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Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 481- 500, 2016

Review Paper

DOLICHOS BEAN (Lablab purpureus L. SWEET, VAR. LIGNOSUS) GENETICS AND BREEDING PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS S. RAMESH AND M. BYREGOWDA Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru - 560 065 ABSTRACT Dolichos bean is a multi-purpose cool-season legume crop. It is presently grown throughout the tropical regions in Asia, Africa and Australia. It is regarded as ‘underutilized’ crop as evidenced by limited area planted to the crop and efforts for genetic improvement. Nevertheless, it can contribute to food security, ecosystem stability and cultural diversity associated with local food habits. Enhancement of its economic value through development of stable and widely adapted high yielding varieties is expected offer competitive edge to dolichos bean to enable its popularity and wider cultivation. Production of dolichos bean is challenged by several factors which include fewer improved varieties and biotic stresses. The objective of this review is to discuss the status of germplasm and its characterization and evaluation, genetics of qualitative and quantitative traits, sources of, and breeding for resistance to insect pests, especially pod borers and diseases, particularly dolichos yellow mosaic virus and anthracnose and the use of DNA markers for detection of genetic variability and linkage map construction for identifying genomic regions controlling economically important traits and challenges ahead for enhancing the pace and efficiency of breeding dolichos bean for higher productivity.

Dolichos bean (Lablab purpureus L.) is a bushy semi-erect herb and belongs to family Fabaceae with 2n=22 chromosomes (Goldblatt, 1981; She and Jiang, 2015). It is predominantly a self pollinated crop (Harland, 1920; Ayyangar and Nambiar 1935; Choudhury et al., 1989; Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989; Kukade and Tidke, 2014). However, insectmediated cross pollination up to 6-10 per cent is reported (Veeraswamy et al., 1973). In India, it is commonly known as Field bean, Hyacinth bean, Country bean, Indian bean, Egyptian bean, Sem, Wal, Avare, Avarai, etc., (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935; Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989). In western countries, it is known as Bonavist bean, possibly due to its ornamental effect in full bloom (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935). It is one of the most ancient among the cultivated legume species-possibly more than 3000 years old (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935). It is presently grown throughout the tropical regions in Asia, Africa and America (Fuller, 2003). It is believed that dolichos bean has originated in India (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935; Nene, 2006), as it is documented by archaeobotanical finds in India from 2000 to 1700 BC at Hallur, the earliest Iron-Age site in Karnataka to 1200 to 300 BC at Veerapuram excavation site in Andhra Pradesh (Fuller, 2003). It is likely that dolichos bean was introduced into China, Western Asia and Egypt from India (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935). Based on the shape and texture of the pods, and the angle of attachment of seeds to the suture of the

pods, two botanical types of dolichos bean are recognized (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935; Magoon et al., 1974). These are (1) Lablab purpureus var. typicus and (2) Lablab purpureus var. lignosus. Lablab purpureus var. typicus produces pods that are flat, longer and more tapering with long axis of seeds parallel to the suture of the pod. It is predominantly grown for soft and fleshy whole pods for use as a vegetable. Due to its twinning habit it is trained on a pendal. Lablab purpureus var. lignosus is bushy type annual. It bears tough firm-walled parchmented pods which are relatively shorter and more abruptly truncated and long axis of the seeds is perpendicular to the suture of the pod. The pods of Lablab purpureus var. lignosus exude oily substances that emit characteristic fragrance, a highly preferred trait by farmers and consumers (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935; Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989). The pod fragrance is largely attributed to occurrence of two dominant fatty acids such as trans-2-dodecenoic and trans-2-tetradecenoic acids (Fernandes and Nagendrappa, 1979; Uday Kumar et al., 2016). It is grown predominantly for fresh beans for use as a vegetable and to a limited extent for split dhal for use in various food preparations (Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989). Fresh pods with immature beans are the harvestable economic products in dolichos bean. Owing to its ability to form a thick vegetative cover on the ground, it is often called as ‘carpet legume’ (Magoon et al., 1974).

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Dolichos bean is highly popular in south Asia, where it is grown in rainfed ecosystems (Rahman et al., 2002; Haque et al., 2003). It is the third most important vegetable in central and south-western parts of Bangladesh with a total production area of 48, 000 ha (Rashid et al., 2007). It is grown commercially in Comilla, Naokhali, Shylhet, Dhaka, Kishoreganj, Tangail, Jassor and Dinajpur districts of Bangaldesh (Jahan et al., 2013). In India, dolichos bean var. Lignosus is primarily grown as a rainfed crop in Karnataka and adjoining districts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra both as an intercrop and pure crop (Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989; Mahadevu and Byregowda, 2005). In pure crop stands, the productivity of dry seed yield is 1.2 t ha -1 (raithamitra.co.in), while, it is 0.4 to 0.5 t ha-1 in intercropping system (Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989). When it is grown for forage, it produces green fodder of 2.20 to 2.75 t ha-1 under rainfed conditions (Magoon et al., 1974). In Karnataka, dolichos bean is grown in an area of 0.65 lakh hectares with a production of 0. 73 lakh t and contributes nearly 90 per cent of both area and production in India (raithamitra.co.in). Despite its importance as a multi-purpose crop and ability to withstand drought better than cowpea (Nworgu and Ajayi, 2005; Ewansiha and Singh, 2006; Maass et al., 2010), and adapt to acidic (Mugwira and Haque, 1993) and saline soils (Murphy and Colucci, 1999), dolichos bean truly qualifies as ‘underutilized’ crop as evidenced by limited area under the crop and efforts for genetic improvement. Nevertheless, it can contribute to food security and better nutrition, increased income to rural poor, ecosystem stability and cultural diversity associated with local food habits. Enhancement of its economic value through development of widely adapted high yielding cultivars is expected offer competitive edge to dolichos bean to enable its popularity and wider cultivation. This requires the availability of diverse genetic resources, their systematic evaluation, identification of useful sources of desired traits, unraveling the inheritance of economic product productivity per se traits and the traits that stabilize the economic product yield and the use of both conventional and genomic tools to combine desired traits. In this article, an effort has been made to discuss the status of research on genetic resources-their collection, conservation, maintenance, characterization and evaluation, genetics of qualitative and quantitative

traits, breeding for productivity per se traits and plant defense traits and the use of genomic tools to complement conventional phenotype-based dolichos bean breeding. 1. Genetic resources Genetic resources are the wealth / treasure of any country for continuous genetic improvement of economically important crops to cater the needs of present and future generations. The efforts to collect, conserve, characterize, evaluate and catalogue dolichos bean genetic resources are far from satisfactory given its multiple economic uses and ability to resist biotic and abiotic stresses. Shivashankar et al. (1971, 1977); Viswanath and Manjunath (1971); Viswanath et al., (1972); Chikkadevaiah et al. (1981) at the University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bengaluru, India have collected, evaluated and catalogued dolichos bean germplasm on a limited scale. Wang et al. (1991) collected 385 selections belonging to 14 legume species including Lablab purpureus in Hainan Island of China during 1987-89 and evaluated them for agronomic characters. Xu-Xiang-shang et al. (1996) collected 32 dolichos bean accessions from Qinling-Bashan mountain region, Sichuan of China. They investigated their area of distribution, cultivation, morphological characteristics and recommended four elite cultivars for commercial production. Pujari (2000) and Shanmugam (2000) have established dolichos bean germplasm consisting of 60 accessions, which included 22 improved varieties and 38 local landraces collected from different districts of Orissa, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh states of India. While these are sporadic and limited attempts, systematic and relatively a more comprehensive efforts to collect, evaluate, catalogue, document and conserve dolichos bean genetic resources in several countries / regions / institutes are summarized in Table I. Thus, largest collection of dolichos bean genetic resources (650 accessions) is held at the University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bengaluru, India. These accessions were characterized and evaluated for vegetative, inflorescence, pod and seed traits. A set of 70 descriptors based on 16 vegetative, 14 inflorescence, 20 pod and 20 seed traits were developed considering the spectrum of variability for these traits following the guidelines of Bioversity International (Byregowda et al., 2015). A few of these are based on easily field assayable and simply inherited (single / oligogenic) descriptors such as growth habit,

DOLICHOS BEAN GENETICS AND BREEDING

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TABLE I Summary of dolichos bean germplasm maintained in different countries / regions / institutes of the World Number of Accessions

Countries / regions / Institute South America

134

Source BI (2008)

North America at United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

52

GRIN (2009)

Europe

82

BI (2008); IPK (2009); VIR (2009)

Oceania including Australia at Common Wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)

104

BI (2008)

China

410

BI (2008)

Philippines

209

Engle and Altoveros (2000)

Taiwan at Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC)

423

AVRDC (2009)

South-east Asia (countries other than Bangladesh and India)

82

BI (2008); NIAS (2009)

Bangladesh

551

Islam (2008)

India at National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi

221

BI (2008)

South Asia Ethiopia including International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

93 223

BI (2008) BI (2008)

Kenya

403

BI (2008)

67

BI (2008)

Sub-Saharan Africa including International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bengaluru, India

pod curvature, flower colour (Raut and Patil, 1985; Rao, 1987; Girish and Byregowda, 2009; Keerthi et al., 2014a; Keerthi et al., 2016) and seed traits (Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1936 a & b; Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1941; Patil and Chavan, 1961; D’ cruz and Ponnaiya, 1968). These descriptors could be used as diagnostic markers of germplasm accessions for maintaining their identity and purity. They help minimize duplication and avoid mistakes in labeling the germplasm accessions and thereby enable their easy retrieval from the collection. They are also useful in conducting Distinctness (D), Uniformity (U) and Stability (S) test, a mandatory requirement for protecting varieties under Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPA & FR) Act of India and such other similar acts that are vogue in other countries (Byregowda et al., 2015).

650

Byregowda et al. (2015); Vaijayanthi et al. (2015a)

Considering that the genetic resources held at UAS, Bengaluru is unwieldy for precise characterization and evaluation and possibility of occurrence of duplicates due to repeated sampling of same accession and / or assigning different names / identity to the same accession, a core set consisting of 64 accessions was developed at UAS, Bengaluru (Vaijayanthi et al., 2015 b and c) using PowerCore (v. 1.0) software, a program that applies advanced M-strategy with a heuristic search (Kim et al., 2007). The core set retained more than 90 per cent of quantitative traits variability and polymorphism of qualitative traits in the base collection of 644 accessions. The core set is suggested for evaluation across target production environments and years to identify widely / specifically adapted and stable accessions to foster enhanced access and use of

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dolichos bean germplasm in cultivar development. In similar efforts to reduce size and possible duplicates, Bruce and Maass (2001) in Ethiopia and Islam et al., (2014) in Bangladesh also developed core sets of 47 and 36 accessions from the base collections of 251 and 484 accessions, respectively. The core sets are considered as first look sources of genetic resources for use in crop improvement programs. The availability of core sets is expected to result in enhanced utilization of genetic resources in crop breeding programmes which is the key to develop cultivars with broad genetic base which contribute to sustainable production of dolichos bean. Based on two years (2012 and 2014) of evaluation of core set, promising traits-specific accessions (Table II) and those promising for multi-traits (Table III) have been identified at UAS, Bengaluru (Vaijayanthi et al., 2016a). The accessions promising for multi-traits were evaluated in multi-locations representing eastern, southern and central dry zones of Karnataka during 2015 to identify those widely / specifically adaptable to the three agro-climatic zones. The accessions such as GL 250, FPB 35 and Kadalavare were found widely adaptable to the three agro-climatic zones of Karnataka with relatively high fresh pod yield (Vaijayanthi et al., 2016 b). These accessions are

suggested for preferential use in breeding dolichos bean varieties widely adaptable to the three agro-climatic zones of Karnataka. 2. Genetics A. Qualitative traits Several researchers have reported the number and mode of action of genes controlling easily observable / assayable stem and growth habit traits (Table IV), leaf traits (Table V) inflorescence traits (Table VI), pod traits (Table VII) and seed traits (Table VIII) in dolichos bean. These traits are controlled by one to four genes. Linkage between the genes controlling qualitative traits: Joint segregation analysis indicated independent segregation of genes controlling direction of inter-nodal hairs, pod width, orientation of dry pods on the branches and seed colour (Patil and Chavan, 1961). On the contrary, genes controlling pod width and seed shape and those controlling orientation of dry pods and nature of pod surface are closely kinked without recovery of recombinants (Patil and Chavan, 1961). Patil and Chavan (1961) attributed non-recovery of recombinants to possible pleiotropic effect of a single gene in the inheritance of pod width, seed shape,

TABLE II Promising trait-specific accessions in a core set of dolichos bean germplasm Selection criteria

Range

Days to 50 per cent flowering

Earliness

40-50

HA-11-3, GL 326, HA-12-9, GL 432, GL 661

Primary branches plant-1

High

5.5-7.5

GL 621, GL 199, GL 147, GL 228, GL 110, GL 12, GL 252, GL 205, GL 606, GL 527

Racemes plant-1

High

9-15

GL 326, GL 142, GL 205, GL 447, GL 12, GL 530, GL 606, GL 199, GL 110, GL 438, GL 412

Fresh pods plant-1

High

30-50

GL 447, FPB 35, GL 576, GL 418, KA, GL 142, GL 633, GL 527, GL 250, GL 66, GL 444

Fresh pod yield plant-1 (g)

High

150-250

GL 576, FPB 35, GL 527, GL 447, GL 142, GL 441, GL 66, GL 12, GL 418, GL 579

Fresh seed yield plant-1 (g)

High

90-120

FPB 35, GL 576, GL 527, GL 142, GL 447, GL 12

100 fresh seed weight (g)

High

60-85

GL 441, GL 6, GL 12, HA-12-9, GL 579, GL 142, GL 527, GL 68, GL 658, GL 66, GL 439, FPB 35

Traits

Germplasm accessions

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TABLE III Promising accessions identified for multiple traits in a core set of dolichos bean germplasm Identity of accessions

Geographical origin

Traits

GL 576

Maharashtra

Fresh pods plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1, fresh seed yield plant-1

GL 110

Tamil Nadu

Primary branches plant-1, racemes plant-1

GL 527

Andhra Pradesh

Primary branches plant-1, fresh pods plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1, fresh seed yield plant-1

GL 447

Unknown

Racemes plant-1, fresh pods plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1, fresh seed yield plant-1

GL 142

Karnataka

Racemes plant-1, fresh pods plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1, fresh seed yield plant-1, 100 fresh seed weight

GL 441

Unknown

Fresh pod yield plant-1, 100 fresh seed weight

FPB 35

Karnataka

Fresh pods plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1, fresh seed yield plant-1, 100 fresh seed weight.

GL 66

Karnataka

Fresh pods plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1,100 fresh seed weight

GL 12

Karnataka

Racemes plant-1, fresh pod yield plant-1, fresh seed yield plant-1, 100 fresh seed weight.

orientation of dry pods and nature of pod surface. Raut and Patil (1985) reported a close linkage between genes controlling stem colour and flower colour and that between genes controlling flower colour and leaf margin with recombination of 3.01 and 2.13 per cent, respectively. The genes controlling photoperiod sensitivity and petiole colour are linked with recombination of 33.16 per cent and those controlling petiole colour and growth habit and photoperiod sensitivity and growth habit are also linked with recombination of 32.92 and 6.14 per cent, respectively (Rao, 1987). The genes controlling growth habit and photoperiod sensitivity are linked with recombination of 7.82 per cent (Rao, 1987). On the other hand, genes controlling photoperiod sensitivity and stem colour, growth habit and stem colour segregated independently (Rao, 1987). While, the genes controlling photoperiod sensitivity and growth habit, photoperiod sensitivity and raceme emergence from the foliage and growth habit and raceme emergence from the foliage are linked in coupling phases with recombination of 29, 24 and 21 per cent, respectively, those controlling flower colour and pod curvature are un-linked (Keerthi et al., 2016). The qualitative traits controlled by single / oligogenes could be used to identify true F1s, to rule out the possibility of selfing due to occurrence of pollination

before opening of the flowers (Harland, 1920; Ayyangar and Nambiar, 1935; Kukade and Tidke, 2014). B. Quantitative traits Jacob (1981) reported partial dominance with duplicate type of epistasis for green pod yield plant-1 and predominance of additive gene action for seed yield plant-1. Rao (1981) reported importance of all the three types of gene action (additive, dominance and epistasis) in different proportions in the inheritance of pod yield plant-1, pods plant-1, seed yield plant-1, raceme length, pods raceme -1 and plant height. Muralidharan (1980) reported complementary epistasis with preponderance of dominance genetic variance (σ2D) in the inheritance of seed yield, while, Reddy et al., (1992) documented preponderance of additive genetic variance (σ2A) for number of pods plant-1. Khondker and Newaz (1998) reported predominant role of σ2A in the inheritance of days to flower, pod width, seeds pod-1 and 20-pods weight. On the other hand, traits such as number of inflorescences plant-1, pods inflorescence-1 and pod yield plant-1 were mostly governed by σ2D. Sakina and Newaz (2003) in dolichos bean reported preponderance of σ2A in the inheritance of

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TABLE IV Summary of genetics of growth habit and stem traits in dolichos bean Trait and its different states Orientation of stem inter - nodal hairs Upwards / downwards

Number of genes and F2 ratio Single 3 downward: 1 upward

Mode of action

Reference

Downward > upward

Ayyangar and Nambiar (1935)

Single 3 downward: 1 upward

Downward > upward

Patil and Chavan (1961)

Stem pigmentation on nodes and internodes

Three 27 pigmented: 37non-pigmneted

Pigmented > non-pigmented complementary epistasis

Manjunath et al. (1973)

Growth habit Spreading / compact

Single 3Spreading : 1 compact

Spreading > compact

Rao (1987)

Growth habit Erect /Prostrate

Three (1 basic and two complementary genes) 57 Erect: 7 Prostrate

Erect > Prostrate

Girish and Byregowda (2009)

Growth habit Determinate / indeterminate

Two / Three 9 Indeterminate: 7determinate (two complementary genes) 57 Indeterminate: 7 determinate (1 basic and two complementary genes)

Indeterminate > determinate Complementary epistasis

Keerthi et al. (2014a) Keerthi et al. (2016)

Stem colour Purple / green

Single 3 Purple: 1 green

Purple > green

Raut and Patil (1985)

Stem colour Purple / green

Three (1 basic and two complementary genes) 57 Purple: 7 green

Purple > green Complementary epistasis

Rao (1987)

Orientation of stem internodal hairs Upwards/downwards

all the characters considered for the study. They also documented the presence of complete dominance in controlling flowering time and partial dominance for raceme plant-1 and number of flowers raceme-1. Alam and Newaz (2005) reported the importance of both σ2A and σ2D in the expression of flower and pod traits. Raihan and Newaz (2008) also documented the

importance of both σ2A and σ2D with a preponderance of σ2A in the expression of all the traits except number of inflorescences plant-1. Desai et al., (2013) also reported preponderance of σ2 A for all the traits considered for the study except days to 50 per cent flowering and number of pods cluster-1. Das et al. (2014) reported the importance of σ2A in the inheritance

DOLICHOS BEAN GENETICS AND BREEDING

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TABLE V Summary of genetics of leaf traits in dolichos bean Trait and its different states

Number of genes and F2 ratio

Mode of action

Reference

Leaf margin colour Purple / green

Single 3 Purple: 1 green

Purple > green

Raut and Patil (1985)

Leaf vein colour Purple / green

Two 9 Purple: 7 green

Purple > green Complementary epistasis

Raut and Patil (1985)

Petiole colour Purple / green

Two 9 Purple: 7 green

Purple > green Complementary epistasis

Rao (1987)

Leaf colour Dark green / green

Three complementary genes 54 Dark green: 10 green Two 9 Rough:7smooth

Dark green > green Complementary epistasis

Girish and Byregowda (2009)

Rough > smooth Complementary epistasis

Girish and Byregowda (2009)

Leaf texture Rough / smooth

TABLE VI Summary of genetics of inflorescence traits in dolichos bean Trait and its different states

Number of genes and F2 ratio

Photoperiod sensitivity to flowering Sensitive / insensitive

Single 3 sensitive: 1 insensitive

Photoperiod sensitivity to flowering Sensitive / insensitive

Mode of action

Reference

Sensitivity > insensitivity

Rao (1987)

Single 3 sensitive: 1 insensitive

Sensitivity > insensitivity

Prashanti (2005)

Photoperiod sensitivity to flowering Sensitive / insensitive

Single 3 sensitive: 1 insensitive

Sensitivity > insensitivity

Keerthi et al. (2014a) Keerthi et al. (2016)

Flower colour Purple / white

Single 3 purple: 1 white

Purple > white

Raut and Patil 1985)

Flower colour Purple / white

Single 3 purple: 1 white

Purple > white

Keerthi et al. (2016)

Raceme emergence from foliage Emerge out of the foliage / remain within the foliage

Two 13 emerge out of the foliage : 3 remain within the foliage

Emergence > remaining within the foliage Inhibitory epistasis

Keerthi et al. (2016)

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TABLE VII Summary of reported genetics of pod traits in dolichos bean Trait and its different states

Number of genes and F2 ratio

Mode of action

Reference

Orientation of dry pods to branches Erect / drooping

Single 3 erect: 1 dropping

Erect > dropping

Ayyangar and Nambiar (1935)

Width of pods Medium / narrow narrow

Single 3 medium: 1

Medium width > narrow width

Ayyangar and Nambiar (1935)

Pod width Broad / narrow

Single 3 Broad : 1 narrow

Broad > narrow

Patil and Chavan (1961)

Nature of surface of narrow pods Septate / non-septate

Single 3 septate: 1 non-septate

Septate > non-septate

Ayyangar and Nambiar (1935)

Pod position after drying Erect / drooping

Two 15 Erect : 1 dropping

Erect > dropping Duplicate dominant

Patil and Chavan (1961)

Nature of pod surface Smooth / shriveled

Two 15 Smooth : 1 shriveled

Smooth > shriveled Duplicate dominant

Patil and Chavan (1961)

Pod colour Green / light green

Single 3 green: 1 light green

Green > light green

D’ cruz and Ponnaiya (1968)

Pod shape Flat / bloated

Single 3 flat: 1 blaoted

Flat > bloated

D’ cruz and Ponnaiya (1968)

Pod curvature Straight / curved

Four Two complementary, one inhibitory and one anti-inhibitory 117 straight: 139 curved

Curved > straight Two complementary, one inhibitory and one anti-inhibitory

Girish and Byregowda (2009)

Pod curvature Straight / curved

Two 9 straight : 7 curved

Straight > curved complementary, epistasis

Keerthi et al. (2016)

Pod fragrance High / low

Two 13 high : 3 low

High > low Inhibitory epistasis Girish and Byregowda (2009)

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TABLE VIII Summary of reported genetics of seed traits in dolichos bean Trait and its different states

Number of genes and F2 ratio

Mode of action

Reference

Seed coat colour Khaki / Chocolate / black / brown

Single / Two 9Khaki:3 Chocolate:

Khaki > chocolate > black > buff Supplementary epistasis

Ayyangar and Nambiar (1936 a & b) Ayyangar and Nambiar (1941)

Seed shapeRound / flat

Single 3 Flat: 1Round

3 Flat > 1Round

Patil and Chavan (1961)

Seed colourRed / white

Single 3 Red: 1white

Red > 1white

Patil and Chavan (1961)

Seed coat colour Chocolate / brown

Single 3 chocolate: 1 brown

Chocolate > brown

D’ Cruz and Ponnaiya (1968)

of number of inflorescences plant-1 and number of nodes inflorescence -1. On the contrary, length of inflorescence, number of pods inflorescence-1, pod length and number of seeds pod-1 were influenced by σ2D, while the characters such as days to 50 per cent flowering, number of pods plant-1, pod weight and pod yield plant-1 were controlled by both σ2A and σ2D. Keerthi et al., (2015) reported the predominance of σ 2 A in the inheritance of racemes plant -1 and predominance of σ2D in the inheritance of pod weight plant-1. Only σ2A was important in the inheritance of days to flowering and seed weight plant-1. Further, Keerthi et al., (2015) documented not only important role of epistasis but also significant bias in the estimates of both σ2A and ó2D for most of the traits investigated. It is therefore not advisable to ignore epistasis in studies designed to estimate σ2A and σ2D controlling quantitative traits. Identification and non-inclusion of the genotypes that contribute significantly to epistasis could be a better strategy to obtain unbiased estimates σ2A and σ2D. Selection based on unbiased estimates σ2A and σ2D is expected to be reliable and effective. Alternatively, one or two cycles of bi-parental matings in the F2 generation is expected to dissipate epistasis and selection will be effective (Chandrakant et al., 2005). Further, considering that direct selection for pod yield is less effective due to its complex inheritance, field-assayable and highly heritable traits such as primary branches plant -1, racemes plant-1, raceme length and pods racemes-1 have been suggested for use as surrogates of selection for pod yield in dolichos

bean (Chandrakant et al., 2015; Showkath Babu et al., 2016). 3. Breeding A. Productivity per se traits Dolichos bean has evolved as highly photoperiod sensitive crop requiring long-nights (short-days) for switching over from vegetative to reproductive phase (Ayyangar and Nambiar 1935; Schaaffhausen, 1963; Vishwanath et al., 1971; Kim et al., 1992; Kim and Okubo 1995; Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989). Photoperiod is one of the two important environmental factors that influence adaptation of dolichos bean through its effect on days to flowering. Photoperiod influences the duration of vegetative phase v s. reproductive phase, partitioning of photosynthates and hence crop yield. Most of the varieties grown by farmers are landraces which are highly photoperiod sensitive (PS) and display indeterminate growth habit. Indeterminacy is advantageous for subsistence production of dolichos bean as it enables harvesting of pods in several pickings ensuring continuous availability of pods for longer time. However, market– led economy has necessitated the production of dolichos bean throughout the year and development of cultivars with synchronous pod bearing ability to enable single harvest which is possible only from photoperiod insensitive cultivars (PIS) with a determinate growth habit (Keerthi et al., 2014 b; Keerthi et al., 2016). Hence, major emphasis /

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objective of dolichos bean breeding has been to develop PIS determinate cultivars. When using PIS cultivars, farmers can control date of flowering and hence, maturity simply by either varying the sowing date or choosing cultivars with different heat–unit requirements. However, selection for photoperiod insensitivity most often result in reduced vegetative phase, fewer branches, racemes and pods and hence, reduced economic product yield. Although, yields of such PIS varieties could be maximized by high density planting (Vishwanth et al., 1971; Shivashankar and Kulkarni, 1989), developing PIS varieties with a minimum of 45 days from seedling emergence to early blooming would enable vegetative growth adequate enough to produce acceptable economic product yield even under normal density of planting as is practiced for PS cultivars (Keerthi et al., 2016). Being highly self-pollinated crop with non-availability of pollination control system, pure-line is the only cultivar option for commercial production of dolichos bean (Keerthi et al., 2015).

Currently, in India, the most active dolichos bean var. Lignosus breeding programmes are being carried out at UAS, Bengaluru (Mahadevu and Byregowda, 2005; Girish and Byregowda, 2009). In Bangladesh, dolichos bean breeding is being carried out in Mymensingh (Alam and Neewaz, 2005; Nahar and Newaz, 2005; Arifin et al., 2005). These programmes are aimed at developing improved photoperiod insensitive determinate pure-line varieties for roundthe-year production of dolichos bean for food use. On the other hand, in India at Indian Grass Land and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) (Magoon et al., 1974) and in Australia (Whitbread and Pengelly 2004), dolichos bean breeding programmes are focused towards developing pure-line varieties for fodder use. In Australia, the strategy is to combine the traits of wide-spread forage variety, Rongai with those of African wild perennial germplasm accessions (Whitbread and Pengelly, (2004). Some of the varieties developed for food and fodder use in India, China, Australia and USA are summarized in Tables IX and X.

TABLE IX Summary of dolichos bean grain purpose varieties developed for commercial production Varieties Grain purpose Hebbal Avare (HA) 1

Pedigree

Location

Source

Photo period sensitive local land race × photoperiod insensitive red typicus HA 1 × US 67-31 (an introduction from USDA HA 3 × Magadi local (photoperiod insensitive)

University of Agricultural Sciences Vishwanath et al. (1971) (UAS), Bengaluru, India

Selections 1 & 2

Not reported

Koala

Selection from accession introduced from France to Australia as Q 6680 Not reported

Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR), Bengaluru, India Australia

HA 3 HA 4

IPSA Seam -1 & IPSA Seam -2 Xiangbiandou 1 RioVerde

Not reported Not reported

UAS, Bengaluru, India

Shivashankar et al. (1975)

UAS, Bengaluru, India

Hiremath et al. (1979); Mahadevu and Byregowda (2005) Anon. (1988)

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh China USA

Holland and Mullen (1995)

Rokhsana et al. (2006)

Peng et al. (2001) Smith et al. (2008)

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491

TABLE X Summary of dolichos bean forage varieties developed for commercial production Varieties

Pedigree

Location

Source

IGFRI -1- S - 2214 and IGFRI-1-S-2218

Not reported

IGFRI, India

Magoon et al. (1974)

Rongai

Pure-line selection from germplasm accession, CPI 17883 introduced from Kenya

Australia

Wilson and Murtagh (1962)

Endurance

Rongai × African wild perennial germplasm accession, CPI 24973

Australia

Liu (1998)

Highworth

Pure-line selection from germplasm accession, CPI 30212 introduced from south India to Australia

Australia

Liu (1998)

Traditionally farmers in southern Karnataka, India are using long duration highly photoperiod sensitive landrace varieties for dolichos bean production. Due to their high photoperiod sensitivity, production and hence, availability of dolichos bean is restricted only to the seasons characterized by short days. However, with the availability of photoperiod insensitive HA 3 and HA 4 varieties, dolichos bean is being produced round-the year and hence, dolichos bean is available throughout the year. The pods of HA 4 fetch premium price in the market as they emit characteristic fragrance, a trait highly preferred by consumers. Similarly, IPSA Seam -1 and IPSA Seam - 2 could be grown during both hot / dry and humid / cooler seasons ensuring the availability of dolichos bean round-theyear in Bangladesh (Rokhsana et al., 2006). Contrary to South Asia, the production of dolichos bean is limited to gardens in eastern Africa (Nagilo et al., 2003). However, Ewansiha et al., (2007) have identified dolichos bean germplasm accessions with acceptable grain and forage yields for use in cereal-legumelivestock systems in the moist savannah zone of West Africa (Maass et al., 2010). B. Biotic stresses Insect pests Of the several biotic stresses, anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) and dolichos yellow mosaic virus (DVMV) diseases and pod borers (Heliothis armigera and Adisura atkinsoni) and bruchids (Callasobruchus theobrome) are major production constraints in dolichos bean. Among pod borers, Adisura atkinsoni are dominant ones (Chakravarthy, 1983). While pod borers cause damage in the field, bruchid cause

damage both in field and storage. Losses to these pod borers and bruchids could be up to 100 per cent. Breeding for resistance to these insect pests is currently limited to screening and identification of resistance sources in germplasm and breeding lines. Chakravarthy and Lingappa (1986) identified two stable sources of resistance to larval boring and to pod borers in field and laboratory conditions based on screening of 111 dolichos accessions. The two sources of resistance to pod borers exhibited significant degree of antibiosis as demonstrated by reduced larval survival, larval and pupal weights, prolonged larval duration and altered sex ratio (Chakravarthy and Lingappa, 1988). Combined effect pod colour, pubescence and fragrance appeared to be associated with resistance response. However, none of pod colour, pubescence and fragrance per se imparted resistance to pod borers. The accessions highly resistant to pod borers were highly susceptible to aphid infestation (Chakravarthy and Lingappa, 1988). Jagadeesh Babu et al. (2008) identified germplasm accessions such as GL 1, GL 24, GL 61, GL 69, GL 82, GL 89, GL 196, GL 121, GL 135, GL 412, and GL 413 with < 10 per cent insect damage as resistant to pod borers (Heliothis armigera and Adisura atkinsoni) and bruchids (Collosobruchus chinensis) based on two years (2004 and 2005) of field sowing of 133 germplasm accessions. Based on laboratory screening of 28 selected germplasm accessions under no choice conditions, Rajendra Prasad et al. (2013) identified resistant accessions, GL 77, GL 233 and GL 63 with least seed damages of 13.4 per cent, 14.69 per cent and 18.34 per cent, respectively (Rajendra Prasad et al., 2013).

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During 2007 and 2008 at UAS, Bengaluru, another set of 132 germplasm accessions were screened for responses to infestation by Helicoverpa armigera and Adisura atkinsoni and bruchids. Pod damage due to Helicoverpa ranged from 1.8 (GL 187) to 36.8 per cent (GL 9), while Adisura infestation varied from 0.5 (GL 55) to 7.9 per cent (GL 14) and Bruchids infestation ranged from 0.6 (GL 187) to 40 per cent (GL 37). The average infestation of germpalsm accessions by Helicoverpa was 18 per cent followed by bruchids with 12.1 per cent and by Adisura with 3.1 per cent (Table XI). The infestation by Helicoverpa was < 10 per cent in 13 accessions, while, that by bruchids was < 10 per cent in 42 accessions and by Adisura was 50

-

-

-

Total

132

132

132

Diseases Dolichos yellow mosaic virus (DYMV) is caused by Gemini virus and transmitted by whitefly (Capoor and Verma, 1950). The disease is characterized by yellow to bright yellow patches and vein clearing on leaves (Maruthi et al., 2006). Initially a few yellow patches are seen on the leaf lamina, but, later on the entire leaf becomes yellow (Raj et al., 1989). The disease causes up to 80 per cent crop loss (Muniyappa et al., 2003). As is true with insect pests, breeding dolichos bean for DYMV resistance is confined to identification of resistance sources. Singh et al. (2012) identified VRSEM 894, VRSEM 887 and VRSEM 860 as resistance to DYMV among 300 germplasm accessions based on initial field screening under natural infection followed by screening of 34 symptomless accessions using sap inoculation in field condition (Rai et al., 2015). Rajesha et al., (2010) screened 195 genotypes of dolichos bean against anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum under field conditions. They identified nine genotypes, such as GLB 3, GLB 4, GLB 8, GLB 9, GLB 11, GLB 19, GLB 60, GLB 166 and GLB 167 that were immune; 48 genotypes resistant and 83 genotypes moderately resistant to the disease. Deshmukh et al., (2012) screened 44 genotypes which included varieties and germplasm accessions of dolichos bean for responses to anthracnose infection under conditions and identified three varieties and two germplasm accessions resistant to the disease. C. Abiotic stresses Dolichos bean has better inherent capacity to withstand moisture stress than the comparable legumes such as cowpea, horse gram, etc. (Nworgu and Ajayi, 2005; Ewansiha and Singh, 2006; Maass et al. 2010) and adapt to acidic (Mugwira and Haque, 1993) and saline soils (Murphy and Colucci, 1999). With its deep root system, dolichos bean is not only drought tolerant (Kay, 1979; Cameron, 1988; Hendricksen and Minson, 1985), but, also has the ability to harvest soil minerals which otherwise not available for annual crops (Schaaffhausen, 1963 a &b). In the event of imminent extremities of abiotic stresses driven by climate change (IPCC, 2007), dolichos bean would be a better alternative to popular legumes. Thus, breeding and enhancing the economic value of dolichos bean would provide competitive edge to dolichos bean producers and enable preparing for unfriendly agriculture production climate. In this backdrop, dolichos bean is

DOLICHOS BEAN GENETICS AND BREEDING

- PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

regarded as one of the future crops for sustainable agricultural production. The reported research on breeding dolichos bean for resistance to abiotic stresses is limited. 4. Use of genomic tools Use of genomic tools such as DNA markers in dolichos bean breeding in still in infancy as they are not available. Nevertheless, sequence independent marker systems such as RAPD and AFLP have been used to detect and characterize genetic variation among germplasm accessions and breeding lines. Reported literature on the use of DNA markers in analysis of genetic variability is summarized in Table XIII. Most of the studies on genetic diversity analysis are based on RAPD and AFLP. However, the information obtained from these markers is not reliable due to their poor reproducibility. Hence, sequence dependent simple sequence repeat (SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) are highly preferred by researchers owing to their simple inheritance and amenability for automation and high reproducibility. The use of cross species / genera SSR markers in

493

crops where they are not available is considered as the most cost effective strategy as de novo development of SSR markers is both expensive and time consuming. Taking cue from several successful examples of cross transferability of SSR markers, Yao et al., (2012) demonstrated that all tested EST-SSR markers from soybean were cross transferable to dolichos bean although only 16 per cent of them could differentiate the genotypes. At UAS, Bengaluru, transferability of SSR markers from cowpea, soybean, Medicago truncatula, greengram and chickpea to dolichos bean was examined and the results (Shivakumar and Ramesh, 2015; Uday Kumar et al., 2016) are summarized in Tables XIV and XV. Transferable SSR markers help enrich marker resources for various applications in dolichos bean genetics and breeding research such as (1) characterize and assess genetic variability in working germplasm and /or breeding lines, (2) fingerprint to identify duplicate germplasm accessions, (3) fingerprint varieties for protecting IPR and (4) Select genetically diverse genotype for effecting crosses to generate variability to identify genotypes with best combination of traits.

TABLE XIII Summary of DNA marker-based genetic diversity analysis in dolichos bean Genetic material used

Marker used

References

CSIRO: 40 accessions

RAPD

Liu (1996)

Mapping population from cross of two CSIRO accessions

RFLP, RAPD

Konduri et al. (2000 a & b)

Bangladesh / Japan germplasm + 60 CSIRO accessions

RAPD

Sultana et al. (2000)

Mapping population for comparative mapping with mungbean (Vigna radiata)

RFLP

Humphry et al. (2002)

USDA > 30 germplasm accessions

SSR

Wang et al. (2004)

103 CSIRO accessions

AFLP

Maass et al. (2005)

11 varieties from Hunan province of China

RAPD

Tian et al. (2005)

12 landraces from southern India

RAPD

Gnanesh et al. (2006)

Mostly core collection (28 accessions) + Tanzanian landraces

AFLP

Tefera (2006)

62 landraces collected from southern India and core collection accessions

AFLP, SSR

Venkatesha et al. (2007)

USDA: 47 accessions

SSR

Wang et al. (2007)

40 accessions from India

AFLP

Patil et al. (2009)

10 insect tolerant and susceptible landraces from India

RAPD

Sujithra et al. (2009)

Mapping population from cross of two Chinese accessions

RAPD

Yuan et al. (2009)

50 Kenya accessions

AFLP

Kinmani et al. (2012)

30 Indian accessions

RAPD

Rai et al. (2010)

494

S. RAMESH AND M. BYREGOWDA

TABLE XIV Per cent transferability of cross legume crop species / genera genomic / EST-SSR markers to dolichos bean Crop

Total number of markers used

Number of markers amplified

% Transferability

Conditional probability that a given cross species / genera SSR markers transferable to dolichos bean is from a particular crop

Cowpea

150

50

33.33

0.40

Soybean

90

48

53.33

0.38

Medicago truncatula

12

10

83.33

0.08

Greengram

14

11

78.57

0.09

Chickpea

09

07

77.77

0.06

275

126

45.81

Total

Shivakumar and Ramesh (2015)

TABLE XV Crop and repeat motifs based distribution of amplified cross legume species / genera SSR markers in dolichos bean Crop

Number of markers used

Number of markers amplified

Per cent amplification

Length of repeat motifs di -

Tri - Tetra - Complex -

Soybean

65

29

44.61

26

-

-

03

Medicago trunculata

12

02

16.66

-

01

01

-

Green gram

14

08

57.14

04

01

02

01

Chickpea

10

04

16.66

01

01

-

02

100

43

43.00

31

03

03

06

Total

Uday Kumar et al. (2016)

Besides analysis of genetic diversity, DNA markers have also been to develop linkage map, a prelude to identify DNA markers linked to genomic regions controlling target traits. The linked markers after validation could be used for marker assisted selection of target traits to enhance the pace and efficiency of breeding dolichos bean. The first ever linkage map consisting of 127 RFLP and RAPD markers using 119 F2 mapping population derived from Rongai × CPI 24973 cross was developed by Konduri et al. (2000 a & b). The map comprised of 17 linkage groups with a total length of 1610 cM and an average of 7 cM between markers. The

comparison of dolichos bean linkage map with that of mungbean revealed a high level of co-linearity between the two genomes (Humphry et al., 2002). 5. Future prospects The expected increased incidence of existing and emergence of new biotic and abiotic stresses driven by imminent climate change (IPCC 2007) warrants accelerated breeding for these production constraints. This necessitates screening of released varieties and advanced breeding lines to identify those resistant to these production constraints for use in commercial production as a short-term strategy. Germplasm accessions’ screening, identification and their use in

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breeding for resistance to these production constraints would be a long-term strategy to address increased incidence of existing and anticipated production constraints.

AYYANGAR, G. N. R. AND NAMBIAR, K. K. K., 1936b, Studies in Dolichos lablab (Roxb.) (L.) - The Indian field and Garden bean. Proc. III. Indian Acad. Sci., 4 (5) : 411 - 433.

There is need for deployment of genomic tools such as DNA markers especially SSR and SNP markers to enhance the pace and precision of breeding dolichos bean for all economically important traits. Large number of SSR and SNP markers should be identified and validated given the small genome size and less expensive whole genome sequencing. The SSR and SNP markers should be routinely used for discovery of quantitative traits loci controlling economically important traits followed by genomic selection to complement phenotype-based selection to enhance the pace and efficiency of dolichos bean breeding. Genome sequencing help identify novel and useful genes through genome analysis with comparable and extensively researched legumes such as soybean and Medicago spp., and introgression into elite agronomic background. This review would benefit all those who are interested in dolichos bean breeding.

AYYANGAR, G. N. R. AND NAMBIAR, K. K. K., 1941, Studies in Dolichos lablab (Roxb.) (L.) - The Indian field and Garden bean. IV. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 15 (2) : 95 - 113.

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Africa and Australia. ACIAR Proc. No. 115, Canberra, Australia, pp 180. WILSON, G. P. AND MURTAGH, G. H., 1962, Lablab-New forage crop for the north coast. New South Wales Agricultural Gazette. 73 : 460 - 462. XI, Z. AND TANG, H., 2006, Xiangbiandous Dolichos lablab RAPD fingerprint construction. J. Hunan Univ. Arts sci., (Natural science). X U -XIANGSHANG, TEHG YOU DE, CHEN XUE QUN, TENG, Y. D. AND C HEN , X. Q., 1996, Germplasm resources of Dolichos lablab in north-eastern and south-western China. Crop Genetic Resources, 3 : 20 - 21. YAO, L. M., ZHANG, L. D., HU, Y. L., WANG, B. AND WU, T. L., 2012, Characterization of novel soybean derived simple sequence repeat markers and their transferability in hyacinth bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet]. Indian J. Genet., 72 (1) : 46 - 53. YUAN, J., YANG, R. AND WU, T., 2009, Bayesian mapping QTL for fruit and growth phonological traits in Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet. African J. Biotech., 8 (2) : 167 - 175.

(Received : May, 2016 Accepted : August, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 501-506, 2016

Research Paper

Effect of Quantity and Frequency of Distillery Spent Wash Application on Changes of Physico-Chemical Profile during Bioconversion of Pressmud using Lingo-Cellulolytic Microorganisms R. MUTHURAJU Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065

ABSTRACT A laboratory experiment was conducted to study the effect of quantity and frequency of distillery spent wash application on changes of physic-chemical properties viz., pH, EC, organic carbon, C / N ratio and nutrient content of pressmud compost during 30, 60, 90 and 120 days of composting. This experiment was carried out at UAS, Bangalore with three ratios (quantity) of 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 and four intervals (frequency) of spent wash application viz., daily once, once in two days, once in three days and once in four days. Totally, there were twelve treatments with three replications. Composting was carried out in plastic containers by using 10 kg of pressmud as substrate. The consortium of ligno-cellulolytic microorganisms was inoculated layer by layer at the rate of 2.5 kg per ton of substrate. The initial quantity of spent wash added was equivalent to maintain the moisture level approximately at 60 per cent level. The remaining quantity of spent wash was distributed up to 60 days of composting by adding equal quantity to each container once in two days. Composting was carried out for 120 days by regularly turning the materials once in 15 days and maintaining the moisture approximately at 60 per cent level by adding water under controlled conditions. Samples were drawn at random during 30, 60, 90 and 120 days of composting from all the treatments and analyzed for various physic-chemical properties. From the results it was observed that a substrate to spent wash ratio of 1:3 at an application frequency of two days was the best treatment compared to all the other treatments.

INDIA is one of the largest producers and consumers of sugar in the world. Among the Indian agro-based industries, sugar industries are the most important, which contribute substantially to the economic development of the country by providing employment opportunities both directly and indirectly. 579 sugar industries in the country produce 19.0 million tons of sugar by crushing 145 million tons of sugarcane. They produce 7.0 million tons of pressmud, 7.5 million tons of molasses and 45 million tons of baggasse as byproducts annually (Selvamurugan et al., 2013). These by-products were once considered as wastes and sugar mills had problems of disposal. Distilleries are the major agro-industries that generate large quantity of alcohol from molasses, a by-product of sugar industries. As on date, there are 319 distilleries in India with a production capacity of 3.25 billion litres of alcohol per annum. From these distilleries, 40.72 millionkilo litres of spent wash is being generated annually as wastewater and the disposal of spent wash is posing a problem (Mohana et al., 2009). The ever-increasing generation of distillery spent wash on the one hand

and stringent legislative regulations of its disposal on the other has stimulated the need for developing new technologies to process this effluent efficiently and economically. Spent wash, once being considered as a pollutant, is no more a pollutant and it is fastly emerging as an eco-friendly organic liquid nutrient supplement to improve the fertility and productivity of the nutrient starved soils of India. Distillery spentwash with major, secondary and micronutrients is also rich in organic matter, an essential ingredient to improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil (Naidu, 2004). The post methanated spentwash contains 0.70-1.15 per cent potassium (K2O), 0.080.12 per cent nitrogen (N) and 0.01-0.03 per cent phosphorus (P2O5) and also appreciable amounts of secondary and micronutrients. So, it can be used as a liquid fertilizer and return the nutrients to the soil by adopting suitable soil and crop management practices. The treated spentwash could be composted along with the pressmud into useful organic manure. It can be done with the help of microbial consortia. This may lead to a great potential and scope for eco-friendly

R. MUTHURAJU

502

management for sustainable agricultural production (Ramaswamy, 1999). Further, this would also help distilleries to dispose off the wastes and minimize the use of chemical fertilizers for crop production. Keeping this in view, the study was conducted to standardize the quantity and frequency of application of spent wash for bio-composting to produce good quality matured pressmud compost. MATERIAL AND METHODS In order to identify the ideal quantity and frequency of spent wash application for composting using pressmud as substrate, the experiment was carried out at UAS, Bangalore with three ratios (quantity) of 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 and four intervals (frequency) of spentwash application viz., daily once, once in two days, once in three days and once in four days. Totally, there were twelve treatments with three replications. Composting was carried out in plastic containers by using 10 kg of pressmud as substrate. The microbial consortium of ligno-cellulolytic organisms (Phanerochaete chrysosporium (Department of Environmental Science, TNAU, Coimbatore), Pleurotus sajor-caju, Trichoderma harzianum (Department of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS, Bengaluru) and Trichurus spiralis (MTCC, IMTECH, Chandigarh)) was inoculated layer by layer at the rate of 2.5 kg per ton of substrate. The initial quantity of spentwash added was equivalent to maintain the moisture level approximately at 60 per cent level. The remaining quantity of spentwash was distributed up to 60 days of composting by adding equal quantity to each container once in two days. Composting was carried out for 120 days by regularly turning the materials once in 15 days and maintaining the moisture approximately at 60 per cent level by adding water under controlled conditions. Samples were drawn at random during 30, 60, 90 and 120 days of composting from all the treatments and analyzed for various parameters. Physico-chemical properties viz., pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, total N, P and K of the compost were determined by following the standard procedures given by Jackson (1973). C / N ratio was also worked out for the compost during different intervals. The data obtained

were subjected to Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) for the test of significance using MSTAT-C statistical software. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Changes of pH and electrical conductivity during bio-composting of pressmud : The results on changes in pH and EC of compost materials at different intervals during bio-composting of pressmud as influenced by the quantity and frequency of spent wash application are presented in Table I. In general, there was an increase in pH values with increase in the quantity of spent wash application and the pH decreased with decrease in the frequency of spent wash application. On the other hand, there was also increase in the pH values with increase in the period of decomposition in all the treatments. At 120th day of composting, the highest pH was observed in the treatment of 1:4 pressmud (PM) to spent wash (SW) ratio with a frequency of daily once (pH 7.84), which was on par with the treatment of 1:3 (PM:SW) with the same frequency (pH 7.81). On the other hand, the lowest pH was observed in the treatment of 1:2 (PM: SW) with a frequency of once in four days (pH 7.33), which was significantly lower from all other treatments. The data on EC revealed that there was an increase in EC values with an increase in the quantity of spent wash application and decreased with decrease in frequency of spent wash application. On the other hand, there was a marginal decrease in EC values with increase in the period of decomposition in all the treatments. At the final stage of composting, highest EC was observed in the treatment of 1:3 (PM:SW) with an application frequency of daily once (2.81 dSm -1) which was on par with the treatment 1:4 (PM:SW) with same frequency of application (2.78 dSm-1), while, lowest EC was noticed in the treatment of 1:2 (PM:SW) with an application frequency of once in four days (1.77 dSm-1) which was on par with the treatment of same quantity, but, with a frequency of once in three days. This could be attributed to the quantity of distillery spent wash applied to pressmud rich in salts. Whereas in, the ratio 1:3 (PM: SW) at a frequency of daily once and in the ratio 1:4 (PM: SW) with all frequencies resulted in anaerobic situation with more than 70 per cent moisture content. The decrease

503

EFFECT OF QUANTITY AND FREQUENCY OF DISTILLERY SPENT WASH APPLICATION

TABLE I Changes in pH and EC during bio-composting of pressmud as influenced by quantity and frequency of distilery spent wash application Ratio of application

Treatment

pH

EC (dSm–1)

Period of decomposition (days)

Period of decomposition (days)

30 1:2 (PM:SW)

1:3 (PM:SW)

1:4 (PM:SW)

60

90

30

120

60

90

120

2.67b

2.45

c

T 1 Daily once

7.30

bc

7.39 c

7.52

e

7.70 b

2.87 c

2.72 c

T 2 Once in two days

7.21

d

7.31 de

7.44

f

7.54 d

2.38 fg

2.26 g

2.05 f

1.91

f

T 3 Once in three days

7.18

d

7.22

7.34

g

7.44

2.30

2.12

2.03

1.80

g

T 4 Once in four days

7.06

T 5 Daily once

7.34

ab

7.55 b

7.77

b

7.81 a

2.88 c

2.96 b

2.92 a

2.61

b

T 6 Once in two days

7.27

c

7.42

c

7.58

d

7.63

c

2.68

d

2.36

ef

2.27

d

2.81

a

T 7 Once in three days

7.10

ef

7.25

fg

7.48

ef

7.54

d

2.50

ef

2.34

f

2.14

e

1.89

f

T 8 Once in four days

7.07

ef

7.20 g

7.34

g

7.39 f

2.28 g

2.17 hi

2.04 f

1.89

f

T 9 Daily once

7.39

a

7.68 a

7.82

a

7.84 a

3.35 a

3.23 a

2.96 a

2.78

a

T 1 0 Once in two days

7.28

c

7.54

b

7.65

c

7.71

3.04

2.48

2.45

c

2.26

d

T 1 1 Once in three days T 1 2 Once in four days

7.12 7.10

e

7.33 d 7.27 ef

7.48 7.44

ef

7.55 d 7.48 e

2.23 d 2.13 e

1.98 1.91

e

7.12

f

ef

fg

7.23

h

7.33

h

f

ef

2.03

g

b

g

2.04

h

b

2.60 de 2.41 fg

i

1.91

j

d

2.41 a 2.21 g h

f

1.77

g

g

f

Note: Mean values followed by the same superscript in each column do not differ significantly at P=0.05 level by DMRT

in pH values could be due to production of organic acids during the process of decomposition. Similar results have also been reported by Patil et al. (2007), where, it has been tried up to 1:5 ratio (PM: SW) for composting using pressmud as substrate. Changes of organic carbon content and C/N ratio during bio-composting of pressmud : The data on OC (%) content at different intervals during bio-composting of pressmud as influenced by quantity and frequency of spent wash application are presented in Table 2. The data showed significant differences among various treatments at all the intervals of decomposition. In general, there was a reduction in OC content of the treatments with increase in the period of decomposition. Moreover, there was an increase in OC content with the increase in quantity of spent wash application, while, it decreased with decrease in the frequency of application. At 120th day of bio-composting, the highest OC content was observed in the treatment 1:4 (PM:SW) with an

application frequency of daily once (27.4 %) which was significantly different from all other treatments, while, the lowest OC content was noticed in the treatment 1:3 (PM:SW) with application frequency of once in four days (24.2 %) which was on par with the treatment that received 1:4 (PM:SW) with spent wash application frequency of once in four days (24.5 %). C:N ratios at different intervals during biocomposting of pressmud as influenced by quantity and frequency of spent wash application have been worked out and are presented in Table II. The results showed significant changes in the C:N ratios among various treatments at all the intervals of decomposition. There was an reduction in the C:N ratio of all the treatments with increase in the period of composting. In general, decrease in C:N ratio was observed with increase in the quantity of spent wash application and decreased with decrease in the frequency of spent wash application. At final stage of composting, the highest C:N ratio was noticed in the treatment that received

R. MUTHURAJU

504

TABLE II Changes in OC (%) content and C/N ration during bio-composting of pressmud as influenced by quantity and frequency of distillery spent wash application Ratio of application

Treatment

1:2 (PM:SW) T1 T2 T3 T4 1:3 (PM:SW) T5 T6 T7 T8 1:4 (PM:SW) T9 T10 T11

OC (%)

CN ratio

Period of decomposition (days)

Period of decomposition (days) 60

90

120

26.7 ab 27.4 ab 27.4 ab 27.1 ab

21.7 e 22.4 d 23.2 c 24.1 b

19.9 d 21.2 c 22.4 a 22.3 a

19.2 e 20.9 d 22.1 a 22.1 a

27.0 b 26.1 cd 25.8 d 24.2 g

26.3 b 26.8 ab 27.4 ab 26.3 b

20.5 f 21.6 e 23.4 c 25.5 a

18.8 f 17.6 h 21.2 c 21.8 b

17.9 g 16.5 i 21.2 c 21.6 c

28.5 a 26.5 c 26.0 e

27.4 a 26.1 cd 26.1 cd

24.0 c 28.1 a 27.7 ab

19.6 g 19.1 h 23.1 c

19.2 e f 18.1 g 19.4 e

17.1 h 18.0 b 19.3 e

25.7 f

24.5 g

27.2 ab

25.3 a

22.7 a

21.6 c

30

60

90

120

Daily once Once in two days Once in three days Once in four days

28.7 e 28.1 e 27.6 f 26.3 h

27.3 e 26.5 g 26.3 h 26.2 h

26.5 c 26.2 d 25.7 f 25.5 g

26.2 c 26.0 cd 25.4 e 25.0 f

Daily once Once in two days Once in three days Once in four days

30.0 d 28.3 e 28.3 e 26.7 g

29.0 b 27.0 f 26.8 f 26.5 g

27.1 b 26.5 c 25.9 e 25.4 g

Daily once Once in two days Once in three days

32.4 a 31.7 b 30.7 c

30.7 a 28.1 c 27.8 d

29.7 d

26.9 f

T12 Once in four days

30

Note: Mean values followed by the same superscript in each column do not differ significantly at P=0.05 level by DMRT

spent wash at 1:2 (PM:SW) ratio with application frequency of once in four days (22.1) and was on par with the treatment that received same quantity of spent wash but with application frequency of once in three days (22.1) while the lowest C:N value was observed in the treatment that received spent wash at 1:3 (PM:SW) ratio with application frequency of once in two days (16.5) and was significantly lower compared to all other treatments.These changes might be attributed to an increased total N content with increase in the quantity of spent wash application. The decomposition of pressmud is accelerated by its powder form, which absorbs more of distillery spent wash that is rich in nitrogen. Similar results are also obtained by several workers, they found that when nitrogen was added to any organic substrate to lower down the C: N ratio, it resulted in the loss of carbon in the organic wastes (Patil et al., 2007; Sunil, 2002; Lekshmi, 2002).

Changes of total N, P and K during biocomposting of pressmud : The results on changes in total N, P and K content during bio-composting of pressmud as influenced by quantity and frequency of spent wash application are presented in Table III. There was a significant increase in all major plant nutrients over the period of decomposition. In general, the total NPK contents increased with quantity of spent wash applied and decreased with decrease in the frequency of spent wash application. The highest total N was observed in treatment 1:4 (PM: SW) with a frequency of daily once (1.62 %) which was on par with treatment of 1:3 (PM: SW) ratio with a frequency of once in two days (1.60 %), whereas, total P and K contents were found to be higher with treatment 1:4 (PM: SW) ratio with an application frequency of daily once (1.45 and 1.95 %, respectively). In general, the treatments with spent wash application at higher

Treatment

0.98 g

T4 Once in four days

1.00 g

T8 Once in four days

1.08 de

1.09 cd

T11 Once in three days

T12 Once in four days

1.06 jk

1.22 e f

1.48 b

1.58 a

1.04 k

1.16 gh

1.26 de

1.42 c

1.10 i j

1.14 hi

1.20 fg

1.28 d

60

1.17 e

1.35 c

1.48 ab

1.50 ab

1.18 e

1.25 d

1.52 a

1.45 b

1.15 e

1.16 e

1.25 d

1.35 c

90

1.15 f

1.16 f

1.45 c

1.62 a

1.12 f

1.14 f

1.60 a

1.52 b

1.10 f

1.13 f

1.25 e

1.38 d

120

0.85 fg

0.96 cd

1.07 b

1.14 a

0.80 gh

0.88 e f

0.99 c

1.08 b

0.63 i

0.78 h

0.82 gh

0.93 de

1.14 e

1.20 bcd

1.23 b

1.31 a

1.08 f

1.14 e

1.17 cde

1.22 bc

0.79 i

0.92 h

1.00 g

1.16 de

1.23 cd

1.27 bc

1.31 b

1.39 a

1.15 e f

1.20 de

1.27 cd

1.30 b

1.04 g

1.13 f

1.19 de

1.22 cd

1.27 cde

1.31 bcd

1.35 b

1.45 a

1.22 fgh

1.25 efg

1.28 cde

1.32 bc

1.10 i

1.17 h

1.21 gh

1.26 def

120

1.30 e f

1.38 cd

1.45 ab

1.49 a

1.23 gh

1.28 fg

1.35 de

1.42 bc

1.12 i

1.20 h

1.28 fg

1.35 de

1.61 b

1.63 b

1.69 a

1.74 a

1.53 c

1.59 b

1.63 b

1.70 a

1.27 f

1.34 e

1.43 d

1.51 c

60

1.77 cd

1.81 bc

1.84 ab

1.87 a

1.61 f

1.68 e

1.73d e

1.77 cd

1.42i

1.49 a

1.55 g

1.62 f

90

1.81 cd

1.85 bc

1.90 ab

1.95 a

1.71 f

1.74 e f

1.78 e f

1.79 de

1.54 h

1.56 h

1.59 gh

1.63 g

120

30

90

30

60

Period of decomposition (days)

K (%)

Period of decomposition (days)

P (%)

Note: Mean values followed by the same superscript in each column do not differ significantly at P=0.05 level by DMRT

1.17 b

T10 Once in two days

1.35 a

1.03 efg

T7 Once in three days

(PM:SW) T9 Daily once

1:4

1.10 def

T6 Once in two days

1.14 bc

1.00 g

T3 Once in three days

1.04 def

30

1.02 fg

(PM:SW) T5 Daily once

1:3

N (%)

Period of decomposition (days)

T2 Once in two days

(PM:SW) T1 Daily once

1:2

Ratio of application

Changes in total N, P and K content during bio-composting of pressmud as influenced by quantity and frequency of distillery spent wash application

TABLE III

EFFECT OF QUANTITY AND FREQUENCY OF DISTILLERY SPENT WASH APPLICATION

505

506

R. MUTHURAJU

frequencies had quite higher values and these results are in confirmation with the results obtained by Patil et al. (2007). This could be attributed to the quantity of distillery spent wash applied and frequency in application of spent wash. The changes in total major nutrients during composting at different intervals of pressmud are similar to the results obtained in the previous experiment. The experiment conducted for optimization of the ideal quantity and frequency of application of distillery spent wash indicated that 1:3 (PM: SW) ratio with a frequency of once in two days of application of spent wash was ideal for bio-composting. By mixing pressmud and spent wash at 1:3 ratio and applying spent wash at a frequency of once in two days with turning every alternate day, a quality bio-compost could be obtained. REFERENCES JACKSON, M. L., 1973, Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi. LEKSHMI, R., 2002, Bio-composts from agricultural residues using distillery yeast sludge and spent wash and their impact on soil and crop productivity. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore, India. MOHANA, S., ACHARYA, B. K. AND MADAMWAR, D., 2009, Distillery spent wash: Treatment technologies and potential applications. J. Haz. Mat., 163: 12-25.

(Received : December 2015

NAIDU, M. K., 2004, An overview of effective utilization of distillery spentwash. Proc. of Seminar on “Eco-friendly technology utilization of sugar factory and distillery wastes” heldat IAT, 2nd July, Bangalore, pp. 3-14. PATIL, S. G., ANGADI, S. S., HONGAL, M. M., NATARAJA, T. H., MUDENOOR , M. G. AND J AYANTHI , T., 2007, Crop responses to nutrient equivalent based one time application of spent wash. In: The National Conference on “Ecofriendly utilization of recyclable organic resources from sugar and distillery industries for sustainable agriculture, 6-7th March, held at Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tiruchirappalli-9, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu. RAMASWAMY, P. P., 1999, Recycling of agricultural and agroindustry wastes for sustainable agricultural production. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 47: 661-665. SELVAMURUGAN, M., DORAISAMY, P. AND MAHESWARI, M., 2013, Biomethanated distillery spentwash and pressmud biocompost as sources of plant nutrients for groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). J. Appld and Natrl. Sci., 5 (2): 328-334. SUNIL, M. S., 2002, Influence of co-composting of press mud with crop residues and agro-industrial wastes on microbial diversity and its effect on plant growth. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ.Agril.Sci., Bangalore, India.

Accepted : July, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 507-513, 2016

Effect of Zinc Sulphate and Boron Nutrition for Enhancing the Productivity of Castor-Finger Millet Rotation System M. A. SHANKAR, M. N. THIMMEGOWDA, N. C. BHAVITHA AND N. N. LINGARAJU Directorate of Research, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065

ABSTRACT A field experiment was conducted to studay the effect of zinc sulphate and boron nutrition for enhancing the productivity of castor and finger millet based cropping system during kharif season at DLAP, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design having ten treatments replicated thrice with castor (DCH-9) genotype and (GPU-28) finger millet. The rainfall received during cropping system is 537. 7 (castor) and 566.2 mm (finger millet). The treatment comprised of recommended NPK with different levels of Zn and B with and without FYM. Among the treatments, soil application of Zn sSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha recorded significantly higher plant height (82.20 and 84 cm, respectively), higher no. of tillers/plant (3.98 and 4.10, respectively), no. of leaves / plant (26.8 and 33.50, respectively), number of fingers / earhead (7.8 and 8.67, respectively ), grain yield (32.6 and 25.10 q / ha, respectively) and straw yield (43.96 and 33.14 q / ha, respectively) compared to control in finger millet- castor and finger millet- finger millet cropping system. Whereas, in castor- castor and castor-finger-millet system significantly higher plant height (181 and 166 cm, respectively), number of spikes / plant (5.93 and 5.44, respectively), spike length (27.21 and 26.11 cm, respectively), grain yield (11.38 and 11.56 q / ha, respectively) in castor was observed in the same treatment as compared to control.

IN India, micronutrient deficiencies have been reported as one of the main causes for yield plateau or even yield decline, especially in irrigated intensified systems (Takkar et al., 1989). While, soil and plant testing for diagnostic purposes have been more frequently employed in intensive, irrigated systems and micronutrient deficiencies have been reported with increasing frequencies (Takkar, 1996), little attention, however, has been paid to diagnose the deficiencies of micronutrients in the field under dryland farming in the semi-arid tropical (SAT) regions of India. Minor millets are claimed to be the future foods for better health and nutrition security. Small millets comprising finger millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet, little millet, barnyard millet and proso millet are crops of antiquity known for their suitability under dry lands and contribution towards food security at farm and regional level. Among small millets, finger millet has gained a wide importance due to its high nutritional value, high fiber with proteins, minerals and essential amino acids and particularly micronutrients. Zinc has emerged as the most widespread micronutrient deficiency in soils and crops worldwide, resulting in severe yield losses and deterioration in nutritional quality (Sillanpaa, 1982).

Zinc is one of the 17 essential elements necessary for the normal growth and development of plants. It is among eight micronutrients essential for plants. Zinc plays a key role in plants with enzymes and proteins involved in carbohydrate metabolism, protein synthesis, gene expression, auxin (growth regulator) metabolism, pollen formation, maintenance of biological membranes, protection against photooxidative damage and heat stress, and resistance to infection by certain pathogens (Alloway, 2008). Zinc deficiency in plants retards photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism, reduces flowering and fruit development, prolongs growth periods (resulting in delayed maturity), decreases yield and quality, and results in sub-optimal nutrient-use efficiency. The results from a large number of on-farm follow-up trials comparing soil test-based balanced nutrition with farmers’ inputs showed that balanced plant nutrient management significantly increases crop productivity (Sahrawat and Wani, 2013) and enhances grain and straw quality of crops (Sahrawat et al., 2008). Currently farmers use only sub-optimal amounts of major nutrients. Castor is another drought resistant candidate for arid region. Intercropping castor with finger millet or rotation of castor with finger millet or castor monocropping in

M. A. SHANKAR

508

providing in dry track of southern Karnataka. Keeping these aspects in mind, investigation was carried out to study the impact of micronutrients on productivity of castor-finger millet rotation system in comparision with monocropping of castor and finger millet. MATERIAL AND METHODS A field experiment was conducted at DLAP, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, during Kharif in three years crop rotation systems. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design having ten treatments and replicated thrice. The treatment comprised of T1- Control, T2- NPK + FYM (Rec), T3-NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha (soil), T4NPK + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg / ha (soil), T5-NPK + Borax @5 kg / ha (soil), T6-NPK + Borax @10 kg/ha (soil), T7- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha + Borax @ 5 kg / ha (soil), T8- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha + Borax @10.0 kg / ha (soil), T9- NPK + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg / ha + Borax @5 kg / ha (soil), T10- NPK + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg / ha + Borax @10 kg / ha (soil). Recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O (50:40:25 in finger millet and 38:38:25kg / ha in castor) was adopted as per UAS package. Five plants from net plot area were randomly selected and observations on growth and yield parameters were recorded at harvest. Yield and its components were determined at maturity stage. All the data pertaining to the present investigation were statistically analyzed as per the method described by Panse and Sukhatme (1967). The level of significance used in ‘F’ and ‘t’ test was p= 0.05. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The influence of Zinc sulphate and boron application on growth, yield and yield parameters in castor and fingermillet in fingermillet – castor, castorcastor, castor-fingermillet and fingermillet – fingermillet are presented under the following headings. Cropping system: Finger millet – Castor Crop : Finger millet : Higher grain yield of finger millet (32.60 q ha-1) was obtained with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha and was higher to an extent 28.24 per cent compared to control (25.42 q ha-1) (Table I). The higher seed yield was mainly due to positive association

et al.

between yield attributing characters viz., plant height (82.20 cm), higher no. of tillers/plant (3.98), no. of leaves/plant (26.8), number of fingers/earhead (7.80) (Table I), which were significantly higher with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg/ha compared to control (63.70.cm. 3.74, 18.54 & 5.20, respectively). Significantly higher dry weight of shoot and root (13.13 mg), germination (97 %) and vigour index (1273.61) were recorded Table-III with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha to control (6.30 mg, 88 %, and 554.4, respectively). The B: C ratio was significantly influenced by soil application of zinc sulphate and boron Table-I. Soil application of ZnSO 4 @12.5 kg/ha recorded significantly higher B: C (2.40) compared to rest of the treatments and control (1.90). However, it was followed by soil application of ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg/ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg/ha (2.34). The increase in grain yield may be attributed to combined application of Zinc sulphate and boron, the positive response of finger millet to zinc sulphate application may be due to increased growth and yield components produced due to increased availability and better uptake of nutrients. Finger millet –finger millet Finger millet: Significantly higher gain yield (25.10 q ha-1) and straw yield (33.14 q ha-1) was obtained with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg ha-1 and was higher to an extent 33.51 per cent compared to control (18.8, & 26.95 q ha-1 gain and straw yield, respectively) (Table II). The significantly higher seed yield was mainly due to positive association between yield attributing characters viz., plant height (84.00 cm), higher no. of tillers / plant (4.10), no. of leaves / plant (33.50), number of fingers / ear head (8.67) with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg ha-1 compared to control (67.42 cm, 3.24, 25.80 & 5.00, respectively). Soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 recorded higher B:C (2.30) compared to rest of the treatments, however higher MUE (93.10 kg kg-1) was noticed with Borax @ 10.0 kg ha-1 compared to all other treatments. Lowest MUE (9.20 kg kg-1) was noticed with ZnSO4 @25 kg ha-1.

3.21 0.71 2.13

65.00

66.40

67.80

69.00

81.60

82.20

71.70

77.50

S.Em+

T3- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T4- NPK + ZnSO4 @25.5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T6- NPK + Borax @10 kg ha-1 (soil),

T7- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T8- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 + Borax @10.0 kg ha-1 (soil),

T9- NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg ha-1 + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T10- NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg ha-1 + Borax @10 kg ha-1 (soil)

CD at 5%

T5- NPK + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil),

3.15

3.98

3.94

3.46

3.88

3.80

3.30

3.65

74.32

T2- NPK + FYM (Rec),

3.74

63.70

0.33

0.11

22.78

22.50

26.80

25.00

21.86

21.00

19.70

24.18

23.10

18.54

1.94

0.65

5.91

6.75

7.80

7.00

6.20

5.80

5.55

6.60

6.10

5.20

0.91

0.30

27.96

30.94

32.60

31.82

27.41

26.52

25.96

30.03

29.05

25.42 -

-

1.40

0.46

35.56

3.39

1.11

7.25

38.30 18.40

43.96 31.90

39.32 36.57

34.24 19.90

33.46 22.00

32.89 21.60

37.62 36.88

36.17

32.58

Plant No. of No. of No. of Grain Straw MUE height Tillers / Leaves / finger / Yield Yield (cm) Plants Plants ear head (q / ha) (q / ha)

T1- Control,

Treatment

Finger millet

Finger millet-castor Castor

Castor - castor

-

-

2.08

2.05

2.34

2.30

2.26

2.25

1.92

2.40

1.67

1.90

16.58

5.53

152.00

144.00

166.00

162.00

140.00

135.00

129.00

157.00

149.00

126.00

0.54

0.18

4.50

4.05

5.44

4.85

4.00

3.92

3.88

4.68

4.31

3.81

1.9

0.63

23.52

21.59

26.11

24.58

21.26

20.36

19.91

23.90

22.98

19.60

2.2

0.73

27.52

24.88

30.68

28.14

23.59

22.85

22.16

27.88

26.94

21.45

0.47

0.15

10.47

9.58

11.56

11.32

9.46

9.30

9.22

10.12

9.78

9.12

-

-

3.88

1.53

10.84

12.57

3.40

3.60

0.40

8.00

-

-

No. of Seed MUE B:C Plant No. of Spike Ratio height spikes / length capsules/ Yield spike (q / ha) (cm) Plants (cm)

finger millet and castor based cropping system

Effect of zinc and boron on growth, yield and yield parameters of Finger millet and castor at harvest in

TABLE I

-

-

1.25

1.3

1.50

1.47

1.44

1.40

1.25

1.46

1.10

1.40

B:C Ratio

EFFECT OF ZINC SULPHATE AND BORON NUTRITION FOR ENHANCING THE PRODUCTIVITY

509

T1- Control, T2- NPK + FYM (Rec), T3- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 (soil), T4- NPK + ZnSO4 @25.5 kg ha- (soil), T5- NPK + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil), T6- NPK + Borax @10 kg ha-1 (soil), T7- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil), T8- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha -1+ Borax @10.0 kg ha-1 (soil), T9- NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg ha-1 + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil), T10- NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg ha-1+ Borax @10 kg ha-1 (soil) S.Em+ CD at 5%

Treatment

4.74 4.96 5.34 4.84 4.77 4.92 5.36 5.93 5.21 5.12 1.04 0.56

1144.00

140.00

147.00

175.00

181.00

155.00

151.00

6.990.18 20.98

No. of Spikes / Plant

137.00 149.00 169.00

Plant height (cm)

0.20 -

25.00

25.54

27.21

26.54

24.11

0.60

11.31

11.38

11.79

11.66

11.05

9.84

9.92

9.42 11.23 11.47

-

5.40

6.53

10.53

12.80

16.30

8.40

2.00

16.40

MUE

6.99 -

0.98

1.00

1.20

1.16

1.10

1.07

0.92

0.99 0.85 1.10

B:C Ratio

0.02 20.98

74.65

77.33

84.00

82.20

72.53

71.16

70.50

67.42 79.40 80.70

Plant height (cm)

0.23 0.08

3.55

3.65

4.10

3.98

3.46

3.39

3.32

3.24 3.78 3.85

No. of tillers / Plant

0.27 0.69

28.75

30.96

33.50

32.70

28.00

27.44

26.58

25.80 31.66 32.20

No. of leaves / Plant

0.55 0.82

5.90

5.70

8.67

7.64

5.50

5.28

5.12

5.00 5.82 6.00

No. of finger ear head

1.27 1.66

24.27

23.13

25.10

24.76

22.71

21.74

21.10

18.80 23.75 24.46

3.81

32.25

29.64

33.14

32.75

32.00

27.53

27.00

26.95 31.35 32.68

B:C Ratio

1.90

-

-

15.63 1.70

14.43 1.80

28.00 2.13

34.06 2.10

93.10 1.76

58.80 1.92

9.20

1.95 1.58 45.28 2.30

Grain Straw MUE Yield yield (q/ha) (q / ha)

M. A. SHANKAR

23.54

23.82

23.15 24.65 25.86

Seed yield (q/ha)

Finger millet

Castor Spike length (cm)

Finger millet-Finger millet

Castor Finger millet

castor –castor and finger millet – finger millet based cropping system.

Effect of zinc and boron on growth, yield and yield parameters of castor and finger millet at harvest in

TABLE II 510 et al.

94 95 97 95 93

11.86

8.60

8.22

9.65

T3- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T4- NPK + ZnSO4 @25.5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T5- NPK + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil)

T6- NPK + Borax @10 kg ha-1 (soil),

T7- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg 11.81 ha-1 + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T8- NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg 13.13 ha-1 + Borax @10.0 kg ha-1 (soil),

T9- NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg 11.35 ha-1 + Borax @5 kg ha-1 (soil),

T10- NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg 11.90 ha-1+ Borax @10 kg ha-1 (soil) 1.12 3.38

S.Em+ 0.34

CD at 5% 1.02

92

93

94

92

10.01

T2- NPK + FYM (Rec),

88

Germination (%)

6.30

Dry weight of shoot & root (mg)

T1- Control,

Treatment

12.11

4.04

1106.70

1078.25

1273.61

1121.95

907.10

759.24

799.80

1114.84

920.92

554.4

0.49

0.16

11.71

12.33

13.85

12.37

9.77

8.16

8.62

11.72

9.94

6.30

Vigourindex Dry weight of shoot & root (mg)

Finger millet

Castor- Finger millet

3.36

1.12

93

95

97

96

93

92

93

95

94

89

Germination (%)

Castor- Castor Castor

3.63

1.21

1089.03

1171.35

1343.45

1187.52

908.61

750.72

801.66

1113.40

934.36

560.70

Vigourindex

0.18

0.06

1.74

1.80

1.88

1.72

1.61

1.50

1.55

1.68

1.60

1.42

Dry weight of shoot & root (mg)

-

0.96

95

94

97

95

94

93

93

95

94

92

Germination (%)

Finger millet

Finger millet-Castor

Effect of zinc and boron on seed quality parameter of castor based cropping system

TABLE III

2.85

0.95

165.30

169.20

182.36

163.40

151.34

139.50

144.15

159.60

150.40

130.64

Vigourindex

EFFECT OF ZINC SULPHATE AND BORON NUTRITION FOR ENHANCING THE PRODUCTIVITY

511

512

M. A. SHANKAR

et al.

TABLE IV Effect of zinc and boron on seed quality parameter of castor based cropping system Castor Finger millet Cropping System

Finger millet

Crop

Dry Germina Vigour weight - tion index of shoot (%) and root (mg)

Treatments

Control,

Castor-castor

Finger millet-castor

Castor

Finger millet

Dry Germina Vigour weight - tion index of shoot (%) and root (mg)

Dry Germina Vigour weight - tion index of shoot (%) and root (mg)

6.30

88

554.4

6.30

89

560.70

1.42

92

130.64

NPK + FYM (Rec),

10.01

92

920.92

9.94

94

934.36

1.60

94

150.40

NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha (soil),

159.60

11.86

94

1114.84

11.72

95

1113.40

1.68

95

NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg/ha (soil),

8.60

93

799.80

8.62

93

801.66

1.55

93

144.15

NPK + Borax @5 kg/ha (soil),

8.22

92

759.24

8.16

92

750.72

1.50

93

139.50

NPK + Borax @10 kg/ha (soil),

9.65

94

907.10

9.77

93

908.61

1.61

94

151.34

NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha + Borax @5 kg/ha (soil), NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha + Borax @10.0 kg/ha (soil),

11.81

95

1121.95

12.37

96

1187.52

1.72

95

163.40

13.13

97

1273.61

13.85

97

1343.45

1.88

97

182.36

NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg/ha + Borax @5 kg/ha (soil)

11.35

95

1078.25

12.33

95

1171.35

1.80

94

169.20

NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg/ha + Borax @10 kg/ha (soil)

11.90

93

1106.70

11.71

93

1089.03

1.74

95

165.30

S.Em+

0.34

1.12

4.04

0.16

1.12

1.21

0.06

0.96

0.95

CD at 5%

1.02

3.38

12.11

0.49

3.36

3.63

0.18

-

2.85

TABLE V Effect of zinc and boron on micronutrient use efficiency (MUE) and castor in castor based cropping system and finger millet monocropping Cropping System

Castor Finger millet

Crop

Castor

Treatments Control NPK + FYM (Rec), NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha (soil), NPK + ZnSO4 @25kg/ha (soil), NPK + Borax @5 kg/ha (soil), NPK + Borax @10 kg/ha (soil), NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha + Borax @5 kg/ha (soil), NPK + ZnSO4 @12.5 kg/ha + Borax @10.0 kg/ha (soil), NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg/ha + Borax @5 kg/ha (soil), NPK + ZnSO4 @25 kg/ha + Borax @10 kg/ha (soil)

Finger millet Finger millet Finger millet

MUE

B:C Ratio

MUE

B:C Ratio

8.00 0.40 3.60 3.40 12.57 10.84 1.53 3.88

1.40 1.10 1.46 1.25 1.40 1.44 1.47 1.50 1.32 1.25

45.28 9.20 58.80 93.10 34.06 28.00 14.43 15.63

1.95 1.58 2.30 1.90 1.92 1.76 2.10 2.13 1.80 1.70

EFFECT OF ZINC SULPHATE AND BORON NUTRITION FOR ENHANCING THE PRODUCTIVITY

Cropping system : Castor – Castor and Castor-Finger millet Crop : Castor : The effect of zinc sulphate and boron application on growth, yield attributes and seed yield are presented in Table I and II. The results were found to be significant (except spike length and number of capsules in castor –castor cropping system). Among the treatments, soil application of ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg / ha and borax @ 10 kg / ha has registered significantly higher plant height (181 and 166 cm), no. of spikes per plant (5.93 and 5.44) and seed yield (11.79 and 11.56 q/ha) with higher B: C ratio (1.20 and 1.50) under castor – castor and castor – finger millet cropping systems respectively. Which were statistically on par with the soil application ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg / ha and borax @ 5 kg / ha. While higher micronutrients use efficiency of 16.4 and 12.57 kg additional yield / kg of micronutrient applied was observed with the soil application of ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg / ha and ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg / ha and ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg / ha and borax @ 5 kg/ha respectively. Further. It was noticed that, 20 and 15 per cent increase in yield with the application of ZnSO4 @ 12.5 kg / ha and borax @ 10 kg / ha under castor-castor and castorfinger millet cropping systems, respectively as compared to only NPK. In spite of dry spell the crop performed well under micronutrient applied plots and proved the drought tolerance capacity due to application of micronutrients. Similar findings reported earlier by Alloway (2008). The results showed that balanced nutrition significantly increased Zn concentration in grain and straw for castor and pigeonpea crops. Significantly higher dry weight of shoot and root (13.85 mg), germination (97%) and vigour index (1343.45) were recorded with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha to control (6.30 mg, 89 %, and 560.70, respectively) in castor crop in castor-castor cropping system. Whereas, significantly higher germination (97 %) and vigour index (1273.61) were recorded with soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha to control (88 % and 554.4, respectively) in finger millet crop in castor-finger millet cropping system. The B:C ratio was varied with soil application of zinc sulphate and boron. Soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5kg / ha + and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha recorded

513

higher B: C ratio (1.20, 1.50 and 2.13) compared to rest of the treatments and control (0.99, 1.40 and 1.95, respectively) (Table I & II). However, it was followed by soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 kg / ha and Borax @ 5 kg / ha in castor-castor, castor-finger millet and finger millet- finger millet cropping system. The increase in grain yield may be attributed to combined application of zinc sulphate and boron, the positive response of finger millet to zinc sulphate application may be due to increased growth and yield components produced due to increased availability and better uptake of nutrients. From the above investigations it can be concluded that Soil application of ZnSO4 @12.5 + and Borax @ 10.0 kg / ha proved effective in significantly enhancing the growth and yield of both castor and finger millet basedcropping system. REFERENCES ALLOWAY B. J., 2008, Zinc in soils and crop nutrition. Paris, France: IFA; and Brussels, Belgium : IZA. PANSE, V. G. AND SUKHATME, P. V., 1967, Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers, ICAR., Publication New Delhi, 359. SAHRAWAT, K. L. AND WANI, S. P., 2013, Soil testing as a tool for on-farm fertility management: Experience from the semi-arid zone of India. Communications in Soil Sci. and Plant Analysis, 44 : 1011 - 1032. SAHRAWAT, K. L., REGO, T. J., WANI, S. P. AND PARDHASARADHI, G., 2008, Sulfur, boron and zinc fertilization effects on grain and straw quality of maize and sorghum grown on farmers’ fields in the semi-arid tropical region of India. J. of Plant Nutrition, 31 : 1578 - 1584. SAHRAWAT, K. L., WANI, S. P. AND PARDHASARADHI, G., 2013, Balanced nutrient management. Effects on plant zinc. J. of SAT Agril. Res., 11. SILLANPAA, M., 1982, Micronutrients and the nutrient status of soils: A global study. FAO Soil Bulletin No. 48. Rome, Italy : Food and Agric. Organization. TAKKAR, P. N., CHHIBBA, I. M. AND MEHTA. S. K., 1989, Twenty years of coordinated research on micronutrients in soils and plants. Bulletin no.1.Bhopal, India: Indian Institute of Soil Science. TAKKAR, P. N., 1996, Micronutrient research and sustainable agricultural productivity. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 44 : 563 - 581.

(Received : December, 2015 Accepted : August, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 514-520, 2016

Cultural, Physical Studies and Management of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum Mill.) Root Rot Pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn through Bio-Agents and Leaf Extract EMAD ABD ATIA , Y. M. SOMASEKHARA AND C. GOVINDARAJU Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065

ABSTRACT The cultural characters of Rhizoctonia solani were studied on the eleven different solid media, the maximum radial growth of R. solani was observed on Sabouraud’s agar medium (80.50 mm) followed by Tomato extract agar (77.33 mm) and least colony diameter was observed in Richard’s agar (49.50 mm). The favorable temperature and pH for the growth of R. solani was found with range from 25-300 C and pH of 6 to 7. The efficacy of seventeen fungal and two bacterial bio-agents and nine leaf extracts were evaluated in vitro and under glass house condition against tomato root rot pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani. The per cent inhibition of fungal growth by Trichoderma viride-22-IIHR (88.96 %), T. harzianum-55-IIHR (88.34 %) showed maximum inhibition of R. solani in in vitro and reduced root rot incidence of tomato under glass house condition. Germination of tomato seeds increased in soil treated with T. viride-22-IIHR and T. harzianum-55-IIHR treated soil in glass house condition. The leaf extract of Tulsi, Simarouba, Lantana and Pongamia were showed maximum inhibition of R. solani in vitro.

T HE widespread soil borne pathogen R.solani is responsible for serious damage to many economically important horticultural crops worldwide (Grosch et al., 2006). The different solid media had the most effect on the growth of fungal by effect on radial growth of mycelium, sclerotia production and colour of the colony. Veerendra Kumar (2004) studied the colony characters and sclerotia production of Rhizoctonia on different media. PDA showed mycelium having black colour with flat growth with uniform margin, but, a slightly raised growth with uneven margin was seen in Czapeck’s agar and with the light black colour mycelium on Rose Bengal Agar. Temperature plays an important role in the development offungal mycelia and spores which in turn influence the ability ofthe pathogen to incite infection in the host plant and the subsequents pread of the infection (Amborabé et al., 2005). Successful penetrations into host cells depend upon several fungal extra cellular enzymes which are affected by the rise or fall in temperatures (Freire, et al., 1998: Webster and Weber 2007). Most fungi are able to grow in a wide pH range with an optimum between 5.5 and 8.0 (Datta et al., 2014). The pH of the medium of the fungal growth is important for the secretion of various

fungal excreta necessary for the invasion of the host cell and the establishment of the disease. Different methods have been used to control R. solani, being the most used cultural practices, solarization, chemical and biological control. This last method has been developed successfully during the last years. It is based on the reduction of inoculums or of pathogenic activity due to the natural presence of one or more organisms, through the management of the environment, the host or antagonists (Baker and Cook, 1974). The most common method for controlling these pathogens is the use of fungicides, but, the development of resistance in pathogenic fungi to common fungicides and increasing residual hazardous effects on human health and environmental pollution has given a thrust to search for new plant derivatives that can obstruct the fungal pathogenicity. Use of natural products for the management of fungal diseases in the plants is considered as a good alternate to synthetic fungicides, due to their less negative impact on the environment. Many higher plants and their constituents have been successful in plant disease control and proved to be safe and non phytotoxic; unlike chemical fungicides. Three weedy plants viz., Lantana camara and Capparis decidua has been used for

CULTURAL, PHYSICAL STUDIES AND MANAGEMENT OF TOMATO ROOT ROT PATHOGEN

this purpose (Sharma & Kumar, 2009; Mangang et al., 2012). Bio-control of soil-borne plant pathogens affecting agricultural plants can be controlled by the use of species of Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Trichothecium and Epicoccum in India. There are some antagonistic bacteria like Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Pseudomonas fluorescence, Streptomyces spp. and Actinomycetes in disease control. Chemical pesticides have already been proven to cause adverse environmental effects and result in health hazards to human as well as other organisms including beneficial natural enemies. So there is need to develop safer and environmentally feasible control alternatives. Biological control, i.e., the use of biological processes to lower inoculums density of the pathogen in order to reduce the disease producing activities thereby reducing crop loss, is a potential non hazardous alternative (Chet,1990) The objective of present study studied cultural, physiological studies for the growth of the pathogen and management of R. solani by using plant extract and bioagents. MATERIAL AND METHODS The various temperature (10,15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40°C), pH (4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9and 10) and media (Yeast extract, starch agar, malt extract agar, carrot extract, Richard’s agar, Oat meal agar, Mathurs agar, PDA, Czapek agar dox media, Sabouraud’s agar and host extract) were studied against tomato root rot pathogen R. solani. In vitro evaluation was carried out with 19 bio-agents against R. solani through dual culture technique. Nineteen bio-agents, seventeen fungal and two bacterial bio-agents were taken. Both bio-agents and test fungus were cultured on potato dextrose agar in order to get fresh and active growth of fungus. Twenty ml of sterilized and cooled potato dextrose agar was poured into sterile petri plates and allowed to solidify. For evaluation of fungal biocontrol agents, mycelial discs of test fungus were inoculated at one end of the petri plate and antagonistic fungus was placed opposite to it on the other end. In case of evaluation of bacterial antagonist, the bacterium was streaked one day earlier at one end of the petri plate at the middle of the petri plate and the test fungus

515

placed at the other end. The plates were incubated at 27±1°C and zone of inhibition was recorded by measuring the clear distance between the margin of the test fungus and antagonistic organism. The colony diameter of pathogen in control plate was also recorded. The per cent inhibition of growth of the pathogen was calculated by using the formula suggested by Vincent (1947). Affective of Six bio-agents viz., T. viride-16IIHR, T. viride-22-IIHR, T. viride-GKVK1, T. harzianum-41-IIHR, T. harzianum-55-IIHR and T. harzianum-58-IIHR against R. solani were evaluated under glass house condition. The antagonist grow in potato broth and make talc based product 20 g of talc powder (108cfu / g) was mixed in R. solani infested soil. Each of the bio-agent was replicated three times, tomato seeds were sown and the observations on per cent of seed germination and per cent seedlings stands were recorded. Nine locally available leaf extracts (Calotripis, Lantana, Lemon Grass, Neem, Simaroba, Tulsi, Nagadhale, Pongamia, Subabul) were evaluated against R. solani by following the procedure given by Gerard Ezhilan et al. (1994) with slight modification. Fresh plant leaves are washed with tap water and sterilized water. It was then processed with sterile distilled water at the rate of 1 ml g-1 of tissues (1:1 v / w) with the pestle and mortar and filtered through fine cloth. This also formed the standard leaf extract solution (100 %). The extract of different plant leaves are incorporated and sterilized at 1.1 kg cm2 for 20 minutes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fungus showed slight difference in their growth on different solid media (Table I). Among different solid media, the maximum radial growth of R. solani was measured on Sabouraud’s agar with mean colony diameter of 80.50 mm followed by Tomato extract agar (77.33 mm) and least mean colony diameter of 49.50 mm was observed in Richard’s agar the optimum growth of the fungus was observed in Yeast extract agar (65.50), Carrot extract agar (64.17), Czapek dox agar (62.00) and Oat meal agar (60.50). Monga and Sheo Raj (1994), reported same result in their study

516

EMAD ABD ATIA et

al.

TABLE I

TABLE II

Growth of R. solani on different culture media

Effect of different temperature on growth of R. solani

Media

Mycelium growth (mm)

Temperature Carrot extract agar Richard’s agar Yeast extract agar Oat meal agar Mathur’s medium Malt extract agar Czapek dox agar Potato dextrose Agar Starch agar Tomato extract agar Sabouraud’s agar Mean CD @ 5 % S.Em± CV %

64.17 49.50 65.50 60.50 57.00 52.00 62.00 51.50 59.83 77.33 80.50 61.80 2.55 0.86 2.42

on root rot of cotton which caused by R. solani that the best medium for pathogen growth it was Sabouraud’s agar and cotton (host) extract agar. This experiment was conducted to study the effect of temperature on growth and production of sclerotia at different temperature and results are presented in the Table II. The maximum mycelial growth of R. solani was observed at 300C, the growth of the fungus in this treatment was 52.83 mm, this was followed by 250C, the growth of the fungus in this temperature was 49 mm. The least fungal growth of the fungus (9.17 mm) was observed at 100C. The fungal growth in 400C was 38.66 mm, respectively. The fungus grew well at 300C (Table II). The maximum mycelial growth of R. solani was obtained at pH of 6, the dry matter weight of the fungus in this treatment was 116.67 mg this was followed by the pH 7, the dry mater weight of the fungus in this pH was 103.33 mg and in pH 8 it was 100.00 mg. The least dry weight of the fungus (60.00 mg) was observed in pH 10. The dry weight of the fungus in pH 4, 5 and 9 was 70.00, 76.67 and 70.00 mg, respectively. The fungus grows well at the pH 6 (Table III). The maximum mycelial growth of all isolates was found at

Mycelium growth (mm)

10 0C

9.17

15 C

13.00

20 0C

13.50

25 0C

49.00

30 C

52.83

35 0C

42.67

40 C

38.67

Mean

31.26

0

0

0

CD @ 5 %

2.56

S.Em±

0.83

CV %

4.60

TABLE III Effect of different level of pH on growth of tomato root rot pathogen, R. solani pH level

Mycelial dry weight (mg)

4

70.00

5

76.67

6

116.67

7

103.33

8

100.00

9

70.00

10

60.00

Mean

85.24

CD @ 5 %

5.02

S.Em±

1.63

CV %

3.31

30°C and the optimum pH for maximum radial growth was 6 (Goswami et al., 2011). The best growth of R. solani was at pH 6.0 and temperature 30°C for all treatments (Datta et al., 2014). The maximum inhibition of mycelial growth (88.96 %) was observed in T. harzianum-55-IIHR,

CULTURAL, PHYSICAL STUDIES AND MANAGEMENT OF TOMATO ROOT ROT PATHOGEN

which was followed by T. viride-22-IIHR (88.34 %), whereas, T. viride-14-IIHR recorded least (47.54 %). T. viride-NBAIR, P. fluorescens, T. harzianumNBAIR, T. harzianum-58-IIHR and T. harzianum20-IIHR also were effective against R. solani, per cent inhibition was recorded (87.12, 87.12, 86.50, 85.28 and 82.82%). T. viride-GKVK2 (79.75 %), T. viride-GKVK1 (78.83%), T. viride-52-IIHR (77.91 %), T. harzianum-2-IIHR (74.85%), T. viride-16IIHR (72.39%) and T. harzianum-41-IIHR (70.55 %) found effective. The results, thus obtained are presented in Table IV.

517

Upadhyay and Rai (1983) observed the coiling of hyphae in R. solani by T.virens. The interaction between T. harzianum and R. solani was studied by Benhamou and Chet (1993) and reported that coiling of T. harzianum hyphae around R. solani was an early event preceding hyphal damage; the contact between the two fungi was mediated by a fine extra cellular matrix originating from cells of R. solani. Of the five fungal bio-control agents tested, in vitro against R. solani, T. harzianum was the most effective in causing significant suppression (60 %) of both growth and sclerotia formation and followed by T. virens

TABLE IV In vitro evaluation of bio-agents against R. solani Bio agents

T.viride-GKVK1 T.viride-GKVK2 T.viride-GKVK3 T.viride-NBAIR T.harzianum-NBAIR T.harzianum-2-IIHR T.viride-13-IIHR T.viride-14-IIHR T.viride-16-IIHR T.harzianum-19-IIHR T.harzianum-20-IIHR T.viride-21-IIHR T.viride-22-IIHR T.harzianum-41-IIHR T.viride-52-IIHR T. harzianum-55-IIHR T.harzianum-58-IIHR B. subtilis-NBAIR P. flourecense-NBAIR Control Mean CD @ 5% S.Em± CV %

Radial Growth of Trichoderma 72.33 90.00 90.00 90.00 68.75 77.50 62.75 50.50 90.00 53.75 90.00 77.50 90.00 90.00 73.00 90.00 90.00 79.18 2.93 1.02 2.23

Radial Growth of R. Solani 11.50 11.00 17.67 7.00 7.33 13.67 27.00 28.50 15.00 20.50 9.33 16.50 6.33 16.00 12.00 6.00 8.00 26.83 7.00 54.33 16.08 1.24 0.43 4.67

Per cent inhibition of R. solani by antagonist 78.83 79.75 67.48 87.12 86.50 74.85 50.30 47.54 72.39 62.27 82.82 69.63 88.34 70.55 77.91 88.96 85.28 50.61 87.12 74.12 1.43 0.50 1.50

(62.61) * (63.26) (55.23) (68.96) (68.45) (59.90) (45.17) (43.59) (58.31) (52.10) (65.54) (56.56) (43.59) (59.90) (45.17) (65.54) (58.31) (52.10) (68.96)

*The value in the parenthesis is arc sine transformed (-) No parasitism; (+) Weak parasitism; (++) Medium parasitism; (+++) Strong parasitism.

Mode of parasitism +++ ++ ++ +++ ++ +++ + +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++

518

EMAD ABD ATIA

(50 %). Further, T. harzianum against R. solani was found to effective was reported by Bunker and Mathur (2001). Under in vitro conditions, the bio-control agents, T. viride and T. harzianum, significantly inhibited the growth of R. solani as reported by Rehman et al. (2012). Several reports are available in use of T. viride in the management of R. solani (Choudhury et al., 2003; Prasad, 2005; Paramasivan et al., 2007; Rini and Sulochana, 2007). T. viride-22-IIHR showed the maximum per cent of germination of tomato seeds, it was 83.33 per cent followed by T. harzianum-55-IIHR (70.00 %), T. viride-16-IIHR (68.33 %), T. viride-GKVK 1 (63.33 %) and T. harzianum-41-IIHR (53.33 %). T. harzianum-58-IIHR showed less effective against R. solani it was 45.00 per cent and the per cent seed germination in untreated control was 26.67 per cent

TABLE V Evaluation of bio-agent on tomato root rot disease (R. solani) under glass house Per cent germination

Per cent seedlings stands after 21 days

Per cent incidence

T. viride-16IIHR

68.33 (55.77) * 60.78 (51.23)

39.22 ( 3 8 . 7 7 )

T. viride-22IIHR

83.33 (66.14)

77.83 (62.11)

22.17 ( 2 7 . 8 9 )

T. viride GKVK1

63.33 (52.78)

59.17 (50.32) 40.83 ( 3 9 . 6 8 )

T. harzianum- 53.33 (46.91) 41-IIHR

50.78 (45.45)

49.22 ( 4 4 . 5 5 )

T. harzianum- 70.00 (56.81) 55-IIHR

64.05 (53.16) 35.95 ( 3 6 . 8 4 )

T. harzianum 45.00 (31.08) 58-IIHR

42.00 (40.39) 58.00 ( 4 9 . 6 1 )

Control

26.67 (42.13)

25.18 ( 30.12) 74.82 (59.88)

Mean

58.57

42.20

45.74

CD @ 5%

4.36

4.48

4.48

S.Em±

1.42

1.45

1.45

CV %

4.88

5.30

5.94

*The value in the parenthesis is arc sine transformed

et al.

(Table V). The maximum per cent stand of seedlings obtained in T. viride-22-IIHR (77.83 %), T. harzianum55-IIHR (64.05 %), T. viride-16-IIHR (60.78 %), T. viride-GKVK1 (59.17 %), T. harzianum-41-IIHR (50.78 %), T. harzianum-58-IIHR (42.00 %) and in untreated control seedling stand was 25.18 per cent. The antagonist T. viride-22-IIHR and T. harzianum55-IIHR reduced wilt incidence and obtained good seedling stands. Neha and Dawande (2010), has been found that the diseases caused by soil borne plant pathogen R. solani can be controlled by the antifungal activity of Trichoderma spp. and P. fluorescens. Five isolates of P. fluorescens along with both strains of P. aureofaciens significantly inhibited the growth of R. solani which caused cotton seedling damping-off disease as reported by Samavat et al. (2014). T. harzianum, Epicoccum sp. are effective bio-agents in controlling black scurf and dry rot of potato caused by R. solani and Fusarium sambucinum and could be considered as promising alternative to chemical products (El-Kot, 2008). Tulsi leaf extract recorded maximum per cent inhibition of the fungus, the per cent inhibit was 29.69, 42.99 and 57.96 per cent at 10, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively followed by Simarouba leaf extract. In Simarouba leaf extract, the per cent inhibit was 28.66, 53.82 and 55.41 per cent at 10, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively. Lantana showed effective against fungus, the per cent inhibit was 43.42, 51.91 and 52.55 per cent at 10, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively. In Pongamia the per cent inhibit was 40.76, 42.04 and 52.87 per cent at 10, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively. Calotripis showed least per cent inhibition of the fungus. In this treatment recorded fungal growth up to 20.06, 28.24 and 37.26 per cent at 10, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively. However, the Tulsi, Simarouba, Lantana and Pongamia leaf extract found to be effective against tomato root rot pathogen, R. solani (Table VI) Shivapuri et al. (1997) studied the different plant extracts, among them, Pongamia leaf extracts was found to be effective against root rot pathogen, R. solani. The inhibition effect against R. solani may be due to production of fungistatic properties. Different Ocimum speices (Tulsi) can used as a potent natural antifungal agent against of Rhizoctonia solani as reported by Senthi et al. 2013.

CULTURAL, PHYSICAL STUDIES AND MANAGEMENT OF TOMATO ROOT ROT PATHOGEN

519

TABLE VI In vitro evaluation of leaf extract against R. solani Concentration (%) / Per cent inhibitation over control

Common Name

Plant extract

10

20

Mean 30

Calotropis gigantean

Calotripis

20.06 (26.61) *

28.24 (32.09)

37.26 (37.62)

28.52

Lantana camara

Lantana

43.42 (41.22)

51.91 (46.10)

52.55 (46.46)

49.29

Cymbopogon flexuosus

Lemon Grass

31.53 (34.16)

35.03 (36.29)

40.13 (39.31)

35.56

Azadirachta indica

Neem

39.58 (38.98)

40.13 (39.30)

43.63 (41.34)

41.11

Simarouba glauca

Simarouba

28.66 (32.37)

53.82 (47.19)

55.41 (48.11)

45.97

Ocimum tenuiflorum

Tulsi

29.69 (33.01)

42.99 (40.97)

57.96 (49.58)

43.55

Ruta graveolens

Nagadhale

33.44 (35.33)

37.58 (37.81)

44.27 (41.71)

38.43

Pongamia pinnata

Pongamia

40.76 (39.68)

42.04 (40.42)

52.87 (46.64)

45.22

Leucaena leucocephala

Subabul

41.08 (39.86)

43.31 (41.16)

46.82 (43.17)

43.74

Mean

34.25

41.67

47.88

41.27

CD @ 1%

Plant extract:0.91; Concentration:0.52: P×C:1.58

S.Em ±

Plant extract:0.17; Concentration:0.06: P×C:0.52

*The value in the parenthesis is arc sine transformed REFERENCES AMBORABÉ, B. E., OCTAVE, S. AND ROBLIN, G., 2005, Influence of temperature and nutritional requirements for mycelial growth of Eutypa lata, a vineyard pathogenic fungus. Plant biology and pathology / Biologie et pathologie vegetales 328 263270. BAKER, K. AND COOK, R., 1974, Biological control of plant pathogens. W. H. Freeman Company, San Francisco, USA, 433 p. ISBN 0835772306. BENHAMOU, N. AND CHET, I.,1993, Hyphal interactions between T. harzianum and R. solani. Phytopathology, 83 : 1062 - 1071. BUNKER, R. N. AND MATHUR, K., 2001, Anatagonism of local biocontrol agents to Rhizoctonia solani inciting dry root rot of chilli. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 31 (1) : 50 - 53. CHET, I., 1990, Biological Control of Soil borne Plant Pathogens, Hornby, D., ed., CAB Intl., Wallingford, UK, 274 - 277.

CHOUDHURY A., DUTTA, S., CHOUDHURY, A. K. AND LALA, S. K., 2003, Effect of biotic / abiotic elicitors on the management of sheath blight of rice (Rhizoctonia solani) under Terai. Agro-ecological Region West Bengal, 33 : 378 - 386. DATTA, S., SOUVIK DAS, ABHIJIT SARKAR, JAYANTA TARAFDAR AND A SHIM CHOWDHURY, 2014, Assessing the effects of varied temperature and pH on the growth and sclerotial formation of Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, isolated from paddy field : a case study. International Journal of Life Sciences, 8 (2) : 4 - 9. DOHROO, N. P., GUPTA, S. K., 1995, Neem in plant disease control. Agriculture Review 16 : 133 - 40. EL - KOT, G. A. N., 2008, Biological Control of Black Scurf and Dry Rot of Potato. Egypt. J. Phytopathol., 36 : 45 - 56. FREIRE, S. V. P., PAIYA, L. M., LIMA, E. A. L. A. AND MAIA, L. C., 1998, Morphological, cytological, and cultural aspects of Curvularia pallescens. Revista de Microbiologia, 29 (3), 56 - 59.

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EMAD ABD ATIA

GERARD EZHILAN, J., CHANDRASEKAR, V. AND KURUCHEVE, V., 1994, Effect of six selected plant products and oil cakes on the sclerotial production and germination of Rhizoctonia solani. Indian Phytopath., 47 : 183 - 185. GOSWAMI, M. M., RAHAMAN, A. K. M. A., HOQUE K. BHUYAN AND MIAN, I. H., 2011, Variations in different isolates of Rhizoctonia solani based on temperature and pH. Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 36 (3) : 389 - 396. GROSCH, R., SCHERWINSKI, K., LOTTMANN, J., BERG, G., 2006, Fungal antagonists of the plant pathogen Rhizoctonia solani: selection, control efficacy and influence on the indigenous microbial community. Mycological Research. 110 : 1464 - 1474. JANKI KANDHARI AND DEVAKUMAR, C., 2003, Effect of Neem oil and its fractions against sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani Khun) of rice. J. Mycopathol. Res., 41 : 185 - 187. MANGANG, H. C. AND CHHETRY, G. K. N., 2012, Antifungal Properties of certain Plant Extracts against Rhizoctonia Solani Causing Root Rot of French bean In Organic Soil of Manipur. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 2 (5). MONGA, D. AND SHEO-RAJ, 1994, Cultural and pathogenic variations in the isolates of Rhizoctonia species causing root rot of cotton. Indian Phytopathology, 47 : 403 - 407. NEHA DEV AND DAWANDE, A.Y., 2010, Bio control of soil borne plant pathogen Rhiozoctonia solani using Trichoderma spp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens. Asiatic J. Biotech. Res. 01 : 39 - 44. PARAMASIVAN, M., MOHAN, S. AND MUTHUKRISHNAN, 2007, Management of coleus dry root rot pathogen, Macro phomina phaseolina by fungal and bacterial antagonists. Indian J. Pl. Prot., 35 (1) : 133 - 137. PRASAD, P. S., 2005, Investigations on Sheath blight of rice. M. Sc. (Agri) Thesis Uni. Agric. Sci. Dharwad (India).

(Received : October, 2015

et al.

REHMAN, RUBINA LAWRENCE, EBNEZER J. KUMAR AND ZAFFAR A FROZ B ADRI , 2012, comparative efficacy of Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum and carbendazim against damping-off disease of cauliflower caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuehn. JBiopest., 5 (1) : 23 - 27. RINI, C. R. AND SULOCHANA, K. K., 2007, usefulness of trichoderma and pseudomonas against Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum infecting tomato. J. Tropical Agric., 45 (1-2) : 21 - 28. SAMAVAT S., ASGHAR HEYDARI, HAMID REZA ZAMANIZADEH, SAEED REZAEE AND ALI ALIZADEH ALIABADI, 2014, A comparison between Pseudomonas aureofaciens (chlororaphis) and P. fluorescens in biological control of cotton seedling damping-off disease. J. Plant Protection Research, 54 (2). SENTHI, S., OM PRAKASH, M. CHANADRA, H. PUNETHA AND A. K. PANT, 2013, Antifungal activity of essential oils of some Ocimum species collected from different locations of Uttarakhand. Indian journal of natural products and resources, 4 (4) : 392 - 397. SHARMA, B. AND KAMAR, P., 2009, In vitro antifungal potency of some plant extracts against Fusarium oxysporum. Int. J. G. Pharmacy, 3 (1) : 63 - 65. SHIVAPURI, A., SHARMA, O. P. AND JHAMARIA, S. L., 1997, fungistatic properties of plant extracts against pathogenic fungi. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 27 : 29 - 31. UPAPDHYAY, R. S. AND BHARAT RAI., 1983, Hyphal Interaction and Parasitism amongst some Rhizosphere fungi of pigeonpea. Indian Phytopath., 36 : 302 - 306. VEERENDRA KUMAR, K.V., 2004, Studies on dry root rot disease of chickpea caused by R. bataticola. M. Sc. (Agri) Thesis Uni. Agric. Sci., Dharwad (India). VINCENT J. M., 1947, distortion of fungal hyphae in the presence of certain inhibitors. Nature, 159 : 850 - 850. WEBSTER J. AND WEBER R., 2007, Introduction to fungi. 3rd editionCambridge University Press.

Accepted : May, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 521-528, 2016

Studies on the Effect of new Insecticidal Molecules as Seed Treatment for Management of Pulse Beetle Collosobruchus maculates (F) and Seed Viability of Cowpea Seeds During Storage under Ambient Conditions G. T. THIRUMALA RAJU AND B. L. JYOTHI AICRP on Seed Technology, NSP, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065

ABSTRACT An experiment was carried out to know the efficacy of new insecticidal molecules as seed treatment on storage insect pests and seed viability during storage under ambient conditions on cowpea from 2009-10 to 201112 at National Seed Project, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. Among the insecticides, seed treated with spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm recorded significantly highest germination at three months (95.33 %), six months (92.67 %) and nine months (90.67 per cent) after storage. The moisture content was significantly lowest (11.62 %) in spinosad 45 SC @ 2ppm at nine months after storage. The insect damage was significantly least in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm at three months (0.09 per cent), six months ( 0.31 %) and nine months (0.83 %) after storage, closely followed by emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm and deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 2 ppm. However, when considered cost benefit ratio, spinosad 45 SC @ 2ppm was recorded highest (1:23.85) followed by deltamethrin 2.8EC @ 2ppm (1:23.37).

COWPEA is one of the most important leguminous crop belonging to the family fabaceae grown in tropics. It has many uses as pulse, fodder, cover crop, green manure and tender green pods (vegetable), which provides cheap and easily digestable protein (4-5 %) for the vegetarian diet. India is one of the leading countries in pulse production with 23.7 million tonnes over an area of 34.62 million hectares at a productivity of 685 kg per ha (Singhal, 2003). Pulses contain 20-30 per cent of protein of which lysine is of great importance and serves as the best means of solving malnutrition problems in the pure vegetarian Indian diet. As a result full yield potential of the cowpea crop is seldom realizes due to interaction of many factors of which post harvest insect infestation and consequent damage is one of the most important. The Collosobruchus maculates (F) is a serious cosmopolitan and polyphagous pest of stored pulses such as cowpea, chickpea and other legume crops. This pulse beetle can cause losses up to 30 per cent in a short period of time. These insects can damage 100 per cent of stored seeds causing weight losses of upto 60 per cent of the 25 species causing damage pulse beetles, bruchids assume greater importance since they damage final produce in the field and in storage (Prabhakar, 1979). Insecticides are one of the most effective weapons for disinfesting and protecting stored

products from infestation. Along with the commonly used insecticides viz.,Deltamethrin, thiamethoxam and malathion (Malathion owing to its extremely low toxicity has been widely used in public health and for the control of stored pests), the new class of insecticides like emamectin benzoate and spinosad (Spinosad has low mammalian toxicity) are used against stored pests (Thompson et al., 2000). Therefore, studies were undertaken to find out suitable new insecticide molecule for control of pulse beetle on stored cowpea seeds for better germination and good harvest of the crop. MATERIAL AND METHODS An experiment has been carried out in the Seed Technology Research Unit, Bangalore with eight treatments by adopting completely randomized design (CRD) in three replications during the years 2009-10 to 2011-12. The treatments were T1 = Flubendiamide (Fame 480 SC) @ 2ppm (4.2 mg/kg seed) T2 = Emamectin benzoate (Proclaim 5 SG) @ 2 ppm (40.0 mg/kg seed) T3 = Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) @ 2 ppm (4.4 mg / kg seed)

G. T. THIRUMALA RAJU AND B. L. JYOTHI

522

T4 = Thiodicarb (Larvin 75WP) @ 2ppm (2.7 mg / kg seed) T5 = Indoxacarb (Avaunt 14.5 SC) @ 2ppm (13.8 mg / kg seed) T6 = Lufenuron (Cigna 5 EC) @ 5 ppm (0.1 ml / kg seed) T 7 = Deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1.0 ppm (0.04 ml / kg seed) T8 = Untreated control One kg of freshly harvested certified seeds with higher germination (>95 %), least moisture content (>9 %) and free from insect damage were taken for each treatment. Recommended quantities of insecticides were diluted in 5 ml of water to treat one kg of seed for proper coating. After treatment, seeds were dried in shade and packed in 2 kg capacity gunny baglets and kept for storage under ambient condition. The observations were recorded at tri-monthly interval up to nine months or loss of minimum seed certification standard (MSCS). For per cent seed damage, four hundred seeds were randomly drawn from each treatment and replication, number of damaged seeds were counted and expressed as per cent seed damage by using following formula. Per cent seed = infestation

Number of seeds damaged Total number of seeds

× 100

The germination test was conducted by adopting between paper (BP) method as prescribed by the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA, 2010). The data was analyzed statistically. The germination test was conducted by between paper method by randomly selecting 100 cowpea seeds from each treatment and replication. Germination counts were recorded on 8th day after incubation in germination chamber maintained at 250 C with 85 per cent relative humidity. Ten randomly selected seedlings from germination test in each of the treatment and replication were used for measurement of root and shoot length and mean seedling length was calculated to find out vigour index-I by following formula. Vigour Index-1 = Germination (%) × Mean seedling length (cm)

Same seedlings were dried in hot air oven maintained at 80 ± 20C for 24 hours, then dry weight was computed and vigour index-II was calculated by following formula Vigour Index-II = Germination (%) × Mean dry weight of seedling (g) Moisture content of seed was estimated by oven drying method by taking 5 grams of maize seeds from each replication and treatment. The seeds were grinded and kept in oven for17 hours and final weight was recorded. The moisture content of seed was calculated by using following formula. Moisture content(%) =

W 2-W 3

× 100

W 2-W 1 Where,as W1 = weight of empty cup with lid (g) W2 = weight of cup with seed samples before drying (g) W3 = weight of cup with seed sample after drying (g) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results on germination after three months of storage during 2009-10 and 2010-11 revealed no significant differences among the treatments. However, highest germination (92.00 %) was recorded in emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm during 2011-12, which was followed by spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm (90.33 per cent) and indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 2 ppm (88.33 per cent) which were on par with each other and the first one differed significantly over all other treatments (Table I). The untreated control recorded lowest germination (80.67 %) and found to be significantly inferior to all other insecticidal treatments. The mean of three years after three months of storage revealed significant differences among the treatments. The highest germination (95.33 %) was in seeds treated with spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm followed by emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm (94.67 %) which were on par with each other and the first one differed significantly with all other treatments. The least germination was observed in untreated control (91.00 %) and was significantly inferior to all other treatments.

523

STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF NEW INSECTICIDAL MOLECULES AS SEED TREATMENT

TABLE I Effect of insecticides seed treatment on germination of stored cowpea Germination (%) 3 MAT

Treatments

6 MAT

9 MAT

2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Mean* 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Mean* 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Mean* T1 = Flubendiamide (Fame 480 SC) @ 2ppm

96.00

95.00

86.67

92.67

95.00

92.00

85.33

91.00

92.00

89.33

80.00 87.33

T2 = Emamectin benzoate(Proclaim 5 SG) @ 2 ppm

96.00

95.33

92.00

94.67

95.33

92.67

88.33

92.11

90.00

88.00

88.00 88.67

T3 = Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) @ 2 ppm

98.33

97.00

90.33

95.33

94.67

94.00

89.00

92.67

91.33

91.67

88.33 90.67

T4 = Thiodicarb (Larvin 75WP) @ 2ppm

98.00

94.33

86.00

93.89

94.00

93.33

84.00

90.67

91.33

91.33

82.00 88.33

T5 = Indoxacarb (Avaunt 14.5 SC) @ 2ppm

96.33

95.33

88.33

92.11

95.67

94.00

84.67

91.33

89.00

88.33

81.67 86.33

T6 = Lufenuron (Cigna 5 EC) @ 5 ppm

96.33

95.33

85.33

92.33

94.33

92.67

79.33

88.67

89.33

88.67

75.67 84.00

T7 = Deltamethrin (2.8 EC) @ 1.0 ppm

97.00

96.00

86.67

93.33

95.00

93.33

85.33

91.33

91.00

90.33

81.00 87.44

T8 = Untreated

96.67

96.00

80.67

91.00

95.33

90.00

38.67

74.67

85.33

81.67

7.00 58.00

SEm±

0.85

1.09

1.43

0.39

0.95

0.66

1.00

0.60

0.94

0.37

0.89

0.55

CV (%)

1.52

1.97

2.84

0.73

1.73

1.23

2.18

1.17

1.82

0.73

2.11

1.14

CD (P=0.05)

NS

NS

4.28

1.18

NS

1.97

3.00

1.80

2.83

1.12

2.67

1.65

*Mean of three Years

MAT- Months after treatment

Control

At six months after storage, no significant differences were observed among the treatments during 2009-10. However, during 2010-11 the highest germination (94.00 % each) was in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm and indoxacarb 75 WP @ 2 ppm which were on par with thiodicarb 75 WP @ 2 ppm and deltamethrin 2.8EC @ 1ppm (93.33 % each) and differed significantly with all other treatments. Whereas, during 2011-12 spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm

NS- Non significant

recorded highest germination (89.00 %) followed by emamectin benzoate (88.33 %) which were on par with each other and both differed significantly with all other treatments. Untreated control recorded significantly least germination (90.00 and 38.67 %, respectively in each year). In the mean of three years during six months of storage, significantly highest germination (92.67 %) was observed in spinosad 45

524

G. T. THIRUMALA RAJU AND B. L. JYOTHI

SC @ 2 ppm which was on par with all other treatments and differed significantly over thiodicarb 75WP @ 2 ppm (90.67 %), lufenuron 5EC @ 5ppm (88.67 %) and the untreated control (74.67 %) which was significantly inferior to all other treatments. The germination results after nine months of storage revealed significant results in all the years as well as mean of three years. During 2009-10 the highest (92.00 %) germination was observed in flubendiamide 480 SC @ 2 ppm, which was on par with all other treatments and differed significantly over indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 2 ppm (89.00 %) and the untreated control recorded the least (85.33 %) germination. The seeds treated with spinosad 45 SC @ 2ppm recorded highest (91.67 %) germination which was on par with thiodicarb 25 WP @ 2 ppm (91.33 %) and the first one differed significantly with all other treatments during 2010-11. However, during 2011-12, the seeds treated with spinosad 45 SC @ 2ppm recorded highest (88.33 %) germination followed by emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm (80.00 %) which were on par and both differed significantly with other treatments. The least (81.67 and 7.00 %) germination was in untreated control during 2010-11 and 2011-12, respectively and found to be significantly inferior to all insecticidal treatments. However, in the mean of three years the highest germination (90.67 %) was found to be in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm, followed by emamectin benzoate 45 SC @ 2 ppm (88.67 %) and thiodicarb 75 WP @ 2 ppm (88.33 %). The first one differed significantly over all other treatments and least was in untreated control (58.00 %) which was inferior to all other treatments. These findings were in confirmation with the results of Huang and Subramanyam (2007) on maize and Ghelani and Helal (2009) on different grain products. The moisture content at three months of storage revealed non significant results in all the years and in the mean of three years. However, spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm during 2011-12 and 2009-10 was recorded the least moisture content (9.12 % and 9.31 per cent, respectively) (Table II). Further, flubendiamide 480 SC @ 2 ppm recorded least moisture content (9.51 %) in the mean of three years. Whereas, untreated control recorded highest moisture content (9.79 %). The results of moisture content at six months revealed non significant results during the year

2009-10 and 2011-12. However, during 2010-11 deltamethrin 2.8EC @ 2 ppm recorded significantly least (10.25 per cent) moisture content and untreated control recorded highest (10.71 %) moisture content. The mean of three years, flubendiamide 480 SC @ 2ppm, spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm and deltamethrin 2.8 SC @ 1 ppm were recorded significantly least (10.60, 10.66 and 10.67 %, respectively) moisture content which were on par with each other. The untreated control recorded highest moisture content (11.01 %). At nine months of storage non significant results were observed during 2009-10. Further, deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1 ppm and spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm during the year 2010-11 and 2011-12 recorded significantly lowest moisture content (11.15 and 12.07 % in each year, respectively). Whereas, untreated control recorded significantly highest moisture content (13.22 %) during the year 2011-12. In the mean of three years significantly least moisture content was recorded in thiodicarb 75WP @ 2 ppm, deltamethrin 2.8EC @ 1ppm, spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm and indoxcarb 14.5 SC @ 2 ppm, (11.53, 11.54, 11.62 and 11.70 %, respectively) which were on par with each other. Whereas, significantly highest (12.14 %) moisture content was observed in untreated control. The insect damage per cent at three months of storage revealed no incidence of insect pests in most of the treatments and replications during 2009-10 and 2010-11(Table III). Whereas, in the year 2011-12 significantly least (0.25 %) insect damage was observed in flubendiamide 480 SC @ 2 ppm which was on par with all other treatments except lufenuron 5EC @ 2 ppm (0.75 %) and untreated control (1.08 %). In the mean of three years after three months of storage, significantly least insect damage was observed in flubendiamide 480SC @ 2 ppm (0.08 %), which was on par with all other treatments except lufenuron 5EC @ 2 ppm (0.28 %). Whereas, the highest insect damage (0.51 %) was recorded in untreated control. The results of insect damage at six months after treatment imposition revealed significant differences among the treatments during all the years and mean of three years. Spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm and emamectin benzoate 5SG @ 2ppm recorded least (0.17 % each) insect damage which were on par with deltamethrin 2.8EC @ 1 ppm (0.83 %) and indoxacarb 75 WP @ 2 ppm (1.00 %) and the first two differed

525

STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF NEW INSECTICIDAL MOLECULES AS SEED TREATMENT

TABLE II Effect of insecticides seed treatment on moisture content of stored cowpea Moisture Content (%) Treatments

3 MAT

6 MAT

9 MAT

2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Mean* 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Mean* 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Mean* T1 = Flubendiamide

9.14

10.34

9.24

9.51

10.11

10.34

11.36

10.60

11.75

11.92

12.35 12.01

T2 = Emamectin benzoate 9.34

10.36

9.26

9.65

10.13

10.51

11.74

10.79

11.41

11.85

12.74 12.00

9.31

10.33

9.12

9.59

10.08

10.48

11.40

10.66

11.12

11.68

12.07 11.62

9.37

10.38

9.27

9.68

10.36

10.52

11.55

10.81

10.93

11.22

12.43 11.53

T5 = Indoxacarb (Avaunt 9.36

10.35

9.33

9.61

10.41

10.51

11.74

10.89

11.18

11.50

12.42 11.70

9.41

10.40

9.34

9.72

10.17

10.58

11.64

10.80

11.41

11.63

12.46 11.83

9.17

10.18

9.39

9.58

10.25

10.25

11.50

10.67

11.18

11.15

12.28 11.54

T8 = Untreated control

9.56

10.54

9.26

9.79

10.48

10.71

11.83

11.01

11.48

11.70

13.22 12.14

SEm±

0.17

0.07

0.15

0.06

0.15

0.01

0.15

0.06

0.19

0.01

0.05

0.07

CV (%)

3.23

1.16

2.75

1.06

2.46

0.16

2.29

0.99

2.96

0.19

0.66

0.98

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

0.03

NS

0.18

NS

0.04

0.14

0.20

(Fame 480 SC) @ 2ppm

(Proclaim 5 SG) @ 2 ppm T3 = Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) @ 2 ppm T4 = Thiodicarb (Larvin 75WP) @ 2ppm

14.5 SC)@ 2ppm T6 = Lufenuron (Cigna 5 EC) @ 5 ppm T7 = Deltamethrin (2.8 EC )@ 1.0 ppm

CD (P=0.05)

*Mean of three years

MAT- Months after treatment

significantly with remaining treatments during 200910. The highest (6.67 %) damage was in untreated control and significantly inferior to all other insecticidal treatments. During 2010-11, the least (0.08 %) damage was in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm treated seeds, closely followed by emamectin benzoate 5SG @ 2 ppm and deltamethrin (0.17 % each) which were on par with each other and all differed significantly with remaining treatments. Untreated control recorded highest (5.42 per cent) damage and was significantly inferior to all treatments. However, during 2011-12, flubendiamide 480 SC @ 2 ppm treated seeds recorded least (0.50 per cent), closely followed by spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm (0.67 per cent), emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm and indoxacarb 14.5SC @ 2 ppm (0.83 per cent each) which were on par and the first one differed

NS- Non significant

significantly with remaining treatments. The highest (36.08 %) damage was in untreated control. The mean of three years revealed least (0.31 %) damage in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm treated seeds, which was on par with emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm (0.39 %) and deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 2 ppm (0.69 %) and first two treatments differed significantly with other treatments. The highest (16.06 %) damage was in untreated control. The insect damage at nine months after treatment imposition recorded significant differences among the treatments during all the years. The least insect damage (1.00, 0.35 and 5.40 %) was in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm during 2009-10, 2010-11 and 2011-12, respectively, which was on par with

3 MAT

-

-

-

T5 = Indoxacarb (Avaunt 14.5 SC) @ 2ppm

T6 = Lufenuron (Cigna 5 EC) @ 5 ppm

T7 = Deltamethrin (2.8 EC) @ 1.0 ppm

*Mean of three Years

0.17

49.60

0.06

0.51

0.19

0.28

0.20

0.13

0.09

0.12

0.08

0.87

29.04

0.29

6.67

0.83

2.00

1.00

1.50

0.17

0.17

1.58

b

b

ab

b

ab

ab

a

1.86

11.60

0.62

36.08 (36.90)

1.08 (5.96)

1.33 (6.40)

0.83 (5.22)

1.08 (5.91)

0.67 (4.61)

0.83 (5.18)

0.50 ( 3.96)

2011-12

6 MAT

NA- Not analysed

0.33

14.21

0.11

5.42

0.17

1.58

0.58

1.42

0.08

0.17

1.33

Mean* 2009-10 2010-11

MAT- Months after treatment

0.36

CD (P=0.05)

0.12

1.08

0.50

0.75

0.58

0.42

0.33

0.33

0.25

39.60

NA

0.75

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

CV (%)

NA

-

T4 = Thiodicarb (Larvin 75WP) @ 2ppm

SEm±

-

T3 = Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) @ 2 ppm

0.5

-

T2 = Emamectin benzoate (Proclaim 5 SG) @ 2 ppm

T8 = Untreated control

-

2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

T1 = Flubendiamide (Fame 480 SC) @ 2ppm

Treatments

3.06

22.87

1.02

18.67

1.67

9.67

7.83

10.17

1.00

0.46

4.25

0.15

19.25

1.33

6.50

3.75

8.50

0.35

0.83

9.58

2010-11

b

c

b

b

a

ab

b

1.33

5.22

0.44

85.42 (67.54) d

1.50 (7.02)

3.00 (9.96)

1.50 (7.02)

1.42 (6.83)

0.92 (5.40)

1.33 (6.62)

1.58 (7.19)

2011-12

9 MAT

1.27

5.05

0.42

41.11 (39.86)

1.50 (7.01)

6.39 (14.61)

4.36 (12.00)

6.69 (14.99)

0.83 (5.23)

1.22 (6.32)

7.50 (15.89)

Mean*

** Values in the parenthesis are Arc sign transformed values

0.38

7.90

0.13

16.06

0.69

1.64

0.81

1.44

0.31

1.50

11.33

1.14 0.39

2009-10

Mean*

Insect Damages (%)

Effect of insecticide seed treatment on insect damage of stored cowpea

TABLE III

e

a

c

b

cd

a

a

a

526 G. T. THIRUMALA RAJU AND B. L. JYOTHI

527

STUDIES ON THE EFFECT OF NEW INSECTICIDAL MOLECULES AS SEED TREATMENT

emamectin benzoate 5 SG (1.50 and 1.33 %) during 2009-10 and 2011-12, respectively differed significantly with all other treatments except deltamethrin 2.8 E @ 1 ppm (1.67 %) during 2009-10. In the mean of three years, significantly least (5.23 %) was recorded in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm and on par with emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm (6.32 %). The highest insect damage (39.86 %) was in untreated control. These results were in conformity with the findings of Fang et al. (2002) on wheat, Srinath (2010) with respect to S. Oryzae in sorghum and C. chinensis in cowpea and Sharma and Micaelraj (2006) on maize. The observations on vigour index were recorded to find out the effect of insecticides on stored cowpea during 2011-12 only. The results recorded significantly highest I was in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm treated seeds at three, six and nine months after storage (2692, 2367 and 1886, respectively) (Table-IV). Similar trend was

observed with respect to vigour index II, spinosad @ 45 SC @ 2 ppm recorded significantly highest Vigour Index -II (50.79, 38.14 & 28.02 %, respectively) (Table-IV) at three, six and nine months of storage and differed significantly with remaining treatments. No reviews were available with respect to effect of insecticides on vigour index of cowpea. Cost benefit ratio was calculated to know the most beneficial insecticide to the farming community. The data revealed that (Table-V), the highest cost benefit ratio of 23.85 was in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm treated seed, the next best in order was deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1.00 ppm (23.37). Based on the results it can be concluded that the spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm may be recommended for management of storage insect pests of cowpea effectively up to nine months without affecting

TABLE IV Effect of insecticides seed treatment on vigour index of stored cowpea during 2011-12 Vigour Index - I

Treatments 3 MAT

6 MAT

Vigour Index - II 9 MAT

3 MAT

6 MAT

9 MAT

T1 = Flubendiamide (Fame 480 SC) @ 2ppm

2569 c

2184 c

1743 c

49.31

bc

33.68 c

25.20 c

T2 = Emamectin benzoate (Proclaim 5 SG) @ 2 ppm

2653 b

2261 b

1790 b

49.65

b

35.28 b

26.50 b

T3 = Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) @ 2 ppm

2692 a

2367 a

1886 a

50.79

a

38.14 a

28.20 a

T4 = Thiodicarb (Larvin 75WP) @ 2ppm

2566 c

2152 d

1686 d

48.61

cd

33.10 d

24.27 d

T5 = Indoxacarb (Avaunt 14.5 SC)@ 2ppm

2553 c

2139 d

1682 d

47.85

d

32.24 de

23.36 e

T6 = Lufenuron (Cigna 5 EC) @ 5 ppm

2551 cd

2165 cd

1547 e

47.89

d

31.57 e f

22.21 f

T7 = Deltamethrin (2.8 EC) @ 1.0 ppm

2533 d

2100 e

1464 f

47.83

d

30.83 f

21.21 g

T8 = Untreated control

2516 e

2017 f

1330 g

46.86

e

29.68 g

20.03 h

SEm±

5.79

9.87

7.04

0.32

0.29

0.21

CV (%)

0.39

0.79

0.74

1.14

1.51

1.57

17.36

29.60

21.09

0.96

0.86

0.65

CD (P=0.05) MAT- Months after treatment

G. T. THIRUMALA RAJU AND B. L. JYOTHI

528

TABLE V Cost Benfit ratio for seed treatment in cowpea Dosage / kg Qty. for 100 kg

Chemicals

Total cost for 100 kg (Rs)*

Damage (%) Loss due Mean of to damage three years (Rs)

Total loss (Rs)

C:B

T1 = Flubendiamide (Fame 480 SC) @ 2ppm

0.04ml

4ml

34.50

7.50

637.50

672.00

1:5.20

T2 = Emamectin benzoate (Proclaim 5 SG) @ 2 ppm

40mg

40mg

360.00

1.22

103.70

464.00

1:7.53

T3 = Spinosad (Tracer 45 SC) @ 2 ppm

0.04ml

4ml

76.00

0.83

70.55

146.50

1:23.85

T4 = Thiodicarb (Larvin 75WP) @ 2ppm

2.70mg

2.7g

25.70

6.69

568.65

594.35

1:5.88

T5 = Indoxacarb (Avaunt 14.5 SC) @ 2ppm

0.14ml

14ml

70.70

4.36

370.60

441.30

1:7.92

T6 = Lufenuron (Cigna 5 EC) @ 5 ppm

0.10ml

10ml

150.00

3.39

543.15

693.15

1:5.04

T7 = Deltamethrin (2.8 EC) @ 1.0 ppm

0.4ml

4ml

22.00

1.50

127.50

149.50

1:23.37

T8 = Untreated control

-

-

-

41.11

3494.35

3494.35

-

* Cost of chemical including labour * Cost of certified maize seed is Rs 8500/qtl

ISTA, 2010, International rules for seed testing, Zurich, Switzerland.

minimum seed certification standards.

PRABHAKAR, G. S., 1979, Studies on the bruchid fauna infesting pulse crops of Karnataka with special emphasis on bioefficacy of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) (Coleoptera : Bruchidae). M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore, Karnataka (India).

REFERENCES FANG, L. A., SUBRAMANYAM, B. AND ARTHUR, F. H., 2002, Effectiveness of spinosad on four classes of wheat against five stored product insects. J. Econ. Ent., 95 (3) ; 640 - 650. GHELANI, M. AND HELAL, R. M., 2009, Insecticidal effect of emamectin benzoate against four stored product insect species in different grain commodities. Int. J. Pest Mngt., 56 (3) : 122 - 128. HUANG, F. N AND SUBRAMANYAM, B., 2007, Effectiveness of spinosad against seven major stored grain insects on corn. Insect sci., 14 (3) : 225 - 230.

(Received : December, 2015

SHARMA, R. K. AND MICAELRAJ. S., 2006, Efficacy of spinosad as seed protectant against the peats of stored maize. Pesticide Res. J., 18 (2) : 173 - 176. SINGHAL, V., 2003, Indian Agriculture, Indian Economic Data Research Centre, New Delhi. SRINATH, B. N., 2010, Management of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) in storage of sorghum and cowpea seeds, M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Karnataka (India). THOMPSON, G. D., DUTTON, R. AND SPARK, T. C., 2000, Spinosad - a case study : an example from a natural products discovery programme. Pest Manage Sci., 56 : 696 - 702.

Accepted : July, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 529-534, 2016

Cultural and Physiological studies of Alternaria brassicicola(Schw.) Wiltshire of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) DINH VIET TU, Y. M. SOMASEKHARA, AND M. K. SHIVAPRAKASH Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru - 560 065

ABSTRACT A study was conducted to know the nutritional requirement of Alternaria brassicicola. Cultural studies of the pathogen revealed that, after ten days the growth of the fungus was maximum in yeast extract agar medium (90 mm) followed by potato dextrose agar (87 mm). The mean dry mycelial weight of the fungus was maximum on carrot extract broth (189 mg), followed by potato dextrose broth (187 mg) seven days after incubation. Both these media were also supported for good sporulation of the fungus. Maximum growth and sporulation of A. brassicicola was found at pH of 6 (dry mycelial weight was 154 mg) and the least growth was obtained at pH 4 (126 mg) and 10 (127 mg). The pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5 is the best for the growth of A. brassicicola cause leaf spot of cabbage. The fungus made fairly good growth between temperature ranges of 20 to 350C. Maximum growth of the fungus was at 300C (86.08 mm) followed by 250C (75.83 mm). Optimum temperature for the growth and sporulation of the pathogen was found between 27 to 320C.

THE cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitataL.) crop is susceptible to a number of diseases caused by biotic and mesobiotic pathogens. Among various diseases, Alternaria leaf spot is the most destructive disease of cabbage in all the continents. This disease is known to be incited by Alternaria brassicicola infection. Alternaria leaf spot pathogens are necrotrophs and produces lesions surrounded by chlorotic areas on leaves, stems and siliquae causing reduction in the photosynthetic areas, defoliation, and early induction of senescence. Alternaria blight causes considerable reduction in quantity and quality of harvested cabbage product. The Alternaria leaf spot pathogen is seed borne, soil borne and air borne. The pathogens are greatly influenced by weather and nutrition with the highest disease incidence. This investigation included cultural and physiological factor for the growth of Alternaria brassicicola caused by leaf spot of cabbage. A suitable substrate is required for the growth of a pathogen. The morphological and cultural characteristics of the pathogen are essential for proper taxonomic status. The growth of A. brassicicola on different media has been reviewed. Swati Deep et al. (2014) reported that among seven types of media (PDA, Cauliflower leaf extract Agar, Carrot potato Agar, Oat meal agar, Czapek Dox agar, V8 juice agar and Corn meal agar), Potato dextrose agar and Cauliflower leaf extract agar were found optimum for the growth and sporulation of the A. brassicicola.

Manika Sharma et al. (2013) reported that Potato Dextrose Agar, Cauliflower (Host) Agar medium and Carrot Potato Agar were good for all the cultures of A. brassicae. The nature of the activities of microorganism is such that the pH of the environment of a metabolizing culture will not remain constant for long (Munro, 1970). Lilly and Barnett (1951) reported that, the pH of the medium affected the rate and amount of growth and many other life processes. Kumar and Arya (1978) reported that, pH 6.0 was optimum for growth of A. triticina. Nishikado et al. (1941) reported that, pH 2, 5 and 10 are minimum, optimum and maximum, respectively for the growth of A. macrospora, while, Padmanabhan and Narayaswamy (1977) found pH 5 to 7 to be optimum for the growth of A. macrospora. According to Mahabaleswarappa (1981) the optimum pH range for the germination of conidia of A. carthami was 5.0-6.0. Narasimha Rao and Rajagopalan (1978) found A. helianthi could grow and sporulation over a fairly wide range of pH 4.5 to 10.0 with maximum at neutral pH (7.0). The growth gradually increases up to neutral pH with a steep fall afterwards. The fungus grows poorly at 3.5 and 10.0 but fails to grow at pH 3.0, 10.5 and 11. Reddy and Gupta (1981) reported that the maximum growth of A. helianthi was at pH 6.0. Nallathambi and Thakore (2004) reported that pH 6.5 favoured maximum growth

530

DINH VIET TU

of the A. alternata. The present investigation was carried to know the suitable media, pH and temperature for the growth of the pathogen. MATERIAL AND METHODS The cultural characters of A. brassicicola were conducted on the following twelve different media (solid and liquid) viz., Cabbage leaf medium, Oat meal medium,Carrot extract medium, Potato Dextrose medium, Czapek’s medium, Richard’s medium,Glucose Nitrate medium, Sabouraud’s medium, Leonian’s medium,Yeast extract medium, Malt extract medium and Starch’s medium. Liquid medium was made in flask without agar. The composition and preparation of the mentioned synthetic and non- synthetic / semi-synthetic media was followed by Hawksworth et al. (1983). All the ingredients were dissolved in 400 ml distilled water and agar was dissolved separately in 500 ml of distilled water and mixed with the above solution and the volume was made up to 1000 ml. The medium was sterilized at 1.1kg / cm2 pressure for 20 min. Each treatment with three replications was maintained. The plates were incubated for seven days with liquid media and ten days with solid media in incubators at 27±10C. After the incubation period, the mycelial growth (mm) was recorded and results were analysed statistically. The growth of A. brassicicola was tested at different temperatures viz., 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 400C. Twenty ml of sterilized Potato dextrose agar (PDA) was poured into the sterile petriplates aseptically and allowed to solidify. Then the plates were inoculated with the 0.5 cm mycelial discs of A. brassicicola. Each treatment with three replications was maintained. The plates were incubated for ten days in incubators adjusted to required temperature levels mentioned above. After the incubation period, the mycelial growth (mm) was recorded and results were analysed statistically. The growth of A. brassicicola was tested at different pH levels viz., 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5 and 10.0. Fifty ml of sterilized Potato dextrose broth (PDB) was poured into the sterile 100 ml flask. Then the flasks were inoculated with the 0.5 cm mycelial discs of A. brassicicola. Each treatment with three replications was maintained. The

et al.

flasks were incubated for seven days at room temperature condition. After the incubation period, fungus was filtered with wahatsmen filter paper and kept in hot air oven at 600C. The mycelial weight was recorded and results were analysed statistically. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Among the twelve different solid media evaluated after ten days, the mean colony diameter of A. brassicicola was maximum in Yeast extract medium (90.00 mm) followed by Potato dextrose agar (87.00 mm), Carrot extract medium (84.58 mm), and minimum growth recorded in Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (62.67 mm). The mycelium colour of fungus varied from white to light / dark grey and black. The growth varied from flat, raised fluffy to sparse. Pigmentation in the media also varied from off white, Greyish white to light grey, grey, light black and black. Sporulation also showed greater variation in different media, ranging from excellent to poor sporulation. The best sporulation of the fungus was recorded on Carrot extract dextrose agar followed by Potato dextrose agar and Cabbage leaf extract Media. Moderate sporulation was found in Oat meal agar, Czapek’s agar, Yeast extract agar and Malt extract agar. Poor sporulation was recorded Sabouraud’s agar, Richard’s agar and Leonian’s agar. While, mycelium of A. brassicicolais not sporulated in Starch’s agar and Glucose nitrate agar after ten days cultured (Table I). Among the twelve different liquid media evaluated, mean dry mycelial weight of A. brassicicola was maximum in Carrot extract medium (189.00 mg), followed by Potato dextrose broth (187.00 mg), Malt extract medium (181.00 mg).Whereas, mean dry mycelial weight was minimum in case of Richard’s medium (134.00 mg) and Czapek’s solution (140.00 mg). Colony colour of A. brassicicola changed from white to grey on Sabouraud’s dextrose broth and Starch’s broth; off white on Richard’s broth, Glucose nitrate and Cabbage leaf extract broth; light grey on Carrot extract broth, Czapeck’s broth and oat meal; grey on Potato dextrose broth and Lionian’s broth. Mycelium of A. brassicicola grown on Malt extract broth has tight black colour. Excellent sporulation was recorded on Carrot extract broth, followed by potato dextrose broth, Malt extract

531

CULTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF WILTSHIRE OF CABBAGE

TABLE I Growth of A. brassicicola on different culture solid media

Media

Radial growth (mm) after 10 days

Colour

Cabbage leaf medium

77.33

Dark grey

Flat growth with regular margin and zonation

Dark grey

+++

Carrot extract medium

84.58

Light black

Fluffy growth with irregular

Grey

++++

Type of growth

Pigmentation

Sporulation

margin Czapek’s solution agar

77.25

Light grey

Flat growth with regular margin

Light grey

++

Glucose nitrate agar

68.50

Light black

Flat growth with regular margin

Black

-

Leonian’s agar

85.17

Greyish white Fluffy raised with regular margin and zonation

Grey

+

Malt extract agar

77.58

Greyish white Fluffy raised growth with regular margin

Off white

++

Oat meal agar

72.83

Off white

Fluffy raised with irregular margin

Off white

++

Potato dextrose agar

87.00

Grey

Flat growth with regular margin

Grey

+++

Richard’s agar

62.17

Off white

Flat growth with regular margin

Off white

+

Sabouraud’s agar

62.67

Greyish white Fluffy raised with regular margin

Light grey

+

Starch’s agar

67.83

Light grey

Fluffy raised growth with regular margin

Light grey

-

Yeast extract medium

90.00

Off white

Fluffy growth with irregular margin Off white

Mean

76.08

SEm ±

1.37

CD@5%

4.00

Cv

3.93

++

-No parasitization; + Weak parasitization;++ Medium parasitization; +++ High parasitizatio; ++++ Strong parasitization.

broth and moderate sporulation in Oat meal broth, Sabouraud’s broth, Lionian’s broth and Cabbage leaf extract broth. Poor sporulation was recorded Czapek’s broth, Yeast extract broth, Richard’s broth and whereas, in Glucose nitrate broth fungus was no sporulation after seven days cultured (Table II). On solid and liquid media, the morphological characters revealed that the fungus produces conidia and conidiophores, conidia were typically produced in chains on the conidiophore. The mycelium on twelve solid media was fluffy raised with regular margin and zonation. Hyphae were hyaline, septate and branched with off white to grey and black. The colour of the conidia was dark brown. The several media

were tested for better growth of the A. brassicicola and found that Yeast extract agar, Potato dextrose agar, Carrot extract agar found good and sporulation of A. brassicicola. A similar result obtained on potato dextrose agar medium was reported by Pawar and Patel (1957). Barksdale (1968) also reported potato dextrose agar medium was the best medium for the growth and sporulation of A. solani. Cheema et al. (1976) reported that A. citri grows rapidly on PDA followed by Yeast extract agar. Manika Sharma et al. (2013) reported that potato dextrose agar and carrot extract agar were good for better growth of A. brassicae. Swati Deep et al. (2014) also reported that Potato dextrose agar and Carrot extract

532

DINH VIET TU

TABLE II Growth of A. brassicicola on different liquid media Culture media

Dry Colour mycelial of weight mycelium (mg)

Sporulation

Cabbage leaf extract broth

164

Off white

++

Carrot extract broth

189

Light grey

++++

Czapek’s broth

140

light gey

+

Glucose nitrate broth

141

Off white

-

Leonian’s broth

166

Grey

++

Malt extract broth

181

Light black

+++

Oat meal broth

179

light grey

++

Potato dextrose broth

187

Grey

+++

Richard’s broth

134

Off white

+

Sabouraud’s dextrose broth

143

White to grey

++

Starch’s broth

158

White to grey

+

Yeast extract broth

153

Off white

+

Mean

160

SEm±

0.03

CD@5%

0.08

Cv%

3.13

- No parasitization; + Weak parasitization ++ Medium; parasitization; +++ High parasitization; ++++ Strong parasitization.

agar were found better for the growth and sporulation of A. brassicicola. Roy (1969) found good growth of A. dauci causing leaf blight of carrot in potato dextrose medium. Temperature is one of the important factors for the growth of an organism. The results indicated that the maximum colony diameter of A.brassicicola was observed at 300C (86.08 mm) followed by 250C (75.83 mm) and at 350C (72.50) mm and there was significant difference between the these treatments. The minimum colony diameter was recorded at 400C (11.00 mm) and 50C (12.42 mm) and this was followed by 100C (15.43mm) and 150C (17.10 mm). The maximum sporulation was found at 300C and significantly superior

et al.

to other temperature levels, followed by 250C and 350C and moderate sporulation at 200C. There was no sporulation at 150C, 50C and 400C (Table III). The findings of the present study were in close conformity with the observations of Rotem (1994) who reported that the conidia of A. brassicicola germinate over a wide range of temperatures, with the optimum at 28 to 310C. Sporulation can occur over a wide range of temperatures and is optimal at 20 to 300C. Ronald and Diana (2011) reported that sporulation occurred at a temperature range of A. brassicicola from 8240C, where mature spore occur after 14-24 hours. Optimum temperatures were between 16 and 240C and sporulation time range from 12 to 14 hours. Hydrogen ion concentration is an important factor promoting the growth and development of fungi. The present study was carried out to know the best pH level for the growth of A. brassicicola. The results indicated that pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 was optimum for the growth of A. brassicicola. Maximum dry mycelia

TABLE III Effect of temperature on the growth of A.brassicicola on PDA Temperature (0C)

Mycelium growth (mm)

Sporulation

7 days

10 days

5

11.25

12.42

-

10

14.13

15.43

-

15

16.67

17.10

-

20

34.45

48.92

+

25

38.00

75.83

+++

30

74.58

86.08

++++

35

55.92

72.75

++

40

10.17

11.00

-

Mean

31.89

42.44

S.Em±

0.43

0.41

CD@5%

1.30

1.23

Cv%

2.28

1.77

- No parasitization; + Weak parasitization ++ Medium; parasitization; +++ High parasitization ++++ Strong parasitization.

CULTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF WILTSHIRE OF CABBAGE

weight was observed at pH 6.0 with 154.00 mg, followed by pH 6.5 (148.00 mg) and pH 5.5 (145.00 mg). Minimum dry mycelial weight was recorded at pH 4.0 (126.00 mg), pH 10 (127.00 mg) and pH 9.5 (130 mg). Among 13 pH levels, pH 6 was found best in sporulation of A. brassicicola and found significantly superior over all the other pH levels and followed by pH 6.5. At pH 5.5, 7.0 and 7.5 were found medium sporulation of fungus. Poor sporulation was found at pH 4.5, 5.0, 8.0 and 8.5. Colony of A. brassicicola was completely no sporulation at pH 9.0, 9.5, 10 and 4.0. (Table IV). The hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of the medium and the growth of the fungus were interrelated. Every organism has minimum, maximum and optimum pH for the growth. The results indicated that the maximum growth and sporulation of A. brassicicola was observed at pH 6.0, followed by pH

533

6.5 and the minimum was recorded at pH 4.0 and at pH 10. Similar findings have been reported by Padmanabhan and Narayaswamy (1977) who found pH 5 to 7 to be optimum for the growth of A. macrospora. Mahabaleswarappa (1981) observed that A. carthami made fairly good growth between pH range of 5.3 to 8.1 and maximum growth of the fungus was at pH 6.0. These findings correlates with the results obtained in the present study where pH 6.0 supported the maximum growth of A. brassiccicola and pH 5.5 and pH 6.5 were optimum for the growth of the pathogen. The present investigation found that, Carrot extract medium, potato dextrose broth and malt extract medium were found to good in growing Alternaria leaf spot fungi with the temperature range from 25 to 300C. The pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5 is the best for the growth of A. brassicicola cause leaf spot of cabbage. REFERENCES

TABLE IV Effect of pH on growth of A.brassicicolain Potato dextrose broth pH levels

4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 Mean S.Em± CD @ 5% CV %

Dry mycelial weight (mg)

126 132 140 145 154 148 141 140 137 133 132 130 127 137 0.06 0.19 1.64

Sporulation

+ + ++ ++++ +++ ++ ++ + + -

- No parasitization; + Weak parasitization ++ Medium parasitization; +++ High parasitization and ++++ Strong parasitization.

BARKSDALE, T. H., 1968, Resistant of tomato seedling to early blight. Phytopatho., 58 : 443 - 446. HAWKSWORTH, D. L., SUTTON, B. S. AND AINSWORTH, G. C., 1983, Ainsowrth and Bisbys Dictionary of the Fungi, VIII Edition, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, London, pp. 445. CHEEMA, S. S., KAPUR, S. P., CHOHAH, J. S. AND JAYARAJAN, R., 1976, Cultural studies on Alternaria citri the causal organism of stylar rot of citrus. Indian Phytopath., 29 : 128 - 129. KUMAR, V. R. AND ARYA, H. C., 1978, Nutritional requirements of Alternaria triticina causing leaf blight of wheat. Geobios., 5 : 2 - 15. LILLY, V. G. AND BARNETT, H. L., 1951, Physiology of fungi. McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc., London. MAHABALESWARAPPA, K. B., 1981, Studies on leaf spot of Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius Linn.) caused by Alternaria carthami Chowdhury, M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ.Agril. Sci., Bengaluru. M ANIKA S HARMA , S WATI D EEP , DINESH S INGH B HATI ., CHOWDAPPA, P., SELVAMANI, R. AND PRATHIBA SHARMA, 2013, Morphological, cultural, pathogenic and molecular studies of Alternaria brassicae infecting cauliflower and mustard in India. African J. of Microbiology Research, 7 (26) : 3351 - 3363.

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et al.

MUNRO, A. L. S., 1970, Measurement and control of pH values in: Methods of microbiology, Vol. 2. Ed. by Norris, J.R. and Ribbons, D.W., Acad. Press, London, pp. 39 - 90.

PANDEY, K. K. AND VISHWAKARMA, S. N., 1988, Growth, sporulation and colony characters of A.alternata on different vegetable based media. Indian J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 28 : 346 - 347.

NALLATHAMBI, P. AND THAKORE, B. L., 2004, Effect of nutrients and pH on the growth and toxin production by Alternarian alternata causing fruit rot in ber. Indian J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 34 : 683 - 686.

PADMANABHAN, P. A. AND NARAYASWAMY, P., 1977, Growth studies of A lternaria macrospora Zimm. anincitant of leaf spot disease of cotton. Madras Agricultural Journal, 64 : 258 - 261.

NARASHIMA RAO, G. AND RAJAGOPALAN, K., 1978, Effect of pH on growth and sporulation of Alternaria helianthicola causing a new leaf spot of sunflower. Indian J. Microbiol.,18 : 240 - 242. NISHIKADO, X., KIMURA, K. A. AND MUYAKWAK, Y., 1941, On two Alternaria sp. injurious to cotton fibre in bolls. Annals of Phyto Pathological Society, Japan, 10 : 214 - 230.

(Received : September, 2015

PAWAR, V. H. AND PATEL, M. K., 1957, Alternaria leaf spot of Ricinus communis L., Indian Phytopath., 10 : 110 - 114. ROY, R. K., 1969, Studies on leaf blight of Carrot caused by Alternaria dauci. Indian Phytopath., 22 : 105 - 109.

Accepted : June, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 535-540, 2016

Study of Variations in Annual Rainfall Across Rain Gauge Stations in Mandya District G. S. SHILPASHREE, K. N. KRISHNAMURTHY AND N. A. JANARDHANA GOWDA Department of Agricultural Stastics, Applied Mathematics and Computer Science College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065

ABSTRACT A study of variation in annual rainfall (mm) across different rain gauge stations (RGS) located in Mandya district was considered for a period of 50 years from 1964 – 2013. The results revealed that the central part of Mandya district covering most of the RGS stations coming under Nagamangala, Mandya and Pandavapura taluks received below average (700 mm) rainfall during the study period. The significance of trend assessed by Mann-Kendall test revealed that only five RGS stations viz., Seelunere, Halagur, Lingarajachatra, Honakere and Melkote had significant linear trend. Further, Seelunere and Halagur showed decreasing trend, while, Lingarajachatra, Honakere and Melkote showed an increasing trend in annual rainfall over the years.

RAIN is an important natural phenomenon which can influence the human life. There are many factors which influence the rainfall, such as geographical position, monsoon, topography and other factors. These factors could collaborate in complex manner to contribute the rainfall. India’s climate is dominated by monsoons. Monsoon is a term derived from the Arabic word “Mausim”, meaning season. It was used to describe the seasonal winds of Arabian Sea. The winds blow from the North-east for one half of the year and from the South-west for the other half of the year. Northeast monsoon is the main period of rainfall activity over south peninsular India, particularly in the eastern half comprising of subdivisions of Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Rayalaseema, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. For Tamil Nadu, North-east monsoon is the main rainy season accounting for about 48 per cent of the annual rainfall. Coastal district gets the annual rainfall of about 60 per cent and the interior district get annual rainfall of about 40-50 per cent. Though South-west monsoon is the main rainy season for interior Karnataka, Kerala and Lakshadweep, rainfall continues till December in these sub divisions. The period October – December (Northeast Monsoon) contributes about 20 per cent of annual total rainfall. The Karnataka state is located within 740 East and 780 30’ East longitude and 11030’ North and 180

30’ North latitudes. It extends to about 400 km from east to west and about 750 km from north to south. It has a vivid agro climatic condition. The agriculture in Karnataka is mainly dependent on rainfall and most of it is dependent on the South–west Monsoon. Only 26.5 per cent of sown area is subjected to irrigation and the rest of the cultivable land entirely depends on rainfall. The climate of Karnataka varies with the season. The winter season starts from January to February and is followed by summer season which starts in the month of March to till the end of May and the monsoon season starts in two phases South-west monsoon (June to September) and post monsoon (October to December) and the South-west monsoon brings major rainfall to Karnataka state. There are many studies reported on variation in annual rainfall. Sen and Balling (2004) analyzed the daily rainfall data of 129 stations and found general increasing trend in a contiguous region extending from the North-western Himalayas and decreasing values in the eastern part of the Gangetic Plains and parts of Uttarakhand. Deka et al. (2008) used data from seven stations of the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam for evaluation of variability in rainfall and temperature regimes. Pal and Al-Tabbaa (2009) found that winter and post monsoon extreme rainfall having an increasing tendency and decreasing trends in spring seasonal extreme rainfall. Longobardi and Villani (2010) made an attempt to analyze time series data on rainfall over

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a wide time interval and a wide area, detecting potential trends and assessing their significance. Abdulharis et al. (2010) investigated rainfall and temperature trends at four stations representing three agroecological zones of Bihar using 45 years data. Ranabir Singh et al. (2012) made a study on trends in climate variability over Himachal Pradesh during 196987. Amrutha and Shreedhar (2014) studied rainfall variability for Belgaum district. In the present study, the nature of variations in annual rainfall across rain gauge stations located in Mandya district were identified. MATERIAL AND METHODS Mandya district with a geographical area of 4.98,244 hectares lies in the southern part of Karnataka State between 760 19’ and 770 20’ East Longitude and 120 13’ and 130 04’ North Latitude as depicted. The population is about 19.25 lakhs. The district comprises seven taluks, thirty one Hoblis and 1,369 villages. The district is considered as one of the most agriculturally prosperous districts in the state. With the advent of irrigation from the K. R. Sagar reservoir (1930’s), there was substantially marked transformation in cropping pattern, composition of crops, better grown yield level, ultimately leading to better economic conditions of the people. The total irrigated area is 1,16,901, ha, out of which, around 88,000 ha is being irrigated by K. R. Sagar and around 16,000 ha by Hemavathi reservoir. The rest of the land is irrigated by other sources like tanks, wells and bore wells. The major geographical area of Mandya district is covered by Cauvery basin and agriculture in the district is classified under agro- climatic zone 6, i.e., Southern dry zone. The crop sowing periods are early kharif, late kharif and summer. The average annual rainfall was 700 mm. The district gets a bimodal distribution of rainfall. Generally, the first peak is during April, May and the second during September, October. The month of June is known for dry spell.Sub divisions of districts (talukas) are Mandya, Maddur, Malavalli, Srirangapatna, Pandavapura, K. R. Pet, and Nagamangala. In each of these seven taluks, thirty two rain gauge stations are located as noted below: Krishnarajapet Taluk : Akkihebbal, Krishnarajpet, Kikkeri, Santebachahalli and Seelunare.

Maddur Taluk : Koppa, Kowdle (Bolare), Maddur and Kestur. Malavalli Taluk: Halagur, Malavalli and Shiva samudra. Mandya Taluk: V.C. farm, Basaralu, Lingarajachatra, Mandya taluk office, Mandya SF, Kottatti, Keragodu and Dudda. Nagamangala Taluk: Bellur, Bindiganavile, Devalapura, Honakere and Nagamangala. Pandavapura Taluk: Chinkurli, Pandavapura and Melkote. Srirangapatna Taluk: Krishnarajasagar dam, Krishnarajasagar KERS, Srirangapatna and Arakere. For the present study, daily rainfall data pertaining to 32 RGS stations covering all 7 taluks of Mandya district for a period of 50 years from 1964 to 2013 were considered. The descriptive statistics on rainfall such as Maximum, Minimum, Mean, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variation and Skewness were computed to study the variation of rainfall across different RGS. The stations were classified according to below normal, normal and above normal rainfall. Further, the trend in rainfall pattern was assessed using Mann Kendall test. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table I shows descriptive statistics of annual rainfall for different rain gauge stations located at Mandya district. The average annual rainfall was found to be maximum for Keragodu (793.5 mm) followed by Koppa station (777.4 mm), whereas, it was minimum for Devalapura (395.4 mm) followed by Honakere station (483.9 mm). The coefficient of variation in annual rainfall across stations ranged from 23.4 per cent (at Arakere station) to 47.8 per cent (at Devalapura station). Further, compared to other taluks of the district, Srirangapatna taluk had low coefficient of variation (Fig. 1). Table II shows the level of annual rainfall across different RGS stations during the study period. The table reveals that Devalpura station had below normal (< 700mm) rainfall for maximum number of years (44 years) followed by Honkere station (35 years)

537

STUDY OF VARIATIONS IN ANNUAL RAINFALL ACROSS RAIN GAUGE STATIONS IN MANDYA DISTRICT

TABLE I Descriptive statistics of annual rainfall (mm) for different RGS during the study period (1964 – 2013) Taluk

Krishnarajpet

Maddur

Malavalli Mandya

Nagamangala

Pandavapura Srirangapatna

Annual rainfall (mm) Rain Gauge Stations Akkihebbal Krishnarajpet Kikkeri Santebachahalli Seelunare Koppa Kowdle (Bolare) Maddur Kestur Halagur Malavalli Shiva samudra V C farm Basaralu Lingarajachatra Mandya taluk office Mandya SF Kottatti Keragodu Dudda Bellur Bindiganavile Devalapura Honakere Nagamangala Chinkurli Melkote Pandavapura Krishnarajsagar dam Krishnarajsagar KERS Srirangapatna Arakere

Min.

Max.

Mean

SD

152.2 344.9 109.3 265.2 265.2 299.7 343.8 387.2 323.2 112.0 275.8 356.5 298.5 134.4 117.7 231.6 227.0 212.0 378.0 210.5 169.8 115.4 158.2 162.9 284.3 101.0 253.0 286.4 266.6 431.0

1394.0 1069.7 1026.6 1403.1 1761.1 1767.2 1474.6 1321.2 1761.1 1427.6 1216.2 1326.7 1341.3 1176.8 995.0 1541.3 1175.4 1311.5 1338.2 1045.9 1051.0 993.2 1171.0 885.0 1324.5 1051.2 1319.7 1235.2 1603.3 1316.0

671.3 729.2 647.4 692.9 720.4 777.4 740.9 750.0 743.9 710.4 699.5 726.5 654.1 600.2 518.5 693.1 610.6 623.9 793.5 589.3 533.1 554.5 395.4 483.9 760.4 541.1 702.4 686.4 714.6 734.9

263.5 200.4 218.2 234.1 256.2 296.5 235.3 207.2 241.2 243.7 220.5 190.7 242.4 229.9 227.4 233.7 234.9 272.3 249.2 200.5 222.6 214.1 189.1 176.2 220.6 244.3 253.9 224.2 251.9 202.8

39.3 27.9 33.7 33.8 35.6 38.1 31.8 27.6 32.4 34.3 31.5 26.2 37.1 38.3 43.9 33.7 38.5 43.6 31.4 34.0 41.7 38.6 47.8 36.4 29.0 45.1 36.1 32.7 35.2 27.6

0.4 - 0.03 - 0.4 0.3 1.3 1.4 0.8 0.1 1.5 - 0.07 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.9 0.02 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.03 - 0.05 1.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 1.4 0.8

260.3 439.8

1019.0 1099.3

646.5 7 23.1

170.5 169.0

26.4 23.4

- 0.3 0.4

Fig.1: Coefficient of Variation in Annual Rainfall across RGS

CV (%)

Skewness

G. S. SHILPASHREE et al.

538

TABLE II Classification of rainfall in different rain gauge stations during the study period (1964-2013) Level of Rainfall (Normal = 700mm) Taluk

Krishnarajpet

Maddur

Malavalli Mandya

Nagamangala

Pandavapura Srirangapatna

Rain Gauge Stations

Akkihebbal Krishnarajpet Kikkeri Santebachahalli Seelunare Koppa Kowdle (Bolare) Maddur Kestur Halagur Malavalli Shivasamudra V C farm Basaralu Lingarajachatra Mandya taluk office Mandya SF Kottatti Keragodu Dudda Bellur Bindiganavile Devalapura Honakere Nagamangala Chinkurli Melkote Pandavapura Krishnarajsagar dam Krishnarajsagar KERS Srirangapatna Arakere

Below normal < (Mean - SD) No. of years

Per cent

18 13 17 16 12 8 11 11 8 8 18 9 20 21 27 12 22 20 9 23 28 26 44 35 12 32 15 17 12 10 14 9

36 26 34 32 24 16 22 22 16 16 36 18 40 42 54 24 44 40 18 46 56 52 88 70 24 64 30 34 24 20 28 18

whereas, Maddur station had above normal (> 700 mm) rainfall for maximum number of years (27 years) followed by Koppa and Keragodu stations (23 years). The Krishnarajsagar dam had normal rainfall for maximum number of years (24 years) followed by Srirangapatna station (22 years). The result further reveals that the annual rainfall varied over a wide range across different RGS stations. The stations coming under Nagamangala taluk had below normal rainfall as compared to other taluks of Mandya district. It is very clear from Table II that Devalpura and Honakere stations had below normal rainfall ie, 88 per cent and 70 per cent, respectively. The map showing the rainfall distribution across RGS of Mandya district is presented in Fig. 2.

Normal (Mean ± SD) Per cent No. of years 16 16 18 13 19 19 19 12 21 23 13 20 18 21 15 21 14 16 18 18 13 16 4 11 14 9 14 14 24 18 22 21

32 32 36 26 38 38 38 24 42 46 26 40 36 42 30 42 28 32 36 36 26 32 8 22 28 18 28 28 48 36 44 42

Above normal > (Mean + SD) No. of years

Per cent

16 21 15 21 19 23 20 27 21 19 19 21 12 8 8 17 14 14 23 9 9 8 2 4 24 9 21 19 14 22 14 20

32 42 30 42 38 46 40 54 42 38 38 42 24 16 16 34 28 28 46 18 18 16 4 8 48 18 42 38 28 44 28 40

Fig. 2: Rainfall distribution at different RGS of Mandya district

539

STUDY OF VARIATIONS IN ANNUAL RAINFALL ACROSS RAIN GAUGE STATIONS IN MANDYA DISTRICT

The RGS stations like, Akkihebbal, Krishnarajpet, Santebachahalli, Seelunare, Koppa, Kowdle (Bolare), Maddur, Kestur, Halagur, Malavalli, Shivasamudra, Mandya taluk office, Keragodu, Nagamangala, Melkote, Pandavpura, Krishnarajsagar dam, Krishnarajsagar KERS and Arakere stations recorded above average annual rainfall, whereas, below average annual rainfall was found in stations like Kikkeri, V.C. farm, Basaralu, Lingarajachatra, Mandya SF, Kottati, Dudda, Bellur, Bindiganavile, Devalapura, Honakere, Chinkurli and Srirangapatna.

Majority of the RGS stations received normal rainfall during the study period except for Devalapura and Honakere stations belonging to Nagamangala taluk of Mandya north district which received below normal rainfall. However, Maddur station belonging to Maddur taluk had rainfall exceeding the normal limit. Table III shows the linear trend analysis for the annual rainfall across different rain gauge stations for

TABLE III Estimates of linear trend in annual rainfall across RGS of Mandya district Taluk Krishnarajpet

Maddur

Malavalli

Mandya

Nagamangala

Pandavapura

Srirangapatna

Rain Gauge Stations Akkihebbal Krishnarajpet Kikkeri Santebachahalli Seelunare Koppa Kowdle (Bolare) Maddur Kestur Halagur Malavalli Shivasamudra V C farm Basaralu Lingarajachatra Mandya tq office Mandya SF Kottatti Keragodu Dudda Bellur Bindiganavile Devalapura Honakere Nagamangala Chinkurli Melkote Pandavapura Krishnarajsagar dam Krishnarajsagar KERS Srirangapatna Arakere

** Significant at 1% level

Intercept

Coefficient

F value

746.4 673.7 619.9 631.5 856.4 696.3 644.0 708.8 819.5 842.3 738.8 642.9 746.2 555.4 343.5 727.5 602.3 706.7 847.2 553.6 473.4 481.5 425.0 378.4 692.3 573.5 545.8 639.6 708.1 696.0 569.0 672.6

- 2.94 2.17 1.08 2.41 - 5.34 3.18 3.79 1.61 - 2.96 - 5.04 - 1.54 3.27 - 3.17 1.75 6.86 - 1.35 0.32 - 3.23 - 2.11 1.39 3.08 2.86 - 1.16 4.14 2.66 - 1.06 6.10 1.83 0.25 1.52 3.04 1.98

1.31 NS 1.23 NS 0.24 NS 1.10 NS 4.87 * 1.20 NS 2.18 NS 0.62 NS 1.59 NS 5.22 * 0.50 NS 3.21NS 2.10 NS 0.60 NS 11.51** 0.34NS 0.01NS 1.48NS 0.73NS 0.50 NS 2.38 NS 1.89 NS 0.39 NS 6.37 ** 1.53 NS 0.20 NS 6.71** 0.69 NS 0.01NS 0.58 NS 3.47 NS 1.43 NS

* Significant at 5% level

NS: Not significant

Mann-Kendall t - 0.089 0.117 0.007 0.066 - 0.215 0.259 0.117 0.066 - 0.073 - 0.195 - 0.073 0.169 - 0.153 0.081 0.287 - 0.030 - 0.001 - 0.149 - 0.078 0.123 0.138 0.123 - 0.042 0.215 0.136 - 0.103 0.233 0.068 0.053 0.109 0.184 0.115

P value 0.366 0.235 0.935 0.503 0.028 0.118 0.235 0.503 0.277 0.046 0.462 0.085 0.120 0.412 0.003 0.763 1.000 0.128 0.427 0.210 0.160 0.210 0.670 0.028 0.165 0.296 0.018 0.493 0.592 0.269 0.061 0.242

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G. S. SHILPASHREE et al.

the period 1964-2013. The statistical significance of trend was assessed by Mann-Kendall test. It was found that only five rain gauge stations viz., Seelunere, Halagur, Lingarajachatra, Honakere and Melkote had significant linear trend. Further, Seelunere and Halagur showed decreasing trend, while, Lingarajachatra, Honakere and Melkote showed an increasing trend in annual rainfall over the years.

From the above investigation, it is observed that the central part of Mandya district covering most of RGS stations coming under Nagamangala, Mandya and Pandavapura taluks had received below average (< 700 mm) rainfall, whereas, RGS stations located in Maddur and Malavalli taluks towards east as well as K.R Pet and Srirangapatna taluk towards western parts of Mandya district had received above average (> 700 mm) rainfall during the study period. It was found that only five rain gauge stations viz., Seelunere, Halagur, Lingarajachatra, Honakere and Melkote had significant linear trend. Further, Seelunere and Halagur showed decreasing trend, while, Lingarajachatra, Honakere and Melkote showed an increasing trend in annual rainfall over the years. The present study will help the farmers to plan their crops suitably.

REFERENCES ABDULHARIS, A., CHHABRA, V. AND BISWAS, S., 2010, Rainfall and Temperature trends at three representative agroecological zones. J. Agro-meteorol., 12(1) : 37-39. AMRUTHA RANI, H. R. AND SHREEDHAR, R., 2014, Study of rainfall trends and variability for Belgaum district. International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 3(6) : 148-155. DEKA, R. L., NATH, K. K. AND HUSSAIN, R., 2008, Variability in rainfall and temperature regimes of the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. .J. of Agro-meteorol., 2 : 305-308. LONGOBARDI ANTONIA. AND VILLANI PAOLO, 2010, Trend analysis of annual and seasonal rainfall time series in the Mediterranean area. Int. J. Climatol., 30 : 1538-1546. P AL, I. AND AL- TABBAA, A., 2009, Trends in seasonal precipitation extremes-an indicator of climate change in Kerala. J. Hydrol., 367 : 62-69. RANABIR SINGH RANA, BHAGAT, A. M., MAN MOHAN SINGH., VAIBHAV RALIA., SHARDA SINGH AND RAJENDRA PRASAD., 2012, Trend in climate variability over Himachal Pradesh. J. Agro-meteorol.,14(1) : 30-40. SEN ROY, S. AND BALLING, R. C., 2004, Trends in extreme daily precipitation indices in India. Int. J. Climatol., 24: 457-466.

(Received : July, 2015 Accepted : May, 2016)

Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 50 (3) : 541-554, 2016

A Comparative Genetic Analysis of Seed Yield and its Attributes in two Crosses of Green Gram (Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek) MURALIDHARA, J. SHANTHALA, D. L. SAVITHRAMMA, E. GANGAPPA AND A. G. SHANKAR Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru – 560 065

ABSTRACT Genetic analysis of two crosses of green gram studied LM192 × MDU3465 and BL865 × Chinamung along with their F2 to F3 generations was conducted to understand the genetic variability, correlation of yield and yield components along with their direct and indirect effects on seed yield so as to enable to make effective selections for increased yield. Higher magnitudes of variability was recorded for plant height, primary branches per plant, number of clusters per plant, number of pods per plant, number of pods per cluster, pod yield per plant(g), seed yield per plant (g) and threshing percentage in F2 and F3 generation. High heritability and genetic advance as per cent of mean was recorded for all the traits studied except for days to first flowering in both F2 and F3 generation that indicate the role of additive gene action in inheritance of these traits and hence, phenotypic selection would be effective in yield improvement. In the cross LM192 × MDU3465, Phenotypic coefficient of variation was slightly higher in magnitude than the genotypic coefficient of variation for number of pods per plant (PCV: 94.19 F2 and 53.73 F3 and GCV 89.85 F2 and 46.14 F3 , respectively). Number of pods per plant (0.783) F2 and (0.884) F3, pod yield per plant (0.976) F2 and (0.985) F3 and threshing percentage (0.452) F2 and (0.607) F3 had shown positive and significant correlation along with their high positive direct effect with seed yield, suggesting that these parameters may be considered as prime traits during the course of selection to obtain increased yield potentials of green gram. In F2 generation, of the cross BL865 × Chinamung showed high mean performance for seed yield (3.30g), pod yield (4.95) and threshing percentage (63.01), however, least mean performance was observed for yield (1.62g) in F3 generation, indicating that there was a greater environmental effect on seed yield in F2 generation. Family performance in the cross LM-192×MDU-3465 for seed yield was comparatively superior over the check KKM-3 and Chinamung.

GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek), popularly known as mung bean is an essential dhal of vegetarian diets, nutritionally valued food legume for its low flatulence protein. It is a self-pollinating, short duration legume that belongs to family Leguminaceae with a chromosome number of 2n=22. Among the wide array of pulse crops cultivated in India, green gram occupies an area of 34.4 lakh ha production of 14 lakh tons and productivity of 638 kg/ha (Anon., 2013). Green gram occupies an area of 5.28 lakh ha with a production of 1.08 lakh tones and the average productivity of 205 kg/ha in Karnataka (Anon., 2013). Enchancement of Green gram productivity is the quintessential need of the country to obtain increased production of mung. It is regularly grown under low fertility lands and low rainfall conditions, with frequent drought spells as one of major stress which adversely affects the yield and its component traits. The genes for agronomic characteristics responsible for high yield

has been eroded resulting in narrow genetic base, with relatively lesser tolerance under competitive and stress conditions of agriculture. In order to improve yield through breeding techniques, a thorough understanding of variability is a prerequisite for a plant breeder. Estimates of genetic parameters do provide an indication of the relative importance of the various types of gene effects affecting the total variation of a plant character. Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation and heritability accompanied with genetic advance are very important parameters in improving traits (Nwosu, et al., 2013). In any breeding programme, selection and evaluation of breeding materials for quantitative and yield ability is imperative to facilitate development of cultivars. Owing to this, an experiment was conducted to study variability, heritability and genetic advance in addition to correlation and path analysis among yield and yield parameters of F2 and F3 generations in two

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MURALIDHARA

crosses of green gram viz., LM192 × MDU3465 and BL865 × Chinamung. MATERIAL AND METHODS The present study was carried out at K-block, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore during kharif 2013 and summer 2014. The best performing two crosses viz., LM192×MDU3465 and BL-865 × Chinamung were evaluated along with parents and check varieties (KKM-3, Chinamung) for seed yield and yield attributing traits. Selections were made from F2 to F3 based on mean yield performance of traits viz., number of pods per plant, pod yield per plant (g), seed yield per plant (g) and threshing percentage and F3 generation was raised on plant-to-row progeny basis using augmented design with 10 compact blocks. Each block was comprised of genotypes, parental lines and check varieties. Each progeny was sown in single row of 3m length with a spacing of 30cm between the rows and plant to plant distance of 10cm. All recommended agronomic practices and plant protection measures were followed during the crop growth period to ensure better growth and yield. Since F2 and F3 populations are highly segregating for the genes at each loci for which they differ, the observations were recorded on all F2 and F3 populations on individual plant basis on the following traits viz.,days to first flowering, plant height (cm), number of primary branches per plant, number of clusters per plant, number of pods per plant, number of pods per cluster, pod length (cm), number of seeds per pod, pod yield per plant (g), seed yield per plant (g) and threshing percentage. Genetic parameters like mean, range, genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation, heritability and genetic advance as per cent mean, correlation coefficient and path coefficient analysis were calculated as per the standard procedures Johnson et al.(1955). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ANOVA of the cross LM 192 × MDU 3465 : Analysis of variance between F3 families exhibited highly significant differences for all traits among the F 3 progenies, which indicated the existence of

et al.

sufficient genetic variability within families and between families and scope for improvement (Table I). Genetic variability parameters in F2 & F3 generation of the cross LM 192 × MDU 3465 : Variability parameters viz., mean, range, genotypic coefficient variation (GCV), phenotypic co-efficient of variation (PCV), broad sense heritability (h2) and genetic advance expressed as per cent mean (GAM) with respect to all the characters in the cross LM192×MDU3465 is presented in Table II. Growth parameters : Days to first flowering exhibited considerably lesser extent of genetic variation in both F2 and F3 population indicating the presence of non-additive gene action and hence limited scope of selection for this character. High GCV and PCV was observed for pod yield per plant (g), seed yield per plant (g), number of clusters per plant, number of pods per plant, number of pods per cluster and plant height (cm), number of branches per plant, respectively in both F2 and F3 generations. Genotypic coefficient of variation measures the amount of variation present in a particular character. However, it does not determine the proportion of heritable variation present in the total variation. Therefore, heritable variation existing in the character can be find out with greater degree of accuracy when heritability in combination with genetic advance (Narasimhulu et al., 2013). High heritability and genetic advance as percentage of mean was observed for the same characters pod yield per plant (g), seed yield per plant (g), number of clusters per plant, number of pods per plant, number of pods per cluster and plant height (cm), number of branches per plant, respectively in both F2 and F3 generations. However, the characters plant height, branches per plant, clusters per plant, pods per plant, pods per cluster and threshing percentage showed considerable variation in both F2 and F3 population and hence these traits may be considered for direct selections. These characters indicated the predominance of additive gene action suggesting that these parameters may be considered as major traits during the course of selection that will be rewarding to obtain higher yield potential in green gram.

31

3

27

1

3

F3 progenies + Checks

Checks

F3 progenies

Checks vs F3 progenies

Error

0.08

5.81 **

5.11 **

7.75 **

5.39 **

0.01

Flowering

1.84

613.47 **

25.92 *

31.24 *

45.38 *

4.27

Plant height (cm)

* Significant @ P=0.05 ** Significant @ P=0.01

1

df

Blocks

Source of variation

0.02

0.49 *

0.65 **

0.76 **

0.65 **

0.02

Branches / plant

0.03

4.68 **

1.45 **

1.52 **

1.56 **

0.64 *

Clusters / plant

0.48

104.40 **

15.41 **

36.51 **

20.33 **

0.49

Pods / plant

0.04

4.06 **

0.45 *

1.17 *

0.64 *

0.02

Pods / cluster

0.02

9.12 **

1.20 **

5.65 **

1.89 *

0.001

Pod length (cm)

Mean sum of squares

0.06

1.05 *

1.18 *

16.23 **

2.63 *

0.02

Seeds / pod

0.36

18.55 **

7.41 *

9.91 *

8.01 *

1.10

Pod Yield / pl (g)

0.39

40.20 **

7.67 *

7.81 *

8.73 *

0.98

Seed Yield / pl (g)

Analysis of variance for growth and yield parameters in F3 generation of the cross LM92×MDU3465 in green gram

TABLE I

4.15

277.23 **

275.02 **

69.54 *

319.72 **

0.58

Threshing (%)

A COMPARATIVE GENETIC ANALYSIS OF SEED YIELD AND ITS ATTRIBUTES IN TWO CROSSES OF GREEN GRAM

543

5.75

10.29

4.65

3.23

63.26

X7

X8

X9

X10

X11

71.72

2.35

3.02

10.24

5.80

2.35

20.00

0.10

0.20

3.00

2.70

1.00

1.00

26.09

0.30

0.80

3.00

3.20

1.00

2.00

1.00

94.00

16.40

21.00

14.40

7.50

16.00

55.00

29.00

4.00

X10 : Seed yield per plant (g),

2.21

X6

9.75

1.00

1.00

64.20

X9 : Pod yield per plant(g),

11.18

X5

4.20

1.00

15.00

50.00

F2

X6 : Pods per cluster,

5.11

X4

1.17

13.00

30.00

F3

X5 : Pods per plant,

1.37

X3

22.08

30.00

F2

Max

X2 : Plant height (cm),

21.11

X2

32.99

F3

Min

26.35

117.22

105.50

11.84

11.43

65.61

89.85

81.69

37.36

49.90

4.99

F2

22.33

81.44

61.72

14.97

9.65

27.64

46.14

35.60

29.21

26.75

3.81

F3

X11 : Threshing percentage.

X7 : Pod length (cm),

X3 : Branches per plant,

93.84

17.32

18.00

14.40

7.50

8.00

40.00

14.00

3.00

55.00

40.00

F3

GCV (%)

20.26

90.62

69.26

20.60

13.23

32.30

53.73

43.47

36.94

33.69

4.77

F3

88.79

93.59

95.87

35.05

61.03

93.18

90.99

92.08

63.46

84.44

69.27

F2

X8: Seeds per pod,

77.07

80.77

79.40

52.79

53.16

73.21

73.75

67.05

62.53

63.04

64.02

F3

Heeritability (%)

X4: Clusters per plant,

27.97

121.17

107.75

20.00

14.63

67.97

94.19

85.13

46.90

54.31

5.99

F2

PCV (%)

52.92

233.84

212.92

14.44

18.39

130.48

176.55

161.49

61.31

94.47

8.51

F2

6.29

F3

40.39

150.77

113.28

22.41

14.49

48.72

81.63

60.04

47.59

43.75

GAM (%)

MURALIDHARA

X1 : Days to first flowering,

32.97

F2

Mean

X1

Traits Generation

Range

Estimates of genetic parameters for growth and yield characters in F2 & F3 generations of the cross LM92×MDU3465 in green gram.

TABLE II

544

et al.

A COMPARATIVE GENETIC ANALYSIS OF SEED YIELD AND ITS ATTRIBUTES IN TWO CROSSES OF GREEN GRAM

Lesser extent of variation was observed for the traits pod length and seeds per pod in both F2 and F3 populations. The studies indicated that the trait was under the control of both additive as well as nonadditive genes, hence selection for these traits may not be effective. This was on par with the findings of Mallikarjuna Rao et al. (2006), Sheela Mary and Gopalan (2006), Rozina gul et al. (2008), and Kamleshwar Kumar et al. (2013). Yield parameters Pod yield per plant : Considerable variation was observed for pod yield per plant in both F2 and F3 population with a mean value of 4.65 and 3.02 g, ranging from 0.20 and 0.80 to 21 and 18 g. The estimates of GCV (105.50 and 61.72) and PCV (107.75 and 69.26) were high with least difference between them. The variability could be of genetic cause, which is a pre requisite for effectiveness of selection for this trait. High heritability (95.87 and 79.40) coupled with high genetic advance as per cent of mean (212.92 and 113.28) was observed for this character. Suggesting that this character was under the control of additive genes and scope for phenotypic selection for this character might be effective. These results are in agreement with the results obtained by Mallikarjuna Rao et al. (2006) and Kamleshwar Kumar et al. (2013). Seed yield per plant : Seed yield per plant in F2 and F3 population had a mean a value of 3.23 and 2.35 g, ranging from 0.10 and 0.30 to 16.40 and 17.32 g, respectively. This trait exhibited high GCV (117.22 and 81.44) and PCV (121.17 and 90.62) value. Hence, this trait offers scope for direct selection. The estimates of the both the broad sense heritability (93.59 and 80.77) and genetic advance expressed as per cent of mean (233.84 and 150.77) were high. Indicating that this character was under the control of additive gene action and phenotypic selection for this character might be effective. Similar results were reported by Mallikarjuna Rao et al. (2006), Aqsa tabasum et al. (2010) and Kamleshwar Kumar et al. (2013). ANOVA of the cross BL 865 × Chinamung : The analysis of variance in F3 progenies of the cross BL 865 × Chinamung revealed highly significant

545

(p