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Using Digital Storytelling to Teach Psychology: A Preliminary Investigation

Psychology Learning & Teaching 2017, Vol. 16(1) 133–143 ! The Author(s) 2016 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1475725716685537 journals.sagepub.com/home/plat

Vicki Sheafer LeTourneau University

Abstract Digital storytelling is a technology application that has emerged as a powerful teaching and learning tool that engages both teachers and students. Digital storytelling allows students to become creative storytellers through selecting a topic, conducting research, writing a script, and developing the story. However, the use of digital storytelling is absent from the teaching of psychology literature. This preliminary investigation was based on Wann’s 1993 study, in which he had students in a social psychology class select a classic experiment from a list, develop a script, and perform the play in class. I modified his technique such that students, instead of performing plays, used digital storytelling. Students completed a multiple-choice pretest and posttest to assess their knowledge about the experiments chosen. They also completed an assignment evaluation survey. The results demonstrated that students’ knowledge about their classic experiment and the classic experiments of their classmates increased significantly. The evaluation survey showed that the students believed that the assignment was enjoyable, an interesting learning experience, hard work, and fun. Keywords Active learning, learning strategies, video creation, digital storytelling

Storytelling has always been important for the dissemination of knowledge and preservation of culture (McGee, 2014). Storytelling has been transformed through the centuries from oral to digital. Regardless of the storytelling format, a common part of all stories is their educational nature. Although storytelling as a pedagogical technique is not new in education, digital storytelling has become a new teaching path that emerged from the growth and evolution of digital technologies. Digital storytelling is the combination of oral storytelling with technical tools to create stories that use digital images, graphics, music, and narration (Wang & Zhan, 2010). Digital technology transforms storytelling into modern form.

Corresponding author: Vicki Sheafer, LeTourneau University, 2100 S. Mobberly Avenue, Longview, TX 75607, USA. Email: [email protected]

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There are two theories that support the educational use of digital storytelling: constructionism and the narrative paradigm (McGee, 2014; Yang & Wu, 2012). Constructionism emphasizes the role of the construction of knowledge and the construction of personally meaningful objects, and happens when learners are engaged in making a purposeful and public story. Constructionism suggests that people will be more involved in learning if they are doing something that can be seen or used by others. In addition to constructionism, the narrative paradigm supports the use of digital storytelling in education. The narrative is created by the individual and comprises symbolic actions, words, and deeds that have meaning for that person. This paradigm assumes that all forms of human communication can be thought of as stories. These stories are effective as pedagogical tools because they are authentic, vivid, and engaging (Wang & Zhan, 2010). Digital storytelling is a technology application that has emerged as a powerful teaching and learning tool that engages both teachers and students (McGee, 2014). Digital storytelling allows students to become creative storytellers through selecting a topic, conducting research, writing a script, and developing the story. Students then combine this story with multimedia applications and share it with peers and the wider community (Robin & McNeil, 2012). The tools needed for digital storytelling have become more affordable and accessible. Hardware and software are readily available that allow students to become digital media producers and editors (Kearney, 2011). Digital storytelling melds perfectly with the 21st century classroom and its emphasis on providing students with the skills they need to be successful in an increasingly media-rich environment (Niemi et al., 2014; Niemi & Multisilta, 2015). When students are given the task of creating digital stories, either individually or as members of a group, the work provides students with a strong foundation in what have been called 21st century skills (Niemi et al., 2014; Niemi & Multisilta, 2015). These skills include digital literacy, global literacy, technology literacy, visual literacy, and information literacy. The push for students to gain 21st century literacy skills by using the latest technology is facilitated by student participation in the creation of digital stories. There are three major categories of digital stories: personal or narrative stories, stories that inform or instruct, and stories that retell historical events (Robin & McNeil, 2012). The current study is an example of students using digital storytelling to retell historical events in the form of classic studies in the history of social psychology. There are many studies on the benefits of digital storytelling (Robin & McNeil, 2012). Students show an increase in research skills, organizational skills, and have a greater interest in the content being taught (Niemi et al., 2014). Gains in higher-order thinking and problemsolving skills, including synthesizing, analyzing, evaluating, and presenting information have also been reported (Robin & McNeil, 2012; Yang & Wu, 2012). Digital storytelling supports an authentic learning experience, student autonomy and ownership, and meaningful student interaction (Kearney, 2011; Niemi & Multisilta, 2015). The literature points to digital storytelling as a transformative tool for learners in a range of curriculum and discipline contexts (Robin & McNeil, 2012). Digital storytelling has been used at all levels of education, from elementary schools to higher education, with children and adult learners. Wang and Zhan (2010) reported using digital storytelling in four different types of undergraduate and graduate education classes with positive results. They concluded that integrating digital storytelling into those courses helped their students learn content, technology skills, problem-solving skills, and critical

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thinking skills. Flottemesch (2013) used digital storytelling in an undergraduate family communication course and found that the creation of digital stories had a large impact on lessons learned, as well as personal relationships. Hafner and Miller (2011) implemented a digital storytelling project in a science course taught at a university in Hong Kong. The project was used to enhance both the English and science skills of a group of undergraduate students. They concluded through the use of student report that the digital storytelling project promoted learner autonomy, motivation, authenticity, independent learning, teamwork, peer teaching, and reflection on learning.

Digital Storytelling as a Pedagogical Technique Emerged in the 1990s Yuskel, Robin, and McNeil (2011) conducted a survey and found that digital storytelling has been used in more than 20 countries, representing every continent except Antarctica. The survey also revealed use of digital storytelling in K-12, higher education, and adult learning. Some of the disciplines that have used digital storytelling more frequently include education, arts, writing and literature, history, business, computer science, geology, health care, and technology. Most of the individuals who responded to the survey said that digital storytelling can be useful in teaching all subject areas. This across-discipline application of digital storytelling is due to the fact that this technique ‘‘facilitates four student-centered learning strategies: (1) student engagement, (2) reflection for deeper learning, (3) project-based learning, and (4) the effective integration of technology into instruction’’ (Wang & Zhan, 2010, p. 77). Digital storytelling has not been shown to be effective when it is the only method of instruction, but it has been shown to be effective when framed within a macro-framework such as narrative-based learning (McGee, 2014, p. 80). Although digital storytelling is certainly applicable to the field of psychology, I could find no use of this technique in the teaching and learning of psychology literature. Why shouldn’t or couldn’t psychology take advantage of this technique to increase student learning outcomes and critical thinking skills? ‘‘For digital storytelling (DST) applications in the hard applied disciplines (psychology), DST logically aligns with practical assessment strategies that include problem-solving, application of practical skills, and integration of existing knowledge’’ (McGee, 2014, p. 111). Digital storytelling also fosters skill development that can be transferred to other academic pursuits and the workplace. The study of the scholarship of teaching and learning in psychology can add valuable quantitative and qualitative knowledge to the research literature about digital storytelling. ‘‘Little research-based exploration of student-generated digital stories is available, indicating a gap in understanding how various formats may support learning’’ (McGee, 2014, p.111). The author’s use of digital storytelling was originally inspired by a 1993 study conducted by Wann. He required undergraduate students in a social psychology class to dramatically reenact two different psychological experiments. The students had to (a) acquire a copy of the article, (b) use the article to write a dramatic script, and (c) develop the props necessary to perform the play. The play had to be an accurate depiction of the experiment, although some poetic license was allowed. Students formed groups of four to six individuals, and each group was given a reference list of 12 social psychological experiments. The students then performed the play in class. At the end of the semester, students evaluated the exercise. The evaluation form contained items that assessed student impressions concerning the performance of their own plays and their reactions to watching the performance of the other groups. Students’ responses to items assessing their reactions to performing the plays showed that

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they found the exercise informative, enjoyable, effective, and educational. The evaluation also revealed that students enjoyed watching the other plays, that viewing the other plays greatly facilitated their understanding of and interest in research, and that watching the other plays gave them a greater understanding of the various methodologies used in social psychological research. With the use of digital storytelling, drama can be transformed into 21st century skills and applications. The purpose of the current study was to test the effectiveness of using digital storytelling to teach students classic studies in the history of social psychology. This is a 21st century update to the use of drama in the classroom. Using a pretest/posttest design and a student self-report measure, two hypotheses were proposed: (a) student learning would increase for both their own classic study and the classic studies that were presented by other groups and, (b) students would enjoy the use of digital storytelling as a pedagogical technique.

Method Participants The participants in the study were students enrolled in PSYC 4113, Social Psychology, in the Fall 2014 semester (N ¼ 16; four men, 12 women). The average age of the students was 21.38 years (SD ¼ 1.54). Twelve students identified as Caucasian, one as Hispanic, one as African-American, one as Native American, and one as biracial. The most frequent major of the students in the course was psychology (n ¼ 12), followed by criminal justice (n ¼ 2), interdisciplinary studies (n ¼ 1), and nursing (n ¼ 1). There were seven seniors, eight juniors, and one sophomore in the class. The mean self-reported GPA of the students in the course was 3.03.

Materials and Procedure I adapted Wann’s (1993) technique for use in my Social Psychology course. I changed the assignment from a play performed in class to a digital story created by each group to be shown in class. As video technology and equipment becomes more commonplace, and as students become more technologically savvy, I have seen student interest shift from classroom applications toward media applications. I also introduced a competition into the assignment. The winning video, as voted by their classmates, received a prize of $200 (the money came from Department of Psychology lab funds) to be split equally among the group members. The syllabus for the course contained detailed instructions, a list of 18 classic studies from the subfield of social psychology (see Appendix A) from which groups could choose, a group evaluation form (to encourage individual accountability), and a grading rubric for the assignment (see Appendix B). The choices included the 12 experiments on Wann’s (1993) original list and an additional six experiments from another source (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2008). Each group obtained a copy of an approved article, used the article to write a script, developed the props necessary to perform the experiment, and created a digital story. Each digital story was required to be 10–15 min in length. Each group paid attention to detail in an effort to reenact the study as accurately as possible. The students had the ability to be creative in translating the study to digital form. I encouraged them to use humor and poetic license, as long as this freedom did not distort the findings and purpose of the classic study chosen.

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Each group had the opportunity to recruit and use as many of their friends (who were not in the class) as they liked. I divided the 16 students into four groups of four. I composed the groups by using student self-reported GPA. The top four students became group leaders for groups 1–4. The next four students were also assigned in a similar way, down to the last four students. The groups were assigned this way to ensure the creation of roughly equivalent groups. After the groups chose their classic study, the students then completed a 40-question, multiple-choice test created by the researcher about each of the four experiments chosen (10 questions per study) to assess their knowledge of the experiments prior to completing the assignment. The multiple-choice questions covered topics such as the hypothesis, design, procedure, and findings. They took the same 40-question test after viewing the completed digital stories in class to assess their knowledge about the experiments after the assignment was finished. They also completed an assignment-evaluation survey that contained six demographic questions and 17 Likert-style questions (see Table 1). There was not a specific digital story creation process detailed in the syllabus. Each group had a range of choices in filming and editing. Students could use a video camera owned by the Department of Psychology (and one group did use that camera) or their own equipment. One group used an iPad, another group used a Canon T2i DSRL digital camera, and the other group used a GoPro video camera to film their video. For the editing process, students

Table 1. Students’ Evaluation of the Using Digital Storytelling Assignment Question

M

SD

1. This project was an interesting learning experience. 2. This project was enjoyable. 3. This project was fun. 4. I enjoyed watching the other students’ video re-enactments of experiments. 5. I prefer when projects like this are used instead of straight lecturing. 6. I enjoy class more when projects like this are used instead of lecturing. 7. I learn more from class when projects like this are used instead of lecturing. 8. The project was a valuable learning experience. 9. The project was helpful in gaining knowledge about experiments in Social Psychology. 10. I gained a deeper appreciation of experiments in Social Psychology as a result of completing this project. 11. Preparing our group video reinforced what I learned in class about our topic. 12. This project enabled me to practice oral communication skills. 13. The project gave me an opportunity to be creative. 14. I worked hard on this project. 15. I enjoy working with classmates. 16. I enjoyed the structure of this project. 17. The Professor should continue to use this project in the future with other students.

6.25 6.06 6.19 6.44

0.68 0.77 0.66 0.73

5.19 5.44 4.50 5.88 6.13

1.33 1.37 1.71 1.02 0.72

6.13

0.88

5.88

1.02

4.81 5.94 6.25 5.19 5.69 6.75

1.42 1.06 0.78 1.90 1.25 0.58

Note. Students made ratings in response to items 1 through 17 using a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

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used a variety of software programs, such as iMovie, Windows Movie Maker, and Lightworks. The groups were allowed to use other people to help with filming and editing if there was not a group member who had experience with digital story creation, as long as the group was still primarily responsible for the final video. Two of the groups had a group member who had digital story creation experience, one group used the University IT Department, and the other group had a sister of one of the group members who had digital story creation experience. Each student group posted their finished digital stories on YouTube. The digital stories were shown in class over the course of two class periods. Students evaluated the digital stories (except for their own group’s) for purposes of determining the winning digital story using a Social Psychology Video Survey distributed in class. The video survey used 10 Likert-style questions, rated on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), that covered content (‘‘Students demonstrated an understanding of social psychological concepts.’’), quality (‘‘The technical quality of the overall video was excellent.’’), and learning items (‘‘I learned something about social psychology research from the video.’’).

Results A paired-samples t-test compared the means for correct answers for the pretest and posttest. This test was statistically significant, t(15) ¼ 6.54, p ¼ .0001, showing that students learned a significant amount (pre, M ¼ 20.62, SD ¼ 5.15) about the four studies as a result of this assignment (post, M ¼ 26.25, SD ¼ 3.84). The strength of the relationship between pretest and posttest was .74 as indicated by Z2. A paired-samples t-test compared the means for correct answers on students’ own article before and after the assignment. This test was statistically significant, t(15) ¼ 4.32, p ¼ .001, showing that students learned a significant amount (pre, M ¼ 4.81, SD ¼ 2.01) about their study as a result of this assignment (post, M ¼ 7.06, SD ¼ 1.24). The strength of the relationship between pretest and posttest was .55 as indicated by Z2. A paired-samples t-test compared the means for correct answers on the other students’ studies before and after the assignment. This test was statistically significant, t(15) ¼ 4.66, p ¼ .0001, showing that students learned a significant amount (pre, M ¼ 15.81, SD ¼ 4.37) about the other studies as a result of this assignment (post, M ¼ 19.19, SD ¼ 3.31). The strength of the relationship between pretest and posttest was .59 as indicated by Z2. The assignment evaluation survey contained 17 Likert-style questions, rated on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Eight of the 17 items had means of 6.00 or above. (Full results of the assignment evaluation survey appear in Table 1.) The following procedure determined the digital storytelling contest winner. Each student rated each digital story (except for their own) using the Social Psychology Video Survey that could range in score from 10 to 50. There were 16 students in the class, but each student rated only the groups to which they did not belong, so each digital story had 12 evaluations. The contest winner was determined by adding the 12 scores on each video survey, creating a grand total for each group. On the End of Course Evaluation, there were five open-ended questions. The first openended question asks, ‘‘What specific activities did the instructor do that positively contributed to your learning experience?’’ Each of the six students (out of 16) who answered that question mentioned the digital storytelling project. It was referred to as ‘‘engaging, ‘‘a great learning experience,’’ and it ‘‘made us apply what we were learning in class.’’ The student

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comments made in class were all very positive. Students enjoyed bringing experiments ‘‘to life.’’ They enjoyed the creative process and looked forward to the other groups seeing their digital story when it was shown in class. They also enjoyed getting to see the other digital stories produced by their peers. I took an informal poll in class at the end of the semester and asked the students which of the eight assignments they had done in the course was their favorite. Eleven of the 16 students said the digital storytelling project was their favorite, and the other five students ranked it second. I also asked them what they would do differently now that they were finished. The most common response was a recognition that the group should have started work on the project sooner than they did. All four groups turned in a finished digital story on time, but three of the groups admitted to 1–3 all-nighters. The students did not report problems with filming, but did report some problems with editing. Common editing problems involved coordinating narration, merging audio and video files, and having difficulty cutting down the footage to 10–15 min. One group ended up with 38 min of footage and struggled mightily to pare it down! The students suggested that having more than one due date would help them balance the workload more efficiently (i.e., requiring a draft of the script to be turned in by a certain date, filming to be completed by a certain date, etc.).

Discussion The results of this preliminary investigation into the use of digital storytelling in a social psychology class confirmed both hypotheses. In regard to hypothesis a, results showed that students learned a significant amount about each of the four studies through the creation, and watching, of digital stories. There was significant improvement in test scores related to their own study and also to the other studies. In regard to hypothesis b, the assignment evaluation survey showed positive ratings for the assignment. The highest rated item was ‘‘The Professor should continue to use this project in the future with other students.’’ Other highly rated items included enjoying watching the other student digital stories, working hard on the project, an interesting learning experience, and fun. Students also reported that the assignment was helpful in gaining knowledge about experiments in social psychology and that they gained a deeper appreciation of experiments in social psychology through this project. Wann (1993) assessed only students’ evaluation of the assignment. The results of the current study, in terms of the students’ assessment of the assignment, were similar. Both studies showed that the students enjoyed watching and listening to other students’ (plays) digital stories. In both studies, the students endorsed the idea of the professor using the assignment in the future. They also reported that the assignment was enjoyable and an interesting learning experience. The students in both studies gained knowledge about classic experiments in social psychology and gained a deeper appreciation for these experiments. Wann (1993) did not measure student learning and knowledge of the experiments in his study. This measurement lends preliminary support for the efficacy of this assignment for increasing student learning. Students gained knowledge about their chosen experiment and about the other groups’ experiments as a result of participating in the digital storytelling assignment. It is possible that the monetary prize offered to the winning group could have raised the student ratings on the evaluation survey. However, the student ratings were not any higher than past groups who had performed plays in class and who had not received monetary incentive.

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Thus, I do not believe that this incentive changed the overall student assessment of the efficacy of this assignment. The results of the current study also relate to the literature on using student-developed digital storytelling as an example of authentic learning. Students show an interest in digital media that can be harnessed as authentic learning opportunities. Many studies have emphasized the increasing relevance of student developed digital storytelling projects to education and discussed benefits such as active learning, experiential learning, media literacy, and play and motivation (Robin & McNeil, 2012; Yang & Wu, 2012). Niemi et al. (2014) and Niemi and Multisilta (2015) found that students responded to digital stories produced by their peers more than professionally produced digital stories. Yang and Wu (2012) found that student-developed digital storytelling projects promoted student autonomy and task ownership. They also found that students enjoyed having their peers as the main target audience, as it gave them extra incentive to create an excellent video. By having the students post their digital stories on YouTube, as was done in the current study, students gain an even wider audience of their ‘‘peers.’’ Niemi et al. (2014) also found that students were very familiar with the video medium because of the digital lives they lead, and this type of project helped them to feel like they were communicating in a culturally authentic way. Students perceive the development of media skills through this project as a highly relevant part of their learning process, similar to the students in Hafner and Miller’s (2011) study. As contemporary media continues to make inroads into higher education, an understanding of associated skills, tools, and processes is needed to engage students in active learning. Students often complain about reading original source material and have difficulty understanding the results of classic experiments. Using digital storytelling as a pedagogical technique is an enjoyable way to increase student understanding of and interest in psychological research. Digital storytelling captures the interest and imagination of the modern-day student. This preliminary study suggests that digital storytelling could be an effective tool for improving student learning outcomes. Future research needs to improve upon the experimental design by using a control group and a larger sample size. The current study was conducted at a small university in which the social psychology class is taught as one section every other year which severely limits the types of experimental designs that are possible. The results were promising, but are preliminary at best. Ongoing research into digital storytelling should also evaluate its effectiveness in other psychology courses beyond social psychology. The only psychology course taught each semester in multiple sections at my University is Introduction to Psychology. The next empirical test of digital storytelling could use this course, with one section as a control group and the other section as the experimental group. If there are significant differences in scores testing the same material that favor digital storytelling, a more compelling case could be made for the efficacy of digital storytelling. It will also be important to look at many different active learning techniques, such as role plays, creative writing, the use of drama, and others, to see if they have similar effects on student outcomes as compared with the use of digital storytelling. Are these techniques equally effective, or does one of them show more promise? Author Note The author would like to thank Randolph Smith for his valuable feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript.

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Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported in part by a grant from the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at LeTourneau University.

References Flottemesch, K. (2013). Learning through narratives: The impact of digital storytelling on intergenerational relationships. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 17, 53–60. Hafner, C. A., & Miller, L. (2011). Fostering learner autonomy in English for science: A collaborative digital video project in a technological learning environment. Language Learning & Technology, 15, 68–86. Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2008). Readings in social psychology: The art and science of research (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Kearney, M. (2011). A learning design for student-generated digital storytelling. Learning, Media and Technology, 36, 169–188. McGee, P. (2014). The instructional value of digital storytelling: Higher education, professional, and adult learning settings. New York, NY: Routledge. Niemi, H., Harju, V., Vivitsou, M., Viitanen, K., Multisilta, J., & Kuokkanen, A. (2014). Digital storytelling for 21st-century skills in virtual learning environments. Creative Education, 5, 657–671. Niemi, H., & Multisilta, J. (2015). Digital storytelling promoting twenty-first century skills and student engagement. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 25, 451–468. Robin, B. R., & McNeil, S. G. (2012). What educators should know about teaching digital storytelling. Digital Education Review, 22, 37–51. Wang, S., & Zhan, H. (2010). Enhancing teaching and learning with digital storytelling. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 6, 76–87. Wann, D. L. (1993). Performing experiments in undergraduate social psychology classes. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 235–236. Yang, Y. T. C., & Wu, W. C. I. (2012). Digital storytelling for enhancing student academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation: A year-long experimental study. Computers & Education, 59, 339–352. Yuksel, P., Robin, B., & McNeil, S. (2011). Educational uses of digital storytelling all around the world. In M. Koehler & P. Mishra (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2011 (pp. 1264–1271). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Author biography Vicki Sheafer received her M.A. and Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. She is currently professor of Psychology and Chair of the Undergraduate Programs in Psychology & Counseling at LeTourneau University (Longview, TX). She typically teaches undergraduate courses in social psychology, learning and cognition, personality theory, physiological psychology, psychology of gender, research methods, and statistics. She also teaches the graduate research methods course. She serves students as the

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faculty advisor for Psi Chi, the International Honor Society for psychology. Her research interests revolve around the scholarship of teaching and learning in psychology, more specifically, using unique pedagogy to improve student learning outcomes. She is also a secondary investigator on an NSF grant exploring creativity in engineering design.

Appendix A. Classic Experiments in Social Psychology Article Choices Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31–35. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S.A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893–910. Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285–290. Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210. Freedman, J. L., & Fraser, S. C. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195–202. Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191–198. LaPiere, R. T. (1934). Attitudes and actions. Social Forces, 13, 230–237. Latane’, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377–383. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the ‘‘overjustification’’ hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–137. Mallick, S. K., & McCandless, B. R. (1966). A study of catharsis of aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 591–596. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371–378. Milgram, S. (1965). Liberating effects of group pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 127–134. Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179, 250–258. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. F. (1968). Teacher expectations for the disadvantaged. Scientific American, 218, 19–23. Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 349–356. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype vulnerability and intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811. Walster, E., Aronson, V., & Abrahams, D. (1966). Importance of physical attractiveness in dating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 508–516.

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Appendix B. Reenacting Social Psychological Experiments Digital Storytelling Grading Rubric _____ Group work (out of 10 points) Worked well with group members Attended all group meetings Did fair share of work, and in a timely manner Group member’s evaluation sheets and assessment of work _____ Digital Story—Technical (out of 10 points) Quality of video Quality of audio Quality of editing _____ Digital Story—Content (out of 20 points) Clear explanation of research study Accurate portrayal of research findings Educational value Quality of Script Appropriate video length (10–15 minutes) _____ Digital Story—Artistic elements (out of 10 points) Creativity Originality Appropriate use of humor Appropriate use of extras/props _____ Total (out of 50 points)

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