having a supervisor telling him what to do was in the past, and still would be, very stressful: “I can’t imagine life where I don’t have control, where somebody has power over me, that I have to do what I am told to do”.
Influencing the school’s policies It appears that teachers’ perceptions of organizational autonomy and expectations as to influencing school policies evolve over time. At the beginning of their careers they (three teachers) seem to be geared towards abiding by the school’s decisions and do not feel that their opinions would have any influence, mostly due to the fact that they are inexperienced. Gradually, with experience growing, teachers exhibit more and more willingness and 200
readiness to have their say in the school’s decision-making. GH26 points out that: “It is teachers who closely cooperate with the client because classes take place either once or twice a week, or more. We really and truly know what those people need. But (…) nobody asks teachers about it”. Having faced this situation in the past, LM30 reveals that: “I discovered very quickly that it is such an illusion that we can have any influence and that we can have any worth. (…) I had a very cynical and skeptical attitude towards it. Very. I completely distrusted them”. However, UY37 does not see any room for teachers in the decision-making process and claims that a school, in order to be successful, has to be managed by professional managers and members of the board because that can guarantee financial success: I think that the schools I have cooperated with that were managed by non-teachers expanded most dynamically. (…) I also think that they have distance from that and don’t try to make the best hamburger but a hamburger that will sell best. Just like McDonald’s. McDonald’s doesn’t make the best hamburgers but the most.
RS43 is rather neural with regard to this issue as she is more concerned with her serious personal problems and she does not have any ideas that could be contributed to her school. She feels, though, that if she had any interesting ideas, she would be free to share them. Three teachers who believe that they have had an influence on their school’s decisionmaking process and whose opinions have been taken into consideration are satisfied as they feel that they are trusted, respected, treated seriously and welcome to share ideas. Four teachers who are not listened to feel ignored or irritated, with time developing indifference or distance from their workplace (cf. subsection 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors: School management policies).
Work meaningfulness All the teachers indicate that they like or liked their job, and consider it to be important and useful. That is because they believe that teachers make a difference in their students’ lives by contributing to their development in terms of knowledge and skills, as for example stated by AE31: People, thanks to me, achieve something. So when you work with someone [preparing] for FCE or CAE or Matura exam, or simply doing in-company courses to [help them] communicate better, and when after half a year or after a year there are results, then they are satisfied and I am proud in a way.
Despite his previous concerns regarding lack of tangible results in the process of teaching, he says that owing to teachers people know more or take action to do something they never tried before. He says: 201
Well, I used to have such thoughts that (…) I should have become an engineer or a designer because then you create something tangible. And I missed that at work. But recently I have realized that, after all, something stays in this world.
Observing his own impact on students’ knowledge, attitudes and motivations seems to be very rewarding for him. Although the interviewees generally enjoy their work for having contact with people, and in spite of declaring that their work enriches their students, three of them seem to look for more meaningfulness in this job, as if in need of deepening it or giving it more significance. LM30 believes that, apart from teaching, her work also consists in being a journalist and a psychologist. She thinks that she can help her students by improving their mood or by giving them a piece of advice: Sometimes I have a feeling that – ok, this may be stupid – but I have that feeling that I can genuinely help those people because it is a bit like a psychologist’s work. If they have a bad day, I can tell them something, do something to improve their mood, even advise something.
RS43 also sees herself as a psychological support for her students, which she considers to be one of her main roles (cf. subsection 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors: Work responsibility). UY37 conditions his work significance on the students he teaches, i.e. if he teaches higher school students, his work is valuable to him, and when he teaches students who are not motivated to learn or who study English for trivial reasons (learning English to travel and to “order a kebab” vs. to do business in international environments) he does not consider his work that important then. The perception of work meaningfulness is heavily influenced by teachers’ beliefs concerning the status of English teachers in Poland. Their belief that it is a profession which is not held in as high a regard by the society as it used to be is expressly stated by five teachers. JK27 says, for example: “Perhaps it won’t be nice what I will say (…). Once the teaching profession was really respected and treated differently from now, and maybe it is not as prestigious as in the past, I think”. LM30 supposes that this situation is caused by the increasing level of language competence in the society - since the knowledge of English is improving, teachers of English are not considered to be exclusive specialists in this area any more. UY37 offers his own explanation by referring to the market demand – supply mechanisms. As more and more people in Poland speak English, such teachers do not appear to be so in demand and needed, and, consequently, being a teacher of English is not as prestigious as it used to be. Secondly, he notes the great number of English teachers in the job market, many of whom do not have sufficient teaching competencies, and who “spoil” 202
English teachers’ professional reputation, further exacerbating the situation. He also remarks that in the modern world the level of one’s income determines one’s status in the society, and since the income of language teachers is lower and lower, so is their status: “Let’s face it – we live in capitalism, and the status of a job always depends on the income” (UY37). In order to remedy the situation, he feels that some legal solutions protecting teachers of English are required: “When a corporation or an association takes care of an employee, those professions are fine. If something is exposed to a free market operation, it is not [fine]”. Finally, it was noted by GH26 that teaching is not considered by corporate customers (in-company courses) to be a serious profession. In her opinion this job is rather belittled, where female teachers are referred to as “a woman who teaches English” (pani od angielskiego): “We are often treated as women who come to teach English. (…) For them it [a lesson of English] is a kind of escape from work, and for us it is work”. This rather degraded status is also pointed out by UY37: “This job (…) has assumed the status, let’s say, equal to the work not even of a waitress but of a person who cleans after a waitress” (after the interview his class was going to be held in a restaurant). However, despite these pessimistic opinions, JK27 admits that: [Because of that] I feel torn. But I think that if one is very good at what one does, that is most important. Then it doesn’t matter what profession it is because when one is very good, it is visible and one is (…) respected. One’s knowledge and competencies are respected then.
6.7.1.2. Economic conditions The interviewees indicated various aspects within this category as a source of positive emotions four times, twenty three times as a source of negative emotions, and five times as not being a problem (Table 6.2).
203
Table 6. 2. Economic conditions as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults job security
1,5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
-
-
-0
-
-
-
-
salary
+
-
salary unpredictability
-
-
-
-
bn+
+
-
0
Total
- 8 0 1 + -
3 2
-
-
-
-
0
8 1
-
-
-
-
+ 0 0
1 5 2 1
financial incentives promotion increases
0
benefits
0
Total
+ 1 - 2 0 2
+0
- 2
+ 1 - 1 0 1
b-
-
2
+ 1 - 2b 1n
+ 1 - 1 0 2
-
3
-
3
-
3
-
3
+ 4 - 23 0 5
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”, (b) before - in the previous school, (n) now Job security None of the teachers has a permanent job contract with a language school. Instead, they have a specific-task contract (umowa o dzieło) (one teacher), a commission contract (umowazlecenie) (one teacher), or are self-employed (eight teachers). The first two forms of employment concern the youngest teachers, whereas older teachers are self-employed. As there are no other employment options for them offered by schools, such employment conditions cause a lot of stress (frustration, worry, anxiety) in eight teachers because they greatly contribute to their sense of job insecurity, i.e. workplace insecurity and financial insecurity. In terms of workplace insecurity there is no post with a specific salary or an assigned number of working hours secured for teachers in language schools. “Nothing is set in stone. Everything is fluid”, as BC25 comments. Sometimes it is not a problem because there is enough work in the school (indicated by one teacher), but it may sometimes involve looking for more work in other schools (indicated by one teacher). IO32 and NP34 point out that this form of employment deprives them of the right to have a holiday and a rest. They are tired of 204
this situation and wish to have a secure post, which would be there for them when they come back from their holidays. BC25 feels insecure because of the perceived competition among language teachers, and believes that the professional status system in state schools guarantees more job and workplace security. State schools are generally believed to offer more job or workplace security, as stated by GH26, who explicitly declares that she would like to have a permanent job contract because she is planning to buy a flat and have children. As she says: “When one doesn’t have a flat, one needs to take out a mortgage, it is obvious. Banks treat the self-employed differently. That is why I don’t know how long I will be doing what I am doing now”. So, she is thinking of changing her job as a teacher of adults for a post in a state school as a teacher of children or adolescents because being self-employed she will not be able to execute her plans. As to financial insecurity, the interviewees feel stressed because schools do not guarantee any working hours or course continuation, which is so important in order to plan their finances. They may plan only in terms of a course length, i.e. for 3-4 months, as long as the course lasts. Additionally, when they do not work, they do not earn, so any time off work (e.g. when students cancel scheduled classes) means no income for them, which causes anxiety about whether they will manage financially. The summertime season is especially difficult because the number of students is diminished, and that entails lower - if any - income for the teachers. The prospect of pension entitlement resultant from this form of employment is a concern for RS43 as she fears that it may be insufficient to survive financially in the future: Nobody is getting younger, and for this reason one should save for retirement. Right now I know that if something happened to me and if I had to draw a pension or an allowance, I would have perhaps 120 PLN. No wonder I am stressed.
The construction of contracts, i.e. specific contracts to carry out a course for a school, is a source of stress for UY37. It is feared that, due to various stipulations, the pay will be withheld and the teacher will end up without any pay, or that it will be significantly reduced. In order to mitigate the negative effects of this economic situation some strategies can be observed. UY37 diversifies sources of income in order to secure finances in “off-season” times. So, a part of his income comes from a state higher school or companies not offering teaching services. AE31 adopted an approach whereby he works intensively in the “high season”, gathering financial means to be spent in the quiet period. In one case the school’s initiative can be noticed, where teachers sign a contract for one year and the school secures the amount of working hours for them within teachers’ availability. 205
An interesting attitude to the notion of job security is presented by AE31, who used to have a job contract in an institution outside teaching. Having experienced both worlds, he states: At the beginning [when he was a language teacher] I was afraid of not having tenure. I thought it would be a disaster in my life. I aimed at [getting] it insistently. And when I finally got it, after one year I thought that it is not for me and I came back to what I had had. Now, having a comparison I can state that I am fine with it.
He further notes unreasonableness in thinking that permanent job contracts guarantee a stable job. Nowadays, he claims, if one’s work is unsatisfactory, no employer will keep on such an employee. On the other hand, if someone does their work well, there will always be work for such a person. Therefore, he believes that job contracts give an illusion of security. What is more, he associates this form of employment with limitations in autonomy, requirements and orders, somebody’s supervision, etc. and a regular salary does not compensate for these drawbacks, in his view. This attitude does not exclude a certain apprehension about the future, but, as he says: “If I worried about it, you know, I would have dropped dead a long time ago”. Nowadays he feels that his language school provides him with good and fairly stable financial conditions that ensure “peace of mind”. He appreciates it and, not having to worry much about money, he can do his best - he works well and a lot for this school. JK27 used to work in a state secondary school (and thus had a so-called “stable job”) but at one point she found it unbearable: “I didn’t want to have anything to do with large classes, with students of that age. Perhaps it will not sound nice, but I wanted [to work with] normal people because I really went through a lot there”. So she accepts the sacrifice of her job security, considering it the lesser of two evils: “It is a feature of language schools and it is hard to do anything about it. I didn’t want to work in a state school so it was my choice”.
Salary The unpredictability of the salary level is (seven teachers) or used to be (one teacher) a source of significant and constant stress. As the level of these teachers’ monthly pay depends on class hours carried out per month (cf. subsection 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors: Work schedule), the main concern is related to the uncertainty of the monthly income level. It is stressful because their financial obligations are stable (social insurance contributions, taxes, bills, etc) so the participants sometimes worry whether their pay will be sufficient to cover these costs. As, for example, stated by RS43: “It is a roller-coaster. You never know what the situation is”. Elsewhere she says: 206
When I think about myself as a person who is self-employed, it [stress] is connected with the fact that I either have too much work or not enough. It is never right. Too much or not enough. If it is not enough, then I am constantly thinking about finances.
The summer months are especially difficult as there is a smaller demand for language courses at that time. Class cancellation also contributes to the teachers’ stress (indicated by two teachers) since it involves a total reduced income, and despite their initial calculations, they unexpectedly end up with less income at the end of the month. The basic pay rate (rate per hour) has been a source of dissatisfaction for four teachers. It is felt that the level of pay does not reward their work input and competence. LM30 points out that teachers’ knowledge and experience grow, and this is not reflected in the remuneration: A definite drawback of this career lies in the fact that one can very quickly make a lot of money. But later, seniority, work experience, knowledge and skills increase, we also mature, and this does not translate into our rates. Or to a limited extent.
Moreover, it is indicated that the rate level has not changed since the beginning of their career (one teacher), or it has even been reduced in recent years (five teachers). It is stated by UY37 that currently it is less and less profitable to do this job. Two teachers have attempted to eliminate schools in the process of financing their work, and initiated direct cooperation with companies, which has proved to be a successful step in the case of LM30 and unsuccessful for UY37. Only two teachers are satisfied with their pay nowadays. BC25 feels that in general “it is a well-paid job”, and AE31 thinks that he is properly paid for what he contributes professionally. He admits that it used to be a source of great anxiety for him, but thanks to a change in his attitude and because he managed to find a school meeting his needs, he is satisfied with the current financial conditions. Being unable to change the legal and financial conditions offered by language schools, he accepted the fact that he is a freelancer and that it involves better and worse months, which constitutes an inherent feature of this kind of job. So he works intensively throughout the year, saving for the quiet season. Currently there are no financial incentives, as indicated by the teachers, neither bonuses nor benefits. Only one teacher got a slight rise in recent years, after having worked for two years. The same informant, however, does not expect much financial reward yet because of her relatively little work experience (four years): “I am still quite a young teacher as far as my experience goes, so I have to (…) make an effort to be recommended, have good students evaluation surveys, in order to earn a [good] reputation”.
207
UY37 blames female and student teachers for these unfavourable economic conditions in the teaching English profession. He holds that women, in order to work and pursue their careers, accept any rates, disregarding their level, because they can afford to be financially supported by their husbands or partners. Student teachers, on the other hand, are maintained by their parents, so they can also work for any money. He thinks that language schools take advantage of this situation and choose to pay less because there will always be somebody who will work for them, irrespective of the pay. It was not always like this, UY37 remembers: Earlier it was a really nice job. When I came to Warsaw in 2002 my income allowed me to lead quite a comfortable life. Even working nine months a year one could afford a lot and the salary was definitely higher than an average salary in the country. Or even exceeded it. But unfortunately, everything stopped around 2006.
6.7.1.3. Conditions for professional development The interviewees indicated various aspects within this area as a source of positive emotions eleven times, twenty three times as a source of negative emotions (stress), and sixteen times as not being a problem for them (Table 6.3).
Table 6. 3. Conditions for professional development as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults language competencies
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
0
0
-
-
- +
0
0
-
-
-
didactic competencies
-
-
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
development of professional competencies mentoring
+
+
-
+
0
0
b+ n-
-
b+ n-
+-
+
+
+-
+
0
-
0
-
opportunities of advancement at work Total
-
-
0
-
-
-
0
-
+ 2 - 2 0 1
+ 2 - 2 0 1
+ 2 - 2 0 1
+ 1 - 2 0 3
0
+ 1b - 2 0 2
+ 1 - 3 0 1
+ 1 - 3 0 1
2 3
+ 1b - 2 0 3
-
3
Total
+ 1 - 6 0 4 - 3 0 6 + 6 - 5 0 2 + 4 - 3 0 2 - 6 0 2 + 11 - 23 0 16
208
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”, (b) before - in the previous school, (n) now Language competencies Language competence does not constitute a problem for four interviewees. Five teachers find some aspects stressful, and one teacher – in spite of feeling uncomfortable in some situations – is satisfied when her students compliment her on the range of her vocabulary. Teaching General English (GE) to advanced students, as well as English for Specific Purposes (ESP, e.g. Business English, Financial English, etc.) is stressful for five participants, who, feeling insecure about the level of their own competencies (language and subject knowledge), fear being perceived as incompetent by their students. These interviewees seem to be concerned with their good reputation as knowledgeable professionals and are anxious that this authority may be tarnished (cf. section 6.7.2.1. Mental challenges: Memory-related challenges). They may also be affected when it is not their domain, for example when they have to deal with detailed questions about economics or law. As pointed out by one informant: It stays in you that you don’t know something. Despite the fact that one can’t know everything, a teacher would like to know it all. Well, unfortunately, we are somehow constructed in an odd way.
RS43 is strongly influenced by her in-class performance, i.e. when she manages to competently answer her students’ language questions she is more confident as a teacher. But when she encounters difficulties, her confidence greatly suffers. She reveals that: Here everything depends on what happens. If I have any notable successes or not. And if I achieve a notable success, that is if I see my students’ success, when somebody tells me that they are satisfied with my work, then a green light turns on and I think positively. I think then that I am able to give something, despite knowing that (…) I know very little. But when I forget a word, when I can’t understand a grammar nuance, when I have to give a lot of thought to it, (…) then my morale goes down.
It seems that she assesses herself as a teacher based mostly on her language competencies. As a result it a source of continuous distress. Her standards in this respect stem from the fact that she compares herself to people who have spent some time abroad and thus have “much better tools” to work with language students. She would like to go abroad to improve her language as well. However, the necessity to work in order to make a living prohibits her from taking such a step.
209
Didactic competencies Didactic competencies to work with adults are a source of negative emotions for the three youngest teachers. Other, more experienced teachers, either state that didactic knowledge and skills do not constitute a problem for them, or never mention them as a source of problems. It turns out that teachers start their careers equipped with the academic and theoretical knowledge which is believed to be the professional background to be further developed. BC25 – a recent graduate – states that: “It is as if the base, the basis, on which one builds one’s own professional development. But it is only the basis, and it is necessary to confront it with reality, with a real, living, authentic organism”. As further noted by her, the knowledge “we learned from books, and also during teaching practice (…) in a lyceum, or kindergarten, or primary school” when confronted with reality - working with adult learners - appears to be a source of stress because of the perceived divergence. Teachers’ beliefs, assumptions and expectations concerning, for instance students’ motivation, turn out to be unrealistic and have to be modified, in her view. Additionally, when she graduated and started working in her school, it was her first contact with adult learners as her teaching practice had not involved working with adults. Another young teacher - GH26, who now feels competent due to four years of teaching experience – reveals that she has developed her own ways of teaching by a trial-and-error approach: “I learned it myself. I had good student evaluation surveys, and that is why I could deduce that what I do is ok”. DF25 and JK27, despite their work experience (four years and three years respectively), are struggling as they are still lacking in self-confidence as to their competencies in working with adults. They seem to be unsure as to how adults should be taught. For example, DF27 appears to be confused when she prepares something that she thinks will be interesting for her students but it does not exactly satisfy them: I had classes with one group towards which I had a positive attitude, I had a lot of games to activate them grammatically. Suddenly, in our second lesson they say: “Perhaps we won’t play games because it is so childish.”
Development of professional competencies The perceived need for professional competencies development appears to be a highly individual matter. The need to improve language competence is expressed by five teachers. In spite of being graduates in English Studies, they believe that they have to practise and develop this area, but this necessity is not associated with stress, as reported by three teachers. AE31, for 210
example, compares language teachers to sports people, who have to train in order not to be out of practice. Four interviewees indicate taking steps to advance their language skills, i.e. they read books and watch films in original versions, and sometimes they do grammar and vocabulary exercises and look for opportunities to speak with native speakers. It is also noted by four teachers that by preparing and running classes, especially at higher proficiency levels, they develop with regard to both GE and ESP. GH26 states that: I assume that my students know a lot about the world and about Business English, which I often teach. So it often happens that I learn something from them, for example about running a business. This is really interesting for me. This is a world completely unknown to me and I had no idea about it. So, I think that, paradoxically, because I teach somebody, I can learn a lot from the other side.
The development of didactic competencies appears to be a more complex issue, the perception of which changes with work experience. The three least experienced teachers consider this area to be stimulating, and they enjoy learning about new techniques and trying out new activities, etc. BC25 – a beginning teacher - having gained some insight into the specificity
of
working
with
adults,
indicates
gaps
within
didactic
and
interpersonal/communication skills, which she sees as areas of further development for her. Two experienced male respondents state that in the past developing professional competencies was a source of satisfaction but nowadays they do not want to develop in this area. They believe that they have reached the point where nothing more can be offered to them. This area is either not interesting for them, or developing competencies will not translate into their income. UY37 says: When you open a newspaper and you look for a job as a language instructor (lektor), they always look for people who have a year and a half – two years of work experience. And I totally agree – when one has been doing it for two years, one knows all about it [teaching]. And after ten years – that’s for sure. And when one has been doing it for eight, nine or ten years and still needs more training (…) one should change the line of business for something easier [laughter]. It’s not IT (…) or medicine, where each year new discoveries are made and one has to update one’s knowledge. Nothing new can be invented here.
LM30 does not feel motivated and challenged enough to develop, either, because “this job demands so little from us” in her opinion, so there is no use investing time and effort in the development of this domain. RS43 feels that, due to her work experience, she herself is a source of professional knowledge, which she taps into when preparing her classes. She believes, however, that it is not the right approach because she should actively look for other sources of inspiration and materials in order to make her classes interesting: I feel that my classes might be monotonous, that (…) I’m not looking for new ideas and that I sometimes have that impression that I should go back to the origins. When I was young I had to learn. That is why I used to reach for various sources, books. I didn’t base my classes only on my knowledge
211
because I didn’t have it. For this reason all the time I had to look [for ideas]. Now I am a source of knowledge, of know-how. I simply don’t have to work on that, and I think that it is a kind of a trap in which a majority of teachers of the older generation fall. (…) You have to be alert all the time. You can’t loosen the hold of it.
Apparently, the idea that experienced teachers do not have to develop their didactic skills is dangerous because it can lead to complacency and mental stagnation, in her opinion. Being aware of this she sometimes looks for new sources of inspiration, especially when she has a new coursebook. She finds it stimulating that she is faced with the necessity to look for something new. Some obstacles surface on the teachers’ way to develop, however. Currently, except for the three young teachers, language schools appear to be uninterested in developing - or unable to develop - their teaching staff’s competence. Only the three least experienced teachers, aided by their school methodologists’ feedback, feel that their competencies are being developed. Six experienced teachers seem to be willing to develop but they do not receive the right training in their schools, i.e. appropriate for their knowledge and experience. UY37 considers professional training workshops to be a waste of time because “those people talk about things that I have heard about, either in college or at various training sessions”. GH26 believes that workshops are valuable in teacher training but for some reason they are not offered to teachers any more.
Mentoring There are two experienced teachers who express a wish to be assisted by somebody more knowledgeable or skilled than themselves, who could show them ways of professional progression and who could be a kind of a mentor for them: “It would be nice to know that there is somebody more competent than I am” (AE31). Other experienced teachers do not articulate such a need. The youngest interviewees seem to need support in the form of concrete and immediate help concerning everyday work problems, and treat their methodologists as mentors who help when in need (cf. subsection 6.7.1.4. Communication conditions: Social support).
Advancement at work There are limited professional advancement opportunities for these teachers. According to the interviewed teachers, one can either become a methodologist, a course coordinator, or open one’s own language school.
212
Six teachers explicitly state that this is a job with few – if any - prospects. As IO32 notices: The job of a language instructor (lektor) does not allow for any professional development, no promotion. Perhaps the post of a methodologist, but it is not my dream. And this frustrates me. I know that I have been in the same place for some years now and in fact I have not developed. I don’t have a chance to develop and there are no benefits resulting from it.
This is confirmed by LM30, who observes that teachers quickly reach a certain ceiling in language schools and stop advancing their careers. For this reason two young teachers express their unwillingness to stay in this profession for life, and treat their current job as something temporary, planning to be an interpreter in the case of one teacher, or to look for a post in a publishing house or a state school in the future – in the case of the other one. Interestingly, UY37 points to the fact that many teachers at the beginning of their careers consider this job to be something transitional, like the abovementioned teachers, intending to pursue other careers later on. As he says: Nobody wants to do this job till retirement. At first. When somebody likes it and when the pay is satisfactory, they stay there. I don’t think that anybody who is sane would like to make a career in this profession.
He argues that if teachers stay longer, they cannot find a job elsewhere later because of their age and very specific competencies and experience: Many people got stuck in this job. In Poland, when you turn 36-37, you are simply unemployable anywhere. Because in Poland people who are hired are twenty. And later those people are doomed to this, and schools know about it perfectly well and take advantage of this situation.
Unsuccessful attempts to change the workplace/job, or just the realization that it is too late to change anything, may be a source of great frustration or anxiety, as in the case of the oldest interviewee. RS43 reveals great anxiety concerning her professional future. Apparently, without formal qualifications and with the economic crisis she feels helpless to change anything and is convinced that the future will be even worse for her: I am at the stage where I don’t believe that I could change anything. (…) I feel as if I were on the skids (na równi pochyłej) and I am tumbling down. The only thing that keeps me alive is my husband, who has a job and can maintain me. And I think that it is connected with the stress caused by lack of work, the situation in the market, and the fact that one has to fight for everything. And I just can’t fight, simply can’t… I feel lost. I didn’t complete my thesis, I don’t have either a BA or an MA degree. All I have is my experience. And it is hard to base one’s professional advancement on that, here there is no advancement. On the contrary, I know that with time I will be pushed to the margins.
LM30 describes herself as a “searching” teacher who has a hobby that may be lucrative in the future, and says that: “If it weren’t for that hobby, it would be more frustrating [to stand the fact] that this job is without any prospects”. 213
However, a completely different view is presented by AE31, who used to work outside teaching, and who after one year made an informed decision to come back to the freelance teaching profession, finding more autonomy, satisfaction and less stress in this type of work. He managed to develop his own interpretation of “advancement opportunities”, which he understands mainly in terms of his gradually improving financial conditions, increased professional recognition and more courses. 6.7.1.4. Communication conditions As a source of positive emotions this area was indicated thirty seven times, twenty four times as a source of negative emotions (stress), and twice as not being a problem (Table 6.4).
Table 6. 4. Communication conditions as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults school-teacher communication
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
+
-
-
S1+ S2 -
social support school
+
S1+ S2 -
social support methodologist
+
+
S1+ S2 -
social support colleagues
+
+
+
X
n+ b-
X
0
X
+
social praise owner/method.
+
+
+
X
+
social praise students
+
+
+
+
+
work evaluation/ feedback owner/method. work evaluation / feedback students
- +
- +
b- + nX
+
Total
+ -
- +
0
-
bnX
b+
Total
+ -
2 3
-
+ -
2 2
-
+ 0 + 0 + -
4 3 1 4 b2 1 1 6 2
b+ n-
+
-
+
+
-
+
+ -
7 1
bnX
+
4 b1 3 b4 4 b1 4 b1 37 24
bnX
- +
-
-
+
+
+
-
b- + nX
+ -
6 2
+ -
4 2
+ -
6 3
+ -
4 2
+ -
3 b1
+
5
+ -
1 2
+ -
3 1
+ b1 - 3
+
2 b2
+ -
214
b1 0
b1 1
-
b1 1
-
3 b2
0
2
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”, (b) before - in the previous school, (n) now, (S1) school 1, (S2) school 2, (X) doesn’t exist School – teacher communication AE31 derives a lot of satisfaction from the communication approach adopted by his school. He says: “I like this feeling when (…) we meet to talk, [when the school owner] praises me, or suggests my professional prospects. [Those are] some words, a good conversation, one can sense such an atmosphere”. He claims that the school has had a very positive influence on his work attitude and feels empowered when he sees that the school owner is interested in his work, enquires about the problems and welcomes sharing opinions. IO32 describes his school’s communication style as “authoritarian”, where everything is communicated after the school management’s decisions have been made, without consulting with teachers. Teachers in his school can read about the decisions on the school’s website, sometimes not understanding where they come from: “They are not discussed with the teachers, there is no discussion on the mater, so it is rather on-way. We have to follow the guidelines which we receive and that is all”. This frustrates and irritates him, but because nothing can be done about it, he tries to emotionally distance himself from this situation in order to mitigate this negative strain: “I approach it the way that it is the place where I have to make a living. Simply. Without engaging in higher emotions because it is without any sense”. Similarly, NP34 finds the school’s communication ineffective, even “senseless”, as she cannot see any of the school’s planning, goals, and – what may be most important for her – no reassurance of her status within the school. GH26 distinguishes between the two schools she works for concerning the quality of school-teacher communication. She notes that one school communicates great attention to “student pampering”, care in lesson preparation in order to satisfy their students. She claims that the other school, however, neither specifies their goals nor justifies their policies: “The aims are not defined, what we want to achieve and when”. She lacks instructions concerning the coursework or what is emphasized (cf. subsection 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors: Teacher – school staff interactions).
215
Social support Since teachers are “on the frontline” and “a school, institution is assessed through its teachers” (AE31), school support is expected and highly desired by some interviewees, even the experienced ones. DF25 feels a great deal of her schools’ support, which is achieved by making her work organization easier (e.g. she receives ready-to-use course syllabi). She also mentions one administration employee who was “helpful” and “understanding”, and answered her emails when she had problems in a friendly manner. As to methodologist’s support, the four least experienced teachers are very satisfied, and they positively assess their methodologists: “fantastic”, “super”, “professional”. They highly value this aspect because they are given advice in the case of problems, help in lesson preparation, as well as valuable feedback. DF25 remembers her methodologist saying: “Try to do it differently next time”, and emphasizing what was good, which made her realize the downsides without feeling criticized. JK27 mentions the time of her work with teenagers in a state school, when she experienced: “[t]he state of self-doubt, total lack of self-confidence, that I was not qualified for that job, if there aren’t any results, that means I am incapable of doing it”. However, the situation changed when she started working in her current language school with adults: “Here everything completely changed because the methodologist’s support is really great and I managed to restore my self-belief”. GH27 indicates no such support during her induction stage. She claims that is was a difficult period for her, when she worked with a trial-and-error approach. Now, understating new teachers who start working in her school, she is ready to support such novice teachers with her own experience. The methodologists do not appear to be a source of professional support (in terms of knowledge or skills) to all experienced teachers because these teachers feel confident due to their experience. RS43 expresses doubts as regards the form of support for her. She cannot imagine what form would be appropriate for a teacher like herself, i.e. with a lot of experience (approx. 20 years) and without formal qualifications (neither a BA nor MA degree). NP34 does not consider her methodologists to be competent enough to be a source of professional support. Two male interviewees – IO32 and UY37 - maintain that they do not need any support in this area as they have mastered everything they need to do the job well. Instead, IO32 would prefer to be paid properly and be sufficiently appreciated by the school. However, methodologists can serve as a source of emotional support for the experienced teachers. LM30 remembers an occasion on which her methodologist “behaved very well” during the feedback after observing a lesson with a difficult student. The methodologist admitted that the student 216
had “absurd accusations”, which seemed to comfort the teacher at that time (cf. subsection 6.7.1.3. Conditions for professional development: Mentoring) As to colleagues’ support, it also appears to be very important for the youngest teachers. They feel comfortable knowing that there are people they can rely on in case of problems, when they can meet and talk to more experienced colleagues in order to discuss their problems, or exchange opinions and information about the specificity of their courses with the colleagues who run courses in the same school or company. DF25 states that: I feel at ease because I know that (…) somebody will show me the way and everything will be good. (…) It [this thought] as if pushes me forward. Even if something is not right, I have somebody who will give me a hand.
As other teachers are more experienced, they do not need or expect their colleagues’ support to that extent, albeit some report to have good colleagues they can rely on. What is more, AE31 notes the significance of such support in his early career and now believes that he himself could help younger teachers with his expertise and knowledge: “Yes, I feel that I can give a lot to the others, (…) I can give a lot of advice”. It is workplace atmosphere that is more important for the experienced teachers, especially the atmosphere in the teachers’ room. This place is considered to be the venue for socialization and integration, the place to discuss various matters, even very personal ones. As indicated by the interviewees, people should be tolerant there, loyal and open, should not hurt anybody’s feelings, express negative opinions about other teachers in the open forum, or gossip about other people’s – both teachers’ and students’ - private lives. Three interviewees do not approve of swearing, which sometimes takes place there. RS43 is not satisfied with the school atmosphere these days, saying that in the past it used to be better, and now in fact she feels alienated from the teachers working in her school. UY37, after changing his workplace, also considers a pleasant work atmosphere to be a thing of the past.
Evaluation and feedback The three least experienced teachers report that their methodologists provide them with valuable feedback after lesson observations. This is assessed positively by those teachers, despite the fact that they indicate very high levels of stress while being observed (cf. subsection 6.7.2.2. Mental challenges: Information processing). The approach during the feedback session is noted and appreciated, where a methodologist emphasizes the teacher’s strengths, and treats weaknesses as areas for future development. As DF25 stated: “[name of the methodologist] began with what was good [in the lesson] and she was able to reformulate 217
it [what was bad in the lesson] in such a way that is sounded not like a mistake but as something that I should work on”. Additionally, she receives some advice on how to deal with the problems in the future, or other practical didactic hints, such as working with the board, reducing teacher talking time and activating students more. Now she knows that her methodologist is a person who is there for her and who does not want to merely put her down. JK27 also very positively assesses her methodologist’s feedback: “I am very satisfied because now I can organize the information on the board much better. Nobody taught me that before, nobody paid attention to it, for example during my studies. (…) It was really great”. Four more experienced teachers are not observed by a methodologist these days. However, they report many negative emotions remembering the times when their lessons were observed. NP34 says that when she started teaching, the feedback sessions were not professional enough. She indicated a high stress level when she received feedback from her methodologist after a lesson observation at that time: “the person conducting the feedback session was not competent enough to express opinions about me”. Similarly, RS43 perceived her feedback mainly in terms of criticism, whose aim was to point out shortcomings. Even despite being praised at the feedback session, she felt that “if they were to give me fewer points [for the lesson], they would do it”. Only AE31 is satisfied with the feedback he receives from the owner of the school he works for. During these sessions he is praised and receives some suggestions concerning his professional development. Adult students in private language schools are usually asked to anonymously give feedback on the course and their teachers via evaluation surveys. They are usually distributed at the end of the course, where students are welcome to express their opinions. In most cases the feedback is very positive: students praise the teacher, which is obviously very pleasant. But there are also unfavourable comments, and they may have a negative influence on some teachers. Although everybody has the right to express their opinion about the course, BC25 finds these comments unfair when they are expressed by the students who rarely attended the course, and who therefore cannot appropriately assess the teacher. Negative comments were such a source of great discomfort for RS43 that at one point she gave up reading these surveys (schools usually give teachers access to these comments) because she was extremely discouraged by them. However, both of them admit that some comments in the surveys, although negatively evaluating some aspects of their work and causing a lot of distress at the time of reading, served as stimuli for their development, allowing for confrontation of their own opinions with those of other people’s, and turned out to be beneficial in the long run. 218
Social praise Two sources of praise have been indentified: from the methodologist (or school owner) and students. Methodologist’s / school owner’s praise, being a form of positive feedback, concerns teacher’s performance during the lesson, given after lesson observations. It is a source of positive emotions for six interviewees. BC25, for instance, finds praise highly motivating and very pleasant. She mentions her methodologist who praised the atmosphere in class, students’ engagement and lesson preparation. She admits that it had a very positive effect on her. Students’ praise takes many forms. Firstly, students positively comment on a teacher’s work by means of school’s surveys. Secondly, they express their gratitude and satisfaction directly to the teacher, which can be manifested by compliments, further personal contacts, private lessons enquiries, or willingness to continue learning with that teacher. JK27 most likes the comments concerning the effectiveness of her teaching, i.e. when students tell her that during the lesson they have learned so much that they do not need to learn at home, or that it was sufficient to pass the test. Next, students may contact school staff and praise the teacher to the authorities. A good reputation is then circulated in the school, which makes the teacher proud and satisfied, as indicated by GH26. RS43 mentions that in the past students wrote “thank you” letters to the school, which were later read out to the teacher. “It was a very positive message”, in her opinion. The fact that teachers are recommended for new courses or course continuation is also perceived as a form of praise. For RS43 it is a source of distress, however: “These days it is important that you have a course continuation. And I am afraid of confrontation with reality, that is I don’t know if they will want me”. Teachers are also telephoned and asked for private lessons or courses by people whose friends recommended them as good English teachers. Finally, sometimes nothing has to be said in order to understand that students appreciate the teacher – it can be sensed while meeting the students who are happy just seeing the teacher. Two male interviewees – IO32 and UY37 - claim that they receive little praise these days, and actually experience lack of appreciation for their work. They feel undervalued both by the school and by their students.
6.7.2. Job demands in teachers’ accounts
219
6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors This section, as well as socio-organization factors, discusses physical environment factors. It was decided that this group of factors was to be included in the “Technical conditions” subsection as it constituted a minor issue for the teachers, and was closely linked to problems of a technical nature. As a source of negative emotions (stress), this area was indicated forty five times, eleven times as a source of positive feelings, and fifteen times the discussed job demands were indicated as not posing a problem (6.5).
Table 6. 5. Socio-organization factors as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults teacher-student interactions
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
-
-
-
-+
0+
-
-
-
-
teacher-school staff interactions work schedule
0
0
-
0
-
-
-
work responsibility
0
0
0-
work roles
-
-
-
school management policies technical conditions workspace arrangement, interior design Total
b-
-
0
- 3 0 3
-
bn-+
0 +
-
-
-
-
-
0
0
0
-
-
-
+-
+
-
-
-
bnX
b+
-
-
0-
+
-
-
+
0-
-
-
+
+
+ 1 - 4 0 2
+ -
+ 0
1 5 2
+ 2 - 8 0 1 - 1b 1 0 3 + 2 - 9 1b 0 1 - 4 0 6 + -
2 7
-
+ -
-
+ 0 + 0 + 0
1 5 2b 2 6 3 2 1 1 11 45 15
0
1 5
+ -
3 5 b3 0 1
+ 5 - 1b 0 3
0
5 1
0
4 3
Total
-
6
-
4
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”, (b) before - in the previous school, (n) now, (X) doesn’t exist 220
Teacher-student interactions Adults constitute a different group of learners, compared with children or adolescents, who are specific for their experience, needs, expectations, etc. As noted by AE31: “They know more [than children or adolescents], they are more intelligent, and a teacher can’t work sloppily. You can’t come, do anything, and – fine - a lesson is done. Because when one pays, one demands”. Additionally, adults sometimes seem to expect flexibility, taking their current state of mind into consideration: “Some of them want to simply talk, or listen, or to simply relax after work” (AE31). Nine interviewees point to adult learners’ behaviour and attitudes as a source of negative feelings (nervousness, uncertainty, self-doubt, sadness, irritation) to varying extents. Even experienced teachers report such emotions, despite feeling competent in dealing with “difficult students”. The sort of behaviour which is difficult for interviewees generally involves: dissatisfaction which is not verbally expressed but manifested by students’ body language (indicated by eight participants); This is easy to indentify as UY37 says that such students have “a facial expression as if they had just swallowed some lemon juice”, and believes that they “are forever dissatisfied, regardless of what you are doing”. He remembers one student who was unpleasant and even infected the whole group with her dissatisfaction. Working in this group he “counted out the hours to the end of this course. And it [the end of the course] was great relief – as if I had given birth to a stone”. unprepared students and those who due to their previous absence(s) and/or (sudden) loss of motivation in learning disturb the prepared lesson plan (indicated by four participants); IO32 mentions an unpleasant situation when his students had not done their homework, which impeded continuing the lesson as his students did not have sufficient information to proceed. This made him so angry that he left the classroom. students who behave inappropriately in class towards the teacher and other students, i.e. they are aggressive, manipulative, make rude comments, tell sexist jokes, etc (indicated by four participants); lack of teacher – student bond, problems in establishing a good rapport (indicated by three participants); demanding and assertive students (indicated by three participants); 221
BC25 describes these students as “strong personalities”, and sometimes experiences working with them as “a battle of wills”. students’ reluctance to engage in tasks assigned by the teacher, or to answer the teacher’s questions in class (indicated by three participants); IO32 reports that when he asked one student a question in front of the whole class, she clearly bore a grudge for that. This behaviour made him angry: “Being in a group of nine, she should be grateful that I am asking her; I give her an opportunity to speak”. verbally expressed dissatisfaction with the teacher’s coursework and explicitly questioning the usefulness of the covered material (indicated by two participants); NP34 mentions “unpredictable”, “impolite”, “boorish” (chamski), or “simply stupid” students she has had contact with in her career. Once she was seriously affected by a student at the elementary level: One day I did the verb “to be”, the next day I did the verb “to have”. On the third day we revised it all, and he understands the use of “be” and the use of “have”, but he asks in Polish: “Why are we doing it? What do I need this for?
She must have felt that her authority was being undermined by this student’s comment because she says that: Such situations freak me out (wprowadzają mnie z równowagi). I was angry and I showed my irritation. For me, a person who comes to class, and is a beginning student, and learns two basic verbs, and doubts the usefulness of those two verbs, is a total fathead (głąb). And my question is: why did he come to learn in the first place? In the situation when something is so obvious, very necessary in a language because it is one of most basic [things] possible, he says he doesn’t need it at all .
students asking difficult, “absurd” questions, especially during lessons observed by a methodologist (indicated by two participants); LM30, despite having very good relationships with her students, mentions one incident: “One [student] was so nasty that during the lesson observation he chose this occasion on purpose to cause trouble”. cancelling classes too late, which is perceived by one interviewee as not respecting her time; students overstepping the professional-private boundary and who treat the lesson as a venue for discussing their personal problems (indicated by one participant). The three youngest participants seem to be uncertain as to how to deal with adult learners, whether what they do is right, if that will satisfy their students, and are afraid of encounters with “difficult students” before a new course starts. As explained by JK27, this is caused by her previous experience with such students. She remembers an occasion when she 222
substituted for another teacher, and describes how one student introduced “a strange atmosphere”: She had a critical attitude. Not knowing me, she entered the classroom and I asked her politely, very politely, because I am always polite to my students. And she was very dissatisfied with that. All I asked her was to sit next to one group who were doing an exercise, and I simply wanted her to join them. And she said (…) very aggressively, I would say, “Is that fine? Does that suit you?”, something like this. And I was immediately… (…) Those situations shatter my repose and the lessons come out worse.
BC25 finds it hard to discipline adult learners: “These are clients, it is a private school. You can’t refuse them. You can’t put them in order because they are adults, not children. You can’t call their parents and ask them to discipline [their children]”. She also adds that her students sometimes do not make enough effort, which is stressful for her: “Because when students neglect [studying], don’t treat it seriously really, it is not on top of their priority list, it is a stressful situation”. As the youngest interviewees realize that some conflicts arise as a response to the prepared in-class activities, these teachers are ready to negotiate the task types with their students and they seem to be open to students’ expectations, within some limits, though. All in all, they believe that it is they who are trained specialists, and the final decision depends on them. Unlike these teachers, five experienced participants feel more certain as to how to work with adult learners, whose confidence has been gained as a result of their hands-on work experience. NP34 appears to be sure of how to teach adults, and she believes that she knows what adults need to learn. That is why some comments (as described above) may be perceived as undermining her authority. Consequently, students who question the usefulness of the coursework or who express their dissatisfaction cause open or suppressed irritation and aggression in that teacher. Feelings of irritation are also sometimes demonstrated by IO32, who could not contain his anger when his group was not prepared for the lesson, which made him leave the classroom. LM30, however, treats difficult students (who are direct sources of her income) as a challenge: “She is very ambitious and demanding of herself. If she hadn’t felt progress, she would have left the course. And I had to make the grade. I didn’t want to lose the client and I wanted to prove that I could”. She chooses to name conflicts with students as “a lack of chemistry” (brak chemii). Three experienced informants appear to have adopted an active and open attitude in solving interpersonal problems and feel efficacious doing so. LM30 feels that working with her clients she is obliged to be considerate and diplomatic if she is to meet her clients’ expectations. For that reason she is open to negotiating the conflicting areas, which normally proves to be successful in handling the problems: 223
I always have very good contact with these people and I adjust to them. (…) I remember that the client is always most important and that it is me who has to submit more [to the client’s will], albeit in this work one definitely has to be assertive, as well as diplomatic and tactful. I always remember this. So I have never been in a conflict. It was more about getting in synch, learning about the other person, finding out what that person’s needs are, what he/she expects from me.
As presented earlier, the stress level in some interviewees increases when they can sense their students’ dislike for their class or when a student behaves in an undesirable way, i.e. for no obvious reason they answer the teacher’s questions in an unpleasant way. Nevertheless, AE31 feels in control of such situations, he can solve this problem by talking about it openly, perhaps modifying somebody’s expectations, alternatively transferring them to another group that would perhaps better meet their expectations. He says: “It can be sorted out because one was confused at the beginning or expected something different. But I think that I can approach it with a sense of humour, in neutral”. He feels capable of dealing successfully with this kind of student: “Probably I would cope with everybody”. Finally, RS43 feels competent enough to deal with group conflicts: When somebody expresses strong views, and the majority [of the group] have a completely different opinion, then a conflict is unavoidable. (…) It is evident that there could be a storm. So I have to solve this problem, and then I normally change the subject or I say that we will start doing something very difficult. Or I say that we can talk about it another time. So I can solve such conflicts. I have to solve them and I do it.
Three different types of attitudes concerning who is responsible for interpersonal problems with adult learners appear. RS43 blames herself for failing to notice the warning signs leading to future problems, whereas UY37 blames the students themselves or their previous teachers for “spoiling” the students, e.g. by praising them for progress they haven’t made, or promoting weak learners to higher levels of proficiency, where they struggle and make the next teacher’s work very hard. Yet, AE31 has a relaxed, tolerant approach to interpersonal problems and accepts that people are different, which is natural, and there is nobody to blame for it. Teacher – school staff interactions Only two interviewees remember (or want to talk about) examples of conflicts with school staff. IO32 recalls a recent conflict with a school manager concerning room allocation. The room where he had had classes with an individual student was assigned to a new group. It was unclear to him why it was he who had to change the room – there were plenty of other free rooms. Additionally, he felt very awkward apologizing to his student who “is a very serious person, a man in a high position, who I respected a lot and who respected me”. He considered 224
this situation to be ridiculous, did not understand why he was expected to succumb to this pressure, and felt that it was very inconsiderate of the school. During the confrontation with the school manager he felt tense but the outcome was positive: “We quickly explained everything. Her opinions, her arguments convinced me. I expressed mine”. Another example comes from LM30 who, after an attempt to express her opinion concerning the choice of the school’s coursebook, met with a “defensive” methodologist’s reaction and “an unpleasant situation”. As a result she did not see any further opportunities for discussing her suggestions for school improvement (cf. subsection 6.7.1.4. Communication conditions: School - teacher communication).
Work schedule Nearly all participants (nine teachers) indicate heavy workload (i.e. actual teaching hours and lesson preparation) and constant time pressure as major factors contributing to perceived levels of stress in the period between October and June. It is worthwhile to note that although these teachers are not obliged to work a specific number of hours, many of them strive to work as much as possible in order to manage financially or to save for the future, especially for the summer time. What is important is that two participants mention that not having enough teaching load is just as stressful because it threatens their financial standing. Therefore they work for many hours per day, often at weekends, sometimes with very short breaks inbetween classes, which are not long enough to eat or rest in quiet. It is noted that even if there are longer breaks, this time is usually spent on preparing the next classes, which practically means working non-stop. Moreover, some interviewees indicate that their schedule requires starting work early in the morning (e.g. 7 am – 7.30 am), then having no classes till the evening, or having classes scattered throughout the whole day, and finishing late in the evening (e.g. 8 – 9 pm). In this case waiting for classes consumes too much time (which teachers are not paid for). This type of schedule is considered to be “tiring” and “poor”. Additionally, teachers who work in companies have to travel in order to conduct their lessons on companies’ premises, which also deprives them of rest. GH26 states: I work in a language school and I have to travel. It is physically tiring, which is caused by the need for such mobility. (…) Because when we are in one place we are more efficient. But when we are constantly on the move, tiredness makes its presence felt.
Only LM30 and AE31 do not consider their workload to be demanding, and they explain it by their current schedules, where their classes are “in blocks”, their travel time to
225
companies is minimized, they finish at approx. 6 pm, and have free weekends. These conditions are a source of great contentment for them. Cancelling classes by students, especially at short notice, e.g. on the class day, is problematic for two teachers. LM30 explains: “It is my wasted time (…). It is different when they cancel in advance, and it is different when they cancel one day before. It means that I am left with no money”. From the interviews it emerges that interviewees’ schedules (heavy workload, working hours, lesson preparation, a poor schedule) have a significant influence on the teachers’ wellbeing. DF25 remembers that: I used to come back [home] so tired, I used to say that I didn’t want anything anymore. I wasn’t cooking, (…) absolutely not. I was so frustrated that I would go to my room and cry, because I knew (…) I was running around like a scalded cat (kot z pęcherzem). It [this job] is good for a twenty-yearold.
NP34, because of exhaustion, feels like a machine, i.e. works automatically, without much reflection, in order to manage with everything: I feel like a kind of a robot. I simply do everything one by one. And then I am stressed about whether I have photocopied everything, if I prepared everything the day before. And that is why I am stressed – because I wonder whether I have photocopied everything, or maybe not, for all my classes.
IO32 says that when he worked seven days a week he felt “exhausted, extremely exhausted, and probably even more frustrated than now”. RS43 notes that the fatigue caused by her schedule makes her virtually unable to work after 7 pm. The interviewees take various steps in order to mitigate the exhaustion caused by workload. Four of them sacrifice the money which they could earn for having more time to rest or spend time with family. IO32, who had worked seven days a week, decided to cut down on the working hours because: “I found that how much I earn is not most important and that I need some emotional and mental hygiene, and I wouldn’t want my work to assist me all the time in fact. I need two days off”. In summer months, when he works less, he also earns less, but he feels happier because he has time for himself. NP34 is also less tired during the summer time, but the actual working hours do not allow her to earn enough to make a living, and this thought in fact does not allow her to fully benefit from the reduced workload. AE31, who is now satisfied with his schedule, explains how he found his past system ineffective. He worked fewer hours per day but also worked at weekends, which meant that he never had a day off. He has developed a new approach, in which he aggregates his working hours from Monday to Thursday, on Friday finishing in the early afternoon. This system allows him to
226
have more real time off work (cf. subsection 6.7.1.1. Organizational factors: Autonomy in determining teachers’ schedule).
Work responsibility All the participants claim that they are primarily responsible for complying with their school’s organizational requirements or the direct contract concluded with the clients (in the case of the teacher who offers her services without the agency of a language school), and are as follows: holding classes, filling in group registers, describing classes, preparing course syllabi for new groups (indicated by three participants), choosing a coursebook (indicated by three participants), providing the school administration with group attendance lists and reports, and administering tests and exams. In general, the interviewees do not find the range of their workplace duties stressful or troublesome. In fact that is what they expected, even at the preservice stage, as revealed by BC25. Comparing work responsibilities with those of primary and secondary school teachers’ GH26 declares that work with adults in a language school is much easier and school bureaucracy is not burdensome, although UY37 still finds it unnecessary. Three interviewees feel their job is not challenging enough and would probably welcome more responsibility at work: “We have very limited responsibility. Practically minimal. Perhaps I would like to have more” (IO32). Only LM30, being the sole decision maker in the course provision for her clients, finds one aspect difficult. She directly bears the responsibility of her decisions, e.g. when the coursebook she chose appears to be unsuitable for the client she has to consider its change, which involves undesirable financial consequences. Although GH26 indicates that: “As far as adults are concerned, I do not feel as much responsibility as when I was teaching children or adolescents, because there is also an element of education (wychowania)”, the interviewees point towards other responsibilities emerging from the roles of adult educators teaching English, and which may be a source of stress. They are as follows: a school representative; Four teachers brought up the function of being a school representative and their responsibility of retaining students in the school in order to provide their organization with sources of income. This involves ensuring that students feel comfortable in class and are satisfied with the quality of teaching. As BC25 notes: “If a teacher discourages a student, the school also loses finances, loses money. The main student’s contact is directly through the teacher (…). They must be interested, motivated”. A sense of responsibility in this respect 227
sometimes entails a feeling of embarrassment when the conditions provided by the school are inappropriate (as when classes are held in a restaurant): “I am the representative of that, and I simply had to be ashamed on their account”. a source of knowledge – being a source of accurate professional (language) knowledge, and also being a transferor of knowledge; a supervisor / a controller - being responsible for students’ progress and achievement of the learning outcomes specified in course syllabi; an evaluator - evaluating students’ progress; Being fair while evaluating progress is especially important for AE31: I know that it may be troublesome sometimes to assess someone fairly, especially when we like each other. But I profess such values that it is absolutely vital to assess somebody honestly. (…) I think that people respect me for being strict and honest in what I do. (…) A private relationship with somebody and the evaluation of their work are for me two completely separate issues. I couldn’t do differently. I wouldn’t forgive myself if I raised somebody’s grade because of liking that person. (…) It is a consequence of the fact that my teachers did this when I was a child. I hated it and I considered it to be a teacher’s great weakness.
a motivator - keeping students interested, motivated to learn, and willing to take the initiative in learning; However, two experienced teachers feel capable and effective in motivating their students, which is a source of satisfaction: “I love observing students who transform from being jaded into somebody who is learning with passion because it makes them happy, [and who] talks about their achievements” (AE31). Other roles have also been identified, but they are not usually associated with stress: a pedagogue and an inspirer - showing and instilling in students certain values; a facilitator – creating the opportunities and the environment in which students can develop their language competencies; a culture mediator - opening students up to new cultures and a new language, as indicated by one, the youngest, interviewee; a counselor / a coach - advising further action or courses that would ensure students’ language progress; a psychologist – supporting adults psychologically, doing or advising something to improve their mood; a professional - being patient and punctual; a partner - being considerate and open to dialogue;
228
a learner - learning from students, who are often a source of specialist information, especially about business (cf. subsection 6.7.1.1. Organizational factors: Work meaningfulness). Five teachers indicate sources of conflict in their job as emerging from the range of their responsibilities or roles, in particular conflict concerning evaluation. For JK27 evaluation in the case of some students involves giving them unpleasant feedback when they are not promoted to a higher level. The teacher feels great conflict between her conviction that people should not be told unpleasant things that may damage their self-esteem (making them feel bad about themselves) and the professional necessity to sometimes do so. She is torn because she has to do it as it is her job to assess students’ progress, but she claims that: “Nobody likes to hear that they can’t do something or don’t know something, despite perhaps being aware that (…) one isn’t learning, or misses many classes”. It does constitute a source of a lot of stress for her: “In fact I can’t say anything unpleasant. I am learning how to do it but it is difficult and really stressful”. RS43 indicates a problem of a different nature, i.e. it is unclear to her now how she should assess her students. This is due to the fact that in the past there was a lot of emphasis on accurate evaluation of students’ progress in her school, and insufficient progress resulted in lack of promotion to a higher level of proficiency, which sometimes led to students leaving the school. Nowadays, when the school is trying to keep students – their direct sources of income – teachers are expected to make every effort to retain as many students as possible, even at the expense of appropriate evaluation. Working under such ambiguous and conflicting conditions is stressful for this teacher: That is why I really feel discomfort, because I don’t know which rules I am functioning under. Should I be that competent person who assesses [progress] or the one who, at every expense, scoops up one more bite of the offering made of the students.
Other sources of conflict have also been found. LM30 indicates her clients’ expectations to be a friend, and who use lessons to vent their emotions arising from personal problems. As they are unwilling to follow the prepared lesson plan she is unable to do her job. This often causes frustration in her because, on the one hand, there are her clients’ expectations (regardless of how legitimate they are), and on the other hand her wish to fulfil her professional duty, i.e. to teach and to follow the syllabus. This is rather unpleasant for her and sometimes leads to intentions of handing over the student to another teacher. Finally, the youngest participant feels powerless because she does not possess effective tools to fulfil her role of a motivator when it comes to her students’ unsystematic 229
studying, i.e. she cannot discipline them, as can be done in the case of children, cannot call their parents to complain, etc.
School management policies The two youngest teachers do not note ineffective school policies, but with time and experience teachers are more and more aware of certain organizational practices which have a negative influence on their work satisfaction. Seven other interviewees are not satisfied with this work aspect at the moment, or were not satisfied with it in the past and decided to quit the school. There is a prevailing feeling of insignificance that the teachers sense working in language schools. Firstly, it is manifested by the fact, as indicated by two informants, that the school staff do not know them, the administration staff are not interested in getting to know them, or they are simply isolated from the teachers: [I feel] uncomfortable. And, in fact, sometimes I feel sad that I have been going to work there for some years and some administrative staff don’t even know my name. Nobody pays attention to me because everybody is busy with doing paperwork. (…) I don’t know why that is. Probably everybody who starts working there is permeated with that atmosphere. (…) I don’t know if it is a good move, this separation from the teachers.
Moreover, three teachers experienced feeling like tools or objects (“cogs of a machine”, “a photocopier”, “like the fifth wheel on a cart”) that can be made use of when needed, discarded when no longer necessary, and replaced with something else. They feel that they could easily be replaced by other teachers – cheaper but less competent. Besides, four participants feel that their work is undervalued by schools. This makes them feel discouraged, frustrated, and apparently contributes to the sense of insignificance, a feeling “(…) that your work in fact amounts to nothing”, as indicated by one interviewee. Three younger participants do not report such impressions, though. On the contrary, one of them feels “quite important” working there. Also AE31 (who started looking for a new school, being dissatisfied with such an attitude towards the teachers, and who found a new language school) feels significant now as the school demonstrates a lot of interest in him, appreciates his work, and encourages him to share his ideas in order to improve the school’s operation and services. This makes him feel very satisfied and pleased with this workplace. The second problem relates to the school’s policy concerning filling in teachers’ schedule with groups, or rather the lack of concern as to allotting teachers with groups in their schedule, as expressed by LM30: “When I worked in [name of a language school] the working hours were terrible and depended on who determined your schedule”. Not all 230
participants feel like this, however. As the school adjusts to the schedule provided by AE31, this considerably influences his work satisfaction there. UY37 feels overwhelmed by his schools’ efforts in ensuring students’/clients’ satisfaction, which he comments on: “When I worked in that big school I thought that they would implant some kind of satisfaction sensor in the students. (…) Every three months or every month or so [there were] such satisfaction surveys”. In his opinion that puts a lot of pressure on teachers and leads to unnecessary effort in preparing classes to please the students. He observes his female colleagues who spend a lot of time cutting out materials, and he thinks that “it represents the triumph of form over content”. He believes that it is completely needless but suspects that: “Perhaps they are not good enough to make something out of nothing. They have to package themselves a lot and to bring a lot [to class] to make it through those ninety minutes”. Another perceived drawback is one school’s planning strategy, where teachers have to submit their availability long before the courses are allocated. This keeps DF25 in prolonged uncertainty as to the schedule and her working hours, i.e. she does not know whether she should engage in other activities or wait for the school’s offer, which is risky for her because she might end up with nothing. LM30 and AE31 found school policies unclear, unreasonable or even unbearable, which resulted in their quitting the school. Constant changes, especially in something that seemed to work well, appeared to be sources of a lot of frustration for LM30. As described earlier, many teachers appreciate a good, friendly, and supportive work atmosphere: It is more pleasant to work in a place where you know that the people are kind, [who you can turn to] with your problems, ask them, [and] nobody will disapprove of you. There will always be somebody who will help you. You know, there is a different work atmosphere there, it is also important (UY37).
However, it seems that poor school management policies have a direct and strong impact on the teachers’ morale, which in turn influences work atmosphere. In spite of the expressed dissatisfaction and frustration caused by some school management policies, there are a number of policies that appear to have a motivating effect. AE31 derives a lot of satisfaction from his work, and represents the school with pleasure. He claims that his school provides him with “peace of mind” at work, i.e. good working conditions, a good pay rate, a sufficient number of working hours, a good schedule, etc. He notes that developing good relations and making teachers feel good in an organization is important not only for teachers themselves. It should be in the school’s interest to keep on 231
such staff because these teachers contribute to their clients’ satisfaction, which is directly translated into the school’s profits: “When a teacher is really happy (…) it pays off. It simply spreads, students feel it. More and more people want to learn there, there is such a great atmosphere”. He says that if a school meets his needs (a good rate, comfortable and stable working conditions), he also does his best for the school: “I represent this school with pleasure and I work for its good reputation”. Additionally, UY37 remembers how the recruitment policy in one of his previous schools had a motivating effect on him: I remember a time when I started to work in [name of a language school] and I remember that at the beginning they had given me eight hours before they checked with me. I had a feeling (…) What was going on? What hard requirements there are! But you know, it had a stimulating effect on you, you nearly felt singled out. But now, who don’t they employ there...?
It seems that six teachers attach importance to the issue of identification with an organization, which is mostly ignored by the schools. It emerges that four teachers who currently identify with their school feel greater job security, are more engaged in their work, and derive more satisfaction from it. UY37 states that: There [in state higher schools] they think about the people in terms of ten – twenty years, not in terms of a six-month course. That directly translates. People are not stupid, and know that if somebody organizes a meeting at the end of the school year and stands you a beer voucher or snacks (kanapeczki nadziewane na patyczku), that will make you really engaged. Those days are gone, few get caught like that.
Two teachers note that it is hard to identify with the schools which lay a strong emphasis on making money. This usually means that the organization pays little attention to teachers, or their needs and wellbeing. As stated by GH26: When I feel helped, I can identify with that [school] because I know that it works reciprocally: I give something and they give something, too. But in a company where all that really matters is making money, one can’t really identify with that.
Two other informants who do not identify with any schools now openly admit that they would like to feel such a bond, which is impossible, due to their schools’ management approach (cf. subsection 6.7.1.1. Organizational factors: Influencing school’s policies).
Technical conditions As to technical conditions on school premises, the interviewees indicate the availability of everything needed to run classes (a whiteboard, markers, a CD player) and, if they need anything, they know that they can contact the school administration. However, two participants report problems concerning equipment failure, i.e. out of order or unavailable audio-video equipment and photocopier, which, if urgently needed, is very stressful for the teachers. The teachers working on school premises do not have any major reservations 232
concerning school workspace arrangement or interior design, and four interviewees positively assess the physical environment. Only DF25 prefers a different desk arrangement in classrooms which would make her feel more secure, and she claims that she would have better contact with her students owing to that arrangement. The teachers who work off-school premises point to problems concerning the appropriate place to conduct their classes. LM30 and UY37 report having had classes in nonstandard surroundings, such as a restaurant, a company kitchen, or a storeroom, which makes both teaching and learning difficult due to noise, poor lighting and acoustics. These teachers felt stressed or embarrassed in this situation. Although LM30 says that: “I didn’t have a problem with that because I don’t take it very seriously or I accept it with humbleness. Well, the client decided and that’s it”, later she reveals that it is problematic after all: “But we are being disturbed and, secondly, it is a bit humiliating”. However, DF25 states that she has not had problems doing in-company courses, and she knows that if she needed anything, she could ask her school for help, which contributes to her sense of work comfort. Some teachers bring their own laptops to class, especially in companies. GH26 gave it up, however, as she developed back pain because of heavy bags. Now she – just like her colleagues – asks her in-company students to bring their laptops to class. Most teachers find the lighting and temperature in the rooms satisfactory, with the exception of the teachers working off-school premises, who sometimes have to work in rooms without daylight or that are poorly air-conditioned. As to the teachers’ room, it appears to be something that the teachers do need as this is the place where they can rest, eat something, prepare classes and discuss their problems with colleagues. “It is an oasis which I need”, remarked AE31. The following are indicated to be important in the teachers’ room: a well-stocked library, work desks, a couch, computers, photocopying/printing facilities, a coffee machine, a refrigerator, and tea and coffee. It is disconcerting for AE31 when it is evident that the school does not bother about providing these to teachers. Sometimes the room is too small for all the teachers gathered there. Additionally, the noise in this room and disorder in the school’s library are reported to have an impeding effect on teachers’ lesson preparation there, which may be a source of significant stress (frustration, irritation, anger). 6.7.2.2. Mental challenges
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This area as a source of negative emotions (stress) was indicated eighteen times, three times as a source of positive feelings, and ten times the discussed job demands were indicated as not constituting a problem (Table 6.6).
Table 6. 6. Mental challenges as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH2 6
JK27
LM3 0
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY3 7
RS42
work experience with adults
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
information processing
-
-
-
b-
memory-related: vocab / grammar items memory-related: work organization
0
- +
problem solving / decision making
-
Total
0
2 1
+ -
-
1 2
0- +
0
-
0
-
0
1 2
-
0
0
0+
0
- 0 3
+ -
1 2 1b 0 2
+ 0
1 2
0
1 2
-
-
+ 2 - 6 0 4 + 1 - 1 0 3 - 6 0 3
-
-
-
0
-
-
0
1 1
-
2
Total
-
3
4 1b
+ 3 - 18 0 10
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”, (b) before - in the previous school,
Information processing (thinking, understanding, explaining) RS43 claims that failing to understand a grammar nuance or having trouble with reading comprehension constitutes a source of stress for her, which she largely attributes to her age. Problems with explaining something (e.g. a grammar point) to their students have been revealed as stress-inducing by DF27 and LM30. Moreover, the capacity to think is heavily burdened while some interviewees are being observed by their methodologists. They report high levels of stress, which has a negative influence on their performance in class. Two of them admit that they are constantly preoccupied with the conviction that what they are doing is not right (cf. subsection 6.7.1.3. Conditions for professional development: Evaluation and feedback). JK27 says: I have these thoughts in my head that what I prepared, this lesson, and how I will execute it is (…) all wrong. That it is all wrong and I will be negatively assessed. And that this person [methodologist] will think “Oh my God, this is hopeless. What is this [the activity] for?’ (…) Before the class my hands are shaking and during the class too, which the students see (…). Later I am angry with myself because I
234
didn’t do something I had planned because of the stress. Because my hands are shaking, because I forget, because I am looking for some handouts or other papers I forgot [to distribute] before. (…) This stress has a terrible influence on me. I can’t cope in the situations when I am being evaluated.
Information processing is reported to be hindered by exhaustion caused by the teaching load, as indicated by two teachers. This entails difficulty in concentrating, losing one’s train of thought, inability to quickly answer a question, etc. RS43 admits that exhaustion did not use to be so influential on the quality of her work in the past as it is now: “Physical fatigue wasn’t as important as it is now. Now when I am tired I am simply not able to concentrate as [well as I could] in the past”.
Memory-related challenges Two subcategories of memory-related challenges emerge in the interviews: problems with retrieving knowledge (vocabulary and grammar items) and those related to work organization. As to retrieving knowledge, six interviewees find the inability to answer students’ questions concerning vocabulary items stressful, and they feel uncomfortable and embarrassed in this situation. The anxiety may be lower when the teacher perceives the word students ask about as not so important for the students’ level, or when it is a low frequency expression (jargon, slang, etc). Problems with retrieving vocabulary items are reported to intensify when the teachers are tired, or during a lesson observation, that is when the teacher feels stressed (cf. subsection 6.7.1.3. Conditions for professional development: Language competencies and subsection 6.7.1.4. Communication conditions: Evaluation and feedback). Five other interviewees, however, say that they either do not consider it to be a source of stress or are quite satisfied with their memory functioning in this respect. LM30 says that: “I even hear many compliments (…) that I remember such strange words”. When DF25’s memory is challenged, she feels excited and curious: “When I forget [a word] I can’t wait to go home and check it in a good dictionary”. All three male teachers have a relaxed attitude to recalling vocabulary as they believe that they are not “robots” or “walking encyclopedias”, they are humans who have the right to forget or not know something, which they think is obvious to their students. As IO32 states: “I think that in my case, with my work attitude I can behave like this. Even if I don’t know a word, it does not downgrade me in my students’ eyes”. Similarly, AE31 does not feel embarrassed in front of his students, and tells them: “It is not a shame to forget something. It is a shame to do nothing, to not learn, (…) and to envy other people because they know something and I don’t. That’s a shame”. Two interviewees believe that good lesson preparation prevents such incidents. Moreover, technology aids the 235
memory in the case of AE31, who also encourages his students to use good tools while learning. He himself benefits from a dictionary installed in his mobile phone, which he can quickly employ in class to check what is necessary. Remembering things-to-do at work does not pose a problem for the participants. They are able to successfully manage their tasks and remember their work duties. Only JK27 feels embarrassed when she forgets to do something she promised her students before. The teachers feel confident owing to their young age, or they aid their memory by using traditional or digital diaries to schedule and arrange professional tasks. AE31 is interested in new technologies, and says that he can “make use of it to the maximum so that it is easier to work”.
Problem solving and decision making There are three kinds of problems indicated by the interviewees that are to be solved and where decisions have to be taken. The first group comprises the problems and decisions that are related directly to students, i.e. interpersonal problems (dissatisfied students, group conflicts), irregular students’ attendance (which precludes teachers from the execution of prepared lesson plans), students’ level of proficiency (mixed ability groups), students’ promotion to courses at a higher level of proficiency. The second group of problems and decisions are connected with school procedures, i.e. inappropriate information flow (e.g. about the new course level, coursebooks), or unfamiliarity with the schools’ educational offer (and hence problems advising students on the profile of future courses). The third group is constituted by technical-organizational problems, i.e. an out of order photocopier or unavailable audio-video equipment, changing the date of a test, etc. More experienced teachers tend to make decisions and solve their problems on their own, and they do not usually feel very stressed in such situations as, having had a lot of practice, they can flexibly adjust to new or unexpected situations, or predict them beforehand. LM30 says that in the case of in-company classes, when it appears that there is no available room in which she could have her class, she has to think on her feet: Then I have to think fast, change the lesson a bit so there is not much writing because it is senseless. It is a bit stressful (…). In this job we have to have plan B and we have to quickly come up with the way out of the problem.
Younger teachers appear to be stressed by such problems, largely due to their inexperience, and also lack of experience in working for the school and not being familiar with its business offer, procedures and facilities. They have to seek help, and frequently 236
consult their methodologists or colleagues (cf. subsection 6.7.2.1. Socio-organization factors: Work responsibility).
6.7.2.3. Sensory challenges This area as a source of negative emotions (stress) was indicated three times, and two times the discussed job demands were indicated as not constituting a problem.
Table 6. 7. Sensory challenges as perceived by teachers of adults Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults visual
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
auditory
0
0
-
odour Total
0
2
Total
0
1 1
-
0
1 1
-
-
1
0
3 2
-
2
-
1
(-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”,
As presented in Table 6.7, sensory challenges do not constitute a major source of discomfort for the interviewed teachers. It appears that eyesight does not cause problems, with the exception of RS43, who has developed far-sightedness due to her age, as she believes. This causes difficulty in reading, especially when she is tired: “When I am tired I have problems reading the text from the coursebook. (…) My eyesight is poor. I can’t read easily, my eyes are strained. I have to straighten my glasses or rub my eyes”. For this reason she avoids working in the evenings. Voice projection and throat problems are not reported by the participants. Noise from outside and unpleasant smells are rarely a source of discomfort, and are indicated by only one interviewee.
6.7.3. Work-life interaction in teachers’ accounts 237
The evaluation of the impact of work on personal life and vice versa varies, and largely depends on the respondents’ age and their marital status. Table 6. 8. Work-life interaction in teachers’ accounts Teacher
BC25
DF25
GH26
JK27
LM30
AE31
IO32
NP34
UY37
RS42
work experience with adults work influence on life life influence on work
1.5
4
4
3
8
9
11
12
10
20
0
-
-
-
0
-+
-
-+
-
-
0
-+
0+
0
0
0
0
-
-
Total
0
2
+ -
1 2
+ 0
1 1 1
-
1
0
2
+ 0
1 1 1
0
1 1
+ 0
1 1 1
-
2
-
2
Total
+ 2 8 0 2 + 2 - 3 0 6 + 4 - 11 0 8
(+) source of positive emotions, (-) source of negative emotions, (0) neutral - reported as “not a problem”
Influence of work on life Eight interviewees reveal that work has a negative influence on their private life, while two of them also find a positive effect of their work on private life. Two teachers do not feel that their life after work is affected by work. The youngest interviewee, BC25, who is single, believes she has the right proportions of work to personal life, which is obtained owing to her flexible schedule. She does not see any negative influence of one on another at the moment. Heavy workload and limited free time cause exhaustion in private life, as reported by five participants. IO32 notes that his time off work is diminished because of the dispersed working hours throughout the whole day, with unnecessary breaks. In the summer, when the teachers have more free time, they feel much better. Only two teachers are currently satisfied with their schedule and their teaching workload, where one of them, LM30, says: “I feel comfortable at work at the moment” and, consequently, she does not feel tired after work. AE31 (single) admits that his personal life is limited because of his work life. Being younger, he thought his life would be similar to that of his parents’ life, who finished work at 3.30 pm. Later it turned out that working, as a student or as a teacher, consumed much more time than that, and his day normally finished at 8 pm. He describes a really hectic period of three years working and studying in different towns. He claims that he got used to working so 238
intensively and he is not so bothered by it any more. What brothers him, though, is the fact that he often cannot find time to meet friends. It is hard for him to refuse an invitation, especially from a friend who comes to Warsaw from another town. He also notes that not working these days does not mean that there is time off. It appears that most people are involved in self-development programmes after work, doing courses, and learning something new. But it must be added that, owing to the fact that he has to work so much, it makes him more disciplined and better organized. Three informants claim that their work has a constraining effect on their family life. For DF25 (married) her work is a source of frustration in her private life because, as she puts it, she “would like to function normally”. This is not possible, however, and she indicates her husband’s dissatisfaction, who says: “If you did not work so hard, or worked here, we would be able to function normally, because we could go here and there”. Although it is a good job for a young single person, in her opinion, she states that it is not a job for a person who has started a family because of the schedule and the financial instability (which is confirmed by four other interviewees). She believes that commitment to a relationship (getting married or having children) entails redefining priorities and modifying the attitude to work and work availability. Currently she sees that: “my work in the past [when she was single] is not the same work now” as she had to change the schedule, taking into account her new household chores. This kind of job was appreciated up to a certain moment in the past by another married interviewee, RS43, who, thanks to job flexibility, was able to design her schedule whereby she could easily organize her private life, especially looking after her child or planning holidays. However, she believes that it is not the right job for a single parent: “It is impossible to raise a child on the salary of a self-employed teacher. (…) One needs to do something more, and then it is evident that the family and the child suffer”. The problem of taking work emotions home is mentioned by four teachers (the three youngest participants and the oldest one). DF25, not wanting to worry her husband, who is also stressed by his work, tries to suppress her negative work feelings and to rationally rethink everything when she is home alone, as she thinks that venting her emotions in front of her husband could lead to an argument. JK27 keeps thinking about what happened at work, analyses it, and regrets that she cannot keep a distance from it. She says: “[When] something negative happens at work, I am thinking about it. I go home and I can’t forget about it. I am mulling over it, analyzing, so it indeed has an influence on me”. Her colleagues try to comfort her by saying that this distance will come with experience. GH26 is also learning to keep a 239
distance from her work problems, and indicates that her work mentally strained her at the beginning of her career: I felt really exploited in a sense, because I always had to have everything perfectly prepared, for each eventuality. That is why I was often nervous that I hadn’t prepared this or that, or that I wouldn’t know this or that.
RS43 also finds it hard to manage her emotions after work, including those which are caused by her students’ personal problems: “I, of course, worry about their problems and I am stressed because later [after class] I think about my students and I am upset”.
Influence of life on work When asked if personal life affects their work, six interviewees declared not feeling its excessive or negative influence. Only three teachers report negative emotions. Two of them (UY37 and RS43) have children, and one of them (DF25) got married recently. UY37 points to the fact that having children involves limited time for lesson preparation. Also, RS43 discloses that she has many family problems, which she places higher in the hierarchy of her priorities than work, and as a result they preoccupy her more in everyday life. DF25 notes that when she has personal problems she feels stressed. She remembers that when her husband suddenly had a minor health problem she was really worried: It happened so suddenly, it could have been the beginning of something [serious]. So I thought about it all day, what was happening. Now I know everything is ok. I was bearing up in class, I didn’t let it show that something was not right. I knew I had to finish (…) and then deal with what is most important to me.
In such situations she indicates that she works more slowly because she has many thoughts. It is as if “slow motion is on”, and she also finds it difficult to concentrate. Three teachers who are married often mention their spouses in the interview. They feel supported by their husbands, which has a positive influence on their wellbeing. Two husbands are a source of a lot of emotional support. For example, when DF25 has a problem, she has to “think it over with my husband and he always advises me to chill out. Otherwise [he tells me] I will soon die of a heart attack”. GH26 is sometimes nervous before her classes, feeling that she is not as perfectly prepared as she would like to be. When she discusses it with her husband he tells her: “Don’t worry. Your work is not so important, in the sense that people in fact come to have fun and learn something. And they will not evaluate your competencies in every respect”. That helps her to calm down and to distance herself. Finally, RS43, worried
240
about the level and security of her income, is partially reassured by her husband’s financial support, as he has a job and income they could fall back on. As to single teachers, NP34 confesses that her work is a kind of escape from personal problems. AE31 believes that who he is as a (private) person shapes his opinions, behaviour, which is projected in his class, his work attitude and professional conduct.
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CHAPTER SEVEN. STRESS AND BURNOUT IN POLISH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH - DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to bridge several gaps in the research on teacher stress and burnout. First, it aimed at including (English) language teachers in the mainstream research. Second, it attempted to deal with work-related factors more holistically, i.e. to encompass the job demands operating in teachers’ work settings that lead to burnout, as well as job resources, the lack of which may also trigger burnout. Furthermore, it sought to reveal the factors that contribute to stress and burnout in teachers of English working with various types of learners in Poland, with special attention given to teachers of adult learners. Finally, it investigated the differences in work conditions between teachers employed in state schools on permanent or fixed-term contracts and freelance teachers who work in private language schools. It was hoped that the findings would provide important insights from both theoretical and practical perspectives. The study results show that, on average, teachers of English in Poland do not feel very stressed, neither at work nor at home, and that they are quite satisfied with their work. More detailed analyses revealed interesting differences among those teachers with regard to work stress (differences in work satisfaction and private stress did not achieve statistical significance). An inverted U-shape relationship between teachers’ age as well as work experience and subjectively perceived level of stress was found. Specifically, the level of stress increases with age, from M=4.5 in the teachers below the age of 29, to M=5.01 in the teachers aged 30-39, reaching the highest level of 5.75 in the 40-49 age band, after which it decreases to the level of 3.54 in the teachers aged 50 or more. A similar tendency occurs with regard to work experience, i.e. from the level of M=4.55 in the teachers of less than 5 years of work experience, it increases to M=4.93 in the teachers of 6-10 years of experience. It further grows to M=4.98 for teachers with 11-15 years’ experience, and the level of stress reaches the peak of M=6.00 in the teachers of 16-20 years of experience, after which it decreases to M=4.22 in the teachers who have worked for 21 or more years. This is in line with the findings by Rauschenbach and Hertel (2011), who explain this tendency by the increasing amount of work (and home) responsibilities at certain life and professional phases. As well as this, interesting results were found with regard to the professional ranking system and the form of employment. It appears that teachers who are in the state professional ranking system are on average more stressed compared with teachers who are not. Also, those who have a 242
temporary or permanent job contract with their school report a higher level of work stress compared with freelance teachers. These findings suggest that, as noted by an interviewee at the qualitative stage, permanent job contracts might restrict some teachers’ autonomy, and may entail supervision and bureaucracy, which can be perceived by some teachers as stressful or frustrating. Finally, a moderate negative correlation was found between work stress and work satisfaction. Due to the study design, it cannot be concluded whether it is stress that decreases work satisfaction or work dissatisfaction that increases the perception of work stress in teachers of English. However, the present author is inclined to believe that the latter is true, where lack of job resources makes teachers feel dissatisfied, in the long run leading to frustration, a sense of helplessness, insignificance, insecurity, etc. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to investigate this relationship. According to the literature discussed in the theoretical part of this thesis, job resources foster employee’s work wellbeing, and the results of the current study confirm this. Conditions for professional development, such as the use and development of skills and knowledge, mentoring and advancement opportunities may contribute to work wellbeing by creating opportunities for individual growth and by enhancing professional efficacy. Correlation analyses confirm that the presence of conditions for professional development is quite strongly associated with work satisfaction (r= 0.55). If these conditions are negatively assessed by teachers, they tend to think about workplace change (r= -0.42) and profession change (r= -0.48). Additionally, lack of professional development conditions is most of all job resources and job demands associated with all burnout dimensions (exhaustion r= -0.54, disengagement r= -0.65, total burnout r= -0.64). These findings might help explain why some teachers are dissatisfied with their job and would like to leave their school or the profession, despite the relative job stability (in the case of state school teachers) and the not particularly stressful type of work (for experienced teachers). It becomes evident that teachers strive to be intellectually challenged throughout their careers. However, it should be borne in mind that developing one-for-all professional development programmes would not be justified as teachers of English constitute a highly heterogeneous group, where the specificity of work context involves different concerns. In terms of professional knowledge and skills, the quantitative study results show that one third of the respondents do not feel that they fully use their competencies at work. Only a minority feel insecure about the level of their English, but some more are concerned by it when they teach English for Specific Purposes. Many teachers (nearly 40%) declare that their studies did not prepare them to work with the age group they teach, and in the case of the 243
majority of teachers (89%) professional competencies have been developed hands-on over time. Almost all teachers feel that they know how to plan and execute a lesson, but this finding needs to be treated with caution because, as Wysocka (2003) showed, there may be a discrepancy between what teachers self-report and their actual performance. Most teachers see areas of professional development, and developing these areas would make them satisfied. It appears that teachers of higher school students assess their skills and knowledge best in the sample, while teachers of children under five and adults assess their skills and knowledge worst. This may be because, as emerges from the interviews, working with adults can be regarded as more difficult. Adults are very demanding students, compared with school children and adolescents, in terms of the knowledge and experience they bring to class, and for this reason teachers of adults may feel that their skills and knowledge are challenged (or insufficient) when dealing with adult learners. In particular, language competencies may be a source of distress if teachers’ perception and evaluation of these competencies is not favourable, or when they feel under pressure to prove their worth in front of adult students. Accordingly, teachers of adults are very concerned with the range and quality of their language competencies, and they are aware of the necessity to constantly upgrade their language - their most basic professional tool. As for didactic competencies, teachers of adults become confident after years of work, when they develop their own methods of work, largely by means of a trial-and-error approach. Beginning teachers of adults, if lucky, are assisted by a methodologist, or work on their own, trying to work out how to teach adults. This professional start seems to be very confusing and difficult after years of studying mainly about teaching children and having had teaching practice in primary and secondary schools, also working only with children. As to mentoring, 65% of respondents report no such opportunities. Teachers working with students aged 6-15 most in the sample feel they have such assistance, whereas those working with students aged 16-18 and children up to five feel they have assistance least in the sample. Also, some interviewed teachers report that in their schools there is a person (a methodologist or school owner) who helps them develop. However, this kind of assistance is usually reserved for the young and inexperienced, leaving more experienced teachers on their own. The findings from the quantitative stage show that 37% of respondents believe that teaching is a job “without prospects”. Specifically, freelance teachers and teachers of adults and children up to five are among those who see few promotion opportunities in their
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profession. Undeniably, the perception of this situation has an undesirable impact on teachers’ work attitude, especially of the experienced ones. Organizational conditions, such as autonomy in determining teachers’ schedules and work procedures, influence on school policies, participation in important decision-making, and work meaningfulness, as job resources may significantly contribute to teachers’ work wellbeing. Statistical analyses conducted for the current study show that organizational conditions are correlated with work stress (r= -0.33) and work satisfaction (r= 0.49) . Besides, teachers tend to think about career changes when organizational conditions do not satisfy them (workplace change r= -0.31, position change r= -0.23, profession change r= -0.32). Teachers are also more disengaged from work (r= -0.41) then exhausted (r= -0.35) when organizational conditions are assessed as unfavourable. This may indicate how important it is to grant teachers autonomy and to empower them at work in order to prevent and combat occupational stress and burnout. As regards work autonomy, teachers usually have freedom in determining work procedures, although autonomy in determining their work schedule is much more restricted. Specifically, the self-employed and teachers of adults enjoy the greatest freedom in determining schedules and work procedures, while teachers employed on a fixed-term or permanent contract basis and teachers of children up to five years old are rather limited in this domain. The data obtained at the qualitative stage give evidence that providing teachers with autonomy in determining their work schedule and work procedures may increase perceived work satisfaction as teachers can better adjust work to their life situation as well as to their students’ needs and expectations. If such freedom is provided, teachers feel that the school acknowledges their needs, trusts them and recognizes their professional competencies. Otherwise, the supervision or limitations imposed by schools are perceived as indicative of organizational disregard and distrust, and may lead to frustration and anxiety in teachers. Concerning organizational autonomy, around one quarter of teachers in the sample report having some influence on school policies/procedures and participation in important decision making. Teachers who have an indefinite-period contract and those who work with students aged 6-12 report having more impact on school decision-making. Conversely, teachers who have a commission or a specific task contract, and those who work with children up to 5 years old, indicate the lowest perceived influence within this aspect. As pointed out in the comments to the survey, some teachers in private language schools find it very stressful when they wish to introduce quality in their schools but their “fights” with school owners come to nothing. What is more, from the interviews it emerges that this willingness to have an 245
impact increases with experience, and if teachers keep being excluded from this process, they might gradually develop an attitude of distrust, indifference or cynicism towards their workplace. Finding meaningfulness in teaching is key to satisfaction for people who like teaching and want to – or have to – stay in this profession. The respondents from the quantitative study are moderately convinced that their work is important. “Other” teachers (e.g. English Philology PhD students) and teachers employed on commission contracts assess this aspect highest in the sample, while teachers who have a specific task or fixed term contract assess this aspect lowest. Moreover, teachers of higher school students and children under five rate this aspect highest, compared, e.g. with teachers of students aged 16-18, who rate it lowest in the sample. This might mean that teachers of higher school students and small children believe that they contribute a lot to their students’ lives. Probably they feel that they participate in shaping human beings (small children), or help them gain competencies that are vital in life (higher school students). Most interviewees think that their work is important, although they often feel that the teaching profession does not have an appropriately high status in society. It is notable that some of them try to make their work more important. This may either be a fully conscious process (the teacher for whom lack of tangible results was a big disadvantage of the job), which involves modifications of the perception of the job, or unconscious (the teachers who feel like psychologists or journalists in class), which requires broadening the scope of professional responsibility in order to make it more important. The next category of job resources, communication conditions, such as social support, social praise, feedback, and communication of job goals by the school, may have a significant impact on teachers’ wellbeing and work performance. Correlation analyses showed that communication conditions are moderately associated with burnout in teachers (disengagement r= -0.36, exhaustion r= -0.31, total burnout r= -0.37), which suggests that the worse the communication conditions are according to a teacher, the more disengaged and (emotionally) tired he/she might feel. Teachers’ work stress and work satisfaction are also moderately correlated with communication conditions (r= -0.25 and r= 0.30, respectively). Again, the causative path cannot be stated here, and it is not known whether poor communication conditions cause stress, burnout and dissatisfaction in teachers, or whether stress and burnout in teachers influences various aspects of teacher-environment communication. As to social support, the majority of the surveyed teachers report that they do not feel their boss’s or methodologist’s support. Notably, the qualitative study shows that the 246
perception of the quality and the scope of social support (instrumental and emotional) varies with teachers’ professional experience, and is particularly desired by beginning teachers. It appears that the school’s support plays an important role in all teachers’ everyday work. Since they are involved in direct and constant dealing with the school’s clients (students), they need technical (instrumental) support in order to effectively manage classes, and they feel comfortable when they know that there is somebody who can be contacted in case of any problems. Methodologists’ support is reported to play a very important role, especially at the beginning of the teaching career, when young teachers can obtain advice on lesson planning, resources and techniques. Moreover, there is evidence that more experienced teachers of adults expect emotional support from their methodologists at times of conflict with their students. Unfortunately, the study data, as well as comments to the survey, show that methodological support is lacking in many schools, or its quality is assessed as not satisfactory. This is not surprising, taking into account the fact that methodologists usually have the same academic background as other teachers, as indicated by the interviewees. Teachers seem to expect praise from school authorities and students when they feel that they deserve it because of the effort (physical or emotional) they put into their work. If this need is not fulfilled, they treat it as lack of appreciation and feel discouraged, which may result in their distancing themselves from what is regarded as not rewarding (i.e. work). It appears that the social praise that teachers of English receive is quite highly rated, where students are the main source of praise. The scores are highest in the group of teachers who have a commission contract and are self-employed; lowest in the group of teachers employed on a specific task contract. The data from the qualitative stage confirm this finding: the participants very positively assessed this aspect, indicated moderate or high levels of praise, mainly received from their students, and much less frequently from school authorities. Feedback, if positive, is perceived as praise, bringing about a lot of positive emotions, i.e. satisfaction, contentment and a sense of fulfillment. This may be a signal that teachers’ work makes sense, and hence it may prevent teacher burnout. Negative feedback, especially from students, is unavoidable at times and may be unpleasant and stressful, which can have a very negative influence on one’s morale. It is constructive feedback that makes a teacher aware of his/her strengths as well as weaknesses, and can therefore serve as a stimulus for further development. School methodologists need to be able to provide quality feedback, and teachers should be aware of its function. However, teachers in the study sample moderately assess the quality of the feedback, which is usually received from students, just like in the case of praise. This aspect is best assessed by self-employed teachers, and worst by teachers 247
employed on indefinite term contracts (and of “other” employment status). Teachers working with students aged 6-12 rate it most positively, compared with teachers of higher school students and students aged 16-18, who achieved the lowest scores. As discussed above, methodologists, who are the main – next to students – source of feedback for teachers, are not available in many schools, or they might not be considered professional enough to assess teachers’ work due to their lack of competence. The quality of teacher – school communication is an important factor in mutual relationships and contributes to the overall school atmosphere. If schools show interest in teachers, in their needs and opinions, if they communicate decisions, goals and expectations clearly, teachers working there experience more work satisfaction. Otherwise, a feeling of insignificance may emerge, which in turn can lead to the development of an indifferent or cynical attitude towards the school, its functioning, and its clients (students). It appears that around one third of teachers do not feel that schools clearly communicate what their expectations are. Teachers of the 6-12 student age group feel that their school communicates with them quite well, while teachers of higher school students and the 15-18 student age group tend to rate this aspect lowest in the sample. Economic conditions, such as salary, benefits, job security, financial incentives, and promotion increases, constitute the last category of job resources. This is a potential source of stimulation and motivation, but it can also breed great stress (frustration, anxiety). Apparently, their lack or perceived inadequacy creates a sense of insecurity and/or underestimation. Surprisingly, correlation analyses revealed that economic conditions are least strongly associated with perceived teachers’ work stress (r= -0.21), work satisfaction (r= 0.26) and private stress (r= -0.17) of all job resources. Also, economic conditions are only moderately correlated with burnout (disengagement r= -0.25, exhaustion r= -0.22, total burnout r= -0.25). This might mean that the economic aspect, albeit important, is not the most central factor for people working in this profession, while other aspects (such as lack of conditions for professional development) are more decisive in the evaluation of stress, dissatisfaction and burnout. Overall economic conditions are more favourably assessed by teachers who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) or “other” employment status as opposed to all freelance teachers, i.e. the self-employed, or those working on commission or specific task contracts. Besides, teachers of adults and children under five assess their overall economic conditions much worse than all other teachers in the sample. A more detailed analysis showed that the specific aspects that constitute these conditions vary across the groups. 248
It was revealed that self-employed teachers assessed their salary most favourably, whereas teachers who have a contract (fixed or indefinite period) assessed it least favourably, which is not surprising considering the fact that gross rates per hour are usually lower in the state sector, where teachers are employed on a fixed or permanent contract basis. Moreover, teachers who work with the 6-12 and 13-15 student age groups assess their basic salary better than teachers of adults and children under five. This result might seem counterintuitive, as teaching adults usually involves being self-employed and better rates but, as indicated by the interviewees, there is now a surplus of teachers in the adult teaching market, and this competition oftentimes results in decreased rates per hour offered by some private language schools. There is also less work for teachers of adults in the summer, which does not exempt them from paying taxes and social insurance contributions. The study does not find evidence of benefits, financial incentives or promotion increases in freelance teachers when compared with all other teachers, who assess these areas slightly better. Also, teachers working with students aged 6-18 report better conditions in terms of benefits, financial incentives or promotion increases. It is evident that freelancers working with adults receive nothing more on top of their basic salary and are not motivated in any way by employers to work better these days. On the contrary, interviewees report gradual decreases in their pay rates (per hour), which has a demotivating effect on these teachers. The level of perceived job security is at a moderate level across all groups, the highest being among teachers who have a contract (fixed-term or indefinite-period) and “other” employment status, compared with all freelance teachers. The greatest job security is enjoyed by teachers of the 6-15 student age group, and lowest by teachers of adults and children under five. As indicated by the participants at the qualitative stage, this problem involves both financial and workplace insecurity, i.e. teachers are guaranteed a workplace and pay only as long as a course lasts, usually for a few months, which does not mean that they will get courses in the future. Although in most cases teachers do get new courses and are able to earn their income, this situation poses a great strain on freelance teachers working with adults in the long run. They are tired of this situation and wish to have a more secure post with a more secure salary, which would be there for them, especially when they come back from holidays (the period during which they do not earn but have to pay social insurance contributions). On the whole, economic conditions do have an impact on teachers – some teachers think about changing their workplace, many of them remain in their schools and experience increasing levels of anxiety, frustration and dissatisfaction.
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Socio-organization factors, such as work conflict, work schedule, work responsibility, work atmosphere, and technical conditions, as job demands are considered to have an influence on occupational stress and burnout. Since all of them involve either physical strain or negative emotional arousal, they may lead to teachers’ ill-being. Correlation analyses show that overall socio-organizational factors are most strongly associated with teachers’ work ill-being of all other categories of job demands (work stress r=0.55, work satisfaction r= -0.39, private stress r= 0.17), career intentions (workplace change r= 0.35, position change r= 0.15, profession change r= 0.28), and burnout (disengagement r= 0.49, exhaustion r= 0.50, total burnout r= 0.53). Evidently, workload, time pressure, work conflicts and work atmosphere all contribute to teachers’ everyday stress. As a consequence, they are more and more physically and emotionally exhausted. In order to protect themselves teachers may create a distance from work and students, and consequently they are in danger of developing fully-blown burnout symptoms. The results of the quantitative study show that approximately one third of the respondents are not satisfied with their teaching load (which may be too much or not enough), or with the manner in which their classes are scheduled during the day. Besides, most teachers report being under constant time pressure. A poor work schedule (i.e. too much or not enough teaching work, lesson preparation, working hours, and time pressure in-between classes) appears to be the most pronounced source of stress in the teachers of adults in the qualitative study. This clearly contributes to their exhaustion, where physical exhaustion is reported to be accompanied by emotional exhaustion, which poses a threat to teachers’ wellbeing as well as their work performance. When they are tired they are more frustrated and irritable, which also has a direct influence on the quality of social interactions. Teachers, in order to minimize the strain and to defend themselves, might tend to limit contact with students physically and mentally - by distancing themselves from them and by failing to create empathetic relationships. The survey data demonstrate that students and superiors are the main sources of conflict in teachers’ work, though not too frequently. Hopefully, as indicated in the ECML study (Rádai, 2003), on the whole teachers of English do constitute a group of easy-going people who usually get on well with others. Interestingly, some small differences were observed among the groups. The data show that teachers employed on fixed and indefinite term contracts deal with more work conflict compared with all freelancers. This might be explained by the interview data, where it was found that freelance teachers, for fear of losing clients (and workplace), cannot get involved in conflict and have to solve such problems more 250
amicably or diplomatically (and hence indicate being involved in less conflict). Yet, interactions with adult students, including conflicts, do tend to be a source of considerable stress for teachers of adults, who are strongly preoccupied with students’ opinions and evaluations. Besides, as described by Martin (2011), adults are more demanding when it comes to the quality of a lesson – they can assess its usefulness and attractiveness, and express their dissatisfaction when their expectations are unmet. This is stressful for teachers because it may have serious consequences, i.e. dissatisfied students will not want to learn with that teacher or in that school. So they are aware that if their relations prove unsatisfactory, it may result in the school losing clients, which may in turn lead to them losing their job. The nature of interpersonal problems varies from participant to participant, although the differences related to age become evident. Younger (inexperienced) teachers face problems caused by their insufficient knowledge and skills in working with and handling adults, while experienced ones have practical knowledge and are able to successfully deal with their adult learners. Apparently, the approach in which teachers show empathy, tolerance and openness seems to allow for better understanding and, consequently, more effective dealing with the variety of backgrounds (personalities, needs, experience) brought by adult learners to class. Active engagement in dealing with interpersonal problems/conflicts, and not distancing themselves from them, may be a source of satisfaction or a feeling of self-efficacy brought about by overcoming the challenge. Some interviewed teachers assume that they know what adults need (because of their experience), which is important, but it can also be misleading and dangerous when they refuse to accept what their students are sometimes trying to communicate to them. That is why questioning teachers’ authority (by criticizing exercises or activities in class) may be interpreted as a slight to teachers’ reputation, leading to a feeling of being disrespected and unappreciated. Over one third of respondents report that the responsibility of keeping students in the school, and promoting and evaluating their students is a big strain. Teachers of adults and selfemployed teachers do not differ much from other teachers in this respect. On the other hand, teachers on specific task contracts report most strain with regard to work responsibility, as well as teachers of the 13-15 student age group. One quarter of the surveyed teachers would welcome more responsibility at work, and only a small minority think that their job is undemanding. Work responsibilities are not considered to be too demanding for the teachers from the qualitative study, and some of them believe that their work duties are in fact not challenging enough. It might seem that some teachers’ potential is not effectively managed because, regardless of their experience and personalities, teachers of adults have the same 251
work responsibilities. This may be unreasonable and a waste of the skills and knowledge gained with experience. The literature emphasizes that work underload is just as detrimental to work satisfaction as work overload, and may lead to boredom and routine in teaching (e.g. Grzegorzewska, 2006). However, it appears that more stress might arise when teachers have to meet the responsibilities which arise from perceived professional roles. The qualitative data show that teachers of adults are convinced that their roles expand far beyond the role of a mere knowledge transmitter. Again, the perception of sources of stress in this respect is highly individual, but a regularity concerning age emerges: younger teachers feel more negative emotions resulting from insufficient knowledge of how to execute the role of a motivator or a facilitator of the learning process. But it appears that being an evaluator of student progress may be stressful for teachers of adults, irrespective of their experience, and is considered to be subject to ambiguity arising from unclear rules, or conflict with teachers’ values (accurate and professional evaluation vs. keeping clients regardless of their progress). New roles, such as being a culture mediator, were indicated only once, by the youngest respondent, a recent graduate. The survey results show that, on average, teachers are moderately satisfied with the technical conditions in their workplaces, but it appears that staff rooms, and the availability of didactic resources and equipment are still not the norm in many schools. The qualitative study findings reveal that technical conditions do not significantly impact on teachers’ stress as they work in private companies, which are normally well-equipped in order to meet a certain standard and to satisfy school clients. Occasionally, teachers who work in private language schools are stressed because of faulty photocopiers or audio-video equipment, and their inability to make use of these in order to prepare and carry out a lesson creates a lot of frustration. This is probably caused by their fear that their professional image might suffer as students will not know the reasons why their teacher does not have the right equipment or materials, and may suspect that he/she has not prepared the lesson out of laziness. Similarly, teachers’ dignity may be at stake when the facilities do not meet basic standards (lessons run in a restaurant or company kitchen). On such occasions teachers feel disrespected, humiliated and embarrassed. Within the findings of work atmosphere, there is evidence of ineffective school policies and procedures, the perception of which varies according to work experience. Although, as revealed by the interviewed teachers, younger teachers do not notice malfunctioning practices, reflection concerning what is defective in the school comes with 252
experience. Some policies are considered to be unreasonable, ridiculous or intolerable (e.g. an inconsiderate system of allotting teachers with courses), which triggers a rather cynical attitude as teachers try to distance themselves from work emotionally. Furthermore, schools tend to disregard teachers’ need to belong to a school, which is a regrettable situation. If this need was recognized, there would be benefits for both parties: teachers would derive more satisfaction from work, and schools would get employees who represent them better in return. Instead, schools’ management policies often create the work atmosphere where many teachers feel insignificant and undervalued, and where their morale is reduced. The survey results show that work atmosphere is unfavourable for around one third of all teachers of English in various settings, who do not feel significant for the school and in fact feel objectified. Moreover, a majority of teachers indicate a need to belong to a school. It appears that fixedterm contract teachers rate this aspect most negatively, which might be because they know that their contract will expire, are anxious about their future, and are aware that they will soon be replaced. Mental challenges, such as memory-related, problem solving, decision making, and information processing (thinking, understanding, explaining), are under-researched in the literature on teachers’ stress and burnout. It was important to investigate these issues as they may constitute a significant job demand, contributing to emotional exhaustion. Indeed, correlation analysis revealed that mental challenges are associated with teachers’ work wellbeing (work stress r= 0.36, work satisfaction r= -0.30, private stress r= 0.16), burnout (disengagement r=0.45, exhaustion r=0.54, total burnout r=0.53) and, to a lesser extent, career intentions (workplace change r= 0.17, position change r= 0.19, profession change r= 0.26). These findings suggest that teaching is cognitively complex, stressful and emotionally challenging. Attempts to reveal differences among groups of teachers (distinguished according to the type of student and the type of contract) brought results only with regard to “explaining language issues”, and showed that teachers of children up to five feel most uncomfortable when they cannot explain a language issue to their students, while teachers of higher school students feel least uncomfortable. On the whole, retrieving knowledge from memory, especially vocabulary items, in class on students’ demand appears to be a problem for one third of teachers. It is probably caused by the fact that teachers’ range of vocabulary and its availability in class is believed (by teachers themselves) to be one of the indicators of teachers’ competence, lack of which may undermine their professional authority. Therefore, students asking for vocabulary (i.e. when a student discusses something and gets stuck with a word) may be stressful because 253
teachers may not know the word or may not remember it then. However, teachers are satisfied with their memory functioning as to managing their work tasks. Remembering work-related issues is not difficult for the teachers from the qualitative stage. As stated before, these teachers do not feel charged with too many obligations, and the range of their current work duties does not overwhelm their memory capacities. Solving problems and making decisions may be a source of stress in teaching. The survey results reveal that issues connected with schools’ procedures are problematic for more teachers, compared to those of solving problems of an interpersonal nature, problems related to unprepared students, or problems with irregular student attendance. The qualitative study shows that these may concern especially younger teachers, who have to face unfamiliarity with the measures and procedures operating within their school. Technical, organizational and interpersonal problems require a lot of creativity and flexibility, which usually comes with experience. Interestingly, some interviewed teachers indicated little decision-making involved in the job, as in the case of a limited range of work responsibility, and they would welcome a more high-powered job. As to information processing (i.e. understanding, thinking, explaining), the survey results show that understanding new language issues does not pose a problem for the majority of teachers. Thinking is hampered in the case of one quarter when teachers are tired. As for explaining new language (vocabulary or grammar) items, over half feel uncomfortable when they cannot explain something to their students. In particular, teachers of children up to five have the most considerable problems, which echoes the results obtained by Wysocka (2003), where it was found that kindergarten teachers used metalanguage to explain grammar points to children at that age. That is to say that these teachers may simply not know how to teach grammar to very young children, which causes strain. Within the qualitative findings on information processing there is evidence that this category of job demands is a source of stress for the youngest teachers and the oldest one. Most probably, inexperienced teachers have not yet developed effective explanation techniques due to their short work practice, and that is why they still sometimes struggle with explaining language issues. With time (and repetition) they gradually acquire more competence and also self-confidence. Consequently, their performance is improved and they do not feel so stressed later on in their careers. This category of mental strain is a source of stress of a different nature for the oldest teacher, who is affected by her occasional difficulty in absorbing information, for which she blames her age.
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Sensory challenges (noise, voice, smell, eyesight) are considered to be job demands in many workplaces. In this study they also showed statistically significant correlations with teachers’ stress (r= 0.30), satisfaction (r= -0.25), and burnout (disengagement r= 0.33, exhaustion r= 0.43, total burnout r=0.42). Moreover, a relatively strong relationship between sensory and mental challenges was found (r= 0.43), which implies that working in noisy and unpleasantly smelling conditions makes it difficult to think and concentrate, and contributes to teacher exhaustion. Teachers are probably also unwilling to maintain close relationships with their students under such circumstances. The quantitative study reports that almost every fourth teacher indicates problems with noise, which is fewer compared with the study by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010), where 63% of teachers assessed the level of noise as severe. Moreover, every fifth teacher (22%) in the sample declared problems with unpleasant smells. A smaller number of teachers declared problems with their voice (15%) and eyesight (7%). Teachers of the 13-15 student age group reported the greatest strain as to odour, while teachers of children up to five are most strained by noise. Presumably, teachers of adolescents, more than all other teachers, have to put up with the hygiene problems appearing around this age, whereas teachers of small children have to put up with their pupils’ extreme verbal expression. The qualitative data show that this category of job demands does not constitute a source of stress in freelance teachers of adults. There is an individual problem with the eyesight in the case of the oldest teacher (aged 43), for whom it plays an important role as she has to read course materials, check students’ homework, etc. Similarly, auditory and odour challenges are rather sporadic inconveniences, but which may influence teachers’ powers of concentration and, consequently, their work effectiveness. As to voice projection, it is not a source of discomfort to any teacher. This may be explained by the fact that these teachers are young, they work with small groups or individual learners, and they do not work with children, which frequently requires using the voice forcefully in order to be heard in a large class, or to maintain discipline. Physical environment can be a source of discomfort and be demanding because working in poor lighting and inappropriate temperature, as well as uncomfortable facilities, can lead to exhaustion. Indeed, physical environment challenges revealed correlations with work stress (r= 0.22), work satisfaction (r= -0.24), workplace change (r= 0.17), and burnout (disengagement r= 0.28, exhaustion r= 0.31, total burnout r= 0.32). It should come as no surprise that working in unpleasant-looking rooms, or cramped classrooms, where the temperature is too high or too low, may lead to exhaustion and unwillingness to engage in work in such conditions. 255
While the interviewees from the qualitative stage do not have major reservations in this respect, around every third teacher (30%) in the survey is not satisfied with the arrangement of the furniture in the classrooms, which is much more, compared with the study by Pyżalski and Merecz (2010), where 11% indicated working in such conditions. A similar proportion of teachers (31%) are not satisfied with the lighting and temperature in their classrooms, which is again more when compared with previous results, where 11% of teachers pointed out this problem (Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010). Work has an influence on teachers’ personal life, but it can also be affected by home life. Undeniably, work-life interaction can be a source of distress, which may have an immense impact on the quality of teaching. Correlation analyses revealed that work-life interaction is strongly associated with perceived work stress (r= 0.42), work satisfaction (r= 0.34) and burnout (r= 0.57), especially on the exhaustion dimension (r= 0.60). Apparently, teachers who work a lot and sacrifice more time to work are tired, and some of them probably feel guilty about not spending more time with their family or friends. Alternatively, they are exhausted by home obligations. As a result, their satisfaction with work suffers. The survey results show that every third teacher’s work negatively influences their private life. Further analyses show that the type of contract is significant for work-life interaction (the type of students teachers work with does not differentiate the groups). Work has the greatest influence on teachers who work on a commission contract basis, followed by the self-employed. Apparently, freelance teachers usually work anti-social hours, i.e. in the afternoons and evenings, when learners are free to do extra courses. The qualitative study results show that the proportions of work to life may be right, which may be obtained by adjusting the schedule. Work may have a negative effect on the family as well as social life, especially when work emotions are taken home. Conversely, (intensive) work may be a kind of escape from personal problems. Moreover, it is generally believed that although it is a good job for a young single person, it is less suitable for a person who has started a family (especially single parents), mainly due to the schedule and the financial instability. The study reports that teachers on average feel that their personal situation does not have much negative influence on their work, and self-employed teachers report the least influence, compared with all other teachers. However, family life and personal problems may have a strong influence on such teachers’ work, as reported by the interviewees, who may be very preoccupied with their family issues and find it hard to concentrate in class. But family (spouses, partners) may also be a source of emotional and financial support, which has a very positive effect on teachers’ work wellbeing. 256
Burnout is assumed to appear as a response to prolonged exposure to job demands and lack of job resources. The study finds evidence that absence of all job resources, especially lack of conditions for professional development, is strongly associated with burnout (exhaustion r= -0.54, disengagement r= -0.65, total burnout r= -0.64). Surprisingly, economic conditions are least strongly correlated with burnout of all job resources and job demands (exhaustion r= -0.22, disengagement r= -0.25, total burnout r= -0.25). The presence of job demands is also correlated with burnout, in particular socio-organization factors (exhaustion r= 0.50, disengagement r= 0.49, total burnout r= 0.53) and mental challenges (exhaustion r= 0.54, disengagement r= 0.45, total burnout r= 0.53). Finally, work-life interaction is also strongly associated with burnout, mainly in terms of the negative influence of work on home life, especially on the exhaustion dimension (exhaustion r= 0.60, disengagement r= 0.47, total burnout r= 0.57). Although there are many teachers characterized by an average level of burnout (37%), there are more teachers who indicated a higher level of burnout (33%) compared with those whose burnout is at a low level (30%), which might be a worrying result. Statistical analyses show that only the type of student teachers work with, and not the type of work contract, differentiates groups of teachers. It appears that the level of total burnout is highest in teachers of the 13-15 student age group and lowest in teachers working with students aged 6-12. Moreover, it appeared that teachers of adults are the teachers who are most of all disengaged from their work. These results are not surprising, as students aged 13-15 are at a very specific developmental stage, which often involves discipline problems and reduced interest in learning. On the other hand, work with children up to 12 is not as demanding in these terms, and working with small children must be important to their teachers. This is not always true for teachers of adults: they deal with demanding students but they do not attach much meaningfulness to what they do. Burnout is associated with various career intentions, especially those pertaining to intentions to leave the profession. The current study confirms that - relatively strong correlations between burnout and workplace change (r= 0.43) as well as profession change (r= 0.52) were found. Indeed, although the majority of teachers who participated in the study do not have intentions of making such changes, 34% of participants indicated a wish to change the workplace, 26% the profession, and 21% the position within the current workplace. It is remarkable that a quarter of teachers of English do not want to stay in the profession. More detailed analyses revealed the factors that are linked to these intentions. 257
Work stress is associated with intentions to change the workplace (r= 0.27) and the profession (r= 0.24). Only a weak relationship has been found with the intention to change the position (r=0.14). However, a much stronger correlation between work satisfaction and all career intentions was found in the study (the workplace r=-0.46, the position r=-0.25, the profession r=-0.47), which might mean that more emphasis should be put on building work satisfaction instead of merely reducing work stress. Statistical analyses show that teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and the profession showed a downward trend, i.e. with age teachers are less willing to think about professional changes. This is in line with the previous research on teachers’ intentions to leave the profession (Grzegorzewska, 2006), and can be explained by teachers’ gradual realization that they are - due to very specific competencies and lack of other skills - unemployable elsewhere. So they remain in their jobs. Some try to make sense of their work in this profession, while others stay because they have no other option. Some differences as to career intentions in teachers of different experience were observed. Teachers with up to five years’ experience most want to change the workplace, which may mean that after their initial years of work these teachers want to find more suitable work conditions. The willingness to change the profession is most pronounced in teachers with 6-10 years’ experience. Most likely, as indicated by the interviewees, some teachers, after having gained some experience, would like to diversify the range of their responsibilities and have a more high-powered job. Teaching may not provide many prospects to realize these ambitions, or the opportunities are not in line with teachers’ interests. Teachers who work in the countryside or small towns are least willing to change the workplace and the profession, compared with teachers from big towns, who are most willing to do so. It may be suspected that living in small communities involves fewer career prospects, while big towns attract ambitious individuals who wish to pursue a career. Alternatively, teachers from big towns compare themselves to other professionals (lawyers, business people, etc), whose work conditions and professional prospects may be much better. In both situations, when teachers’ ambitions are not fulfilled, or when the comparison is unfavourable, dissatisfaction with work gradually develops and results in teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and/or the profession. Teachers are less likely to make career changes when they have opportunities to be promoted within the professional status system. Teachers outside the professional grading system score high on intentions to change the workplace, the position, and the profession (with the exception of contractual teachers, who score highest on intentions to change the 258
profession). It would seem that this is a consequence of the fact that these are freelance teachers who are looking for a stable job, possibly in a state school or outside of teaching. Teachers of adults are among those who are most willing to change the profession, while teachers working with children up to five years old want to change the workplace most. This might be attributed to the unfavourable (unstable) work conditions, which have an influence on work satisfaction. It was revealed that teachers from the private sector are more willing to change the workplace and the profession. In particular, teachers working in language schools and kindergartens are most willing to change the workplace. These teachers probably see more job security offered by state schools or companies outside of teaching. Teachers working with higher school students and those working with children up to five think most about changing their position, which implies that they see more career prospects. Teachers working in language schools are most willing to change the profession. Moreover, freelancers are more willing to change the workplace and the profession, compared with teachers on permanent or fixed contracts. Again, as stated before, they might need more job security or a more satisfying position. Heavy workload is significant only for teachers’ intentions to change the workplace. Specifically, teachers who work over 41 hours per week most want to change the workplace, whereas those who work 21-30 hours per week want least to change, even less than those who work 11-20 hours or 10 (or fewer) hours per week. Apparently, the schedule of 21-30 hours per week may be associated with enough financial security and is not so exhausting. As to teacher seniority (years in the current school), the study finds evidence that teachers’ intentions to change the workplace and the profession decrease with the length of service in their current schools. This might be a sign of teachers’ adjustment to their work conditions, but also an indication of professional complacency. Finally, the study data allowed for creating a typology of teachers distinguished on the basis of perceived work stress, work satisfaction and private stress. Accordingly, five homogeneous groups of teachers emerged: Teachers affected by home life (27.3% of the sample) are characterized by a high level of personal stress, a higher than average level of work stress, and an average level of work satisfaction. They do not tend to think about changes in their careers, but they show the highest tendency in the sample in their willingness to change their position. These teachers feel rather exhausted and disengaged from their work (more exhausted than disengaged). In fact, burnout results position these teachers in second 259
place (after “distressed” teachers) of the most exhausted and disengaged teachers in the sample. Relaxed teachers (24% of the sample) are very satisfied with their work, and not stressed, either by work or by their private life situation. They are the least likely to make any career changes of all those in the sample. They are not affected by burnout their results are lowest in the sample. Challenged teachers (22% of the sample) are characterized by high work satisfaction and low private stress, but also by a higher than average level of work stress. They are unwilling to change their workplaces, positions or profession. These teachers indicate a low to average level of burnout, only slightly lower when compared with “unchallenged” teachers, and they appear to be more exhausted than disengaged from their work. Unchallenged teachers (15% of the sample) are stressed neither by work nor by private life, but they are rather unsatisfied with their work. They do not tend to think about changes in their careers. These teachers experience average levels of burnout and feel more disengaged than exhausted at work (compared with “challenged” teachers, who are more exhausted by work than disengaged). Distressed teachers (11% of the sample) are most stressed and least satisfied with their work among the whole sample, whose level of personal stress is relatively low. This is the only group of teachers who are likely to change the workplace and the profession, but they are rather unwilling to change the position. These teachers score highest on all burnout dimensions, where disengagement is higher than exhaustion (as opposed to teachers “affected by home life”, who also indicate a high level of burnout, but who score higher on the exhaustion dimension than on disengagement). This typology, derived from the study data, may have practical significance in providing evidence-based stress and burnout intervention strategies, as discussed next.
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CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS In conclusion it should be stated that the results of the current study contribute to the knowledge and understanding of teacher stress and burnout in a number of ways. First, the study reveals that job resources – a potential source of professional satisfaction and individual growth – appear to be available mainly to the youngest teachers, who are yet least willing to stay in the profession. In the case of more experienced teachers, job resources are much more limited, do not contribute a lot to their learning and development, and often constitute a source of frustration, anxiety, and cynical attitude towards work. This is a regrettable situation, inevitably leading to the emergence and development of occupational burnout symptoms, which may affect teachers’ wellbeing, social relations and work performance. Second, job demands, such as excessive workload, time pressure, difficult teacherstudent interactions, etc. – inherent features of the teaching profession – are also present in English teachers’ work settings. It is argued in the literature that the negative impact of job demands may be ameliorated by the presence of job resources. However, as discussed above, their availability is limited, and hence they can neutralize the strain brought about by job demands to a much lesser extent. Next, it becomes evident that teachers of English constitute a highly heterogeneous professional group. Therefore, it is clear that universal – one-for-all – interventions aimed at preventing or combating stress and burnout in teachers of English are not well-grounded. They should be more diversified, taking into account teachers’ age and experience, as well as the specificity of their work, such as student age group or the type of their employment status. It emerges that teachers of adults can no longer be neglected in the research work on occupational stress and burnout. In Poland they constitute a large group of professionals whose current work conditions strongly influence their work wellbeing and career intentions. The results show that they are the most disengaged from work (one of the burnout dimensions) and most want to change their profession of all teachers of English. This should not come as a surprise: they least favourably assess their salary, financial incentives, job security and advancement opportunities, despite the fact that they have the greatest autonomy in determining work procedures. Similarly, freelance teachers of English require more research and policy consideration. The findings show that teachers employed on commission contracts (umowa261
zlecenie) reveal the highest intention to change the workplace and the profession, and have the fewest advancement opportunities, in spite of having the lowest work stress in the sample, being least negatively affected by work conflicts and work responsibilities, and feeling the least negative influence of work on home life. Moreover, anti-stress and burnout interventions meant to reduce exhaustion only are far from complete. The study results show that it is disengagement from work that is a pronounced problem in many teachers, and mere relaxation will not improve this situation. For this reason strategies aimed at boosting teachers’ engagement are vital. Certainly, this goal is not easy to achieve, but the results obtained in the study may shed some light on this issue, suggesting that well thought-out, high quality lifelong teacher professional development plans (including development of knowledge and skills, promotion opportunities, chances for the assistance of a mentor at every professional stage) may be of paramount significance. As the existing system of teacher professional development does not encompass all the areas, largely excluding teachers of adults and freelancers, further and more inclusive research, as well as policy makers’ action, is required to address this matter. Finally, the typology of teachers obtained in this study allows the determination of the problem of stress and burnout, and the establishing of support with more precision. First, the fact that many teachers have parental/family responsibilities cannot be disregarded by employers, as home life does have an influence on many teachers’ work wellbeing, and it is essential that employers account for this fact in terms of suitable institutional support, flexibility in schedules, etc. Second, although a large group of teachers are currently happy with their work, effort to maintain this state (e.g. by means of job resources) is of great importance. Next, some teachers feel challenged by work, and that is why they need to be assisted with appropriate emotional and instrumental support, and given good feedback and praise for their achievements. Unchallenged teachers need to be stimulated, which could be achieved by giving them more responsibility or assigning them educational projects that would challenge them and give them more professional satisfaction. Finally, teachers who feel distressed with their work do require help, perhaps from a specialist. However, more research, testing the accuracy of this typology, is necessary. Should this prove to be valid, tools to diagnose teachers’ work wellbeing need to be developed. Several limitations of the study need to be considered. With regard to the qualitative stage, it is likely that the findings could be subject to other interpretations. Moreover, the data are by no means “objective facts” which can be generalized in the whole teaching population. As for the quantitative stage, some aspects of the study may raise concern, especially with 262
regard to the generalizability of the findings. Firstly, the Internet design of the study might have excluded some teachers, especially older ones, who are not used to working with the technology. Next, it is possible that teachers who are overworked did not find time to complete the questionnaire, which could lead to a response bias. The results, therefore, may be too positive, compared with the general population. Finally, teachers’ job demands and resources were operationalized based on existing theory, and have not been tested on other samples. However, as previous research concerning language teachers is lacking, this approach seemed to be most appropriate to explore the problem. Notwithstanding the limitations, the present study may have some important implications for future research and practice. First of all, as it goes beyond the previous prevailing line of study (limiting work wellbeing to the presence or absence of job demands), the study allows for better understanding of the contexts that can affect teachers’ work wellbeing and work performance. Secondly, it is hoped that the findings of this study will stimulate further research into burnout and engagement in teaching professionals. In particular, since the results are cross-sectional, it would be interesting to investigate the outcomes of the presence or lack of job resources over time in longitudinal and quasiexperimental studies. Finally, the study may be of practical importance. Hagger (2009) noted that interventions to prevent and combat stress should be tailored to specific groups since “generic behaviour-change interventions” (Hagger, 2009, p. 383) are only partially successful. In order to provide novel and innovative solutions aimed at preventing or reducing the problem, the phenomenon has to be explored and described. Accordingly, the present study has made an attempt to describe and explain the phenomena of stress and burnout in teachers of English, with special attention given to freelance teachers of adult students who work in private language schools in Poland, and the following is postulated: 1. concerning educational policy-makers
upgrading of the present professional development system for all teachers of English, i.e. building evidence-based programmes for lifelong development (of knowledge/skills, promotion opportunities, mentoring), not excluding freelance teachers and teachers of adults,
creating professional advancement schemes for teachers outside the state professional status system (i.e. freelance teachers and teachers of adults) that would be universally acknowledged, 263
taking steps to ensure more job security for freelance teachers, whose rights are currently under-protected,
2. concerning higher education institutions
providing pre-service teachers with the knowledge on the specificity of adult learning, and enabling teaching practice opportunities with adult learners,
organizing professional courses for in-service teachers of adults on interpersonal communication, psychology of adults, didactics in teaching adults, etc.,
keeping practitioners in touch with recent developments in research on applied linguistics, psychology of education, ICT, etc,
organization of language courses for in-service teachers (English language courses at C1/C2 levels),
3. concerning education service providers (schools)
motivating in-service teachers to work through a wider variety of job resources (not only by financial means), i.e. by developing skills and knowledge, providing horizontal and vertical promotion opportunities within the school, granting teachers more autonomy at work, giving them a voice in school decision making, showing more appreciation (praise) for their work, giving quality feedback, etc.,
applying varying models of mentoring throughout teachers’ careers, e.g. from collaborative for novice teachers (where decisions and solutions are found together), to reflexive / self-help-explorative for experienced teachers (where the teacher and the mentor are partners, interested in learning and development, and where the mentor also has opportunities to develop) (Kulińska, 2007, p. 214),
giving some experienced teachers new responsibilities that would boost their work satisfaction, such as responsibility for new teachers’ induction phase, engaging in teacher training, and mentoring or “buddy” systems for young/new teachers,
supporting teachers with family obligations, e.g. by creating parent-friendly schedules,
facilitating “challenged” teachers’ work by means of appropriate emotional and instrumental support, good feedback and praise for their achievements,
assistance for “distressed” teachers, e.g. cooperation with a specialist (psychologist),
4. concerning teachers
taking increased responsibility for their own lifelong professional development, 264
advancing careers by applying self-management strategies (cf. Pitura, 2012),
setting and pursuing meaningful and challenging professional goals which boost satisfaction (cf. Pitura, 2013). This is certainly not a comprehensive set of guidelines emerging from the study
findings. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the results will inform the design and implementation of intervention actions at various levels in order to prevent or reduce occupational stress and burnout in teachers of English working in Poland.
265
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1. 1. Stressful characteristics of work by T. Cox (Source: Cox, 2000, p. 68).............................. 14 Table 1. 2. The effects of stress by T. Cox (1980, p. 92)........................................................................ 39 Table 3.1. Annual gross salaries of full-time fully qualified teachers in state schools in 2011/12 and 2012/13 in Poland (Source: European Commission, 2012, p. 62; European Commission, 2013, p. 60) ............................................................................................................................................................... 89 Table 5. 1. Demographic and professional characteristics of study participants ............................... 121 Table 5. 2. Frequencies for work stress in the sample ........................................................................ 129 Table 5. 3. Frequencies for work satisfaction in the sample ............................................................... 130 Table 5. 4. Frequencies for private stress in the sample ..................................................................... 130 Table 5. 5. Teachers’ career intentions ............................................................................................... 131 Table 5. 6. Burnout sten score ranges in the sample ........................................................................... 132 Table 5. 7. Descriptive statistics of disengagement, exhaustion and total burnout in the sample ...... 132 Table 5. 8. Frequencies for the level of exhaustion in the sample ...................................................... 133 Table 5. 9. Frequencies for the level of disengagement in the sample ................................................ 133 Table 5. 10. Frequencies for the level of total burnout in the sample ................................................. 133 Table 5. 11. Organizational conditions (job resources) reported by teachers .................................... 134 Table 5. 12. Economic conditions (job resources) reported by teachers ............................................ 135 Table 5. 13. Professional development conditions (job resources) reported by teachers ................... 136 Table 5. 14. Communication conditions (job resources) reported by teachers................................... 137 Table 5. 15. Socio-organization factors (job demands) reported by teachers .................................... 138 Table 5. 16. Physical environment factors (job demands) reported by teachers ................................ 140 Table 5. 17. Mental challenges (job demands) reported by teachers.................................................. 140 Table 5. 18. Sensory challenges (job demands) reported by teachers ................................................ 141 Table 5. 19. Work – life interaction as indicated by teachers ............................................................. 142 Table 5. 20. Teachers’ work wellbeing by gender............................................................................... 144 Table 5. 21. Teachers’ work wellbeing by age .................................................................................... 145 Table 5. 22. Teachers’ work wellbeing by teaching experience (in years) ......................................... 146 Table 5. 23. Teachers’ work wellbeing by school location ................................................................. 146 Table 5. 24. Teachers’ work wellbeing by education .......................................................................... 147 Table 5. 25. Teachers’ work wellbeing by professional status............................................................ 147 Table 5. 26. Teachers’ work wellbeing by type of students ................................................................. 148 Table 5. 27. Teachers’ work wellbeing by type of school.................................................................... 149 Table 5. 28. Teachers’ work wellbeing by sector ................................................................................ 149 Table 5. 29. Teachers’ work wellbeing by type of contract ................................................................. 150 Table 5. 30. Teachers’ work wellbeing by weekly workload (in school hours)................................... 150 Table 5. 31. Teachers’ work wellbeing by seniority (years in current school) ................................... 151 Table 5. 32. Teachers’ work wellbeing by turnover (number of schools in a career) ......................... 151 Table 5. 33. Correlations of demographic and professional background with work wellbeing variables ............................................................................................................................................................. 152 Table 5. 34. Career intentions by gender ............................................................................................ 153 Table 5. 35. Career intentions by age ................................................................................................. 154 Table 5. 36. Career intentions by teaching experience (in years) ....................................................... 154 Table 5. 37. Career intentions by school location............................................................................... 155 281
Table 5. 38. Career intentions by education ....................................................................................... 156 Table 5. 39. Career intentions by professional status ......................................................................... 156 Table 5. 40. Career intentions by type of student ................................................................................ 157 Table 5. 41. Career intentions by type of school ................................................................................. 158 Table 5. 42. Career intentions by sector ............................................................................................. 158 Table 5. 43. Career intentions by type of contract .............................................................................. 159 Table 5. 44. Career intentions by weekly workload (in school hours) ................................................ 159 Table 5. 45. Career intentions by seniority (years in current school)................................................. 160 Table 5. 46. Career intentions by turnover (number of schools in career) ......................................... 160 Table 5. 47. Correlations of demographic, professional background and work wellbeing variables with career intentions .................................................................................................................................. 162 Table 5. 48. Organizational conditions by type of contract ................................................................ 164 Table 5. 49. Organizational conditions by type of student .................................................................. 164 Table 5. 50. Economic conditions by type of contract......................................................................... 166 Table 5. 51. Economic conditions by type of student........................................................................... 166 Table 5. 52. Professional development conditions by type of contract ............................................... 168 Table 5. 53. Professional development conditions by type of student ................................................. 168 Table 5. 54. Communication conditions by type of contract ............................................................... 169 Table 5. 55. Communication conditions by type of student ................................................................. 170 Table 5. 56. Correlations of work wellbeing and career intentions with job resources ..................... 171 Table 5. 57. Socio-organization factors by type of contract ............................................................... 173 Table 5. 58. Socio-organization factors by type of student ................................................................. 174 Table 5. 59. Physical environment factors by type of contract ........................................................... 175 Table 5. 60. Physical environment factors by type of student ............................................................. 175 Table 5. 61. Mental challenges by type of contract ............................................................................. 176 Table 5. 62. Mental challenges by type of student............................................................................... 177 Table 5. 63. Sensory challenges by type of contract ........................................................................... 178 Table 5. 64. Sensory challenges by type of student ............................................................................. 178 Table 5. 65. Correlations of work wellbeing and career intentions with job demands ....................... 180 Table 5. 66. Work – life interaction by type of contract ...................................................................... 181 Table 5. 67. Work – life interaction by type of student........................................................................ 181 Table 5. 68. Correlations of work-life interaction with work wellbeing, career intentions, job resources and job demands.................................................................................................................................. 182 Table 5. 69. Disengagement, exhaustion, and total burnout by type of contract ................................ 183 Table 5. 70. Disengagement, exhaustion, and total burnout by type of student .................................. 184 Table 5. 71. Correlations of burnout with work wellbeing, career intentions, job demands, job resources and work-life interaction..................................................................................................... 185 Table 5. 72. Types of teachers distinguished by perceived work well/ill-being .................................. 186 Table 6. 1. Organizational factors as perceived by teachers of adults ............................................... 198 Table 6. 2. Economic conditions as perceived by teachers of adults .................................................. 204 Table 6. 3. Conditions for professional development as perceived by teachers of adults ................... 208 Table 6. 4. Communication conditions as perceived by teachers of adults......................................... 214 Table 6. 5. Socio-organization factors as perceived by teachers of adults ......................................... 220 Table 6. 6. Mental challenges as perceived by teachers of adults ...................................................... 234 Table 6. 7. Sensory challenges as perceived by teachers of adults ..................................................... 237 282
Table 6. 8. Work-life interaction in teachers’ accounts ...................................................................... 238 Figure 1. 1. A stimulus-response model of stress (Cox, 1980, p. 4) ..................................................... 10 Figure 1. 2. A stimulus-based model of stress (Cox, 1980, p. 12) ........................................................ 10 Figure 1. 3. Conceptualizations of the relationship between stress and negative emotions (Author’s own elaboration. Source: Łosiak, 2008, p. 19) ...................................................................................... 13 Figure 1. 4. The ASSET model (Adapted; Source: Johnson, 2009, p. 176) ......................................... 22 Figure 1. 5. Burnout – engagement continuum according to Maslach and Leiter (Maslach and Leiter, 2008, p. 498).......................................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 1. 6. Burnout and engagement according to Schaufeli and Bakker (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004, p. 295).................................................................................................................................................... 33 Figure 4. 1. Visual model of the sequential explanatory study design (Creswell, 2003, p. 213)….117 Figure 5. 1. Conceptual framework for data collection .............................................................124 Figure 5. 2. Types of teachers distinguished by perceived work well/ill-being.................................. 186
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APPENDICES
Appendix A Interview protocol. Job demands, job resources and home-life interaction in freelance teachers of adults
1. Introduction aim of my research and the interview guarantee of anonymity request for sincere answers does the participant need further information before the interview begins? 2. Probing questions 1. What is occupational stress for you? 2. What emotions do you associate with stress? 3. How stressed are you this month on a 1-100 scale? 4. When were you last stressed? 5. Can you describe the situation? 6. How stressed were you then on a 1-100 scale? 7. What did you do in this situation to deal with this problem? 8. Do you think it solved the problem? 3. The researcher provides the definition of stress (negative emotions connected with work situations) 4. Discussion of key research themes I. Job demands: 1. Socio-organisation factors: work conflict (management, colleagues, students), workload (work schedule set by the school, teaching load, lesson preparation), work responsibility, work atmosphere, technical conditions, including teachers’ room. 2. Workload resulting from the teaching profession, e.g. students’ level of proficiency, group size, evaluating students’ progress, use of technology. 3. Mental challenges: information processing, memory-related challenges (vocabulary / structure recalling, learning new vocabulary and structures), problem solving, decision making. 4. Sensory challenges, i.e. voice, noise, eyesight, smell. 284
5. Physical Environment factors: spatial arrangement, interior design, physical agents (light, temperature). II. Job resources 6. Organizational Conditions: work meaningfulness, work autonomy (setting the schedule, working hours, methods of work), organization autonomy (influence on school policy, participation in school decision making). 7. Economic Conditions: pay (the level, getting the salary on time), job/financial security, benefits, financial incentives / bonuses, promotion increases, being self-employed, influence of economic conditions on work attitude. 8. Professional Development Conditions: use of skills and knowledge, development of skills and knowledge / professional updating, support from co-workers and superiors concerning factual knowledge, mentoring, professional advancement opportunities. 9. Communication Conditions: social support (from members inside and outside the organization), social praise (management, colleagues, students), feedback (management, colleagues, students), communication of job and organizational goals, colleagues’ conversations / behaviour in the teachers’ room 10. Work-life interaction 5. Are there any other stressful situations which we have not discussed so far? 6. Closing remarks.
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Appendix B Interview sheet
Name: Date: Age: Experience: Contact e-mail: 1. Socio-organization factors (job demands) a. Work conflict: management, colleagues, students b. Workload: work schedule set by the school, teaching load, lesson preparation c. Work responsibility d. Work atmosphere e. Technical conditions, including teachers’ room 2. Workload resulting from the teaching profession (job demands) e.g. students’ level of proficiency, group size, evaluating students’ progress, use of technology 3. Mental Challenges (job demands) a. Information processing: b. Memory-related challenges: vocabulary / structure recalling, learning new vocabulary and structures c. Problem solving d. Decision making 4. Sensory Challenges (job demands) Voice, noise, eyesight, smell 5. Physical Environment Factors (job demands) a. Spatial arrangement b. Interior design c. Physical agents: light, temperature 6. Organizational Conditions (job resources) a. Work meaningfulness b. Work autonomy: setting the schedule, working hours, methods of work c. Organizational autonomy: influence on school policy, participation in school decision making 286
7. Economic Conditions (job resources) a. Pay: the level, getting the salary on time b. Job/financial security c. Benefits d. Financial incentives / bonuses e. Promotion increases f. Being self-employed/freelance g. Influence of the economic conditions on work attitude 8. Professional Development Conditions (job resources) a. Use of skills and knowledge b. Development of skills and knowledge / professional updating c. Support from co-workers and superiors concerning factual knowledge d. Mentoring e. Professional advancement opportunities 9. Communication Conditions (job resources) a. Social support (from members inside and outside the organization) b. Social praise: management, colleagues, students d. Feedback; management, colleagues, students e. Communication of job and organizational goals f. Colleagues’ conversations / behaviour in the teachers’ room 10. Work-life interaction
287
Appendix C Interview transcript - extracts N = nauczyciel B= badacz (…) = niesłyszalne, szum * N: Aha, jeszcze frustrujące jest to, to też jest bardzo ważne, nigdy nie wiesz, ile zarobisz, to taka robota i myślałam, że mogę liczyć na, nie wiem, dwadzieścia procent odwołań z całego miesiąca, to i tak dwadzieścia procent myślałam to jest sporo, a tu nie. W wakacje, wiadomo, zarobi się 50-60% tego, co normalnie się powinno, to tak jest, ludzie są na urlopach. Ale w normalnym miesiącu wszystko zależy od ich pracy, i często nie jest to 20% tylko 30% i to trochę jest frustrujące. To też trzeba to zaakceptować i olewać i nie przeliczać, że o Jezu, dziś straciłam tyle i coś tam coś tam. Ale jest, jest, taka praca. No i jeszcze są oczywiście słuchacze, którzy nie zdają sobie sprawy z tego, bo nie mam limitów odwołań, nie ustalam, że mogą odwoływać do 20% na przykład, a za resztę musieliby płacić, wyrównywać, czy coś, bo też uważam, że nie ma to większego sensu. Raczej fajnie jest, jeśli słuchacz zdaje sobie sprawę z tego, że 50% odwołań to już jest dużo. I o jest mój stracony czas, zablokowane godziny, bo co innego, jak mi odwoła z wyprzedzeniem, a co innego, gdy odwoła dzień wcześniej, czyli ja zostaję bez pieniędzy. I to są, tak, takie minusy, największe. B: Czy kiedy pracowałaś w szkole, to czy byłaś bardziej chroniona przez szkołę? N: Na pewno. Ale to, że teraz mam większą stawkę, to mi to rekompensuje. B: Czy jeżeli chodzi o zakres twojej odpowiedzialności w pracy, to czy jest coś, co cię stresuje? N: Nie, bo mam takie fajne relacje z nimi, że nie. Jeśli chodzi o, od kiedy jestem na swoim to nie. Przejęłam obowiązki metodyków, więc stresujące, czy wkurzające może być to, że jakiś podręcznik się nie sprawdza, a wydawało się, że będzie, a sama musze to robić. I wtedy się kombinuje, czy robić go dalej, czy może zmieniać, i tutaj wydawać pieniądze, ale wolę wydać. Ja powiem szczerze, że ja dużo wydaję, kupuję im książeczki do czytania w ogóle, daję cały czas im. Mam niezłą bibliotekę nawet, ale lubię to. B: Czyli zakres twoich obowiązków wzrósł o marketing. N: No tak oczywiście (śmiech). B: A jeżeli chodzi o tamtą szkołę? W zakresie obowiązków, czy coś cię stresowało?
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N: Brak tej niezależności, tej wolności, to na pewno. Czasami jest fajnie, jeśli … Fajne jest to, że jeśli akurat jest jakiś trudny unit, dziwny unit, albo męczący unit, ileś tych lekcji było jakichś takich dziwnych, czy jakieś wyrażenia idiomatyczne, cokolwiek, fajnie jest zrobić sobie przerywnik, jakąś fajną lekcję jakąś zabawową, albo inteligentny topic kontrowersyjny do dyskusji czy coś, przypomnieć słuchaczom, po co oni się uczą, tak? Że nie tylko jakichś pierduł, tylko. Myślę, ze taki dobry lektor ma wyczucie i aha, trzeba im przypomnieć, bo już widzę, że się za długo męczyli. A w szkole nie było takich możliwości, bo trzeba było realizować program. Nie było czasu na to, żeby zrobić lekcji interesującej czy ciekawej, dyskusji ciekawej czy coś takiego. A to jest bardzo istotne, i też masę uczenia się. Także fajnie jest urozmaicić, mimo iż ja też realizuję podręczniki, bo uważam, że podręczniki są bardzo ważne. Z doświadczenia wiem, że same handouty się nie sprawdzają do końca, każdy z nas lubi wiedzieć dokąd zmierza, co będzie za miesiąc i nie są (…) tak naprawdę. I mieć z tyłu wytłumaczenie, w razie gdyby coś się zapomniało. A nawet jak prowadziłam nawet samemu kursy z handoutów to też one były efektywne, bo sama też testy robiłam, powtórki, ale myślę, że przyjemnie jest mieć i ćwiczeniówkę i podręcznik. I ją trochę urozmaicać. B: Czy odczuwasz jakiś dyskomfort w związku z warunkami technicznymi teraz, w tej chwili? N: Czasami, jeśli jest problem z rezerwacją jakiejś sali, to lekcja odbywa się w jakimś pomieszczeniu zastępczym, który nie do końca musi być super, ale w tej pracy mi się to rzadko zdarza. W poprzedniej pracy zdarzało mi się uczyć w kuchni, albo w schowku, to chyba każdemu się zdarzały takie sytuacje. B: A jak się z tym czułaś? N: Ja nie miałam z tym problemu, bo ja nie traktuję tego jakoś super serio, czy jakoś mam dużo pokory wobec sytuacji. No trudno, klient wybrał, ja nie mam z tym problemu. Myślę, że dużo osób może mieć. Bo jednak nam przeszkadzają, a po drugie, że jest to trochę upokarzające. Bo co jak co, ale jednak ten angielski jest gdzieś tam na samym końcu listy. Więc jeśli inne sale są potrzebne nagle, a nas wywalają i przenoszą do schowka, do kuchni, to ani tam warunków nie ma na pisanie słuchaczy, więc tylko sobie tam gadamy, ewentualnie. No tu trzeba oczywiście trochę kombinować, jak najszybciej, zmieniać trochę lekcję żeby tak dużo tego pisania nie było, bo to jest bezsens. To trochę jest stresujące, to w tej pracy jest stresujące. W tej pracy musi być plan B i musimy trochę kombinować. Dla mnie to nie był wielki problem, bo to taka praca była i taka firma była, która była bardzo luzacka, więc … Ale wyobrażam sobie, że gdybym miała więcej lat i była bardziej formalną taką osobą na poważnie, to by mi to przeszkadzało mocno. 289
B: Teraz bym chciała przejść do kwestii związanych z wymaganiami umysłowymi, czyli wymaganiami związanymi z zapamiętywaniem, przypominaniem, albo podejmowaniem decyzji. Czy tutaj jest coś co wywołuje u ciebie stres, czy negatywne emocje? N: Mogłabyś powtórzyć? B: Zapamiętywanie, przypominanie sobie, rozwiązywanie problemów pod presją czasu. N: Ale myślisz już o nauczaniu angielskiego konkretnie? B: Wymagania dotyczące twojej pracy, tylko że wymagania umysłowe. N: Generalnie nie mam z tym jakichś wielkich problemów, nie stresuję się, gdy nie mogę sobie czegoś przypomnieć na przykład jakoś tak przesadnie. To jeszcze zależy od klienta, bo jeden klient, bo przy jednym kliencie można się bardziej stresować, bo może mu się wdawać, że my musimy zawsze wszystko pamiętać. Ale ja jakoś … No cóż, czasami się po prostu nie pamięta. I to się zdarza często. Zależy jeszcze na jakimś poziomie, ale zawsze się w sumie może zdarzyć. I dziwne pytania padają i trzeba to zaakceptować po prostu. Także ja myślę, że każdy ma już jakąś metodę na to, czy wraca do tych słówek czy nie, na następnej lekcji po sprawdzeniu. Czasem się wraca, też moim zdaniem jeśli słówko jest potrzebne, pożyteczne lub jeśli wiem, że klient tego oczekuje. No, czasem się nie wraca i (…) B: Teraz cię to mniej stresuje, tak? N: Trochę stresuje, to zależy. Jeśli na jednej lekcji trafiłoby się kilka takich słówek, to by mnie zestresowało bardzo, na pewno. Ale jeśli jedno, pojedyncze, i to jeszcze jest to do tego tzw. Słówko od czapy, to nie (śmiech). Ale na szczęście nie mam wielkiego problemu z przypominaniem sobie. Nawet ta pamięć jest ok. (śmiech). Nawet słyszę dużo komplementów, że jak ja to robię, że ja pamiętam jakieś dziwne słowa. No, ale (śmiech). B: Czy musisz podejmować jakieś decyzje? N: Z czym związane? B: Związane z prowadzeniem działalności, z pracą, z przygotowywaniem się. N: Oczywiście, dużo decyzji, bo … Pierwszy, wybór podręcznika kursu, jak ten kurs, czy lecimy tylko z książki, podręcznika, czy go wzbogacamy. O co. Różnie wzbogacam. Mam na przykład, jeśli uczę ludzi od finansów, a tak uczę teraz, to z niektórymi łączę general English z jakimiś finansowymi kwestiami. Robimy dwie rzeczy na raz. Biznesowe kursy to … dużo decyzji. Nie chcę, żeby to było zbyt męczące. Biznesowe kursy są tak szalenie nudne, nawet napisany fajnie podręcznik w pewnym momencie męczy. Ile można. Druga rzecz, która jest stresująca, o i to jest stresujące. Jak uczymy kursy specjalistyczne, nie mamy odpowiedniej wiedzy, odpowiednich kwalifikacji do tego najczęściej. I to jest frustrujące, że właśnie się nie wie, czy ten ktoś… Ja jestem taką osobą, która przyznaje się do tego, że nie wiem, bardzo 290
często, bardzo dużo w ogóle też. Nigdy bym nie powiedziała, że coś jest tak, jakbym nie była przekonana. Myślę, że to sprawia, że mi ufają bardziej. Że jeśli coś powiem, to raczej tak jest. Ale frustrujące jest to, że czasami są jakieś braki w wiedzy ekonomicznej na przykład, nie studiowałam nigdy ekonomii. I tutaj nie wiem, jak jestem postrzegana przez mojego klienta na wysokim stanowisku na przykład, który na którym ma niesamowitą wiedzę. Próbuję się za bardzo nie zagłębiać w to, bo to by było frustrujące. Niestety, nie można wiedzieć wszystkiego. Niemniej zawsze staram się wiedzieć jak najwięcej. Zdecydowałam się specjalizować w kierunku finansowym angielskiego, więc to… Tutaj już sama staram się sama uzupełniać swoją wiedzę. Nie wybieram się na studia, aczkolwiek myślałam o tym, ale się jednak nie wybiorę, nie mam ochoty. B: A jeżeli chodzi o rozwiązywanie problemów? N: Jakich? B: Ogólnie, związanych z pracą na zajęciach (…) N: Nie mam takich sytuacji. B: Ewentualnie problemów na zajęciach. N: Ewentualnie problemów na zajęciach. Przez osiem lat pracy już się człowiek przyzwyczaił do tego, że zdarzają się różne niespodzianki. Typu na przykład umówiliśmy się na test, który ma trwać na przykład pół lekcji i słuchacz stwierdza, że jednak nie chce tego testu pisać. No i co? Trzeba mieć zawsze coś w zanadrzu, żeby ta lekcja się odbyła dziewiećdziesięcio minutowa, a nie pięćdziesięcio minutowa. Czyli … więc już nie stresują mnie takie sytuacje, bo jestem przygotowana raczej i przewiduję problemy, które mogą się wydarzyć. To jest stresujące, jak nagle się dowiaduję, że sala, w której mamy lekcję ma głośniki, a ja tych głośników maiłabym nie mieć, na przykład a chcę zrobić. Ale też już tutaj sobie wymyśliłam, że ok., ale mam słuchawki . I wtedy są słuchawki, nawet jeśli dwie osoby muszą słuchać z tych samych słuchawek. No, przewidywanie problemów zmniejsza stres. B: I plan B, tak jak już powiedziałaś. N: No i plan B. B: A co z wymaganiami zmysłowymi, czyli na przykład czy odczuwasz komfort związany z hałasem, zmysłem słuchu, wzroku? N: W obecnej sytuacji to nie. B: A poprzednio? N: Wiadomo, że warunki, w których pracujemy wyglądają… To znaczy to jest tak, że sale są bez światła dziennego. Tak, albo jest zbyt gorąco, albo zbyt zimno, coś tam szwankuje. Tak było w szkołach i niektórych firmach, różnie bywa. Bo te sale… ci ludzie przychodzą na 291
półtorej godziny a my na ileś tam godzin i te sale są rzeczywiście na krótkie spotkania, a nie na cały dzień. Sala bez światła dziennego jest trochę przykra. Ale nie myślę o tym za dużo, więc staram się, żeby to nie było problemem. A że takie warunki są. B: Mam pytanie dotyczące warunków organizacji. Jak uważasz, jak znacząca jest dla ciebie twoja praca? I to, co robisz, jak to jest dla ciebie znaczące, ważne dla ciebie to, co robisz? N: Czy moja praca jest dla mnie ważna? B: To, co robisz, te ćwiczenia, twoja praca, to co robisz ma dla ciebie znaczenie? N: Ma, jestem chyba fuksiarą, przez to, ze jestem na swoim powiem szczerze. Jakoż udało się, że zupełnie nie musiałam ubiegać się o klienta. Nawet to, że z jednego zrezygnowałam też jest jakoś… załatwiłam mu kogoś innego. Jest to podbudowujące. Dla mnie ta praca jest… fajna, lubię ją, nie jest to moja pasja, ale pasją jest… dla mnie najprzyjemniejszą częścią tej pracy jest rozmowa z ludźmi. Jest to trochę połączenie ja zawsze mówię, połączenie pracy psychologa i pracy dziennikarza i te kontakty sprawiają, że ta praca jest interesująca, to że można się polubić naprawdę tak prawdziwe, bo ja też tak… Lubię fajne relacje… Wiadomo, że pewnych granic nie można przekraczać. Te granice czasami są przekraczane, chcąc nie chcąc, bo słuchacze są też tylko ludźmi i też czasami mają słabszy dzień. No, ale to też trzeba umieć się odnaleźć w tej sytuacji. Wracając, czasami mam wrażenie, ok., to może być bardzo głupie, ale mam wrażenie, że można tym ludziom jakoś autentycznie pomóc, przez to, że można to jest trochę taka praca psychologa, że jeśli mają słabszy dzień można im coś powiedzieć, zrobić, coś co poprawi im trochę humor, coś doradzić nawet. Także to … no… to jest fajne. W ogóle, poznawanie drugiego człowieka. Ja bardzo lubię te dyskusje robić, lubię te lekcje bo są interesujące. Nawet na tych niskich poziomach też coś tam zawsze kombinuje. Wiadomo, że język jest jeszcze bardzo prosty. A, i nie mam problemu z tym że na niskich poziomach nie można w ogóle polskiego używać. Ja używam, jak trzeba, to używam i myślę, że zdejmuje to trochę stresu z tych ludzi, że wiedzą, że mogą wyrazić to po polsku. I zdarzają się sytuacje, że jak bardzo chcą coś powiedzieć nie wiedzą jak, powiedzą mi, ja im to upraszczam po polsku i mówią po angielsku. I to też jest, moim zdaniem, w porządku. No, także poziomami typu elementary… Oczywiście, ze tego angielskiego jest bardzo dużo, cały podręcznik muszę… Ale ja nie wiem, trochę polskiego też używam i… Także tak. * B: Chciałam cię zapytać o rozwój twój. Powiedziałaś, że twoje kompetencje w zakresie wiedzy specjalistycznej są źródłem stresu (…) w rozwoju. Czy tutaj jest coś dla ciebie źródłem stresu? (…) czy czujesz, że tutaj potrzebujesz jakieś dokwalifikownia się?
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N: Jeśli chodzi o general English, to już chyba nie, bo nie mam tego problemu z ocenieniem poziomu, może jest to bardziej precyzyjne dzięki [szkoła językowa]. Ale już w obrębie poziomów standardowych jestem w stanie ocenić to. Także jeśli chodzi o general English to nie. Tylko ten specjalistyczny, to tak. Wiadomo, że ten specjalistyczny, to ja dopiero się douczę, więc zbieram wiedzę. To mnie póki co tak strasznie nie frustruje, bo też jestem otwarta i mówię o tym, że ja też się uczę. Ale jestem otwarta na wiedzę. No i też fajnie…, mnożna też to przedstawić…, że ci słuchacz też tę wiedzę przekazuje, ćwicząc te słówka, opowiada, jak to działa w praktyce. No, więc nie, ale może być problem stresujący, bo nie da się wszystkiego wiedzieć. A to jest olbrzymia działka. B: Czujesz, że w tej sytuacji przydałby ci się jakiś mentor? N: Przydałyby się studia podyplomowe może. Z dziedziny niekoniecznie ekonomii może, bo ekonomia jest za duża. Zresztą jeśli chodzi o wiedzę, to ja sporo wiem też, i czytam, jestem ogarnięta w tym wszystkim. Ale jeśli chodzi o akty prawne, czy pojęcia ekonomiczne, no to nie wszystko jest usystematyzowane i są luki. Jeśli taka luka wyjdzie na przykład na zajęciach, nawet zdaję sobie sprawę, że przeciętny człowiek nie ma pojęcia na ten temat, no to może być stresujące, bo wiadomo, że jesteśmy autorytetem, więc nie chciałoby się odsłaniać wszystkich swoich luk, tak? Bo to może być stresujące, że nie chce się, żeby ten autorytet ucierpiał. Nawet jeśli to nie jest nasza działka. B: A czy… no teraz to jest to zupełnie inna sytuacja, ale kiedy pracowałaś w szkole, to czy miałaś takie poczucie, że możesz rozwijać się zawodowo, piąć się po szczeblach organizacyjnych. Czy mogłaś awansować? N: Nie, ja nie mogłam awansować. * B: A czy feedback był dla ciebie źródłem negatywnych emocji? Feedback od strony management, koleżanek… N: Oczywiście, wciąż mnie bardzo cieszy. Nawet jeśli w poprzedniej pracy słyszałam właściwie… pozytywne, słyszałam komplementy cały czas, to i tak to było miłe. Obecnie w tej pracy jest to trochę inna grupa ludzi, troszeczkę są starsi, są też managerowie, itd., więc tych pochwał tak dużo nie ma, ale jak są, to jest to bardzo, bardzo, bardzo miłe. Nie muszą to być takie (…) pochwały. Widać jeśli ktoś się cieszy na twój widok i strasznie chce mieć lekcje i w ogóle mówi, że lubi te lekcje z tobą itd., a to mówią bardzo często. Nie musi to być pochwała naprawdę profesjonalna, bo ty tak świetnie tłumaczysz czy uczysz, bo ty masz taką wiedzę, czy coś tam. Taka, że lekcje są… i lubią, lubią je mieć, no to bardzo miłe. Zawsze. I bardzo motywujące. Jakby tego zabrakło, to by satysfakcja z pracy spadłaby bardzo. 293
B: Jeszcze chciałabym wrócić do awansu zawodowego, (…) jak widzisz swój awans zawodowy? Czym to w ogóle dla ciebie jest? N: Nie widzę (śmiech). B: Jest to dla ciebie jakiś problem? N: Nie wiem. Nie wiem, bo ja na razie…, nie wiem jak…
Jestem takim lektorem
poszukującym troszeczkę i ja na przykład mam też jakieś hobby, które może kiedyś dochodowym się zrobi. Gdyby nie to hobby, może by to było bardziej frustrujące, to że ta praca jest bez perspektyw. Można się oczywiście specjalizować, ale to wszystko sprowadza się do tego samego. Gdyby nie ta pasja i liczne zainteresowania, to myślę, że mogłoby mnie to frustrować. Czasem frustruje. Jak przerywam na przykład pracę nad projektem, to zaczyna frustrować, jak więc dobrze jest mieć obie rzeczy. B: Teraz chciałam się zapytać o relacje pracy z życiem zawodowym, czy jedno wpływa na drugie w jakiś sposób. N: Jakbym miała dzieci i rodzinę, to myślę, że było nie za ciekawie, pod wieloma względami, pod takimi, że oczekuje się od nas, że będziemy pracować bardzo wcześnie lub po godzinach pracy B: Czyli (…), tak? N: Tak. Ja na szczęście z tymi ludźmi, których uczę, a są to managerowie, to oni mogą sobie pozwolić, na lekcję angielskiego w godzinach pracy czasami. Czasami sobie nie mogą, przez to często spora elastyczność i zmiana w moim grafiku. Ale jednak wolę to, niż gdybym miała codziennie kończyć pracę o 19, 20 czy 21. Obecnie kończę pracę o 18.30 dwa razy w tygodniu, tylko. A tak to pracuję od rana do południa, popołudnia, i tak dalej, więc grafik jest świetny. Ale wiadomo, że to jest chwilowo. Godziny pracy są straszne. Normalnie jak pracowałam w [szkoła językowa], gdzie godziny pracy były straszne, w zależności od tego, kto grafik ustalał, absurdalne było zaczynać jednego dnia o 7, kończyć o 21, a zaczynać następnego dnia o 7. Ja nie wiem, kto to miał wykonywać i co miał robić w środku dnia – jechać do domu, nie jechać do domu, przecież trzeba było coś przygotować. I w ogóle bardzo męcząca praca, jeśli się nie ma wpływu na swój grafik. Chwilowo jest ok., ale to chwilowo jest ok. B: Czyli jakby w tej chwili wpływ pracy… prywatnie nie jesteś zmęczona, tak, taki jest wpływ? N: Obecnie nie czuję się zmęczona prywatnie. Obecnie mam tak ustawione, że mam tego czasu wolnego sporo. I to że dwa razy w tygodniu kończę o 18.30 tak strasznie mi nie przeszkadza, bo trzy razy w tygodniu kończę znacznie wcześniej. Ja też nie pracuję tak 294
strasznie dużo, bo mam 27 godzin w tygodniu. Tylko. Z tego zawsze coś wypadnie. Mam duży komfort w pracy w tym momencie. B: A odwrotnie, czy twoje życie prywatne ma jakiś wpływ na twoje życie zawodowe? N: Ja nie mam za bardzo życia prywatnego (śmiech). B: Wspominałaś o swoich licznych zainteresowaniach (…) N: Nie… Czy mi coś przychodzi do głowy? Nie, tak jak każda praca ma swoje minusy odnośnie tego grafiku właśnie, ale poza tym jest chyba więcej plusów. Nie ma tam wielu… Nie ma to wielkiego wpływu. Wiadomo, że te lekcje trzeba przygotować kiedyś i czasami się je przygotowuje późno i pracuje się w domu późno, gdzie już normalnie człowiek ma wolne. Ale oprócz tego, to nie, nie. B: A czy twoja praca jest jakby… czy realizujesz się sama w pracy? N: Ja się realizuję w pracy. Ja się osobiście realizuję pracy, tylko że ja miałabym większe ambicje kiedyś. Więc… B: Z czymś, co jest związane z nauczaniem? N: Nie jest to związane z nauczaniem. Przez to, że ta praca jest taka mało rozwojowa i tak mało wymagająca od nas, można poszukiwać sobie na ślepo jakąś tam drogę rozwoju czy drogę kariery, ale jak się widzi, że najczęściej osoby, które się takiej drogi podjęły, nie są w stanie wykorzystać wymiernie tej nowo nabytej wiedzy, no to zniechęca. Niestety, frustrujące jest to, że jest to praca bez perspektyw a też trochę niepewne… Też to, że… frustrujące jest to, że tak dużo młodych ludzi fantastycznie mówi już po angielsku, zna ten angielski świetnie. Wiem, że ta praca…, że my będziemy cały czas potrzebni, ale jeżeli oni znają świetnie, to nie możemy znać jeszcze lepiej, bo my też możemy znać świetnie. Chodzi mi, że pewnych rzeczy się nie przeskoczy. Po prostu. Jak uczysz kogoś na C2 to (…) oczywiście ty pewnie wiesz trochę więcej niż ta osoba, ale ta osoba też cię zaskoczy swoją wiedzą czasami i słówkami, które ona ma akurat w swoim słowniku. Więc to może być frustrujące trochę, że jesteśmy takimi specjalistami, ale ta specjalizacja jest ogólnodostępna. I dlatego przez to też nie jest taka doceniana. B: Wcześniej rozmawiałyśmy o rzeczach, które cię stresują, są źródłem negatywnych emocji (…). Powiedziałaś, że stawka cię motywuję i pozytywne nastawienie twoich słuchaczy. No i oczywiście grafik. Czy są jakieś inne rzecz, które cię stymulują, motywują do pracy w tej chwili? N: Nie, to chyba wszystko. To są najważniejsze rzeczy. Oczywiście postępy moich słuchaczy mnie motywują (śmiech). To jest bezsprzecznie. Jak widzę, że się uczą, że chcą, to jest bardzo motywujące, to jest cała esencja nauczania. Gdyby nie to, to by był bezsens tan naprawdę, 295
więc… Dlatego staram się ich motywować i zachęcać do oglądania, czytania, daję im coś do obejrzenia czy do przeczytania, żeby widzieć, że nawet jeżeli te postępy nie są tak strasznie widoczne, to wiadomo, że zależy to jeszcze od poziomu, one muszą być. Jak ich nie ma, to każdy zaczyna widzieć bezsens tej pracy. Szczerze, to nawet… ostatnio się nad tym zastanawiałam, o, bo to jest jeszcze frustrujące, tak jak mówiłam o tej granicy, że ta granica relacji międzyludzkich, biznesowych takich trochę klient i lektor, słuchacz-lektor czasami jest przekraczana. I jeśli jest ona przekraczana od czasu do czasu to nie ma w tym niczego złego. Gorzej, jeśli ktoś się chce z tobą strasznie zaprzyjaźnić na przykład. I nawet widać, ze tej osobie brakuje przyjaciela czy przyjaciółki w życiu prywatnym i oczekuje od ciebie właśnie pogawędki, tak? Pogawędki w języku angielskim, to jeszcze pal licho, ale jeśli przerzuca się ta osoba z angielskiego na polski, bo ta osoba chce coś bardzo szybko cos powiedzieć, bo ma wrażenie, że spotkała się przy kawie. To się zdarza głównie przy korepetycjach czy takich mniej formalnych zajęciach. Zastanawiałam się właśnie ostatnio, czy mam prawo nie chcieć uczyć takiej osoby, nie chcieć mieć takich zajęć. Bo tu uważam, że też jest trochę… Bo jeśli oni oczekują ode mnie, że lekcja ma wyglądać w taki sposób, że ja mam być ich koleżanką, albo powierniczką, albo psychologiem, albo czymś, a nie osobą, która przygotowała lekcję i chce ją zrobić, to jakby się nad tym głębiej zastanawiać, to jest to upokarzające, bo moja praca trochę inny ma zakres i na czym innym ma polegać. Ja też nie zawsze muszę być w nastroju, żeby słuchać o czyich problemach emocjonalnych, prywatnych, rozwodowych, jakichkolwiek. Ja nie mam…, ja jestem empatyczną osobą i w sumie często mam dobry nastój, więc to nie jest dla mnie wielki problem, ale nie powinno to mieć miejsca, uważam. I to jest frustrujące. I nawet ostatnio przekazałam słuchaczkę komuś innemu, bo już ta słuchaczka za bardzo oczekiwała ode mnie relacji koleżeńskich chyba. I wiedziałam, że jak ją przekażę komuś innemu, to ją to bardziej zmotywuje do nauki, bo nie będzie się tak otwierać przy tej osobie. No cóż, niestety, czasami trzeba pożegnać jakieś pieniądze, żeby siebie nie frustrować i żeby to miało sens, bo mają być postępy, a nie że przyszła mi zapłacić, za to, że ja wysłucham, że ona ma problemy jakieś. I to jeszcze czasami po polsku nawet, ale i po angielsku też mi przeszkadza. Lekcja tylko i wyłącznie oparta na gadce, bez żadnych nowych słówek, powtórek, cokolwiek, uważam, że jest bezsensowna i ja przy swoim doświadczeniu już nie mam ochoty na takie lekcje, naprawdę. Nawet jeśli dostanę za nie wynagrodzenie. Czasem mi to przeszkadza, powiedzmy, ale w większości przypadków nie jest to celem. B: Dziękuję za rozmowę.
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Appendix D Questionnaire BADANIE ANKIETOWE Niniejsza ankieta stanowi część badania, którego celem jest ustalenie źródeł stresu zawodowego i poziomu wypalenia zawodowego wśród nauczycieli języka angielskiego w Polsce. Wyniki badania zostaną opracowane z zachowaniem Państwa anonimowości. A. Dane osobowe i profil zawodowy nauczyciela kobieta
A1. Płeć
mężczyzna
A2. Rok urodzenia: ……………. A3. Miejsce pracy:
wieś
miasto do 20 tys. mieszkańców
miasto od 51 do 100 tys. mieszkańców A4. Jakie jest Pana/Pani wykształcenie
miasto od 21 do 50 tys. mieszkańców
miasto powyżej 100 tys. mieszkańców
średnie
licencjat
magisterium
doktorat
A5. Stopień awansu zawodowego nie dotyczy
stażysta
kontraktowy
mianowany
dyplomowany
A6. Kiedy Pani/Pan rozpoczęła pracę w zawodzie nauczyciela angielskiego : ………………. rok A7. Grupa wiekowa, z jaką Pani/Pan głównie pracuje: do 5 lat
6-12 lat
13-15 lat
powyżej 18 lat (studenci uczelni wyższych)
16-18 lat
powyżej 18 lat (inni dorośli)
A8. Placówka, którą uważa Pan/Pani za swoje główne miejsce zatrudnienia: przedszkole
szkoła podstawowa
szkoła językowa
gimnazjum
szkoła ponadgimnazjalna
szkoła wyższa
A9. Sektor edukacji, w której Pan/Pani głównie pracuje:
państwowy
prywatny
A10. Tygodniowy wymiar godzin lekcyjnych: ………… godzin lekcyjnych A11. Proszę podać rok, w którym podjęła/podjął Pani/Pan pracę w szkole, którą uznaje Pan/Pani za główne miejsce zatrudnienia ……… rok A12. Jaka jest Pani/Pana główna forma zatrudnienia? umowa-zlecenie
umowa o dzieło
umowa o pracę na czas nieokreślony
umowa o pracę na czas określony własna działalność gospodarcza
A13. Dla ilu szkół pracował(a) Pani/Pan do tej pory (w tym obecna/e placówka/i)? ………………….. A14. Czy myśli Pani/Pan o zmianie miejsca pracy? nie
raczej nie
raczej tak
tak
A15. Czy chciał(a)by Pani/Pan zmienić stanowisko w swoim aktualnym miejscu pracy? nie
raczej nie
raczej tak
tak
A16. Czy myśli Pani/Pan o zmianie zawodu? nie
raczej nie
raczej tak
tak
A17. Jak stresująca jest Pani/Pana obecna sytuacja zawodowa w skali 0-10, gdzie 0 = wcale nie jest stresująca, 10 = jest tak stresująca, że trudno mi sobie z tym poradzić: ……………………
297
A18. Jak satysfakcjonująca jest dla Pani/Pana obecna sytuacja zawodowa w skali 0-10, gdzie 0 = wcale nie jest satysfakcjonująca, 10 = jest dla mnie ogromnie satysfakcjonująca: …………………… A19. Jak stresująca jest Pani/Pana obecna sytuacja rodzinna w skali 0-10, gdzie 0 = wcale nie jest stresująca, 10 = jest tak stresująca, że trudno mi sobie z tym poradzić: …………………… B. Wymagania organizacyjne. W jakim stopniu zgadza się Pani/Pan z poniższymi stwierdzeniami. 1=zdecydowanie nie, 2=raczej nie, 3=raczej tak, 4=zdecydowanie tak, W szkole, którą uważam za moje główne miejsce pracy… B11. Sam(a) decyduję w jakie dni i w jakich godzinach pracuję w szkole.
1 2 3 4
B12. Czuję swobodę w zakresie decydowania o doborze metod i technik w pracy z moimi uczniami.
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B13. Mam wpływ na kształt polityki szkoły i obowiązujących w niej procedur.
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B14. Uczestniczę w ważnych procesach decyzyjnych w mojej szkole.
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B15. Uważam, że moja praca jest ważna.
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B16. Mój zawód ma wysoki status w społeczeństwie.
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B21. W moim zawodzie czuję się dobrze opłacanym pracownikiem.
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B22. Niepewność dotycząca wysokości mojego miesięcznego wynagrodzenia jest dla mnie dużym obciążeniem psychicznym.
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B23. Moja sytuacja finansowa znacznie się pogarsza w okresie wakacyjnym.
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B24. Oprócz pensji otrzymuję dodatkowe świadczenia pracownicze.
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B25. Moja szkoła zapewnia mi poczucie stabilizacji.
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B29. Moja forma zatrudnienia pozbawia mnie prawa do odpoczynku, ponieważ odpoczywając martwię się, że nie zarabiam.
1 2 3 4
B20. W mojej szkole istnieją zachęty finansowe, motywujące nauczycieli do lepszej pracy.
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B201. Moje wynagrodzenie wzrasta wraz z moim stażem i osiągnięciami.
1 2 3 4
B202. Miewam wrażenie, że szkoła poprzez ‘kruczki’ w umowach stara się zapłacić mi mniej niż powinna.
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B31. W mojej pracy mam możliwość pełnego wykorzystania mojej wiedzy i umiejętności.
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B32. Poziom mojego języka angielskiego ogólnego powoduje, że czasami czuję się w pracy niepewnie.
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B33. Poziom mojego języka angielskiego specjalistycznego powoduje, że czasami czuję się w pracy niepewnie.
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B34. Studia dobrze przygotowały / przygotowują mnie merytorycznie do pracy w grupie wiekowej, z którą pracuję.
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B35. Moje zawodowe kompetencje do pracy w grupie wiekowej, z którą pracuję zdobyłam/em sam/a czynnie wykonując ten zawód.
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B36. Mam poczucie, że potrafię odpowiednio zaplanować i przeprowadzić lekcję.
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B37. W mojej pracy mam możliwości rozwoju swojej wiedzy i umiejętności zawodowych.
1 2 3 4
B38.Widzę obszary kompetencji w moim zawodzie, w których mogę się rozwijać.
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B39. Rozwijanie tych obszarów będzie dla mnie satysfakcjonujące.
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B301. Szkolenia, w których uczestniczę przyczyniają się do rozwoju moich kompetencji.
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298
B302. W szkole jest osoba, która pomaga mi się rozwijać.
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B303. W mojej pracy mam możliwości awansu.
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B304. Nauczanie to praca bez perspektyw.
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B41. Czuję wsparcie szefostwa szkoły w mojej pracy.
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B42. Czuję wsparcie kolegów-nauczycieli w pracy.
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B43. Czuję wsparcie metodyka w pracy.
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B44. Słyszę pochwały na temat mojej pracy od szefostwa.
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B45. Słyszę pochwały na temat mojej pracy od metodyka.
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B46. Słyszę pochwały na temat mojej pracy od uczniów.
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B47. Otrzymuję konstruktywną informację zwrotną na temat mojej pracy od szefostwa.
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B48. Otrzymuję konstruktywną informację zwrotną na temat mojej pracy od metodyka.
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B49. Otrzymuję konstruktywną informację zwrotną na temat mojej pracy od uczniów.
1 2 3 4
B40. Szkoła jasno komunikuje mi, jakie są ich oczekiwania wobec mnie.
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B51. Miewam problemy interpersonalne z kolegami z pracy.
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B52. Miewam problemy interpersonalne z szefostwem.
1 2 3 4
B53. Miewam problemy interpersonalne z metodykiem.
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B54. Miewam problemy interpersonalne z uczniami.
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B55. Liczba godzin lekcyjnych w moim grafiku zadowala mnie.
1 2 3 4
B56. Jestem zadowolona z układu moich zajęć lekcyjnych w ciągu dnia.
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B57. Czuję, że z powodu pracy jestem w ciągłym pośpiechu.
1 2 3 4
B58. Bardzo się denerwuję, kiedy przychodzę spóźniona na zajęcia.
1 2 3 4
B59. Myślę, że mogłabym / mógłbym mieć większy zakres obowiązków w pracy.
1 2 3 4
B50. Uważam, że moja praca jest mało wymagająca.
1 2 3 4
B501. Odpowiedzialność za zatrzymanie uczniów w szkole jest dla mnie obciążające.
1 2 3 4
B502. Moment promocji uczniów na następny poziom / do następnej klasy oraz ocenianie postępów moich uczniów jest dla mnie trudny.
1 2 3 4
B503. Mam poczucie, że mojej szkole zależy na tym, bym u nich pracował(a).
1 2 3 4
B504. W pracy czasami czuję się jak sprzęt, którego można się pozbyć, kiedy nie będzie już potrzebny.
1 2 3 4
B505. Mam potrzebę poczucia przynależenia do szkoły / organizacji.
1 2 3 4
B506. Mam odpowiednie zaplecze dydaktyczne w szkole (biblioteczka, podręczniki, płyty).
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B507. Sprzęt w szkole (ksero, odtwarzacze, komputery, itp.) pozostawia wiele do życzenia.
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B508. Pokój nauczyciela zapewnia mi dobre warunki pracy.
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B61. Konfiguracja mebli w salach, w których pracuję jest dla mnie zadowalająca.
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B62. Warunki w salach, w których pracuję (oświetlenie, temperatura, wyposażenie) są zadowalające.
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B71. Martwi mnie, że miewam problemy ze zrozumieniem nowych dla mnie zagadnień językowych.
1 2 3 4
B72. Na lekcji czasami ciężko mi myśleć z powodu mojego przemęczenia.
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B73. Zazwyczaj pamiętam o rzeczach, które mam zrobić w pracy.
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299
B74. Łatwo uczę się nowych zagadnień gramatyczno-językowych w języku angielskim.
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B75. Boję się, że uczniowie uznają mnie za osobę niekompetentną kiedy nie potrafię podać słowa, o które pytają mnie uczniowie.
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B76. Czuję się niekomfortowo, kiedy nie mogę wyjaśnić uczniom jakiegoś zagadnienia językowego.
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B77. Rozwiązywanie problemów interpersonalnych w pracy z moimi uczniami jest dla mnie obciążeniem.
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B78. Problemy związane z procedurami obowiązującymi w szkole są dla mnie obciążeniem.
1 2 3 4
B79. Często mam problem, co robić kiedy moi uczniowie są nieprzygotowani do zajęć.
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B70. Często mam problem, co robić kiedy moi uczniowie chodzą nieregularnie na zajęcia.
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B81 Moje problemy ze wzrokiem utrudniają mi pracę.
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B82. Moje problemy z głosem utrudniają mi pracę.
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B83. Hałas w pracy jest dla mnie dużym obciążeniem.
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B84. Zdarza się, że z powodu nieprzyjemnego zapachu ciężko mi jest pracować.
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B91. Moja praca zawodowa w negatywny sposób wpływa na moje życie osobiste.
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B92. Moje życie osobiste wywołuje poczucie zmęczenia w pracy.
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B93. Moje życie osobiste powoduje pogorszenie jakości mojej pracy.
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B93. Uważam, że moja praca jest nieodpowiednia dla osób wychowujących dzieci.
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C. Stosunek do pracy. Poniżej znajdują się stwierdzenia, z którymi może się Pani/Pan zgadzać lub nie. Używając skali od 1 do 4, proszę ustosunkować się do każdego z nich poprzez zaznaczenie odpowiedniej opcji: 1 = nie, 2 = raczej nie, 3 = raczej tak, 4 = tak Jeśli chodzi o moje główne miejsce pracy… C1. Zawsze znajduję nowe i interesujące aspekty mojej pracy.
1
2
3
4
C2. Zdarzają się dni kiedy jestem zmęczona zanim jeszcze dotrę do szkoły.
1
2
3
4
C3. Coraz częściej się zdarza, że wyrażam się w negatywny sposób o swojej pracy.
1
2
3
4
C4. Po pracy potrzebuję teraz więcej czasu niż wcześniej żeby się zregenerować i poczuć się lepiej.
1
2
3
4
C5. Dobrze znoszę napięcie wywołane nawałem pracy.
1
2
3
4
C6. Ostatnio wykonuję pracę mechanicznie, bez zastanawiania się nad nią.
1
2
3
4
C7. Moja praca stanowi dla mnie pozytywne wyzwanie.
1
2
3
4
C8. W pracy czasami czuję się emocjonalnie wykończona/y.
1
2
3
4
C9. Ta praca powoduje, że z czasem człowiek się od niej odsuwa.
1
2
3
4
C10. Po pracy mam wystarczająco energii, by w wolnym czasie wykonywać inne czynności.
1
2
3
4
C11. Czasami obowiązki w pracy budzą moją odrazę.
1
2
3
4
C12. Po pracy zazwyczaj czuję się wyczerpana/y i znużona/y.
1
2
3
4
C13. To jest jedyny rodzaj pracy, w której mogę sobie siebie wyobrazić.
1
2
3
4
C14. Zazwyczaj dobrze radzę sobie z ilością pracy.
1
2
3
4
C15. Czuję się coraz bardziej zaangażowana/y w moją pracę.
1
2
3
4
C16. Kiedy pracuję czuję się pełna/y energii.
1
2
3
4
Serdecznie
dziękuję
za
udział
w
badaniu.
Z
wyrazami
szacunku.
Joanna
Pitura
300
Appendix E Participants’ comments after completing the survey
espeket
jak zwykle - brakowało mi odpowiedzi pośredniej - ani tak, ani nie...
asx
@espeket - mi tak samo, niestety.
misio
Mam nadzieję, że wnioski z ankiety przydadzą się do pracy doktorskiej. Może uda się coś wydumać, aby się lepiej lektorom pracowało. Pozdrawiam
teacher
Niektóre pytania generują nieprawdziwe odpowiedzi (niestety nie mogę wrócić do nich, żeby zacytować) ale np. coś w rodzaju: 'nieprzyjemny zapach przeszkadza mi w pracy'. Jeżeli odpowiem 'tak', to znaczy, że czuję ten zapach i przeszkadza mi on, jeżeli odpowiem 'nie' to znaczy, że czuję go, ale mi nie przeszkadza. A co mam powiedzieć, jeśli nie czuję nieprzyjemnego zapachu (bo go nie ma, albo mam przytępiony węch :))?
teacher
Znalazłam lepszy przykład: Hałas w pracy jest dla mnie obciążeniem (jeżeli nie ma hałasu, napiszę, że nie jest, a jeżeli hałas mi nie przeszkadza, to co?) albo: Czuję wsparcie metodyka w pracy (w mojej pracy nie ma metodyka, więc nie czuję wsparcia...)
M.S.
Powodzenia w pracy naukowej :-)
respondent
Większość pytań dotyczy pracy w szkole a to nijak się ma do pracy na uczelni wyższej. Skoro pytanie zaraz na początku każe wybrać gdzie pracujemy i podaje opcję 'szkoła wyższa', pytania powinny być tak skonstruowane, aby odzwierciedlały warunki panujące na uniwersytecie.
netik
powodzenia w pisaniu pracy, jestem bardzo ciekawa odpowiedzi innych nauczycieli 301
aasz
Nie zawsze jest metodyk w szkole, więc odpowiedzi zaburza rzetelnośc testu. Powodzenia w dalszej pracy. Ciekawa tematyka!
kotki2
Mnie też nasunęły się te dwie rzeczy: moze pytania powinny być bardziej zróżnicowane w zależności od typu szkoły, w jakiej pracujemy (jak porównać przedszkole z wyższą uczelnią?) i to, że w wielu szkołach nie ma metodyka, a więc odpowiedzi moga dawać troszeczkę zafałszowany obraz. Powodzenia w pisaniu pracy! :)
IG
W ankiecie było sporo pytań, które nie uwzględniały innej sytuacji, np. o pokoju nauczycielskim. Odpowiedzi nie uwzględniały możliwości, że w jakiejś szkole nie ma pokoju nauczycielskiego, np. na uczelni. Nie ma również oddzielnego stanowiska metodyka itd.
Monika
Podpisuję się pod powyższymi komentarzami. Oprócz tego dodam taki fakt: moje główne miejsce pracy, jakim jest szkoła średnia, nie generuje raczej stresu i nie sprawia, że jestem nią zmęczona. To moje dodatkowe miejsca pracy sprawiają, że czuję pomału wypalenie zawodowe, jestem przemęczona do granic i nie mam czasu na życie osobiste. Trzeba by to również moim zdaniem wziąć pod uwagę, bo pewnie wielu językowców jest w podobnej sytuacji. Pozdrawiam serdecznie i życzę sukcesów!
GK
Bardzo ciekawy i potrzebny temat, choć brakuje mi opcji otwartych. Czasem miałam wrażnie, że bez komentarza moje kolejne odpowiedzi mogą tworzyć wrażenie wzajemnie się wykluczających. Życzę powodzenia :-)
OMG
Zgadzam się z przedmówcami. Brak odpowiedzi pośredniej, brak wskazania miejsca zamieszkania, (Polska, poza Polską), również uważam, że odpowiedzi wykluczały się, brak pytania o wykształcenie pedagogiczne, gdyż znam wiele osób, które uczą języka angielskiego bez
302
uprawnień, na przykład w szkołach prywatnych. Za długa ankieta przede wszystkim, znudziła mnie po kilku pytaniach niestety. Anyway pozdrawiam, OMG
student-oriented
Gdyby moja praca polegała tylko na pracy z młodzieżą i przygotowaniu
teacher
ich do matury, bez biurokracji, ewaluacji i innych złodziei czasu, byłoby fantastycznie:). Ankieta świetnie filtrująca moje ostatnie 14 lat pracy zawodowej. Jedno ale - oprócz studiów, nigdy później nie widziałam metodyka na oczy. Jednak i tak to nauczyciel jest odpowiedzialny za wypracowanie odpowiednich metod do pracy z daną grupą uczniów; trzeba być tu bardzo elastycznym i posiadać instynkt, pozwalający na zmianę metody uczenia "od ręki"- zależnie od wymagań uczniów. Albo masz instynkt, albo lekcje są do kitu. Nie mówię tu o instynkcie samozachowawczym... Pozdrawiam:)
That's me :)
Szkoda, że nie było miejsca na dodanie komentarza do niektórych odpowiedzi, bo aż się prosiło, żeby doprecyzować o co chodzi. Brakowało mi czasami odpowiedzi "nie dotyczy", gdyż w przypadku niektórych pytań byłaby najbardziej adekwatna. Ale ogólnie ankieta była OK i mam nadzieję, że przyda się zarówno do pracy doktorskiej, jak też później do opracowywania sposobów, żeby pracowało się nam bezstresowo i bez wypaleń :)
Lektorka
Nie wiem czy ankieta to wykaże, ale to nie praca z uczniami jest problemem w szkole językowej, lecz wieczna walka z dyrektorem o jakość nauczania . Niestety, w firmie prywatnej liczy się przede wszystkim zysk finansowy : byle utworzyć jak najwięcej grup z ludzi ,którzy płacą, więc np. idą do grupy na nieodpowiednim poziomie, bo akurat odpowiada im termin zajęć...
human
Niektóre pytania nie dotyczyły mnie, a musiałam odznaczyć. Myślę, że też to może zaburzyć wyniki. W niektórych miejscach miałam 2 odpowiedzi a mogłam zaznaczyć tylko jedną. Zgadzam się Lektorką - nastawienie na
303
wielki zysk w szkołach prywatnych może powoli zabijać jakość. To dopiero jest stresujące.
kk
fajna ankieta, chciałam tylko zaznaczyć, że pracuję w różnych szkołach językowych, i tak jak poprzednicy pisali, problemem nie są uczniowie, ale brak możliwości awansu, brak premii rocznych, brak bonusów, bezpłatne wakacje, brak możliwości rozwoju (np. tworzenie nowych kursów), brak kontroli nad ilością, miejscem i czasem zajęć (narzucane przez szkołę na zasadzie: bierzesz albo nic nie dostajesz), i niepewność kolejnego miesiąca, nie wspominając o tym, że nigdy w czerwcu nie wiem, cz będę miała pracę od października. ponadto w tej pracy brakuje mi perspektyw, jeśli w tym roku jestem super lektorem, uczniowie są ze mnie zadowoleni, to w jakim miejscu rozwoju zawodowego będę za 5 lat? odpowiedz: będę robić dokładnie to samo. i to jest dla mnie najgorszy aspekt pracy w szkole językowej.
kk
dodam jeszcze, że praca w szkole językowej jest dobra dla freelancerów i osób bez dzieci, ja pracuję od 9 do 11 rano, od 16 do 20 wieczorem i od 21:30 mam jeszcze zajęcia internetowe....
kielczanka
Faktycznie, brak awansu zawodowego w szkole językowej to ogromny minus. Kiedy słuchacze są z Ciebie zadowoleni i proszą o zajęcia z Tobą w przyszłym roku jest 'tylko dobrze'. A kiedy nie bardzo coś wyjdzie to jest 'wielka afera', bo może nie nadajesz się do takiego zawodu. A może faktycznie zająć się tym problemem i gratyfikować kiedy lektorzy się spisują!!!
Mrunia
Szkoda, że tak wielu lektorów, którzy tu się wypowiadają nie ma metodyka u siebie w szkole językowej. W ogóle wydawało mi się, że metodyk w szkole językowej MUSI być, że istnieje taki przepis czy coś,,,no ale najwyrazniej tak nie jest. Dobry metodyk to świetna pomoc. Powodzenia w pracy naukowej :)
304
Profe
A co z warunkami zatrudnienia? Ile lat mozna pracowac na umowe o dzielo? Niby mozna zalozyc firme, ale co z zusem przez wakacje, kiedy pieniadze za kursy i tak sa smieszne?
ixi
Jedno tendencyjne stwierdzenie. Czuję się zestresowany/a gdy spóźniam się do pracy. Ja się nie spóźniam! Ale jakby, to oczywiście pewnie byłby stres. Ale ogólnie źle sformułowane zdanie.
305
Appendix F Types of teachers’ work well/ill-being Table 1. Factors determining teachers’ stress (k-means analysis) Teachers
Unchallenged
Challenged
Relaxed
Distressed
affected by
teachers
teachers
teachers
teachers
homelife
N=40
N=58
N=62
N=29
Kruskal-Wallis H
N=71 M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
2
p
df=4 Work stress
6,48
1,80
3,20
1,49
6,03
1,20
1,95
1,12
7,66
1,47
177,39
0,001***
Work satisfaction
5,08
2,31
4,75
1,53
7,86
1,15
8,27
1,04
3,21
1,63
158,42
0,001***
Private stress
7,58
1,50
1,58
1,43
2,64
1,87
3,13
2,72
2,17
1,58
139,87
0,001***
Workplace
2,32
0,92
2,45
1,06
2,12
0,94
1,61
0,75
3,03
0,91
46,30
0,001***
Position change
2,18
1,03
2,00
0,93
1,83
0,88
1,48
0,76
1,90
1,01
20,31
0,001***
Profession
2,08
0,84
2,15
1,00
1,79
0,83
1,53
0,82
2,76
0,79
43,73
0,001***
2,72
0,68
2,60
0,69
2,53
0,58
3,13
0,56
2,50
0,64
32,49
0,001***
1,72
0,68
1,77
0,82
2,15
0,95
2,08
0,95
1,53
0,60
13,69
0,008**
2,57
0,62
2,69
0,64
2,99
0,57
3,16
0,51
2,17
0,63
57,33
0,001***
Basic salary
1,81
0,61
2,12
0,62
2,15
0,72
2,59
0,70
1,95
0,81
38,42
0,001***
Benefits
1,90
1,21
2,15
1,35
2,14
1,18
2,05
1,30
1,62
1,05
4,77
0,311
Job security
2,36
0,73
2,61
0,68
2,41
0,75
2,77
0,73
2,19
0,76
16,79
0,002**
Financial
1,42
0,73
1,55
0,75
1,78
0,94
1,60
0,82
1,45
0,63
5,90
0,206
1,86
0,91
2,05
1,11
2,29
1,11
2,26
1,01
1,66
0,94
12,22
0,016*
2,79
0,42
2,94
0,38
3,03
0,35
3,17
0,33
2,63
0,35
45,63
0,001***
Mentoring
1,94
0,98
1,90
0,95
2,22
1,08
2,48
1,08
1,97
0,78
11,96
0,018*
Advanceme
2,34
0,79
2,28
0,93
2,62
0,78
2,70
0,71
1,77
0,67
28,85
0,001***
2,33
0,81
2,33
0,72
2,56
0,68
2,71
0,93
2,13
0,60
15,88
0,003**
2,55
0,76
2,61
0,58
2,66
0,73
2,89
0,81
2,32
0,59
13,30
0,010**
Feedback
2,28
0,80
2,36
0,77
2,58
0,79
2,83
0,79
2,13
0,53
23,81
0,001***
Communica
2,65
0,96
2,60
1,08
3,00
0,92
3,06
0,96
2,31
0,93
17,19
0,002**
1,67
0,52
1,49
041
1,54
0,48
1,38
0,43
1,65
0,52
12,93
0,012*
change
chanage Work autonomy Organizatio n autonomy Work meaningful ness
Job resources
incentives Promotion increases Skills
and
knowledge
nt opport. Social suport Social praise
tion
of
deman
Work
ds
Job
expectat.
conflict
306
Work
2,96
0,65
2,57
0,50
2,77
0,50
2,22
0,49
3,00
0,52
63,27
0,001***
2,08
0,54
1,94
0,49
1,98
0,54
1,72
0,47
2,08
0,51
16,75
0,002**
2,63
0,64
2,45
0,68
2,42
0,49
2,05
0,58
2,67
0,69
32,25
0,001***
2,61
0,81
2,32
0,78
2,38
0,86
2,19
0,84
2,75
0,79
14,51
0,006**
2,32
0,97
2,25
0,90
2,12
0,86
1,79
0,85
2,45
1,09
15,42
0,004**
2,51
1,00
2,20
0,97
2,12
0,92
1,90
0,82
2,48
0,91
15,68
0,003**
1,91
0,63
1,57
0,57
1,80
0,65
1,42
0,51
1,79
0,57
25,85
0,001***
1,87
0,50
1,77
0,55
1,86
0,56
1,50
0,50
1,72
0,56
20,04
0,001***
Explaining
2,68
0,98
2,53
0,99
2,74
1,10
2,00
1,02
2,69
0,85
19,76
0,001***
Problem
2,39
0,69
2,04
0,78
2,14
0,76
1,77
0,62
2,66
0,81
35,25
0,001***
Sight
1,48
0,71
1,45
0,71
1,45
0,65
1,18
0,38
1,59
0,95
8,71
0,069#
Voice
1,69
0,90
1,65
0,92
1,79
0,87
1,34
0,63
1,66
0,77
10,69
0,030*
Noise
2,25
1,05
2,25
1,13
2,09
1,00
1,69
0,84
2,28
1,13
12,10
0,017*
schedule Work responsib. Work climate Technical conditions Workspace config. Physical conditions Information processing Memoryrelated chal.
solving
1,89
0,99
1,93
1,07
1,88
0,99
1,40
0,61
1,93
1,10
10,88
0,028*
Work-home
2,39
0,82
1,89
0,78
2,02
0,78
1,54
0,54
2,51
0,83
47,11
0,001***
-H
Home-work
1,84
0,76
1,40
0,48
1,45
0,59
1,34
0,54
1,48
0,63
20,77
0,001***
Exhaustion
2,72
0,59
2,26
0,62
2,34
0,47
1,84
0,46
2,75
0,41
84,19
0,001***
Disengage
2,45
0,60
2,41
0,54
2,02
0,50
1,71
0,43
2,86
0,53
89,37
0,001***
2,58
0,55
2,33
0,54
2,19
0,44
1,78
0,41
2,80
0,36
95,12
0,001***
Burnout
Odour W
ment Total burnout
Significance: *p≤0,05, **p≤0,01, ***p≤0,001, #p≤0,1 Table 2. Gender by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
female
male
N %z GENDER % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem N %z GENDER % z Numer skupienia obserwacji
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 60 33 53
relaxed 54
distressed 24
Total 224
26,8%
14,7%
23,7%
24,1%
10,7%
100,0%
84,5%
82,5%
91,4%
87,1%
82,8%
86,2%
23,1%
12,7%
20,4%
20,8%
9,2%
86,2%
11
7
5
8
5
36
30,6%
19,4%
13,9%
22,2%
13,9%
100,0%
15,5%
17,5%
8,6%
12,9%
17,2%
13,8%
307
Total
%z Ogółem N %z GENDER % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem
4,2%
2,7%
1,9%
3,1%
1,9%
13,8%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
Mann-Whitney U=1391,50; p=0,784
Table 3. Age by teachers’ well/ill-being
50
Total
N %z AGE_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z AGE_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z AGE_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z AGE_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z AGE_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 18 15 21
relaxed 19
distressed 7
Total 80
22,5%
18,8%
26,3%
23,8%
8,8%
100,0%
25,4%
37,5%
36,2%
30,6%
24,1%
30,8%
6,9% 37
5,8% 16
8,1% 22
7,3% 27
2,7% 13
30,8% 115
32,2%
13,9%
19,1%
23,5%
11,3%
100,0%
52,1%
40,0%
37,9%
43,5%
44,8%
44,2%
14,2% 14
6,2% 7
8,5% 12
10,4% 10
5,0% 9
44,2% 52
26,9%
13,5%
23,1%
19,2%
17,3%
100,0%
19,7%
17,5%
20,7%
16,1%
31,0%
20,0%
5,4% 2
2,7% 2
4,6% 3
3,8% 6
3,5% 0
20,0% 13
15,4%
15,4%
23,1%
46,2%
0,0%
100,0%
2,8%
5,0%
5,2%
9,7%
0,0%
5,0%
,8% 71
,8% 40
1,2% 58
2,3% 62
0,0% 29
5,0% 260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
-2,538; df=4; p=0,638 2
308
Table 4. Region by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
Village/town N up to 20 000 % z inh. REGION_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 10 10 11
Town 20 – N 100 000 inh. % z REGION_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem Town over N 100 000 inh. % z REGION_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem Total
N %z REGION_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
relaxed distressed 15 3
Total 49
20,4%
20,4%
22,4%
30,6%
6,1%
100,0%
14,1%
25,0%
19,0%
24,2%
10,3%
18,8%
3,8%
3,8%
4,2%
5,8%
1,2%
18,8%
10
4
10
5
2
31
32,3%
12,9%
32,3%
16,1%
6,5%
100,0%
14,1%
10,0%
17,2%
8,1%
6,9%
11,9%
3,8%
1,5%
3,8%
1,9%
,8%
11,9%
51
26
37
42
24
180
28,3%
14,4%
20,6%
23,3%
13,3%
100,0%
71,8%
65,0%
63,8%
67,7%
82,8%
69,2%
19,6%
10,0%
14,2%
16,2%
9,2%
69,2%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
2-4,10; df=4; p=0,392 Table 5. Education by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
secondary N %z EDUCATION % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem BA
N %z EDUCATION
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 2 0 1
relaxed 2
distressed 0
Total 5
40,0%
0,0%
20,0%
40,0%
0,0%
100,0%
2,8%
0,0%
1,7%
3,2%
0,0%
1,9%
,8%
0,0%
,4%
,8%
0,0%
1,9%
6
4
5
6
0
21
28,6%
19,0%
23,8%
28,6%
0,0%
100,0%
309
MA
PhD
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z EDUCATION % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem Liczebność %z EDUCATION % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
Total
N %z EDUCATION % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
8,5%
10,0%
8,6%
9,7%
0,0%
8,1%
2,3% 58
1,5% 35
1,9% 48
2,3% 52
0,0% 29
8,1% 222
26,1%
15,8%
21,6%
23,4%
13,1%
100,0%
81,7%
87,5%
82,8%
83,9%
100,0%
85,4%
22,3%
13,5%
18,5%
20,0%
11,2%
85,4%
5
1
4
2
0
12
41,7%
8,3%
33,3%
16,7%
0,0%
100,0%
7,0%
2,5%
6,9%
3,2%
0,0%
4,6%
1,9%
,4%
1,5%
,8%
0,0%
4,6%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
2-1,77; df=4; p=0,778 Table 6. Status by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
n/a
trainee
N %z STATUS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem N %z STATUS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 37 24 23
relaxed 33
distressed 14
Total 131
28,2%
18,3%
17,6%
25,2%
10,7%
100,0%
52,1%
60,0%
39,7%
53,2%
48,3%
50,4%
14,2%
9,2%
8,8%
12,7%
5,4%
50,4%
3
1
4
2
0
10
30,0%
10,0%
40,0%
20,0%
0,0%
100,0%
4,2%
2,5%
6,9%
3,2%
0,0%
3,8%
1,2%
,4%
1,5%
,8%
0,0%
3,8%
310
contractual N %z STATUS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem appointed
chartered
Total
Liczebność %z STATUS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem N %z STATUS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem N %z STATUS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem
14
7
15
12
10
58
24,1%
12,1%
25,9%
20,7%
17,2%
100,0%
19,7%
17,5%
25,9%
19,4%
34,5%
22,3%
5,4%
2,7%
5,8%
4,6%
3,8%
22,3%
12
4
7
8
3
34
35,3%
11,8%
20,6%
23,5%
8,8%
100,0%
16,9%
10,0%
12,1%
12,9%
10,3%
13,1%
4,6%
1,5%
2,7%
3,1%
1,2%
13,1%
5
4
9
7
2
27
18,5%
14,8%
33,3%
25,9%
7,4%
100,0%
7,0%
10,0%
15,5%
11,3%
6,9%
10,4%
1,9%
1,5%
3,5%
2,7%
,8%
10,4%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
2-3,447; df=4; p=0,486 Table 7. Experience by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
21
3,9%
Liczebność %z EXPERIENCE_GROUPS
% z Ogółem 1620
9,7%
Liczebność %z EXPERIENCE_GROUPS
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem Total Liczebność %z EXPERIENCE_GROUPS
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
2-9,093; df=4; p=0,059# Table 8. Student age group by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
to 5
N %z TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP % z Numer skupienia obserwacji
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 2 2 2
relaxed distressed 1 1
Total 8
25,0%
25,0%
25,0%
12,5%
12,5%
100,0%
2,8%
5,0%
3,4%
1,6%
3,4%
3,1%
312
% z Ogółem
6-12
N %z TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
13-15
N %z TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
16-18
N %z TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem over 18 N university % z students TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem over 18 other adults
N %z TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem Total
N %z TAUGHT_AGE_GROUP
,8%
,8%
,8%
,4%
,4%
3,1%
15
7
16
14
4
56
26,8%
12,5%
28,6%
25,0%
7,1%
100,0%
21,1%
17,5%
27,6%
22,6%
13,8%
21,5%
5,8%
2,7%
6,2%
5,4%
1,5%
21,5%
10
8
6
5
0
29
34,5%
27,6%
20,7%
17,2%
0,0%
100,0%
14,1%
20,0%
10,3%
8,1%
0,0%
11,2%
3,8%
3,1%
2,3%
1,9%
0,0%
11,2%
8
4
13
4
4
33
24,2%
12,1%
39,4%
12,1%
12,1%
100,0%
11,3%
10,0%
22,4%
6,5%
13,8%
12,7%
3,1%
1,5%
5,0%
1,5%
1,5%
12,7%
15
8
10
14
4
51
29,4%
15,7%
19,6%
27,5%
7,8%
100,0%
21,1%
20,0%
17,2%
22,6%
13,8%
19,6%
5,8%
3,1%
3,8%
5,4%
1,5%
19,6%
21
11
11
24
16
83
25,3%
13,3%
13,3%
28,9%
19,3%
100,0%
29,6%
27,5%
19,0%
38,7%
55,2%
31,9%
8,1%
4,2%
4,2%
9,2%
6,2%
31,9%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
313
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
2-11,265; df=4; p=0,024* Table 9. Type of school by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
kindergarten N %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem primary school
N %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
lower secondary school
N %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
upper secondary school
Liczebność %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
higher school
N %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 2 2 2
relaxed 1
distressed 1
Total 8
25,0%
25,0%
25,0%
12,5%
12,5%
100,0%
2,8%
5,0%
3,4%
1,6%
3,4%
3,1%
,8%
,8%
,8%
,4%
,4%
3,1%
11
7
11
9
5
43
25,6%
16,3%
25,6%
20,9%
11,6%
100,0%
15,5%
17,5%
19,0%
14,5%
17,2%
16,5%
4,2%
2,7%
4,2%
3,5%
1,9%
16,5%
5
6
7
3
0
21
23,8%
28,6%
33,3%
14,3%
0,0%
100,0%
7,0%
15,0%
12,1%
4,8%
0,0%
8,1%
1,9%
2,3%
2,7%
1,2%
0,0%
8,1%
8
3
10
4
3
28
28,6%
10,7%
35,7%
14,3%
10,7%
100,0%
11,3%
7,5%
17,2%
6,5%
10,3%
10,8%
3,1%
1,2%
3,8%
1,5%
1,2%
10,8%
16
7
12
14
5
54
29,6%
13,0%
22,2%
25,9%
9,3%
100,0%
22,5%
17,5%
20,7%
22,6%
17,2%
20,8%
314
% z Ogółem language school
6,2%
2,7%
4,6%
5,4%
1,9%
20,8%
29
15
16
31
15
106
27,4%
14,2%
15,1%
29,2%
14,2%
100,0%
40,8%
37,5%
27,6%
50,0%
51,7%
40,8%
11,2%
5,8%
6,2%
11,9%
5,8%
40,8%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
N %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
Total
N %z SCHOOL_TYPE % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
2-8,239; df=4; p=0,083# Table 10. Sector by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
state
N %z SECTOR % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem
private
Total
N %z SECTOR % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem N %z SECTOR % z Numer skupienia obserwacji %z Ogółem
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 32 21 33
relaxed 27
distressed 11
Total 124
25,8%
16,9%
26,6%
21,8%
8,9%
100,0%
45,1%
52,5%
56,9%
43,5%
37,9%
47,7%
12,3%
8,1%
12,7%
10,4%
4,2%
47,7%
39
19
25
35
18
136
28,7%
14,0%
18,4%
25,7%
13,2%
100,0%
54,9%
47,5%
43,1%
56,5%
62,1%
52,3%
15,0%
7,3%
9,6%
13,5%
6,9%
52,3%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
Mann-Whitney U=1314,500; p=0,454
315
Table 11. Workload by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
41
Liczebność %z WORKLOAD_GROUPS
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 9 7 5
relaxed distressed 2 0
Total 23
39,1%
30,4%
21,7%
8,7%
0,0%
100,0%
12,7%
17,5%
8,6%
3,2%
0,0%
8,8%
3,5%
2,7%
1,9%
,8%
0,0%
8,8%
22
11
18
25
4
80
27,5%
13,8%
22,5%
31,3%
5,0%
100,0%
31,0%
27,5%
31,0%
40,3%
13,8%
30,8%
8,5%
4,2%
6,9%
9,6%
1,5%
30,8%
21
11
22
18
17
89
23,6%
12,4%
24,7%
20,2%
19,1%
100,0%
29,6%
27,5%
37,9%
29,0%
58,6%
34,2%
8,1%
4,2%
8,5%
6,9%
6,5%
34,2%
11
9
9
11
4
44
25,0%
20,5%
20,5%
25,0%
9,1%
100,0%
15,5%
22,5%
15,5%
17,7%
13,8%
16,9%
4,2%
3,5%
3,5%
4,2%
1,5%
16,9%
8
2
4
6
4
24
33,3%
8,3%
16,7%
25,0%
16,7%
100,0%
11,3%
5,0%
6,9%
9,7%
13,8%
9,2%
316
% z Ogółem Total N %z WORKLOAD_GROUPS
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
3,1%
,8%
1,5%
2,3%
1,5%
9,2%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
2-3,554; df=4; p=0,470 Table 12. Seniority by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
15
N %z SENIORITY_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
Total N %z SENIORITY_GROUPS
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 28 15 23
relaxed distressed 24 11
Total 101
27,7%
14,9%
22,8%
23,8%
10,9%
100,0%
40,0%
37,5%
39,7%
38,7%
37,9%
39,0%
10,8%
5,8%
8,9%
9,3%
4,2%
39,0%
22
18
15
18
7
80
27,5%
22,5%
18,8%
22,5%
8,8%
100,0%
31,4%
45,0%
25,9%
29,0%
24,1%
30,9%
8,5%
6,9%
5,8%
6,9%
2,7%
30,9%
13
4
11
10
6
44
29,5%
9,1%
25,0%
22,7%
13,6%
100,0%
18,6%
10,0%
19,0%
16,1%
20,7%
17,0%
5,0%
1,5%
4,2%
3,9%
2,3%
17,0%
7
3
9
10
5
34
20,6%
8,8%
26,5%
29,4%
14,7%
100,0%
10,0%
7,5%
15,5%
16,1%
17,2%
13,1%
2,7%
1,2%
3,5%
3,9%
1,9%
13,1%
70
40
58
62
29
259
27,0%
15,4%
22,4%
23,9%
11,2%
100,0%
317
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,0%
15,4%
22,4%
23,9%
11,2%
100,0%
% z Ogółem
2-1,605; df=4; p=0,808 Table 13. Form of employment by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
commission N contract %z FORM_EMPLOYMENT % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem contract for a specific task
N %z FORM_EMPLOYMENT % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
fixed-term contract
N %z FORM_EMPLOYMENT % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
indefinite period contract
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 9 7 5
relaxed distressed 4 0
Total 25
36,0%
28,0%
20,0%
16,0%
0,0%
100,0%
12,7%
17,5%
8,6%
6,5%
0,0%
9,6%
3,5%
2,7%
1,9%
1,5%
0,0%
9,6%
12
5
6
8
2
33
36,4%
15,2%
18,2%
24,2%
6,1%
100,0%
16,9%
12,5%
10,3%
12,9%
6,9%
12,7%
4,6%
1,9%
2,3%
3,1%
,8%
12,7%
13
3
10
9
4
39
33,3%
7,7%
25,6%
23,1%
10,3%
100,0%
18,3%
7,5%
17,2%
14,5%
13,8%
15,0%
5,0%
1,2%
3,8%
3,5%
1,5%
15,0%
N %z FORM_EMPLOYMENT
20
18
24
17
10
89
22,5%
20,2%
27,0%
19,1%
11,2%
100,0%
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji
28,2%
45,0%
41,4%
27,4%
34,5%
34,2%
7,7%
6,9%
9,2%
6,5%
3,8%
34,2%
15
6
10
21
13
65
23,1%
9,2%
15,4%
32,3%
20,0%
100,0%
21,1%
15,0%
17,2%
33,9%
44,8%
25,0%
5,8%
2,3%
3,8%
8,1%
5,0%
25,0%
% z Ogółem selfLiczebność employment % z FORM_EMPLOYMENT % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
318
other
N %z FORM_EMPLOYMENT
2
1
3
3
0
9
22,2%
11,1%
33,3%
33,3%
0,0%
100,0%
2,8%
2,5%
5,2%
4,8%
0,0%
3,5%
,8%
,4%
1,2%
1,2%
0,0%
3,5%
71
40
58
62
29
260
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,3%
15,4%
22,3%
23,8%
11,2%
100,0%
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem Total
N %z FORM_EMPLOYMENT % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
2-10,998; df=4; p=0,027* Table 14. Turnover by type of teachers’ well/ill-being
0-1
2-3
N %z TURNOVER_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z TURNOVER_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
4-6
>7
N %z TURNOVER_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem N %z TURNOVER_GROUPS % z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
Total N %z TURNOVER_GROUPS
affected by homelife unchallenged challenged 7 5 4
relaxed distressed 7 3
Total 26
26,9%
19,2%
15,4%
26,9%
11,5%
100,0%
10,0%
12,5%
6,9%
11,3%
10,3%
10,0%
2,7% 21
1,9% 22
1,5% 27
2,7% 24
1,2% 9
10,0% 103
20,4%
21,4%
26,2%
23,3%
8,7%
100,0%
30,0%
55,0%
46,6%
38,7%
31,0%
39,8%
8,1%
8,5%
10,4%
9,3%
3,5%
39,8%
29
6
20
24
12
91
31,9%
6,6%
22,0%
26,4%
13,2%
100,0%
41,4%
15,0%
34,5%
38,7%
41,4%
35,1%
11,2%
2,3%
7,7%
9,3%
4,6%
35,1%
13
7
7
7
5
39
33,3%
17,9%
17,9%
17,9%
12,8%
100,0%
18,6%
17,5%
12,1%
11,3%
17,2%
15,1%
5,0%
2,7%
2,7%
2,7%
1,9%
15,1%
70
40
58
62
29
259
27,0%
15,4%
22,4%
23,9%
11,2%
100,0%
319
% z Numer skupienia obserwacji % z Ogółem
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
100,0%
27,0%
15,4%
22,4%
23,9%
11,2%
100,0%
2-8,507; df=4; p=0,075#
320
STRESZCZENIE Zawód nauczyciela, na co dzień wymagający bezpośredniego angażowania się w sprawy uczniów oraz bliskich relacji interpersonalnych z nimi, plasuje się w czołówce zawodów najbardziej narażonych na działanie stresu zawodowego. Problematyka ta jest przedmiotem dużego zainteresowania badaczy (e.g. Boyle, Borg, Falzon, & Baglioni,
1995;
Grzegorzewska, 2006; Poraj, 2009; Steinhardt, Faulk, Gloria, & Smith Jaggars, 2011; Liu & Onwuegbuzie, 2012; Hultell, Melin, & Gustavsson, 2013). Badania nad wypaleniem, będącym skutkiem długotrwałego i nadmiernego stresu zawodowego, w tzw. „zawodach pomocowych” prowadzone były równolegle do badań nad stresem już od połowy lat 70. To zagadnienie zgłębiane było przez szereg naukowców (e.g. Maslach, 2000, 2011; Pines, 2000; Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002; Maslach & Leiter, 2008; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011). Również w Polsce prowadzi się badania nad tym problemem (Sęk, 2000b; Ogińska-Bulik, 2006; Terelak, 2007; Tucholska, 2009; Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010; Chirkowska-Smolak, 2012). Problematyka stresu i wypalenia zawodowego wśród nauczycieli jest już dość dobrze poznana, dotyczy to jednak w przeważającej mierze nauczycieli państwowych szkół podstawowych, średnich i specjalnych oraz - choć w mniejszym stopniu - nauczycieli akademickich. Obecnie często podkreśla się fakt, iż proces kształcenia trwa przez całe życie, również w życiu dorosłym. Oznacza to, że także nauczyciele osób dorosłych, w tym nauczyciele języka angielskiego pracujący w prywatnych szkołach językowych, odgrywają niebagatelną rolę w tym procesie. Tej grupie zawodowej poświęca się jednak niewiele uwagi, a wydaje się ona być szczególna z kilku powodów. Jednym z nich jest niestabilność zatrudnienia - nauczyciele ci pracują bowiem głównie w ramach własnej działalności gospodarczej, na umowach o dzieło lub umowach – zlecenie. Ten brak stabilności zatrudnienia może negatywnie oddziaływać na nauczycieli osób dorosłych, a w konsekwencji - na ich podopiecznych, ponieważ samopoczucie i satysfakcja z pracy nauczyciela mogą wywierać znaczny wpływ na jakość nauczania. Problemy, z którymi borykają się nauczyciele osób dorosłych i tzw. „freelancerzy” (tzn. osoby pracujące na umowy o dzieło, umowy-zlecenie oraz prowadzące własną działalność gospodarczą) wydają się być zupełnie różne od tych, występujących w pracy nauczycieli dzieci i młodzieży. Czy stanowią one istotne źródło stresu w tej grupie zawodowej? Czy osoby takie czują się bardziej wypalone od innych nauczycieli? Brak badań 321
w tym zakresie uniemożliwia jednoznaczną odpowiedź na te pytania. Znajomość odpowiedzi na nie jest bardzo istotna przed podjęciem kroków mających na celu zapobieganie skutkom stresu i wypalenia zawodowego lub ich niwelowanie wśród nauczycieli języka angielskiego. Kroki te mogą wówczas w większym stopniu stanowić odpowiedź na problem, o ile takowy istnieje. Celem niniejszej pracy jest przedstawienie stanu nauki na temat stresu i wypalenia zawodowego oraz omówienie wyników dwuetapowego badania przeprowadzonego na 260 nauczycielach języka angielskiego w całej Polsce (etap ilościowy) oraz na 10 nauczycielach pracujących z osobami dorosłymi (etap jakościowy). Badanie to miało wypełnić kilka luk w badaniach dotyczących stresu i wypalenia wśród nauczycieli, a mianowicie: (1) włączyć nauczycieli języka angielskiego w nurt badań nad stresem i wypaleniem, (2) ująć czynniki istniejące w pracy nauczyciela bardziej globalnie, uwzględniając zarówno obciążenia zawodowe (których obecność prowadzi do wypalenia), jak i zasoby (których brak powoduje wypalenie), (3) wykryć czynniki, które przyczyniają się do występowania stresu i wypalenia u nauczycieli języka angielskiego, ze szczególną uwagą skierowaną na nauczycieli osób dorosłych, (4) zgłębić różnice w ocenie warunków pracy pomiędzy nauczycielami zatrudnionymi w szkołach państwowych na umowach o pracę a tzw. freelancerami pracującymi m. in. w prywatnych szkołach językowych. Postawa pragmatyczna w dociekaniu powyższego wydaje się być najbardziej właściwa, gdzie problem badawczy dyktuje dobór metod oraz paradygmatów (Creswell, 2003). Takie epistemologiczne podejście pozwoliło na interdyscyplinarne rozważanie problemu w ramach trzech paradygmatów teoretyczno-empirycznych: psychologii pracy (Bańka, 2000a), psychologii organizacji (Bańka, 2000b) oraz pedeutologii (Okoń, 2007). Praca składa się z siedmiu rozdziałów, z których trzy pierwsze omawiają odnośne teoretyczne podstawy zagadnienia, zaś cztery pozostałe przedstawiają wyniki badania empirycznego przeprowadzonego na nauczycielach języka angielskiego w Polsce. Część teoretyczną otwiera rozdział pierwszy, którego celem jest przegląd wybranych teorii stresu i wypalenia oraz implikacji do ich pomiaru w zawodzie nauczyciela języka angielskiego. W tej części przedstawione zostały teorie stresu i wypalenia we wczesnych i współczesnych podejściach, koncepcje stresu zawodowego oraz metody pomiaru stresu i wypalenia. Rozdział zamyka przegląd następstw stresu i wypalenia w perspektywie indywidualnej i organizacyjnej.
322
Rozdział drugi nakreśla kontekst pracy nauczycieli języka angielskiego, jej specyfikę oraz stresogenny charakter. W rozdziale tym zawarty też został ogólny zarys stanu badań nad problematyką stresu i wypalenia wśród nauczycieli. Treść rozdziału trzeciego poświęcona jest poszerzeniu i usystematyzowaniu czynników środowiskowych (instytucjonalnych / organizacyjnych) wpływających na pojawienie się stresu i wypalenia zawodowego, tj. obciążeń zawodowych (czynników, które pogarszają samopoczucie nauczycieli) i zasobów (warunków, które pomagają wspierać ich dobrostan). W ramach obciążeń zawodowych omówione są następujące kategorie: czynniki socjalno-organizacyjne, obciążenia mentalne, obciążenia wywołane przez środowisko fizyczne oraz obciążenia zmysłowe. Zasoby z kolei zawierają się w następujących kategoriach:
organizacyjne,
ekonomiczne,
warunki
dla
rozwoju
zawodowego
i
komunikacyjne. Na koniec uwaga jest poświecona interakcji między pracą i życiem osobistym. Część empiryczną rozpocznie rozdział czwarty, który prezentuje problem i pytania badawcze, omawia charakterystykę metod mieszanych i przedstawia opis zastosowanych metod w badaniu. Rozdział piąty przedstawia i omawia wyniki badania ilościowego, w którym wzięli udział nauczyciele z różnego typu szkół w całej Polsce (N=260). Celem tego badania było sprawdzenie relacji między indywidualnymi i środowiskowymi (instytucjonalnymi / organizacyjnymi) czynnikami a subiektywnym odczuciem dobrostanu w pracy (tj. stresu zawodowego, satysfakcji z pracy, stresu w życiu prywatnym). Rozdział szósty przedstawia wyniki badania jakościowego, dotyczącego zasobów, obciążeń oraz interakcji praca-dom w relacjach polskich nauczycieli języka angielskiego (N=10) pracujących z uczniem dorosłym w prywatnych szkołach językowych. Część empiryczna kończy się rozdziałem siódmym, w którym zawarta jest dyskusja i interpretacja wyników uzyskanych w obu częściach badania. Pracę zamyka podsumowanie, zawierające główne wnioski z badania, słabe strony zastosowanych procedur badawczych oraz implikacje dla nauki i praktyki.
323
RÉSUMÉ L’enseignement, qui exige au quotidien un engagement direct dans les problèmes des étudiants et des relations proches avec eux, se classe au premier rang des professions les plus exposées au stress professionnel. Cette problématique est dans le centre d’intérêt des chercheurs (par exemple Boyle, Borg, Falzon, & Baglioni, 1995 ; Grzegorzewska, 2006 ; Poraj, 2009 ; Steinhardt, Faulk, Gloria, & Smith Jaggars, 2011 ; Liu & Onwuegbuzie, 2012 ; Hultell, Melin, & Gustavsson, 2013). Les recherches sur le burn-out, qui est la conséquence d’un stress professionnel persistant et excessif, parmi les soi-disant « professions d’aide » ont déjà été menées parallèlement aux recherches sur le stress depuis la moitié des années soixante-dix. Ce sujet a été exploré par plusieurs scientifiques (par exemple Maslach, 2000, 2011 ; Pines, 2000 ; Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002 ; Maslach & Leiter, 2008 ; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011). Les recherches sur ce problème sont aussi menées en Pologne (par exemple Sęk, 2000 ; Ogińska-Bulik, 2006 ; Terelak, 2007 ; Tucholska, 2009 ; Pyżalski & Merecz, 2010 ; Chirkowska-Smolak, 2012). La problématique du stress et du burn-out professionnel parmi les enseignants est relativement bien connue, mais elle concerne pourtant principalement les enseignants des écoles primaires, secondaires et spéciales ainsi que – à un moindre degré – les professeurs universitaires. Actuellement, on souligne le fait que le processus d’éducation continue tout au long de la vie, y compris à l’âge adulte. Cela signifie que les enseignants des adultes, y compris les enseignants d’anglais travaillant dans des écoles de langues privées, y occupent un rôle considérable. Cependant, ce groupe professionnel attire peu d’attention, bien qu’il semble spécial pour plusieurs rasions. L’une de celles-ci est la précarité de leur emploi – ces enseignants travaillent dans le cadre d’une activité non salariée, sur la base de conventions de performance ou des contrats de prestation de services. Tout cela aura un impact négatif sur les enseignants des adultes, et donc sur leur apprenants car le bien-être et satisfaction des enseignants peuvent exercer une influence sur la qualité de l’instruction. Les problèmes avec lequel les enseignants des adultes et les soi-disant « travailleurs indépendants » (les enseignants travaillent dans le cadre d’activité non salariée, sur la base de conventions de performance et des contrats de prestation de services) paraissent complètement différents de ceux qui se trouvent dans le travail avec les enfants et les adolescents. Sont-ils une source de stress pour ce groupe professionnel ? Ces personnes se sentent-elles plus 324
surmenées que les autres enseignants ? Le déficit d’études à cet égard empêche les réponses sans équivoque. La connaissance des réponses est essentielle avant de prendre les mesures de prévention ou le nivellement des effets de stress et le syndrome d'épuisement professionnel parmi les enseignants d’anglais. Ces démarches pourraient être la solution de problème à un plus grand degré, si seulement une telle solution existe. L’objectif de cette thèse est la présentation des données sur l’état de science en la matière de stress et de burn-out professionnel ainsi que la discussion de résultats d’étude de deux étapes exécuté sur 260 enseignants d’anglais dans toute la Pologne (étape quantitative) et sur 10 enseignants d’adultes (étape qualitative). Cette étude avait l’intention de remplir un nombre de lacunes en recherche sur le stress et le burn-out parmi les enseignants, notamment : (1) inclure les enseignants d’anglais dans la recherche actuelle sur le stress et le burn-out, (2) prendre en compte les facteurs existant dans le travail des enseignants plus globalement, en considérant également les charges de travail (dont la présence cause le burn-out) et les ressources (dont le manque conduit au burn-out), (3) détecter les facteurs qui contribuent à l’apparition de stress et de burn-out parmi les enseignants d’anglais, avec une attention spéciale adressée aux enseignants des apprenants adultes, (4) explorer les différences dans l’évaluation des conditions de travail parmi les enseignants employés dans des écoles publiques en contrats de travail et les « travailleurs indépendants » qui travaillent dans des centres de langues privés. L’attitude pragmatique dans les investigations ci-dessous est la plus adéquate, ou le problème de recherche dicte le choix de méthodes et de paradigmes (Creswell, 2003). Cette approche épistémologique permet l’examen du problème de façon interdisciplinaire dans le cadre de trois paradigmes théoriques et empiriques : la psychologie du travail (Bańka, 2000a), la psychologie des organisations (Bańka, 2000b) et la pedeutologie (Okoń, 2007). La thèse consiste en sept chapitres, dont trois traitent de la base théorique des sujets respectifs, et les quatre autres présentent les résultats de l’étude empirique menée sur les enseignants d’anglais en Pologne. La partie théorique est ouverte par le premier chapitre, qui constitue une revue sélective de théories sur le stress et le burn-out ainsi que les implications pour leur mesure chez les enseignants d’anglais. Sont présentés dans cette partie les théories sur le stress et le burn-out dans les approches premières et contemporaines, les concepts de stress professionnel et les méthodes de mesure de stress et de burn-out. Le chapitre est fermé par l’examen des conséquences du stress du travail en perspective individuelle et organisationnelle.
325
Le deuxième chapitre trace le contexte de travail des enseignants d’anglais et son caractère générateur de stress. Ce chapitre contient aussi un examen général de la recherche sur stress et le burn-out des enseignants. Le contenu du troisième chapitre est consacré au développement et à la systématisation des facteurs environnementaux (institutionnels / organisationnels) qui génèrent le stress et le burn-out, à savoir les charges de travail (les aspects qui aggravent le bien-être des enseignants) et les ressources (qui favorisent leur bien-être). En ce qui concerne les charges de travail, seront présentés les aspects sociaux-organisationnels, les charges mentales, les charges évoquées par l’environnement physique et les charges sensorielles. Les ressources comprennent les catégories suivantes : organisationnel, économique, les conditions pour le développement professionnel et la communication. A la fin du chapitre, l’attention est attirée sur l’interaction entre le travail et la vie privée. La partie empirique commence au chapitre quatre, qui présente les problèmes et les questions de recherche, parle des caractéristiques des méthodes mixtes et montre le description des méthodes utilisées dans cette étude. Le chapitre cinq présente et analyse les résultats de l’étape quantitative, à laquelle ont participé les enseignants d’écoles diverses, dans toute la Pologne (N=260). L’objectif de cette étape était de vérifier la relation entre les facteurs individuel - environnemental (institutionnels / organisationnels) et le bien-être subjectif au travail (le stress professionnel, la satisfaction professionnelle, le stress dans la vie privée). Le sixième chapitre donne les résultats de l’étape quantitative concernant les ressources, les charges de travail et l’interaction travail-maison en compte-rendu des enseignants d’anglais (N=10) qui travaillent avec des adultes dans des écoles de langues privées en Pologne. La partie empirique finit avec le chapitre sept, dans lequel la discussion et l’interprétation des résultats obtenus dans les deux étapes sont inclus. La thèse se termine par la partie qui amène les conclusions principales, les contraintes de la procédure de la recherche employée et les implications pour la science et la pratique.
326
