using data for denmark, finland, jamaica, sweden

WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES Bourne et al.

World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences

SJIF Impact Factor 5.210

Volume 4, Issue 12, 197-227

Research Article

ISSN 2278 – 4357

A NEW SOCIOMEDICAL PERSPECTIVE ON CRIME AND CHARTING A NEW FRAMEWORK: USING DATA FOR DENMARK, FINLAND, JAMAICA, SWEDEN, UNITED KINGDOM AND UNITED STATES, 1960-2013 Paul Andrew Bourne1*, Angela Hudson-Davis2, Charlene Sharpe-Pryce3, Ikhalfani Solan4, Shirley Nelson5, Lecia Smith6, Monette George7, Louise Brown3, Conroy Julian8, Cynthia Francis9, Oddett Neita10, Shaneika Townsend10, Sherwayne Howell10, Aneita Jones10, Daena-Marie Gayle10, Stacey-Ann Carter10, Denalia Anderson10, Samantha Gardener10, Symbe Hutchinson10, Moesha Lewis10, Patrice Dunkley10, Rodene Wallace10, Alkeisha Powell10 Tronrelle Salmon10, Kameka Francis10, Paula Ellis10, Taneka Gibson10, Sashana Schloss10, Lashanie Graham10 1

Socio-Medical Research Institute, Jamaica. 2 Capella University, USA. 3 Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Jamaica. 4 South Carolina University, USA. 5 Barnett’s Private Resort, Bahamas. 6 Graduate Student, University of the West Indies, Jamaica. 7 Washington Home and Hospice, USA. 8 Behaviour Change Specialist, Association of Media Professionals, Jamaica. 9 University of Technology, Jamaica. 10 Christiana High School. ABSTRACT Article Received on 30 Sep 2015, Revised on 23 Oct 2015, Accepted on 17 Nov 2015

Introduction: Durkheim opined that crime is a normal part of society and that it is needed for human evolution, which means that rape and homicide are a part of normal sociology. Such a perspective is simplistic, fails to understand what obtains and wrongfully explaining

*Correspondence for

the current thinking on the matter of crime, especially homicide and

Author

rape. Objective: Using an objectivistic epistemology to examine

Paul Andrew Bourne

homicide and rape in different nations including Jamaica by way of

Socio-Medical Research Institute, Jamaica.

panel data from 1960 to 2013 to establish a new socio-medical perspective to crime and how the old conceptualization is a part of the challenge to effectively address the homicide and rape pandemic.

Materials and methods: Panel data for this paper were obtained from various governmental publications, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Hofer, Lappi-Seppola and Westfelt. The data were recorded, stored and retrieved using the Statistical Packages for the www.wjpps.com

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Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, Version 21.0. The level of significance that is used to determine statistical significance is less than 5% (0.05) at the 2-tailed level of significance. Stepwise Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression was used to determine whether rape rate and homicide rate are factors of national homicide as well as the strength of the relationship, using R2. Findings: Generally, using R2, Finland is the only nation in which an independent variable accounts for the least explanatory power (R2 = 29.1%) and like the Other Nordic nations the rape rate in United States influences homicide rates. However, the rape rate in the United States has the lowest influence on the homicide rate in Finland, unlike in Sweden in which rape rate in the United States has the greatest influence on homicide. The findings also show that, lagged rape rate (or natural logarithm of rape rate) is influenced by issues outside of that nation. Overall across the selected nations, the external milieu contributes to changes in the rape rates of a nation. This denotes that both exogenous and endogenous variables influence national rape rates and that across nations like Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the USA exogenous factors have more influence on national rape rates than for Jamaica. Conclusion: Durkheim wrongfully labelled crime and his diagnosis is an integral part of the how the phenomenon is perceived, addressed, and studied; how intervention programmes are designed. This inaccurate symptomology classification is responsible for the current diagnosis and prognosis of the crime phenomenon. KEYWORDS: Crime, Durkheim, homicide, human evolution, medical sociology, punishment, rape, social facts. INTRODUCTION Human evolution from nomadic existence into organized social, economic and political beings (or systems) signifies that they have travelled the trajectory of trials and errors, primative to advanced society, and emerged rulers of their current realities – well-defined social structure.[1-5] Accompanying the journey of humans in their evolution is the development of complexed language to include mathematics, medicine, physics, sociology, anthropology, sociology and other natural, public health and social sciences in an effort to comprehend their social world and the physical space surrounding them. While the natural sciences, especially medicine, is older than sociology in human inquiry, the latter seeks to understand man in his/her social setting. Medicine, on the other hand, recognizes the importance of the social space on physical happening and while it does not solely accept social facts as explaining physical conditions in humans, it pays some amount of attention to

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the social world in understanding organic phenomena. As a result, there is a branch of medicine that is called medical sociology because the value of social facts recognized within the discipline. When Auguste Comte formulated the concept of sociology it corroborated with his intention to explain to the world by using the social setting.[6] Emile Durkheim’s contribution, especially social facts, proved to be critcal and invaluable to sociology even in contemporary discourses. Following Comte’s as well as Durkheim’s contribution to the space of sociology, medicine have aided in many social investigations sometimes under the label of medical sociology to include violence and homicide. [7] Durkheim opined that crime is a normal part of society and that it is needed for human evolution, which means that rape and homicide are a part of normal sociology. [7,8] Are the issues of homicide and rape normal sociology in human existence or were they misunderstood by Emile Durkheim? If crime is a normal part of sociology; then, it should be a factor of public health and natural sciences including medicine and pharmacology. Durkheim’s perspective that crime is a normal part of society (i.e., normal sociology) was based on the fact that crime exists in all societies, because no society can eliminate this fact. [7] It can be deduced from Durkheim’s theorizing that crime is a normal social organism or social illness and that punishment holds the key to crime and thereby its reduction. Durkheim’s theorizing is therefore responsible for thinkings and programmes 1) zero tolerance by crime fighters, 2) imprisonment or incarceration, 3) death penalty, 4) corporal punishment, 5) vague generality, and 5) rationale for the seminal work done by Gary Becker on the economics of crime and punishment. [7, 9-11] The reality is, inspite of punishments levied by judges or other people, crime continues to rise and like Durkheim said it is a normal part of society, normal sociology. Although Durkheim’s led the view that sociology is a science and that it could be studied based on postivistic epistemology, the issue of the normal sociology of crime was not established by way of postivism. In fact, for Durkheim, crime was a social illness that occurs normally in society and by doing so excluded disciplines like psychology, physiology,medicine, and physical chemistry, thus deriving his normal sociology of crime based on micro-individualism conjectures and reflexivity.[9,10,12]

The rationales behind our argument of Durkheim’s

perspective are based on these statements made by him that 1) “Thus there are ways of acting, thinking and feeling which possess the remarkable property of existing outside the consciousness of the individual (p.50), 2) “Thus individuals who are normally perfectly harmless may when gathered together in a crowd, let themselves be drawn into acts of atrocity” (p. 52), 3) “What constitutes social facts are the beliefs, tendencies and practices of www.wjpps.com

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the group taken collectively (p. 53), and 5) “But statistics afford us a means of isolating them”(p. 53).[7] The issue of scientificity of any discipline goes beyond data analysis to an epistemology to include objective thinking.[13,14] Crotty forwarded the following: “Epistemology: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology. Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria. [13] Therefore, merely using multivariate statistics to examine a phenomenon cannot establish scientificity, neither using micro conjecture nor individuality cannot be used to argue about generality or science. By trying desperately to separate sociology from branches of science and justify its placement in science, Durkheim’s perspective included individualism, conjecture, and belief that statistics could be employed to concretize scientificity. [7] Durkheim opined that “There exist in the interior of organisms similar phenomena, compound in their nature, which form in their turn the subject matter of the "hybrid sciences," such as physiological chemistry, for example” , which highlights the very nature of the intercorrelation of social to the physical and biological world. In keeping with the aforementioned concepts, it is simplistic to see crime as only a social illness and not for its completed whole.[7] Crime is more than a normal part of society; it is a psychiatric manifestation of neurological and genetic matter in humans that were not addressed in his/her evolution alongside the development of structured social organizations. This paper employs an objectivistic epistemology to examine homicide and rape in different nations, including Jamaica, by way of panel data from 1960 to 2013, to establish a new socio-medical perspective to crime. Theoretical framework A theoretical framework is a self-conscious set of (a) fundamental principles or axioms (ethical, political, philosophical) and (b) a set of rules for combining and applying them (e.g. induction, deduction, contradiction, and extrapolation). A theoretical framework defines the objects of a discourse, the permissible ways of thinking about those objects, and so determines the kinds of knowledge about the objects that can be produced legitimately within the framework” (Cubitt, S, personal communication, October 6, 2005 in Waller)[15] Waller, having outlined the science in sociological investigation, provides the premise upon which this study will examine crime, from an objectivism perspective. Hence, this paper will not be www.wjpps.com

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predicated merely upon the use of statistics; but it will incorporate objectivity, verifiability, precision and measurement (statistical analyses), which is embedded in the theoretical perspective of positivism. Parts of objectivistic epistemology are the precision in the measurement of variables and the impersonal nature of the data collection process, which will be employed in this paper. The researchers collected data from various nations because the data were available and using standard definitions in the measurement of variables as well as analysis of crime. Regression analysis has been developed and employed in crime research (Becker,1968) as well as divorce research, which provides the platform for carrying out this inquiry. [16,17] DeLisi’s work has already established the sociological and statistical premise for linking rape and homicide, and therefore the use of econometric analysis is fitting for such a discourse. [18] A study by Bourne and colleagues expanded the empirical base for examining crime research to include macroeconomic variables, marriage and divorce rate, with divorce and marriage rates being factors of homicide.[17] Bourne et al.’s empirical work can be captured in three equations below. Dt = k + β1Popt + β2GDP per capitat + β3Ht…………………………….[1] Ht = k + β1Popt + β2Mt + β3Dt………………………………….……….[2] Mt = k + β1Popt + β2GDP per capitat + β3Nt + β4L…………….……….[3] where Ht: indicates number of homicide events in time t Popt: indicates the number of people in the population at time t Mt: indicates the number of marriages that occurred in time t Dt: denotes the number of divorces that were granted by the courts in time t Lt: means the number of deaths that occurred and registered at time t Nt: indicates the number of net international migrants in time t k: denotes a constant MATERIALS AND METHODS The data for this study were taken from various Jamaica Government Publications, Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) and Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica (ESSJ) which provided the data for murders, and rape by the Jamaica Constabulary Force. [19,20] The period for this work is from 1970 through to 2013. The New York data for the crime statistics were compiled by the Disaster Center taken from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) www.wjpps.com

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Uniform Crime Reporting (UCS) Annual Crime Reports. [21] Data from the Nordic countries were obtained from a publication by Hofer, Lappi-Seppola and Westfelt.[22] The data were recorded, stored and retrieved using the Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, Version 21.0. The level of significance that is used to determine statistical significance is less than 5% (0.05) at the 2-tailed level of significance. Stepwise Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression was used to determine whether rape rate and homicide rate are factors of national homicide as well as the strength of the relationship, using R 2. Prior to the use of the OLS, the researchers tested for normality of the variables (i.e., linearity and skewness including Durbin-Watson test). Those variables that skewed (negatively or positively, Sk> ± 0.5) were logged to restore normality by way of natural logarithm (log e or ln). None of the variables in this study were logged because their S k were less than 0.5. Operational definitions Homicide (or Murder): unlawful killing (a crime causing death without a lawful excuse) by other person(s) within a particular geopolitical zone (excluding police killings). Rape: According to Bishop, “Rape, however, is when a man has sexual intercourse with a woman without her consent, that is, through fear, force or fraud. Any man may be indicted for rape of any female of any age. Carnal abuse is, therefore, different from rape.” [23] Carnal abuse: According to Bishop, “Carnal abuse is committed when a male person has sexual intercourse with a female person who is under the age of consent, which is [sixteen (16) years old] ”. [23] Q1- quadrant one (i.e. low-low rate); Q2 – quadrant two (i.e., low-high rate); Q3 – quadrant three (i.e., high-low rates) and Q4 – quadrant four (i.e., high-high rates). The quadrants expressions are x-y respectively and this is how low-low it should be interpreted. Findings Figure 1 presents a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for the United States from 1960 and 2013 on a superimposed function. Homicide rate for the United States is fitted by a three cubic polynomial that explains 84.2% of the data. It follows that homicide in the United States rose from 1960-to-1980 and generally has been on a downward path since early 1980s. The function is concave downwards, which is captured in Equation.[1] Ht= ax3 + bx2 + cx + k ……………………………………Eqn. [1] where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for the United States a, c & k > 0; b < 0.

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Figure 1: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in the United States on a superimposed function. Figure 2 depicts a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for Jamaica from 1960 and 2013 on a superimposed function. Homicide rate for Jamaica is fitted by a two degree polynomial that explains 88.6% of the data. Based on the diagram, the homicide rate is an increasing function which denotes that generally murders have been on an upward path in Jamaica dating back to the 1960s, and that there is no turning point in the homicide pandemic in the society. The function is concave upwards, which is captured in Equation.[2] Ht = ax2 + cx + k ……………………………………Eqn. [2] where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Jamaica a, c & k > 0, o, f (x) > 0, f (x) > 0

Figure 2: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica on a superimposed function www.wjpps.com

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Figure 3 illustrates a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for Denmark from 1960 and 2010 on a superimposed function. The function clearly depicts a rise in the homicide rate leading up to 1990 and this reached its zenith in the mid 1990s and since then there has been a decline in the murder rate. Homicide rate for Denmark is fitted by a three degree polynomial that explains 63.4% of the data, which is captured in Equation.[3] Ht = ax3 + bx2 + cx + k ……………………………………Eqn. [3] where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Denmark a, c & k ε R, where a < 0

Figure 3: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Denmark on a superimposed function. Figure 4 shows a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for Finland from 1960 and 2010 on a superimposed function. Homicide rate for Finland is fitted by a three degree polynomial that explains 39.1% of the data. Clearly, homicide in Finland has gone through peak and trough, and since the mid 1990s there has been a downward trend in murders in the society. The function is captured in Equation.[4] Ht = ax3 + bx2 + cx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[4] where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Finland a, c & k ε R, where a < 0

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Figure 4: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Finland on a superimposed function Figure 5 illustrates a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for Norway from 1960 and 2010 on a superimposed function. Homicide rate for Finland is fitted by a two degree polynomial that explains 67.7% of the data. The diagram denotes that from the 1960s-to-1990s homicide in Norway was on an increasing trend and this reached its maximum close to the mid 1990s and has been declining ever since. The function is captured in Equation.[5] Ht = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn. [5] where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Norway a, b & k ε R, where a < 0

Figure 5: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Norway on a superimposed function www.wjpps.com

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Figure 6 illustrates a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for Sweden from 1960 and 2010 on a superimposed function. Homicide rate for Sweden is fitted by a two degree polynomial which explains 74.3% of the data. The diagram denotes that from the 1960s-to-1990s homicide in Sweden was on an increasing path and this reached its maximum close to the mid 1980s and has been declining ever since. The function is captured in equation.[6] Ht = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[6] where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Sweden a, b & k ε R, where a < 0

Figure 6: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Sweden on a superimposed function. Figure 7 illustrates a scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population, using data for United Kingdom from 1960-to-2012 on a superimposed function. Homicide rate for the United Kingdom is fitted by a three degree polynomial that explains 75.2% of the data. The diagram denotes that from the 1960s-to-2000 homicide in the United Kingdom was on an increasing path and this reached its maximum about mid 2000s and has been declining ever since. The function is captured in equation.[7] Ht = ax3 + bx2 + cx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[7] Where Ht is the homicide rate per 100,000 population in time period t for United Kingdom a, b & k ε R, where a < 0

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Figure 7: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in United Kingdom on a superimposed function. Figure 8 depicts a scatter plot of the rape rate per 100,000 population of the United States for 1960-2013. A superimposed function on the scatter plot revealed that 94.4% of the data are accounted for by a quadratic function, denoting that the rape rate per 100,000 population of the United States is concave downwards. This means that the rape rate began by increasing in the 1960s, then reaching a maximum, after which it started to decrease. On examination of the function, the rape rate in the United States was increasing in the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and then it reached its zenith in the 1990s, and has been decreasing ever since. The mathematical function that expresses the rape rate in the United States is depicted in equation.[8] Rt = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[8] Where Rt is the rape rate per 100,000 population in time period t for the United States b, k > 0, a < 0 o, f (x) > 0, f (x) < 0

Figure 8: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in the United States on a superimposed function www.wjpps.com

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Figure 9 demonstrates a scatter plot of the rape rate per 100,000 population of Jamaica for 1970-2013. A superimposed function on the scatter plot revealed that 62.1% of the data are accounted for by a quadratic function, which means that the rape rate per 100,000 population of Jamaica is concave downwards or it begins by increasing, then reaching a maximum, after which it starts to decrease. On examination of the function, the rape rate in Jamaica was increasing in the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and then it reached its zenith in late 2000s, and has shown some increase following 2010. The mathematical function that expresses the rape rate in Jamaica is depicted in equation.[9] Rt = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[9] Where Rt is the rape rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Jamaica b, k > 0, a < 0 o, f (x) > 0, f (x) < 0.

Figure 9: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica on a superimposed function. Figure 10 demonstrates a scatter plot of the rape rate per 100,000 population of Denmark, using data from 1970-2010. A superimposed function on the scatter plot revealed that 74.5% of the data are accounted for by a quadratic function, which means that the rape rate per 100,000 population of Denmark is concave downwards or it begins by increasing, then reaching a maximum, after which it starts to decrease. On examination of the function, the rape rate in Denmark was increasing in the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and then it reached its zenith in late 1990s. The mathematical function that expresses the rape rate in Denmark is depicted in equation.[10] Rt = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[10] www.wjpps.com

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Where Rt is the rape rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Denmark b, k > 0, a < 0 o, f (x) > 0, f (x) < 0

Figure 10: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in Denmark on a superimposed function. Figure 11 demonstrates a scatter plot of the rape rate per 100,000 population of Finland, using data from 1970-2010. A superimposed function on the scatter plot revealed that 84.7% of the data are accounted for by a three degree polynomial function, which means that the rape rate per 100,000 population of Finland changed from over the studied period. On examination of the function, the rape rate in Finland was increasing in the 1960s, 1970s, and then changed in the late 1980s. In fact, the curve is a point of inflexion, which occurred in the late 1980s and began increasing again since the 1990s. The mathematical function that expresses the rape rate in Finland is depicted in equation.[11] Rt = ax3 + bx2 + cx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[11] Where Rt is the rape rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Finland a, c, k > 0, b < 0

Figure 11: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in Finland on a superimposed function www.wjpps.com

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Figure 12 demonstrates a scatter plot of the rape rate per 100,000 population of Finland, using data from 1970-2010. A superimposed function on the scatter plot revealed that 88.8% of the data are accounted for by a two degree polynomial function, which means that the rape rate per 100,000 population of Sweden has been at an increasing rate dating back to the 1960s. The mathematical function that expresses the rape rate in Finland is depicted in equation.[12] Rt = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn.[12] where Rt is the rape rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Sweden a, b, k > 0,

Figure 12: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in Sweden on a superimposed function. Figure 13 demonstrates a scatter plot of the rape rate per 100,000 population of Norway, using data from 1970-2010. A superimposed function on the scatter plot revealed that 97.0% of the data are accounted for by a two degree polynomial function, which means that the rape rate per 100,000 population of Norway has been at an increasing rate dating back to the 1960s. The mathematical function that expresses the rape rate in Finland is depicted in Equation.[13] Rt = ax2 + bx + k ……………………………………Eqn. [13] where Rt is the rape rate per 100,000 population in time period t for Nrway a, b, k > 0,

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Figure 13: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in Norway on a superimposed function Hypothesis One Ho: No statistical correlation exists between the homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and the United States H1: A statistical correlation exists between the homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and the United States On examination of the scatter plots and the superimposed function (i.e., Figure 14), it can conclude that Ho must be rejected as there is a clear statistical correlation between the two investigated variables, with an explanatory power of the model being 78.0% (i.e., R 2= 0.780). Clearly the relationship between the homicide rate per 100,000 population of Jamaica and the United States is a non-linear one. Z= aH3 + bH2 + cH + k ……………………………………Eqn.[14.1] where Z is the homicide rate per 100,000 population for the the United States and H is the homicide rate per 100,000 population for Jamaica a, c, k > 0, b < 0 Based on the cubic polynomial function that explains the relationship between homicide rate per 100,000 population in the United States and homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica, there are periods in which there is a positive correlation between both variables and an inverse one. In fact, on careful examination of the figures, from 1960-to-1978, there was a direct relationship between homicide rate in Jamaica and the United States, this changed to an inverse relationship from 1979-to2006, and then another change happened in 2007 where the www.wjpps.com

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relationship became a positive one. The reality is, homicides in Jamaica have impacted on homicides in the United States and this accounts for an interconnectivity or inter-relationship in murders between both nations..

Figure 14: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population for the United States and Jamaica on a superimposed function. Hypothesis Two Ho: No statistical correlation exists between the rape rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and the United States. H1: A statistical correlation exists between the rape rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and the United States. On examination of the scatter plots and the superimposed function (i.e., Figure 15), it can be concluded that Ho must be rejected as there is a clear statistical correlation between the two investigated variables, with an explanatory power of the model being 34.7% (i.e., R 2=0.347). Clearly the relationship between the rape rate per 100,000 population of Jamaica and the United States is a non-linear one, See Eqn.[15] V= aR2 + bR + k ……………………………………Eqn.[15] where V is the rape rate per 100,000 population for the the United States and R is the rape rate per 100,000 population for Jamaica. b, c > 0, a < 0

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Figure 15: Scatter plot of rape rate per 100,000 population in the United States and Jamaica on a superimposed function Figure 16 depicts scatter plots of homicide rate per 100,000 population in the United States and rape rate in Jamaica, in Quadrants. Using the issue of the quadrants, most of the data occurred when rape rate was low for Jamaica and homicide rate was high in the United States with few data points existed when rape rate was high in Jamaica and homicide rate was high in the United States.

Figure 16: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in the United States and rape rate in Jamaica, in Quadrants (i.e. Q) www.wjpps.com

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Figure 17 shows scatter plots of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and rape rate in United States, in Quadrants. Using the issue of the quadrants, Q3 indicates that rape rate in the United States was high and homicide rate was low in Jamaica. Q4, on the other hand, represents when rape rate was high in the United States and homicide rate was high in Jamaica.

Figure 17: Scatter plot of homicide rate per 100,000 population in the United States and rape rate in Jamaica, in Quadrants (i.e. Q) Hypothesis Three Ho: No statistical correlation exists between the homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and the United Kingdom (i.e., England and Wales) H1: A statistical correlation exists between the rape rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and the United Kingdom (i.e. England and Wales) A significant statistical correlation exists between homicide in Jamaica and homicide in the United Kingdom (i.e., England and Wales) – Figure 18. Figure 18 depicts a linear correlation between natural log of homicide rate per 100,000 population in Jamaica and homicide in United Kingdom (i.e., England and Wales), with the linear function accounting for 74.7% of the data. Using ordinary least square regression (OLS), it was revealed that a linear relationship exists between the natural log of homicide rate per 100,000 population in www.wjpps.com

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Jamaica and the United Kingdom (F [1, 50] = 90.06, P <