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Feb 8, 2007 - Dr. John Bennett of the OECD made a very timely presentation on new policy conclusions ...... This was the case, for example, in the Oulu area, in Northern. Finland. ...... Tucker, P., Strange, J. and Gareis, C. (2002). ...... Ten early years practitioners based in Dublin, Kildare, and Meath, who were undertaking.
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Conference Proceedings

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Vision into Practice Making Quality a Reality in the Lives of Young Children

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2007 Dublin Castle February 8th - 10th, 2007

Conference Proceedings

Edited by Sharon O'Brien, Peadar Cassidy and Heino Schonfeld

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Vision into Practice Proceedings of a Conference on Making Quality a Reality in the Lives of Young Children

Dublin Castle, February 8th-10th 2007

Edited by Sharon O'Brien, Peadar Cassidy and Heino Schonfeld

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Table of Contents Page No.

Foreword d Heino Schonfeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .07 Acknowled dgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .09 Minister's Address Brian Lenihan, Minister for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Keynote Addresses New Policy Conclusions from Starting Strong II: An Update on the OECD Early Childhood Policy Reviews

by John Bennett, OECD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 The ECEC Curriculum Guidelines and its Implementation in Finland by Päivi Lindberg, STAKES, Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 The Effective Provision of Pre-SSchool Education (EPPE) Project: Intensive Case Studies of Practice Across the English Foundation Stage

by Iram Siraj-Blatchford, Kathy Sylva, Brenda Taggart, Edward Melhuish and Pam Sammons, Institute of Education, University of London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Professionalism in Practice 'Working Together to Develop the 3Rs' - An Exploration of Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships between ECCE Students and Infant Teachers in Irish Primary School Classrooms

Deirdre Breathnach and Jennifer Sturley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Playful Challenges: Values and Qualities of Early Intervention in Early Childhood Settings

Kaye Cederman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Developing Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education Services: The Impact of a Continuing Professional Development Programme

Imelda Duffy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Practical Professionalism Maresa Duignan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

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Engaging with Practitioners through Síolta, the National Quality Framework in Early Childhood Education: A Workshop Model

Jacqueline Fallon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 The Challenges of Becoming a Profession Imelda Graham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Exploring Quality in Early Educational Communities Nicole Green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94 Early Years Professional Status: Pilot Evaluation and Issues Denise Hevey, Eunice Lumsden and Sue Moxon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 Multiple Perspectives on Quality - Partnership on Quality Evaluation and Professional Development in Early Childhood Institutions

Helena Luís, Madalena Alves, Arlete Gonçalves, Gabriela Amaro, Helena Sousa, Julieta Vieira, Maria José Calheiros, Nélia Montez, Rosa Montez and Teresa Cunha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 Developing the Early Years Workforce: Student Perceptions of the Early Years Sector-EEndorsed Foundation Degree

Eunice Lumsden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Mirror, Mirror, On The Wall: Reflections of The Early Years Professional Gill McGillivray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Towards The Development of a Professional Development Portfolio for Childcare Practitioners

Rosemary Murphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131

Listening to Children From Theory into Practice; Teachers Supporting Children's Self Regulation in Conflict Situations within an Early Years Setting

Sue Bingham and David Whitebread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Listening for Children's Stories: The NCCA’s Portraiture Study Paul Brennan, Mary Daly, Arlene Forster, Margaret Maxwell, Rosaleen Murphy, Emer O'Connor and Avril Sweeney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

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Advocating With and on Behalf of Children - The Barnardos Experience Norah Gibbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Listening With Children: Research, Policy and Practice Fergus Hogan and Máire O'Reilly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164

Diversity and Inclusion The Media Initiative for Children 'Respecting Difference' Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years

Eleanor Mearns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174 Intercultural Books in Practice Máire Mhic Mhathúna and Úna Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Moving Beyond Grimm's Fairytales for Representations of Black and White: Diversity as an Integral Component of Quality Provision in Early Childhood Education

Maria O'Dwyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188 Co-e existing With Different Cultures: Implications for Early Learning Environments

Valerie Rhomberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

Creating Learning Environments A Pedagogy of Connection: The Place of Play Carmel Brennan and Nóirín Hayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 The Curriculum in the Infant Classes in Primary Schools in Ireland - Creating Learning Experiences

Deirbhile Nic Craith and Anne Fay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 Creating and Promoting Outdoor Learning Environments Carol Duffy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 Effective Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education: A Review of Literature and Implications for Practice in Infant Classes in Primary Schools in Ireland

Elizabeth Dunphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

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Elegant Interior and Exterior Play Spaces for Young Children Michael F. Kalinowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231 Language and Literacy in Early Childhood Care and Education Marlene McCormack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240 Risky Play Among Four and Five Year-o old Children in Preschool Ellen Beate H. Sandseter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248

"It takes a village…." - Partnership, Parents and Communities Networks of Care and $7/Day Childcare in Small-ttown Quebec: Preliminary Findings in a Pilot Study

Patrizia Albanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 Equality and Dialogue in the Involvement of Traveller Parents in the Preschool Education of Their Children

Anne Boyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 The Role of Community Teachers in the Development of Quality Early Childhood Care and Education

Jan Forde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272 The Community Mothers Programme: Care in the Community Brenda Molloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280 Parents as Partners in the Education of Children with Special Educational Needs Úna O'Connor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288 The Transition to School in Ireland: What Do the Children Say? Mary O'Kane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295 Evaluating The Impact Of The Early Years Arts Initiative - Working In Partnership Janet Preston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302 'When the Village Isn't Enough' - Can the UK Government's Change for Children Programme Really Address the Needs of Young Children Who Live in Rural Areas?

Richard Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308

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Improving School Readiness One Village at a Time: Early Years Parenting Centres and Teacher Opinion of 5 Year-o olds' Preschool Development Using the Education Development Instrument (EDI)

Catharine Tozer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314

Innovation in Policy and Investment in Early Childhood Education The Childhood Development Initiative: Developing Quality Services Geraldine French and Katherine Zappone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321 Changes and Challenges in Recent ECEC Policy in Norway Ingeborg Tveter Thoresen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328 The Challenge of Supporting Children in All Environments: A Proposal for Universal Funding

Áine Uí Ghiollagáin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 The Revised Audit of Research on Early Childhood Care and Education in Ireland, 1990-2 2006

Thomas Walsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342

Notes on Contributors Notes on Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349

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Foreword Heino Schonfeld Director, Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education It gives me great pleasure to introduce these proceedings of our second International Conference Vision into Practice which was held from the 8th to the 10th of February 2007 in Dublin Castle, Dublin, Ireland. This document provides a comprehensive and accurate record of most keynote presentations and workshop papers delivered during the conference. Just like our first International Conference Questions of Quality (23rd to 25th September 2004)1, this event was very closely linked to our own work in the developing context of early childhood care and education in Ireland. At the time of the first conference we were in the process of drafting the first National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education in Ireland and our main focus of work was reflected in the title of that event: Questions of Quality. The conference recorded here found us in a very different place. By September of 2005 we submitted Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early

Childhood Education to the Department of Education and Science and this document was officially launched on May 30th 2006 by the Minister for Children. Subsequently, our work moved on to the question of how to integrate the vision of Síolta with the ongoing practice of early childhood care and education in Ireland - hence the theme of this conference 'Vision into Practice, Making Quality a Reality in the Lives of

Young Children'. Policies and practice frameworks are important but will achieve little without commitment and implementation. The conference was designed to look at policies and practice as agents for change and their impact on the lives of young children. We are very grateful to the Minister for Children, Brian Lenihan T.D., who opened the conference on behalf of the Irish Government, emphasising the importance of early childhood education in the Irish context. We were again privileged to attract keynote presentations of a very high calibre and scholarly quality. Dr. John Bennett of the OECD made a very timely presentation on new policy conclusions from Starting Strong II; Päivi Lindberg from Finland presented the new ECEC Curriculum Guidelines and their implementation in Finland; Jacquie Roberts of the Scottish Care Commission asked how regulation could help improve early years services; Brenda Taggart, Institute of Education, University of London presented new findings from the Effective Pre-school and Primary Education (EPPE 3-11) Project on the power of preschool and Professor John Coolahan provided a comprehensive overview of the history of early childhood education policy in Ireland.

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But maybe even of more significance was the very large number and high quality of submissions to the symposia. In fact, the volume of submissions was so great that we decided to extend the number of presentations during the parallel workshops. There was clear evidence of an increasing capacity for high quality research in early childhood care and education in Ireland. I think it is fair to say that the activities of the CECDE in the area of research have greatly contributed to this capacity building in Ireland. Since its establishment in 2002, the CECDE has become the largest commissioner of research in early childhood education in Ireland and by the time of the 2007 conference we had published five very significant research projects and also grant-aided four PhD students. Our commitment to research and capacity building was underlined by the holding of the 2007 conference Vision into Practice and there is now a clear expectation in the early childhood community in Ireland and abroad that the series of international conferences will continue. In many ways, we have established a 'tradition' for the international exchange of scholarly and research findings in Ireland. The editorial work on these Proceedings has been undertaken by a great number of contributors, including a national panel of academics drawn from Universities, Colleges of Education and Institutes of Technology across the country and I would like to thank them for their considerable input. The CECDE team has taken great care during the editorial process to protect the essential content of all papers. However, in some instances, papers had to be abridged, revised or reformatted. While any misspellings and punctuation mistakes are ours, the editors cannot accept responsibility for errors in fact and referencing, or for points of opinion in any of the papers. I would like to thank my colleagues and co-editors Sharon O'Brien and Peadar Cassidy; the Board and staff of the CECDE for their unwavering support, in particular Claire Brennan; the Department of Education and Science for their generous hosting of the conference in the beautiful and historic surroundings of Dublin Castle; and Conference Partners for their professional assistance in organising the event. Most of all, I would like to thank all contributors, from Ireland and abroad, for making the 2007 Conference Vision into Practice such a successful and memorable event.

Note: 1 Schonfeld, H., O'Brien, S. and Walsh, T. (Editors) (2005). 'Questions of Quality' - Proceedings of a Conference on Defining, Assessing and Supporting Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education. Dublin Castle, September 23rd-25th, 2004. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education.

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Acknowledgements

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The CECDE would like to extend its gratitude to the following panel of contributors for their invaluable work in reviewing the conference papers: Mary Aust Carlow Institute of Technlogy Jacinta Byrne-Doran Waterford Institute of Technology Dr. Maura Cuneen University College Cork Dr. Florence Dinneen Mary Immaculate College of Education Professor Francis Douglas University College Cork Dr. Elizabeth Dunphy St Patrick's College of Education Sean Griffin St. Nicholas Montessori Society of Ireland Dr. Nóirín Hayes Dublin Institute of Technology Fergus Hogan Waterford Institute of Technology Dr. Mary Horgan University College Cork Una McCabe Froebel College of Education Anne McGough St Patrick's College of Education Dr. Máire Mhic Mhathúna Dublin Institute of Technology Nora Maria Ní Mhurchú Mary Immaculate College of Education Doireann O'Connor Sligo Institute of Technology Dr. Anna Ridgway University College Cork

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Minister’s Address Brian Lenihan Minister for Children I am delighted to be here with you today to welcome you to the opening of this international conference on 'Vision into Practice: Making Quality a Reality in the Lives of

Young Children'. And I would like to thank the CECDE - the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education - for their sterling work in organising the conference and bringing together so many interesting speakers and experts in this area. This is the second international conference held in Dublin by the CECDE concerning quality in early childhood education. All the research into early childhood provision, both in our own country and internationally points to the importance of quality provision and to the absolutely huge difference it can make to the lives and life chances of children, especially those of our children who experience disadvantage. There is a consensus across OECD countries that 'care' and 'education' are inseparable concepts and that quality services for children necessarily provide both. The term Early Childhood Education and Care includes all arrangements providing care and education for children under compulsory school age regardless of setting, funding, opening hours or programme content. The work carried out by the CECDE in publishing Síolta, the National

Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education represents a milestone in identifying exactly what factors contribute to a quality early educational experience. One of the strengths of Síolta is that the principles can be applied across so many different settings and types of childcare provision. Síolta has met with widespread acceptance across all of the providers of early childhood education and care. Of course this didn't just happen or come about by accident but was a result of an extensive consultation process involving everyone who has an interest in this area. Now that this quality framework is in place, the challenge is to ensure that it is disseminated and put into practice. This conference explores the practical realities of ensuring that children's experiences of early childhood education are the best that can be provided. The days are long gone when it was thought that 'children should be seen and not heard'. The National Children's Strategy in 2000 set out a number of guiding principles including that 'All children should be respected, cherished and supported by their families and the

wider community'. The commitments set out in our Social Partnership agreement, Towards 2016, include the very important commitment that 'every family should be able

to access childcare services which are appropriate to the circumstances and needs of their children'.

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Minister’s Address

Local structures are increasingly being used to co-ordinate public services and implement national policy in a more integrated fashion. This was one of the hallmarks of the Equal Opportunities Childcare Programme which established City and County Childcare Committees in thirty-three separate local administrative areas. The successor to this, the National Childcare Investment Programme sets out a number of ambitious targets including the creation of an additional 50,000 new childcare places. The programme aims to provide a proactive response to the development of quality childcare supports and services which will be planned for and developed locally and centred on the needs of the child and the family. For all local and national structures to work effectively, it is important that we are working towards common goals and common objectives. My office - the Office of the Minister for Children - was set up to integrate functions previously carried out across Departments such as Health and Children, Justice, Equality and Law Reform, and Education and Science. It was set up to bring together the number of Departments and issues that impact on our children's lives not just in early childhood care and education but also in areas such as youth justice. But this conference is about giving children from right across the social spectrum the best start in life. How do we do this? We need to look at what young children should be learning and how they learn. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment are finalising a Curricular Framework for Early Learning. This follows on from an earlier consultative document and a widespread consultative process. It will complement the quality framework set out in Síolta. As quality outcomes are dependent on the people working with children, we need to look at professional development for people working in this sector. We are committed to delivering 17,000 childcare training places by 2010 and to do this we need to work with the education providers and with the people delivering services on the ground. Some of the issues that will need to be addressed include the recognition of experience and prior learning of people already working in the sector and the provision of on-going professional development opportunities. In looking through the very comprehensive programme for this conference, I was interested to see that there are a number of sessions on play and learning spaces. I am pleased to be able to say that we were one of the first countries in the world to produce a detailed national policy on play. It is called Ready, Steady, Play and came about because, following the publication of the National Children's Strategy, we asked children for feedback. We asked them for their views on Ireland, whether they thought it was a good place for them to grow up in, what was good about it, and what would make it

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better. Two and a half thousand children wrote in and their responses identified play and recreation as a major quality of life issue for them. Proof, yet again, of the importance of ensuring that children have a voice. In bringing together so many experts and practitioners in the area of childcare and education, this conference, with its theme 'Vision into Practice: Making Quality a Reality

in the Lives of Young Children' will, I'm sure, be interesting, thought-provoking and stimulating and will give us the benefit of all of your experiences in working in this vital area of childcare and education. I am delighted to open this conference and I am looking forward to hearing as many of the speakers as possible.

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Making Quality a Reality in the Lives of Young Children

Keynote Addresses

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New Policy Conclusions from Starting Strong II An Update on the OECD Early Childhood Policy Reviews John Bennett Part I - The OECD Thematic Reviews of Early Childhood Policy: The First Round The Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy was launched by the OECD Education Committee1 in March 1998. The impetus for the early childhood project came from the 1996 Education Ministerial meeting on Making Lifelong Learning a Reality

for All (OECD, 1996). In their communiqué, the education ministers assigned a high priority to the goal of improving access to and quality in early childhood education and care (ECEC). Not only was the provision of care and education for young children considered as necessary to ensure the access of women to the labour market but increasingly, early development was seen as the foundation stage of human life-long learning and development. When sustained by effective fiscal, social and employment measures in support of parents and communities, early childhood programming would help to provide a fair start in life for all children, and contribute to educational equity and social integration. At the 1998 meeting, twelve countries - Australia, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States - volunteered to launch reviews of their ECEC policies and services. Between 1998 and 2000, OECD review teams conducted visits to the twelve participating countries (OECD, 1998) The reviews of these countries, combined with careful consultation of the national ECEC policy co-ordinators in the participating countries, formed the basis of a comparative report published by the OECD Secretariat, entitled Starting Strong: Early

Childhood Education and Care (OECD, 2001). In order to enlarge the scope of the review, the OECD Education Committee authorized a second round of reviews in November 2001. Eight more countries joined this round: Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Korea and Mexico. The second round of reviewing began in Autumn 2002 and ended in Winter 2004. In parallel, a series of four thematic workshops was organised by the Secretariat for the national ECEC co-ordinators on topics important for national policy making, viz. financing, curriculum and pedagogy, data needs, and early education for minority and low-income children. To summarise, over the six-year period, 1998-2004, some twenty countries have participated in country reviews, and twenty-four countries in the workshops organised on ECEC policy issues. These countries provide a diverse range of social, economic and political contexts, as well as varied policy approaches toward the education and care of young children. Note: 1 The OECD Education Committee is a forum for the Education Ministries of the OECD countries. The Committee meets at OECD headquarters twice a year to discuss education policy and issues.

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New Policy Conclusions from Starting Strong II

The First Comparative Report The first comparative report, Starting Strong (OECD, 2001), identified eight key elements of successful ECEC policy. These key elements were:

A systemic and integrated approach to policy development and implementation calls for a clear policy vision for children, from birth to eight, and co-ordinated policy frameworks at centralised and decentralised levels.

A strong and equal partnership with the education system supports a lifelong learning approach from birth, encourages smooth transitions for children, and recognises ECEC as an important part of the education process.

A universal approach to access, with particular attention to children in need of special support: While access to ECEC is close to universal for children from age three in most European countries, more attention to policy (including parental leave) and provision for infants and toddlers is necessary. It is important to ensure equitable access to quality ECEC, regardless of family income, parental employment status, special educational needs or ethnic/language background.

Substantial public investment in services and the infrastructure: While ECEC may be funded by a combination of sources, there is a need for substantial government investment to support a sustainable system of quality, accessible services.

A participatory approach to quality improvement and assurance: Defining, ensuring, and monitoring quality should be a participatory and democratic process that engages staff, parents, and children. There is a need for regulatory standards for all forms of provision supported by co-ordinated investment. Pedagogical frameworks focusing on children's holistic development across the age group can support quality practice.

Appropriate training and working conditions for staff in all forms of provision: Quality ECEC depends on strong staff training and fair working conditions across the sector. Initial and in-service training might be broadened to take into account the growing educational and social responsibilities of the profession.

Systematic attention to monitoring and data collection requires coherent procedures to collect and analyse data on the status of young children, ECEC provision and the early childhood workforce.

A stable framework and long-term agenda for research and evaluation: As part of a continuous improvement process, there needs to be sustained investment to support research on key policy goals. A range of strategies to disseminate research findings to diverse audiences should be explored. Part II - The Second Round of Starting Strong Reviews The research from the second round of reviews strongly endorses the eight elements as a framework for policy and offers new examples of specific policy initiatives adopted by countries in these areas. Several policy areas were explored more deeply: the governance of ECEC systems; the impact of financing approaches on quality; contrasting pedagogical

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approaches. As in the first report, Starting Strong II (OECD, 2006) outlines some of the contextual factors influencing ECEC policy, in particular, the growing need to safeguard equality of opportunity for women when organising ECEC services and to conceive of these services as instruments of social equity and cohesion. The new Starting Strong II study proposes ten policy areas for consideration by governments: 1. To attend to the social context of early childhood development

An understanding of the health, social and economic contexts is fundamental for policy-making in the early childhood field. ECEC programmes not only address the care, nurturing and education of young children but also contribute to the resolution of complex social issues. Social inclusion, family well-being, public health policies and gender equality can be served through intelligent, comprehensive policies;

Social equity: The reduction of child and family poverty is a necessary precondition for successful early childhood and public education systems. Early childhood services do much to alleviate the negative effects of disadvantage by educating young children and facilitating the access of families to basic services and social participation. However, governments need to employ upstream fiscal, social and labour policies to reduce family poverty and give young children a fair start in life;

Family well-being and involvement: In proposing policy, governments will attend to the actual needs of contemporary families, e.g. to provide and organise services to allow parents the opportunity for full- and part-time employment, according to their wishes. The provision of remunerated parental leave of about a year, followed by a child entitlement to a place in an early childhood service, allows parents to be with their child in the critical first year, while, at the same time, supporting the family budget and facilitating the return of mothers to employment (Chatterji and Markowits, 2005; Tanaka, 2005). To link the end of parental leave to an entitled place in a publicly supported early childhood service seems to be a critical element in parental leave policy that adds considerably to the well-being and security of families and infants. Within early childhood services, family involvement should also be encouraged and valued, especially the involvement of low-income and immigrant parents;

Equality of opportunity for women: The UN Convention against All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and other equity agreements at international and national levels require that women should have equal opportunities to work and

in work, in particular, with regard to formal work contracts, equal pay, the right to fulltime work and equal promotion opportunities. Flexible work hours and the provision of early childhood services facilitate the reconciliation of work schedules and childrearing responsibilities.

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2. To place well-b being, early development and learning at the core of ECEC work, while respecting the child's agency and natural learning strategies Children's learning is a core goal of early childhood services, but within a context that ensures the child's socio-emotional development and well-being. In the past, services for under-threes have been seen as an adjunct to labour market policies, with infants and toddlers assigned to services with weak developmental agendas. In parallel, traditional early education services have placed children from three to six years in preprimary classes, characterised by high child-staff ratios, the employment of teachers without early childhood certification, poor learning environments, and the quasiabsence of care personnel; Two principles, selected from the country reviews, seem to offer support for the child's personal learning and well-being: Firstly, a focus on the agency of the child, including respect for the child's natural learning strategies (Norway, Sweden) and secondly, listening, project work and documentation as major means of working with young children (Reggio Emilia). These principles counter the tendency of seeing the school as the benchmark and of imposing external targets and skills on young children. 3. To create the governance structures necessary for system accountability and quality assurance The experience of the OECD reviews suggests that active governance of the ECEC system leads consistently to improvements in access and quality. To achieve effective steering, central ECEC policy units with critical mass need to be created and supported by legislation and financing powers; Decentralisation is necessary for effective governance, in particular in a field so localised and diverse as early childhood services. In the decentralisation process, it is important to ensure that early childhood services are part of a well-conceptualised state policy, which on the one hand, devolves real management powers and funding to local authorities and on the other, ensures a unified approach to regulation, staffing criteria, and quality assurance; Support (sub)-systems and agencies are a necessary part of well-performing ECEC systems, for example, active policy units, a training and curriculum authority, independent monitoring and evaluation agencies, a research council, a corps of pedagogical advisors (coaches or inspectors), a monitoring and/or statistical unit, etc; There is a need in many countries to have a national research council or research association to organise early childhood research, and improve links between research, policy and practice; For system accountability and quality development, programme evaluations are necessary. A national pedagogical framework for early childhood services that includes both agreed goals and a regulatory framework for the different programme types (family day care, centre-based care, integrated services etc.), facilitates

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programme evaluation. Programme evaluations focus on structures (the quality of funding, staffing, programme standards, etc.), processes (both relational and pedagogical) and the achievement of curriculum goals. The focus is on administrative accountability and on the (formative) assessment of the educators' work, rather than on testing young children. 4. To develop with the stakeholders broad guidelines and curricular orientations for all ECEC services National curricula and pedagogical frameworks help to promote a more even level of quality across age groups and provision; to guide and support professional staff in their practice; to facilitate communication between staff and parents; and to ensure pedagogical continuity between ECEC and school. Many pedagogical frameworks can be broader than a traditional curriculum, and may include a regulatory framework and an explicit values base. An important aim is to identify the holistic goals a country wishes to set for its young children. Frameworks, based on consultation, allow local interpretation, identify general quality goals and indicate how they may be attained; The consultative curriculum framework will normally name goals for all areas of development. Readiness for school is important, but so also are objectives such as the health and well-being of young children, socio-emotional development, physical intelligence, and shared values, such as democracy, knowledge of and respect for the environment, etc. For successful curriculum implementation, contextual (e.g. funding, regulation and support by the state, the morale of the centre and educators, etc.),

structural (e.g. programme standards, stimulating learning environments, teacher certification, strong staff supports, professional development, etc.) and process variables (the relational and pedagogical skills of educators) are all important; Recent research from the US suggests that young children from disadvantaged backgrounds are prepared more effectively for school through intensive programmes (Barnett and Belfield, 2006). Some of the programmes cited have many of the characteristics associated with effective schools, viz. the centre sets itself clear and coherent goals; pedagogical work is effectively managed and led by the principal teacher; staff have high expectations about learning and give close attention to inculcating in young children positive attitudes toward learning; teachers try to involve

all parents in the goals and work of the school and in particular, in the development and learning of their own children; the staff is well-paid, motivated and highly trained; they work in teams and document their own thinking as well as the progress of children; children receive regularly personalised guidance (Teaching and Learning In 2020 Review Group, 2006); significantly higher resources, both human and financial are provided to children and schools in disadvantaged areas ('equal' is not enough); teachers (at school level) focus on basic academic and social skills and create an orderly climate conducive to learning; and finally, a system for monitoring system

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achievement of curriculum goals in place (not high-stakes testing of children). Learning should not be limited to or dominated by literacy and numeracy concerns but should give priority to the meaning making tasks important for young children at a given age or moment; At classroom level, comprehensive pedagogical skills are fundamental: well-trained educators will attend to the affective involvement of children and their cognitive engagement. They will also use a repertoire of modelling and instructional skills in handling issues of personal safety, health, social interaction and other knowledge, skills and attitudes considered important by a society for young children to acquire. Educators will recognise also that young children develop along varied paths and at different rates of maturation. Although it is important to have high expectations for children, including what they can know and do, too great an insistence on standards can undermine the quality of pedagogical work, that is, the relationships and pedagogical activities that support positive outcomes for children. 5. To base public funding estimates for ECEC on achieving quality pedagogical goals In well-functioning systems, governments develop clear and consistent strategies for efficiently allocating resources, including investment in an infrastructure for long-term planning and for ongoing quality initiatives. Without strong government investment and involvement, it is difficult to achieve quality pedagogical goals and broad system aims; In the area of funding, the results from the reviews are disappointing. As far as can be estimated, investments in services have increased only marginally in most OECD countries in the years from 1999 to 2004. Apart from the Nordic countries, Belgium, France and Hungary, few countries approach an ECEC investment level of 1% of GDP, as recommended by the former European Commission Network on Childcare (1996). Funding 'places' that cannot deliver pedagogical quality seems extraordinarily shortsighted. Other things being equal, investment per child in the pre-school years should be at least equivalent to investment per child in primary schooling; Various strategies are used in the OECD countries to bring new financing into ECEC systems. Essentially, the ratio of qualified educators employed sets the level of ECEC costs. In the child care sector, costs are contained through the employment of poorly qualified and poorly paid staff - a feature found often in privatised child care in the liberal economies. Neither approach is adequate if the aim is to have services that provide high quality education and care for young children; A more positive approach to keeping costs at a reasonable level is to build up team teaching. In some of the Nordic countries, university trained, kindergarten educators form approximately a third (Finland) or half (Sweden) or 60% (in Denmark) of the ECEC staff in centres. They work in teams with trained children's nurses or child assistants. In this way, these countries can provide appropriate child-staff ratios and quality programmes;

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Another possible solution is the 'social market' or public-private partnerships. This is the predominant approach, for example, in New Zealand; A more radical means of lowering costs is for governments to encourage an open, deregulated market in child care services. The crux of the matter is that when public funding of the child care system takes the form of subsidies paid directly to parents, the subsidies are generally too low to employ high quality staff or to finance system infrastructure. In addition, the steering capacity of governments vis-a-vis services becomes considerably weaker than in funding-to-services systems. 6. To reduce child poverty and exclusion through upstream fiscal, social and labour policies, while increasing resources within universal programmes for children with diverse learning rights A central aim in all countries is to improve the development and learning of young children, and not least, of children from disadvantaged and second language backgrounds. Early childhood programmes make an important contribution to this aim. They are particularly important for children with diverse learning rights, whether these stem from physical, mental or sensory disabilities or from socio-economic disadvantage; Although providing care and education to children from 'at-risk' backgrounds, early childhood programmes cannot substantially address issues of structural poverty and institutional discrimination (Zigler et al., 1996, Dearing et al., 2006). The challenge of reducing child poverty needs also to be tackled upstream by governments through energetic social, housing and labour policies, including income transfers to lowincome groups, comprehensive social and family policies, and supportive employment schemes and work training. Preventive, anti-poverty measures can significantly reduce the numbers of children arriving to early childhood centres with additional learning needs; New thinking about diversity refuses to diagnose young children in terms of what they lack, or on the grounds of race, religion, second language, etc. Each child is talented and competent in his or her own way, and when born into adverse backgrounds can show extraordinary inner strength and resilience. The inclusion of these children in universal programmes seems the most acceptable and effective approach, as targeting can segregate and stigmatise, and generally fails to provide for many of the children eligible for special programmes (Barnett et al., 2004). At the same time, centres in poor neighbourhoods need enhanced funding and supplementary staff. 7. To encourage family and community involvement in early childhood services The primary role of families in rearing children is protected in international law. Both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the UN Convention on the

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Rights of the Child (1989) make explicit reference to their role, e.g. the Preamble to the Convention on the Rights of the Child states:

"The family, as the fundamental group of society and the natural environment for the growth and well-being of all its members and particularly children, should be afforded the necessary protection and assistance so that it can fully assume its responsibilities within the community". Families play a critical nurturing and educational role toward their children, particularly in the early childhood period when brain and personality continue to form (Gerhardt, 2004). Along with providing a stable and loving home environment, parents can greatly help their children's learning by monitoring their progress in early childhood settings, providing them with interesting learning experiences, and in particular, by daily conversation and out-loud reading of children's literature (Sylva et

al., 2004). The continuity of children's experience across environments is greatly enhanced when parents and staff-members exchange information regularly and adopt consistent approaches to socialisation, daily routines, child development and learning. Parental engagement within the setting promotes positive attitudes toward children's learning, provides parents from diverse backgrounds with information and referrals to other services, and includes parents in centre committees and management. Sensitivity to socio-cultural difference is also needed. Community involvement in the pre-school is growing in importance, not only for providing expanded services2 and referrals where necessary, but also as a space for partnership and the democratic participation of parents. When opportune, communities and education authorities could also provide adult education, information, services and social activities for parents from the early childhood centre. 8. To improve the working conditions and professional education of ECEC staff A strong link exists between the training and support of staff (including appropriate pay and conditions) and the quality of ECEC services (Sylva et al., 2004); Close attention needs to be paid to the level of recruitment and training of early childhood workers. Because of poor wages, lack of professional development and long hours, staff turnover can be high and the quality offered to young children inadequate. These shortcomings are exacerbated in childcare markets that operate without sufficient state support or regulation; In order to enhance the status and quality of early childhood work, governments may wish to consider introducing equal working conditions (salaries, benefits and Note: 2 Expanded services can be found in kindergarten, pre-school or public pre-primary programmes. Following the definition of NIEER (2004), an expanded service would include at least three of the following: 1) Snacks and at least one meal provided on site; 2) An extended day of seven hours minimum on the same site; 3) Health screening and medical referrals; 4) Regular liaison with social and/or family services for children considered to be at risk.

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professional development opportunities) for equivalent qualifications across the early childhood and primary education fields. Care should be taken that in-service training is linked to career progression and to obtaining further qualification; A number of weaknesses in ECEC staff policies emerge from the OECD reviews: low recruitment and pay levels, particularly in child care services; a lack of certification in pre-primary education systems; the feminisation of the work force; and the failure of pedagogical teams to reflect the diversity of the neighbourhoods they serve. Professional development and the allocation of non-contact time can also be insufficient; Where diversity is concerned, Starting Strong I (OECD, 2001) commended the requirement of the Head Start programme to employ parents and volunteers from the local community. It also noted the recruitment policies in other countries that encourage the employment of ethnic minority staff; The realisation is growing that the work of early childhood professional staff is complex, and that sound training is required. Whatever the qualification provided, professional training should include knowledge of child development and learning processes and an awareness of the rights and potentialities of young children. Staff morale benefits greatly from consistent support and engagement in participatory approaches to quality development. 9. To provide autonomy, funding and support to early childhood services Once the ground rules, goals and outcomes for young children have been decided in the national framework documents, and sufficient funding provided, educators and services should have the autonomy to plan, to choose or create curricula that they find appropriate for the children in their care. This increases staff motivation and can assist quality development; An important element of educator support is continuing professional development, in particular, when a new curriculum or other major change is introduced. The engagement of staff in team management and team planning is also important and can reinforce Programme Quality. Another strategy used successfully in some countries is to form and support local research networks that bring together centres, researchers, local administrators and educators: Among the many approaches to participatory quality development, the Reggio Emilia practice of documentation is highly influential. Through words, drawings, photos, videos, etc., documentation chronicles the ideas and significant learning experiences of children, and the observations made by teachers on the dynamics of children's enquiry and social interactions. In the practice of documentation, teachers are seen as 'reflecting practitioners', that is, professionals who continually review and reflect on their own practice and learning theory. The purpose of documentation is not to evaluate children against external norms, either developmental or academic, but to

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lead to a common reflection by professionals, parents and children on pedagogical practice and the processes of learning; In their approach to children, early childhood educators will not require individual children to reach a standard at a given age, but will take an unhurried approach to human development, which is a long process reaching into adolescence and beyond. Educators will identify and respect the natural learning strategies of young children, encourage project work to match the children's interests and provide them with the experience of working in teams. The well-being and involvement of young children are important daily goals; As every child has a right to access formal education in the best possible conditions, educators will ensure preparedness and a smooth transition to school as children approach school age. The continuity of children's experience across environments is greatly enhanced when parents and staff-members exchange regularly and adopt consistent approaches to socialisation, daily routines, child development and learning. A second strategy is to ensure free access to a kindergarten or pre-school class for every child from at least one year before obligatory education begins. A third strategy is to prepare children for school life through appropriate social and cognitive development programmes, including exposure to literacy and numeracy environments. If these programmes can be linked to or framed within cross-over curricula that respect the learning strategies of young children, transition is further enhanced. A fourth important strategy is to prepare schools for young children. The holistic goals and active pedagogies of early childhood are carried into primary school, as well as appropriate outreach to parents. 10.

To aspire toward ECEC systems that support broad learning, participation and

democracy The spirit and articles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989) offers a common values base to guide the development of early childhood services in most cultures. It is important also that ministries should become a powerful and influential voice for the rights of young children. In addition to learning and the acquisition of knowledge, an abiding purpose of public education is to enhance understanding of society and encourage democratic reflexes in children. Today, in the early childhood field, an instrumental and narrow discourse about readiness for school is increasingly heard. Faced by this challenge, it seems particularly important that the early childhood centre should become a community of learners, where children are encouraged to participate and share with others, and where learning is seen as primarily interactive, experiential and social. Learning to be, learning to do, learning to

learn and learning to live together are each important goals for young children;

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The vision of early childhood services as a life space where educators and families work together to promote the well-being, participation and learning of young children is based on the principle of democratic participation. This principle can also work effectively in management. The decentralisation of management functions to local authorities is a gauge of participatory democracy. At the same time, the experience of the ECEC policy reviews suggests that governments have a pivotal role in creating strong and equitable early childhood systems, and in co-constructing and ensuring programme standards. These conclusions to the Starting Strong reviews are strongly influenced by a governance and children's rights perspective. They are proposed for consideration by governments and stakeholders, but are not intended to be normalising orientations. A major underlying lesson from the OECD reviews is that sound policy cannot be a quick fix from the outside, but more a matter of democratic consensus generated by carefully prepared discussion and analysis with the major stakeholders within each country. Official policy in the early childhood field can meet resistance or be ignored unless it provides a space for local initiative and experimentation. References Barnett, W. S. and Belfield, C. R. (2006). Early Childhood Development and Social Mobility.

The Future of Children, Vol. 16, No. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 73-98. Barnett, W. S., Brown, K. and Shore, R. (2004). Universal Versus Targeted Debate. Should

the United States Have Preschool for All? NEIIER Preschool Policy Matters, April. Bennett, J. (2005). The OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy, Learning with Other Countries: International Models of Early Education and Care. London: Daycare Trust. Chatterji, P. and Markowitz, S. (2005). Does the Length of Maternity Leave Affect Maternal Health? Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp. 16-41. Dearing, E., Berry, D. and Zaslow, M. (2006). Poverty During Early Childhood (in) McCartney, K. and Phillips, D. (Eds.) Blackwell Handbook of Early Childhood Development. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 399-423. European Commission Network on Childcare and Other Measures to Reconcile the Employment and Family Responsibilities of Men and Women (1996). Quality Targets in

Services For Young Children. London: European Commission Network on Childcare and Other Measures to Reconcile the Employment and Family Responsibilities of Men and Women.

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Gerhardt, S. (2004). Why Love Matters. How Affection Shapes a Baby's Brain. London: Palgrave Macmillan. OECD (1996). Making Lifelong Learning a Reality for All. Paris: OECD. OECD (1998). Background Report from Norway - Thematic Review of Early Childhood

Education and Care Policy. Paris: OECD. OECD (2001). Starting Strong: Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris: OECD. OECD (2004a). Country Note for France. Paris: OECD. OECD (2004b). Country Note for Germany. Paris: OECD. OECD (2006). Starting Strong II: Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris: OECD. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004). The

Effective Provision of Pre-School Education [EPPE] Project. Final Report. London: Sure Start. Tanaka, S. (2005). Parental Leave and Child Health Across OECD Countries. Economic

Journal, Vol. 115, No. 501, pp. F7-F28, February 2005. Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group (2006). 2020 Vision: Report of the Teaching

and Learning in 2020 Review Group. Nottingham: Department of Education and Skills. United Nations (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations. Zigler, E., Kagan, S. L. and Hall, N. (Eds) (1996). Children, Families and Government:

Preparing for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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The ECEC Curriculum Guidelines and its Implementation in Finland Päivi Lindberg Introduction We all agree that early childhood education is the first step in lifelong learning and highly important in promoting the well-being of our children. Advancing high quality early childhood education is a strong interest area among researchers and policymakers in different countries. Today, many countries are actively involved in the process of developing and revising curricula for early childhood education. Also the OECD has in its reports Starting Strong I and II identified the development of appropriate pedagogical frameworks for young children as a vital factor for promoting quality in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) (OECD, 2001; 2006). Finland has developed a national framework for ECEC during the years 2003 to 2005. This process has opened up a new era in Finnish ECEC. Despite the fact that early childhood education has been intentional and goal-oriented since it was started in the mid-19th century (Välimäki, 1998), provision has been seriously limited by the lack of a binding standard curriculum. This is an issue also raised by the OECD during its review of the Finnish ECEC in 1999-2000 (Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, 2001). In this paper, I will introduce the Finnish national curriculum process as a case study. I will describe the process of forming national guidelines, the implementation process so far, the evaluation of the process and its implications for developing new innovative ideas. I will also attempt to foreground the biggest challenges we have faced during the procedure and how we have attempted to find solutions. The Context I will start by describing briefly a few facts about our country and its ECEC system. As the OECD made apparent when assigning the cross-national comparison, making cultural, social, demographic and even geographical factors visible makes it easier to understand the challenges countries face and the solutions they reach when developing their ECEC systems. ECEC is strongly socially and culturally dependent. ECEC concepts are linked with language and its meanings. Therefore, we should keep in mind that there may be major differences between the concepts used in different countries. Facts about Finland Geographically, Finland is a large area of about 338,000 square kilometres. This is 4.8 times the size of Ireland and a bit larger than the size of UK and Ireland put together. The country is sparsely populated. The population is 5.3 million, the population density being

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15.5 inhabitants per square kilometre. 10% of the area is covered by water and 69% by forest. 62% of the population live in towns or urban areas and 38% in rural areas. A rural area in Finland means very low population density and long distances to everywhere. Many of the smallest municipalities fall into this category. About one million people live in the Helsinki metropolitan area: Helsinki (561,000), Espoo (232,000), Vantaa (187,000), and another half a million in the other three biggest cities. The ECEC System in a Nutshell The Finnish ECEC system could best be described as holistic. Care and education are brought together in one integrated system. Provision covers both the daycare arrangements offered to families and the goal-oriented early childhood education open to children. All children under compulsory school age (seven years) have an unconditional right to daycare once parental leave comes to an end (at about ten/eleven months). Unconditional here means that children are entitled to full-time, year-round daycare independent of the employment status and income level of their parents. The system is affordable for parents; they pay about 15% of the costs. The daycare fees are based on family size and income level, varying from 0 to €200/month/child in full-time services. Parents pay for eleven months annually, although the place is available for twelve months. There is also free pre-school education for all children aged six, and morning and afternoon activities for school children in first and second grades. The ECEC system is mainly public. Municipalities provide services through municipal daycare centres, family daycare and pre-school groups located in daycare centres or in schools and they can outsource to private providers. Services also include evening and round the clock care. Municipalities have a statutory obligation to provide a subsidised place for all children up to seven years of age, if parents so choose. It is also possible for families to receive a private childcare allowance in order to provide their children with private care. Currently, this entirely private provision covers about 4.5% of services. From a European perspective, the participation rates in ECEC in Finland seem rather low. This is partly due to the option for parents to choose child home care allowance instead of municipal daycare until the youngest child in the family turns three. Participation rate for children from one to six/seven is 62.7%, but almost all six year-olds (96.3%) participate in pre-school education. Although the Finnish system is decentralised, there are also clear national regulations that apply to public as well as to private providers. These set out mainly structural standards, such as staff qualifications, adult-child ratios and the provision of meals and a proper environment for the children.

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There are 416 municipalities in Finland that vary in size from about 250 people in smaller regions up to 561,000 in Helsinki. Each municipality provides services according to its own municipal strategy. Often these strategies are linked to the geographical and demographic characteristics of the municipality. A cornerstone in the delivery of ECEC services is parental choice. However, in some rural, isolated and sparsely populated areas, the selection of services on offer is more limited than in urban or metropolitan areas. In the small municipalities the major type of daycare is family daycare in its different forms. There are thirty-eight municipalities who do not have centre-based services at all, usually for very understandable reasons, for example, if the child population is small and scattered around the municipality. On the other hand, in the big municipalities it is difficult to recruit family daycare staff, and therefore that option is not widely available. Many municipalities also provide so-called open ECEC services. These include playground activities for children or the whole family, art clubs or open supervised daycare centres. These open services are especially for families who choose not to use the daycare option. Family day carers also frequently use these services. However, while the large and medium size municipalities have a variety of options to offer, about two-thirds of the small municipalities cannot provide any of them. Nevertheless, there are, in most of the municipalities, some open services organised by the church or the third sector. In a system as decentralised as the Finnish one, a key question, and one that is also posed by the OECD, is whether each small municipality has enough adequately trained administrators and experts to ensure that national standards are met. Another important question is whether the financial and other resources in each of the smallest and most remote municipalities are sufficient to ensure all children equal opportunities for services and high quality content. The aforementioned facts form a big challenge for the curriculum implementation process. For instance, when STAKES (The National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health) organised mentor training, which will be discussed later, the city of Helsinki sent thirty people, whereas there were many small municipalities who could not send a single person. I will try to describe how we have overcome some of these challenges. One could say that the Finnish ECEC sector has reached far in some aspects. We can provide sufficient amounts of rather good quality services for children and families throughout the country, although there is variation between municipalities. We have a long history of highly valued daycare with its pedagogical aspects. However, our challenge is to provide, as well as possible, equal services for all citizens. This challenge

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that goes beyond ECEC is well recognised and therefore there is an ongoing national process to reorganise the municipal structure and functioning, especially from the point of view of basic services. In the future there will be fewer municipalities and more collaboration and networking among the remaining ones. Why Finland Needed a National Framework for ECEC Finnish ECEC has undergone major changes in recent years. These changes created a need for a national framework to steer the content of ECEC due to several reasons: As a result of administrational decentralisation, diversity between municipalities has increased. This created pressure to develop national guidelines to improve and equalise the quality of ECEC throughout the country. The unconditional right to daycare changed public policy from targeted approaches to a universal entitlement to ECEC. The introduction of the Core Curriculum for Pre-School Education1 (for six year-olds) in 2000 increased pressure to look at ECEC for younger children as well. The social context and the theoretical paradigm of ECEC have changed considerably since the old regulatory framework was introduced in the 1980's. Increased research since 1995, when kindergarten teacher education was moved to university level, has enhanced the discussion of content quality and pedagogy in ECEC. The national ECEC website Varttua2 was gradually developed by STAKES since the summer of 2000. For the first time, Vartua created a proper tool for an open national dialogue. Likewise, this web site (or net service, as we call it) functions as a tool to combine all necessary steering information and news, along with media for understanding, developing and assessing the curricula on different levels. National Curriculum Guidelines on ECEC in Finland2 The National Curriculum Guidelines on ECEC (referred to as guidelines from here on) document was first introduced in September 2003 (STAKES, 2003/2004). The guidelines are based on the Resolution Concerning the National Policy Definition on ECEC (The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, 2003) approved by the Finnish Government on February 20022. The policy definition contains the central principles and development priorities for publicly operated and supervised ECEC. The values underlying ECEC in Finland are based on the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1989).

Note: 1 Core Curriculum for Pre-School Education is defined by the National Board of Education. 2 The English version is available from http://varttua.stakes.fi

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The guidelines aim to standardise national provision of ECEC. As municipalities differ markedly from each other, it is important that each one draws up its own specified strategic guidelines for drafting local ECEC curricula. The guidelines cover all forms of publicly operated and supervised ECEC. Municipalities are to use them to assess the extent to which their ECEC services meet the standard and to specify the content and modes of action for different ECEC activities in their own curricula. The guidelines serve as a basis for local and municipal curricula and for the curricula implemented in the daycare units. They emphasise the importance of ECEC in the educational continuum as part of lifelong learning. Hence, the content and aims are linked to the Core Curriculum for Pre-School Education (National Board of Education, 2000). The guidelines document is not normative, but a recommendation for the municipalities. It is a contextual and reflective document that should promote an ongoing development process on each level. I will detail these aspects in the following sections. The Content of the Guidelines According to the guidelines, the primary aim of ECEC is to promote the child's overall well-

being. The educator community that gives space to children, understands them and their needs, is willing to support them and participate with them is fundamental to ensure that children enjoy meaningful experiences that promote joy of learning and feelings of being understood and heard. By interacting and discussing with children, educators get insights into the children's world and thinking. This also requires mutual, continuous and committed interaction between parents and educators in all matters concerning the child. The importance of this educational partnership is emphasised throughout the document. The guidelines emphasise an inclusive perspective concerning children who need support, and children with different lingual and cultural backgrounds. The guidelines place a strong emphasis on language. However, this goes beyond the 'traditional' curricular aspects on language from the perspectives of language acquisition and skills or literacy. Language is seen as the thread running through the whole curriculum, and therefore it is not treated as a content area but as a vital communicative and cultural element in the ECEC communities. In the following paragraphs I will clarify some important principles in the guidelines. Pedagogy: Care, Education, Teaching Pedagogy is defined as integrating the intertwined dimensions of care, education and teaching. To understand this concept properly, I must explain why we use these three

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words instead of the more traditional 'educare'. The Finnish equivalent for the term education is 'kasvatus'. In the Finnish language it has a narrower meaning by excluding the pedagogic perspective. Therefore, we added the term teaching to focus on all the different dimensions we find in pedagogy. Dahlberg and Moss (2005) have clarified the Swedish interpretation of the word pedagogy, which differs to some extent from that of many other countries. This definition also describes the Finnish interpretation quite well:

"[Pedagogy] combines a particular concept of learning (foregrounding relations, dialogue and construction of meaning rather than the transmission of predetermined knowledge) with a broad idea of care that goes well beyond physical caretaking to a concern for and engagement with all aspects of life (social, physical, aesthetic, ethical, cultural, etc.)" (Dahlberg and Moss, 2005: 33). These three dimensions receive different emphasis according to the specific needs and the situation of the child. This kind of an approach stresses the importance of everyday activities and the children's possibilities to be involved and to participate in every matter concerning their lives. Participation creates a feeling of belonging that helps to develop a healthy self esteem and promotes well being. Moreover, when the child feels that he/she has a place of his/her own and that he/she is important, learning becomes more meaningful. The Child's Way of Acting: What is Meaningful and Characteristic for Children? According to the guidelines playing, movement, exploration and self-expression through

different forms of art are ways of acting and thinking peculiar to children. Such activities enhance their well-being and perception of themselves and increase their opportunities for participation. An activity that children find meaningful also gives expression to their thoughts and feelings. These ways of acting are used as guiding principles in the educator community's interactions with children. Recent research proves that a meaningful environment is child-friendly. Possibilities for independent mobility reveal many affordances, and the actualisation of affordances motivates the child's further exploration and mobility in the environment (Kyttä, 2003.) Process Aims: Goals to the Work of Educators and the Environment The curriculum guidelines do not set goals for the child's development. All goals are aimed at the educational process and the environment. The guidelines challenge the educator communities to reflect upon their work and interaction in the community of children and adults. The guidelines do not give an answer to the question 'what works'. The ambitious goal is to go beyond these practical questions and argue about what is important in ECEC and how we can build a real community of children and adults, a place to belong to.

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The Process of Forming the Curriculum and its Implementation Two major principles in the whole curricular process (including the implementation) have been to base the work on a strategic framework (a collaborative interactive process on each level) and on an open dialogue (a deductive-inductive steering procedure in implementation). The guidelines form the basis for the municipal and unit-based curricula and the text is quite general. Each municipality should start its own process of discussion and reflection, in order to take the ideas to a more concrete level. Questions like 'what does this mean in our municipality?' or 'how does this apply to our daycare centres?' should be asked. A single correct answer does not exist, only different viewpoints and negotiated solutions. The National Level The document was prepared in a rather short period of eight months. The task of drafting the Curriculum Guidelines was assigned to STAKES. A steering group, with representatives from all important stakeholder organisations, was appointed. The steering group was assisted by a working committee, the ECEC expert team at STAKES, and other expert groups established as required for dealing with the different content areas. The document was available on the Varttua website for general consultation and commentary. After publishing the first version of the Curriculum Guidelines in September 2003, STAKES organised a mentor-programme. Eight two-day mentor training sessions for experts chosen by the municipalities were organised during one year. The mentors' task was to start a networking project in their own municipalities or areas. Thus, the mentors were co-ordinators of the municipal curriculum processes. This kind of networking approach was crucial; since there are over 50,000 ECEC workers in Finland, some quite isolated. Therefore, these mentors were not necessarily mentoring just one municipality. In many areas, the municipalities combined their resources and chose one mentor to co-ordinate a larger area of several municipalities. On the other hand, in some areas the municipalities formed a larger network, where each municipality sent their own mentor. This was the case, for example, in the Oulu area, in Northern Finland. There, twenty-two municipalities formed a network together with a Social Competence Centre and the University of Oulu. They continued the mentoring process by organising their own meetings, training and consultation. Another example is the city of Helsinki. They have divided their ECEC organisation into twenty-two regional sections. They positioned their mentoring and the whole curriculum process inside the existing organisation. This mentoring programme proved to be very successful. The mentor network was provided with its own extranet environment inside the Varttua website, with all training

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materials and other important information, and a discussion forum. The idea was that via the extranet the mentors had the opportunity to interact with mentors from a different municipality, and thus share their visions, understanding and problems in the network. However, as this kind of working culture is still rather new, they ended up more or less using the extranet as a source of information. The communicative element was not used much. Evaluation STAKES started a review process of the guidelines at the end of 2004 and Spring 2005, the aim of which was to evaluate how the document fitted the requirements of the different stakeholders, ECEC experts and staff. The mentor network was asked to participate by completing an Internet survey. A number of stakeholders were asked to participate in a content analysis. Forty-nine municipalities and twenty-seven stakeholders responded. Changes were made accordingly to the document and the second edition of the guidelines was published in October 2005. One of the biggest challenges on a national level during this whole process has been to reach all municipalities. Those 146 mentor municipalities comprise most of the ECEC staff in the country, as all the biggest municipalities are included in that figure. However, we wanted to know whether the rest of the 270 municipalities are in any way involved in the curriculum process. Therefore, another Internet survey was launched to all municipalities in Summer 2005. This time the enquiry was targeted at senior administrators of ECEC in each municipality. We asked them to bring their municipal results straight to a new database, which is easy to update whenever they make progress. As we wanted a 100% response rate, we sent two reminders to the municipalities. According to the results, 91.8% of all municipalities in Finland had started their curriculum processes. We were excited by this result. Less than two years after the first edition was published as a recommendation, almost all municipalities had started to form their own curricula. STAKES initiated a new procedure in 2006 to build a permanent network of ECEC curriculum experts from each municipality. At the moment, 312 municipalities have joined this network and the target is to reach the remaining municipalities during Spring 2007. Through this network STAKES has a direct connection to all service providers in the country. This is necessary, for instance, when gathering quality-related information for national evaluation. The aim of this project is to assist in particular those municipalities who do not have enough resources or their own experts to proceed in the curriculum process. This project, which is called 'Curricula in Shape' is funded by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health.

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The Municipal Level On the municipal level, the open dialogue has meant different kinds of processes, where ECEC administrators, personnel, parents and elected officials have participated. Some of the municipalities have also created their own web-based environments to aid the process. The aim is not to copy the national guidelines but to create their own unique framework. Within the individual settings, this requires the staff to become more reflective and to use the curriculum as a tool to bridge the national framework and the municipal perspective with the practical daily work and pedagogy. Another challenge is to involve parents and children in this process. Only a curriculum that everyone concerned can feel ownership of, is more than just a mere publication. Current and Future Challenges The curriculum process from the national to unit level should proceed from a framework to concrete actions. It has to be constantly evaluated and therefore is seen as an ongoing process. The result of this process should be a contextual and reflective curriculum, to prevent it from being simply a series of manuals for 'what works'. One element that we have in our favour to support this process is that the basic educational level of our staff is good. In addition, most municipalities also organise systematic in-service education. During the last few years a lot of attention has been focused on new thinking in ECEC, including the changing view of the child. But does new thinking actually change practice? There are certain global perspectives that have been very dominant in ECEC throughout its history. Their effects are perhaps bound to the countries' own cultures and values. However, in most cases they still have an effect. I am referring to the perspective Moss has argued, the developmental psychological perspective with its implications to 'best practices' (Dahlberg and Moss, 2005). This paradigm has been influential in Finland, too. Although the aim of these new guidelines is to promote a paradigm shift, we find ourselves on a constant collision course with the old routines based on the dominant perspectives. Even when people start turning the steering wheel in a new direction, sometimes the hectic everyday situations bring back old habits and routines. One should keep in mind that change happens gradually. However, our process has shown that: there has been a tremendous need for new pedagogical thinking, a medium steering the content has been missing, with clear goals and a persevering attitude change is possible.

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I would like to finish with a comment from a small municipality, which perhaps best sums up the successes of the new curriculum process:

"To develop the curriculum in collaboration with parents, daycare, school, the church, and the health care has brought our practices closer. We have been able to discuss more, for instance about how parents could be better involved in planning their children's ECEC. This curriculum process has been one of the best collaborative actions we have ever had. It has given everyone something and our work for promoting the children's best continues." References Dahlberg, G. and Moss, P. (2005). Ethics and Politics in Early Childhood Education. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Kyttä, M. (2003). Children in Outdoor Contexts. Espoo: Helsinki University of Technology. Ministry of Social Affairs and Health (2001). OECD: Country Note: Early Childhood Education

and Care Policy in Finland. Paris: OECD. Ministry of Social Affairs and Health (2003). Government Resolution Concerning the

National Policy Definition on Early Childhood Education and Care. Publications 9. National Board of Education (2000). Core Curriculum for Pre-School Education in Finland

2000. Helsinki: University Press. OECD (2001). Starting Strong I. Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD (2006). Starting Strong II. Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris: OECD Publishing. STAKES (2004). National Curriculum Guidelines on Early Childhood Education and Care in

Finland. [Accessed at http://varttua.stakes.fi/EN, 27th February, 2007]. United Nations (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations. Välimäki, A. L. (1998). Päivittäin. Lasten (päivä)hoitojärjestelyn muotoutuminen varhaiskasvun ympäristönä suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa 1800- ja 1900-luvulla. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Seires E 31. University of Oulu. [The Formation of (Day)care as an Environment for Early Childhood in the Finnish Society in 1800's and 1900's].

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The Effective Provision of Pre-SSchool Education (EPPE) Project: Intensive Case Studies of Practice Across the English Foundation Stage Iram Siraj-B Blatchford, Kathy Sylva, Brenda Taggart, Edward Melhuish and Pam Sammons Introduction The Effective Provision of Pre-school Education (EPPE) Project is a longitudinal national research study that follows the developmental progress of more than 3,000 children across England. In Technical Paper 10 (Sylva et al., 2003), data from twelve effective preschool centres, reflecting good child outcomes (cognitive and/or social behavioural), have been analysed to reveal a unique 'story' for each centre. The associated Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) project (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002) enabled the addition of two reception classes to the twelve EPPE cases (i.e. fourteen case study centres in total), and this additional data is included in Technical Paper 10 (Sylva et

al., 2003). Key Findings The findings show that good outcomes for children are linked to early years settings that: View cognitive and social development of children as complementary and do not prioritise one over the other; Have strong leadership and long-serving staff (three years plus, this was even the case in the private daycare settings where the turnover of staff is normally the highest); Provide a strong educational focus with trained teachers working alongside and supporting less qualified staff; Provide children with a mixture of practitioner initiated group work and learning through freely chosen play; Provide adult-child interactions that involve 'sustained shared thinking' and openended questioning to extend children's thinking; Have practitioners with good curriculum knowledge combined with knowledge and understanding of how young children learn; Have strong parental involvement, especially in terms of shared educational aims with parents; Provide formative feedback to children during activities and provide regular reporting and discussion with parents about their child's progress; Ensure behaviour policies in which staff support children in rationalising and talking through their conflicts; Provide differentiated learning opportunities that meet the needs of particular individuals and groups of children e.g. bilingual, special needs, girls/boys etc.

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Aims The aim of the intensive case study analyses has been to tease out the specific pedagogical (and other) practices that are associated with achieving 'excellent' outcomes compared to those centres with 'good' or more 'average' outcomes. This analysis has been extended significantly in the REPEY study (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002), which added case studies of two reception classes. Background Children (and their families) were recruited into the EPPE study when they were three years old, the age at which many enter their first Foundation Stage group setting. Those children who were already enrolled in a group setting entered the study when they turned three. Developmental status was assessed regularly, beginning when children enter the study and continuing through school entry, at the end of Year 1 and Year 2. Quantitative analysis (multilevel modelling) assessed the contribution of the pre-school setting to a child's cognitive and social/behavioural development having controlled for child factors (e.g. gender, health etc.) and family background characteristics (e.g. socioeconomic status, mother education etc.). Full details of the research design may be found in EPPE Technical Paper 1 (Sylva et al., 1999) and in the REPEY Project report (SirajBlatchford et al., 2002). Pre-school settings (141) were drawn from a range of providers (local authority day nursery, integrated centres, playgroups, private day nurseries, maintained nursery schools and maintained nursery classes). A sample of 'home' children (who had no, or minimal, group pre-school experience) was recruited to the study at entry to school for comparison with the pre-school group. In addition to investigating the effects of pre-school provision on young children's development, EPPE explored the characteristics of effective practice (and the pedagogy which underpin them) through twelve (plus two reception classes from REPEY) intensive case studies of settings with good to excellent child outcomes. EPPE has demonstrated the positive effects of high quality provision on children's intellectual and social/behavioural developmental - (EPPE Technical Papers 8a [Sammons et al., 2002] and 8b [Sammons et al., 2003]) by describing gains during the pre-school period. Analyses of the quantitative data collected on every child in the study revealed that in some pre-school centres children made progress as expected, or better than expected, given their individual and home characteristics. Settings for the case study research were selected based on a compilation of profiles for each setting on their child outcome data. This enabled an examination of the variation in child outcomes between centres and the range of outcomes within centres on eight identified cognitive and social development outcomes (a centre scoring '0' on an outcome indicated children had made progress 'as expected'; a score of 1 indicated a positive outcome; and 2 a significantly positive outcome).

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All of the settings selected for case study demonstrate a range of practices and all of them demonstrate some above average outcome/s. Put another way, settings were chosen from a range identified as good (if their children made slightly more developmental progress than expected based on their individual child and home characteristics) to excellent (where children made significant developmental progress above their projected developmental progress). The report therefore consistently refers to settings throughout as 'good' (slightly above average) or 'excellent' (well above average) based on their child outcome data. The report provides comprehensive descriptions of one of each type of early years, group setting implementing the Foundation Stage (local authority day care, private day nursery, playgroup, nursery class, nursery school, integrated provision1 and from the REPEY study, one reception class). None of the cases reported fully is meant to be typical of its type of provision. Across the fourteen case studies, centres have varied in their quality of practice but have contributed to effective results in their child outcomes, although in some cases this was very modest e.g. a positive impact on one outcome out of eight social and cognitive development outcomes for their children. In other cases, the centre may have had a more robust effectiveness profile demonstrating effectiveness in several areas e.g. number, prereading or making children less anti-social/worried/upset in their behaviour. The EPPE definition of 'effectiveness' is based on child outcomes, which was understood as a necessary but insufficient component of quality on its own. High quality provision is related to child outcomes but also to the quality of child care and pedagogical practices that are offered as well. The report shows how the actual practices in the settings vary in important ways. Methods and Timetable In conducting the case studies, trained researchers, who were already familiar with the centres, spent two whole weeks in each centre. Case study data came from multiple sources to allow for assessment by source and the method of data collection. Data from policy documents was triangulated with manager and parent interviews, extensive naturalistic observations of staff (over 400 hours) and 254 targeted child observations. Some of the data for the case studies were collected prior to the announcement of a Foundation Stage (FS) in late 1999 and during 2000; some information was gathered from Note: 1 In this case an Early Excellence Centre - which is part of the Government's initiative to provide every region with a one-stop-shop childcare and education service which is responsive to the needs of children, families and local early years staff.

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all the centres of the FS during 2001/2 when further funding was made available for the REPEY study. The FS covers provision for children aged three to five years-old. Detailed Research Findings Every effort was made to collect comparable data across the case studies and to provide a framework for analysis allowing comparison across centres. Case studies were compared in terms of their key quality characteristics, for example, the pedagogy employed, the curriculum on offer, the ethos and the management and organisational strategies. The term 'pedagogy' in this report refers to the instructional techniques and strategies that enable learning to take place. It refers to the interactive process between teacher/practitioner and learner. It also refers to aspects of the learning environment (e.g. materials provided, organisational techniques, actions of the family and community etc.) and how they are harnessed to foster learning in children. Management and Staff The data revealed that all the case study pre-school settings had strong leadership and long serving staff. Most of the managers and staff had been in the settings over three years. Previously published Technical Paper 5 (Taggart et al., 2000) has shown that there is a high turnover of staff in the private sector; the private nurseries in the case study sample had stability of staffing with retention between three to nine years. In the other settings, staff, especially senior management had been in post even longer and ten to twenty years was not uncommon. All the managers took a strong lead, especially in curriculum and planning. In most of the settings the strong leadership was characterised by a strong philosophy for the setting that was shared by everyone working in the setting. The managers of the excellent centres had a strong educational focus, valued the importance of adult-child interaction, and supported their staff to develop better ways of engaging children. In excellent centres, the staff were encouraged to attend staff development sessions, although there was a great deal of variation in training offered and what staff were able to access. Recent developments enabling local authorities to offer training that includes personnel from all pre-school sectors would appear to be a positive way forward. However, the research indicated that training needs to be more sensitive to the needs of staff from different backgrounds. Discussions with local authority personnel and staff in the case study centres revealed that there are wide variations in training backgrounds. Where there are trained teachers, a stronger educational emphasis was found with the

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teachers playing a lead role in curriculum planning and offering positive pedagogical role modelling to less well-qualified staff. Ethos and Climate of the Settings Perhaps most significantly, the case studies have shown how diverse early years settings are. They showed that there was no 'level playing field' in terms of the training of staff, staff salaries and conditions of service, adult-child ratios, resources or accommodation. The case studies revealed great variation in the conditions and the service provided to children and families. For instance, opening times and sessions varied greatly from children attending half-day sessions a few times a week to extended daycare and education being provided full time for forty-eight to fifty weeks of the year. There was similar variation apparent in the salaries paid to staff. The salary range for the playgroup was under £3,000 to £7,000 per annum, while the maintained sector was £15,000£32,000 and the private sector £11,000- £24,000. Additionally, the number of children tended to vary from twenty or so in playgroup and nursery classes to 100-200 in nursery schools, local authority day care and fully integrated centres. The staff numbers reflected the numbers of children and the extent of the services on offer to families and other early years practitioners e.g. training support. Most nursery classes and playgroups are small with two or three members of staff. Most private nurseries are medium sized with three to eight or more staff and nursery schools with up to twelve staff. The more complex fully integrated2 (combined) centres (and early excellence centres) and local authority daycare centres have large numbers of staff due to larger numbers of children on roll, their outreach work to parents, their role as trainers and their dissemination work. For example, in one case study centre, which catered for 200 children and has Early Excellence Centre (EEC) status, the staff total was fifty-five. It is clear that the EPPE Project were able to locate moderate to excellent settings from among all the types of providers. However, there were many fewer settings whose children had better outcomes amongst playgroups and local authority daycare. Given the variation in staff pay, training and development this is unsurprising. There was no level playing field. In spite of this, the case study centres were able to portray some or a good deal of quality characteristics in terms of their ethos: All case study centres on the whole had a warm, caring, safe, secure and supportive

Note: 2 Throughout this report integrated centres (which in some previous EPPE reports have been referred to as combined centres) are those centres which fully combine education and care with the same ratio of trained teachers as nursery schools for three to five year-olds.

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approach to their children. All the settings engaged children in a range of different groupings, individual and group play, group focused table top activities, interest areas and class snack and story times; All case study settings had a welcoming appearance. The displays on the whole reflected the children's work. Children were generally treated with respect. The centres were warm and inviting places. Staff appeared calm and engaged well with the children. All these centres had fairly good resources and, although not always ideal, space. However the outdoor play environments varied greatly. Analysis of the Quantitative Findings with the Qualitative Case Studies Data The case study analysis has gone a long way in providing explanations for the patterns and associations between particular practices (as measured by the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scales R and E, [Sylva et al., 1999]) and developmental outcomes (Sammons et al., 2002 and Sammons et al., 2003). Four patterns of association were identified for special attention and closer analysis of the data from systematic observations suggested that each of the following practices should be investigated further: Adult-child verbal interactions; Differentiation and formative assessment; Discipline and adult support in talking through conflicts; Parental partnership with settings and the home education environment. Adult-cchild Interactions The 'excellent' settings encouraged 'sustained shared thinking'. This refers to an episode in which two or more individuals work together in an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate activities, extend a narrative etc. Both parties must contribute to the thinking and it must develop and extend thinking. The research found that this does not happen very frequently. In 'excellent' settings there were significantly more 'sustained shared thinking' interactions occurring between staff and children than in the 'good' settings. When it did occur, it extended children's thinking. Investigations of adult-child interaction have suggested that periods of 'sustained shared thinking' are a necessary pre-requisite for 'excellent' early years practice, especially where this is also encouraged in the home through parent support. In the 'excellent' case study settings, the importance of staff members extending childinitiated interactions was also clearly identified. In fact, almost half of all of the childinitiated episodes which contained intellectual challenge included interventions from a staff member to extend the child's thinking. The evidence also suggests that adult

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'modelling'3 is often combined with sustained periods of shared thinking, and that openended questioning is also associated with better cognitive achievement. However, openended questions made up only 5.1% of the questioning used in the fourteen case study settings. In the 'excellent' settings, the balance of who initiated the activities (staff member or child) was nearly equal, revealing that the pedagogy of the excellent settings encouraged children to initiate activities as often as the staff. Also, staff regularly extended child initiated activities, but did not dominate them. The children in reception classes experienced a different balance of initiation, with a much greater proportion of staff initiated episodes. In all of the case study settings children spent most of their time in small groups. But observations show that 'sustained shared thinking' was most likely to occur when children were interacting one-on-one with an adult or with a single peer partner. Freely chosen play activities often provided the best opportunities for adults to extend children's thinking. Adults need, therefore, to create opportunities to extend childinitiated play as well as teacher-initiated group work, as both have been found to be important vehicles for promoting learning. The findings revealed that level 5 qualified staff (almost all trained teachers) provided children with more experience of academic activities (especially language and mathematics) and they encouraged children to engage in activities with a higher cognitive challenge. While the most highly qualified staff also provided the most direct teaching (instruction through demonstration, explanation, questioning, modelling etc) they were the most effective in their interactions with the children, using the most sustained shared thinking. Furthermore, less well qualified staff were significantly better pedagogues when they worked alongside qualified teachers. Differentiation and Formative Assessment The analysis of teacher observations suggests a positive association between curriculum differentiation, formative assessment and the process of selecting activities to provide the optimum cognitive challenge, and 'sustained shared thinking'. The practice of adults 'modelling' (or demonstrating) positive attitudes, behaviours and appropriate use of language has also been identified as a valuable pedagogic strategy to be employed in early childhood. The best case study settings kept good records and engaged with parents about their child's progress on a weekly or monthly basis. However, there was little evidence of detailed formative feedback to children during tasks.

Note: 3 The process where early years educators provide a 'model' in terms of their language, behaviours, skills and/or attitudes for young children to imitate.

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Discipline and Adult Support in Talking Through Conflicts The 'excellent' settings adopted discipline/behaviour policies that involved staff in supporting children in rationalising and talking through their conflicts. In other words, a more problem solving approach was taken. Three settings with very positive social and behavioural outcomes had this practical approach supported by a strong behaviour management policy with which all the staff were conversant. In settings that were less effective in this respect, observations showed that there was often no follow up on children's misbehaviour or conflicts and, on many occasions, children were 'distracted' or simply told to stop. Parental Partnership The case studies indicate that where a special relationship in terms of shared educational aims has been developed with parents, and pedagogic efforts are made by parents at home to support children, sound learning can take place even in the absence of consistently good pedagogic practice in the pre-school setting. The 'excellent' settings shared child-related information between parents and staff, and parents were often involved in decision making about their child's learning programme. This level of communication was particularly the case in private day nurseries. While settings providing for the needs of children from the higher socio-economic groups benefited especially from this, the potential value of adopting a combined approach (good pedagogic practice within the setting and support for the home learning environment) in settings serving more disadvantaged areas is also clear. In more disadvantaged areas, staff in settings had to be proactive in influencing and supporting the home education environment in order to support children's learning. The evidence suggests that the 'excellent' settings in disadvantaged areas recognised the importance of, and were pro-active in encouraging strong parental involvement in the educational process, by taking the time to share their curriculum, pedagogical strategies and educational aims with parents. They offered advice on how parents could complement this within the home learning environment and how this impacted on young children's development. Pedagogy Whilst this report describes the pedagogy in a limited number of Foundation Stage settings, more detailed information on reception class practices, childminders and the Foundation Stage curriculum is reported in the REPEY Project report (see Siraj-Blatchford

et al., 2002). Knowledge of the Curriculum and Child Development The case studies show that practitioners' knowledge and understanding of the particular curriculum area that is being addressed are vital. A good grasp of the appropriate

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'pedagogical content knowledge'4 is a vital component of pedagogy and is just as important in the early years as at any later stage of education. Even in these 'good' and 'effective' settings, there were examples of inadequate knowledge and understanding of curriculum areas, especially in the teaching of phonological skills and science. The study showed that early years staff may need support in developing their pedagogical content knowledge in the domains of the Early Learning Goals. Educators who demonstrate good 'pedagogical content knowledge' display a firm knowledge and understanding of their curriculum content, but crucially, the most 'effective' educators also demonstrated a knowledge and understanding of what part of that content was most significant and relevant to the needs of the children that they were teaching. They were also able to draw upon knowledge of the pedagogical strategies found to be most effective in teaching any particular content. Summary In summary, effective pedagogy in the early years involves both the kind of interaction traditionally associated with the term 'teaching', and also the provision of instructive learning environments and routines. The 'excellent' settings provided both teacher-initiated group work and freely chosen yet potentially instructive play activities. Children's cognitive outcomes appear to be directly related to the quantity and quality of the teacher/adult planned and initiated focused group work for supporting children's learning. The research findings support the general approach taken in Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2000). The settings that viewed cognitive and social development as complementary managed to achieve the best outcomes for children. Trained teachers were most effective in their interactions with children, using the most sustained shared thinking interactions. Less well-qualified staff were better pedagogues when qualified teachers supported them. References Harms, T., Clifford, R.M., and Cryer, D. (1998). Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale,

Revised Edition (ECERS-R). New York: Teachers College Press. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2000). Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation

Stage. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Note: 4 Different pedagogic techniques are often required to make different forms of knowledge, skills and understanding accessible to young children. In teacher education the identification of appropriate strategies is often referred to as 'pedagogical content knowledge'. This requires knowledge of the 'subject' being taught and the child's level of learning.

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The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project

Sammons, P., Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., and Elliot, K. (2002).

The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 8a Measuring the Impact of Pre-school on Children's Cognitive Progress. London: Institute of Education. Sammons, P., Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., and Elliot, K. (2003).

The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 8b Measuring the Impact of Pre-school on Children's Social/behavioural Development. London: Institute of Education. Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock. S., Gilden, R., and Bell, D. (2002). Researching

Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years. DfES Research Report 365. London: Department for Education and Skills. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., and Taggart, B. (1999). The

Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 1 - An Introduction to the EPPE Project. London: Institute of Education. Sylva, K., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Taggart, B., Evans, E., Dobson, A., Jeavons, M., Lewis, K., Morahan, M., and Sadler, S. (2003). The Effective Provision of Pre-

School Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 10: Intensive Case Studies of Practice Across the Foundation Stage. London: Institute of Education. Sylva, K., Siraj-Blatchford, I., and Taggart, B. (2003). Assessing Quality in the Early Years,

Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale Extension (ECERS-E): Four Curricular Subscales. London: Trentham Books. Taggart, B., Sylva, K., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., and Walker-Hall, J. (2000). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 5

- Characteristics of the Centres in the EPPE Study: Interviews. London: Institute of Education. Additional Information This paper is based on a full report: The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 10: Intensive Case Studies of Practice Across the Foundation Stage (Sylva et al., 2003). This and other information about the EPPE project is available from: Brenda Taggart, Room 416, The Institute of Education, University of London, 20, Bedford Way, London WC1H OAL. Phone: 00 44 (0) 207 612 6219 Fax: 00 44 (0) 207 612 6230 Enquiries to [email protected]

EPPE website : www.ioe.ac.uk/projects/eppe

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Professionalism in Practice

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'Working Together to Develop the 3Rs' - An Exploration of Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships Between ECCE Students and Teachers in Irish Primary School Infant Classrooms Deirdre Breathnach and Jennifer Sturley Introduction In recent years, several key policy documents have advocated the need for further collaborative working among professionals in the area of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) to provide more cohesive and coordinated provision in this sector. A more streamlined approach to ECCE in Ireland has been recommended by policy statements and reports such as the National Forum on Early Childhood Education (Coolahan, 1998), Ready

to Learn - White Paper on Early Childhood Education (Department of Education and Science [DES], 1999b), Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in

Ireland (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2004) and the National Economic and Social Forum [NESF] Report, Early Childhood Education and Care (NESF, 2005). Ready to Learn, White Paper on Early Childhood Education acknowledged that "other teaching professionals will also have developed skills which may be

particularly suited to the needs of infants in primary school." (DES, 1999b: 76). More recently, Towards a Framework for Early Learning (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment [NCCA], 2004), has clearly documented the continuum of education from birth to six years of age. The literature also supports the importance of multiprofessional teamworking to comprehensively support and facilitate the education and care of young children from a holistic perspective (Powell, 2005). The NESF advocate a role for ECCE personnel with degree level education within the formal education system (NESF, 2005). The purpose of this study was to explore the potential for collaborative working in infant classrooms1 from the perspectives of both teaching staff and ECCE students. These particular students were in their third year of a BA ECCE Degree programme and had previously completed five placements in a variety of early years settings. They had also completed a short placement in the infant classroom, linked with their academic programme. In terms of reviewing their experiences, of key interest for this research was the students' role in the setting, the type and level of responsibility awarded to them and the working relationship with the adults in the environment. The specific objectives of the study therefore were to: Document the experience from a student perspective in terms of personal and professional development, identifying their roles and levels of responsibility Note: 1 In Ireland, over half of all four year-olds and almost all 5 year-olds attend 'infant classes' in Primary level schools (OECD, 2004). Within this paper, the term 'infants' refers to this age group of children.

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Explore the teacher's experiences of and attitudes towards having another adult with an ECCE background in the classroom Examine the working relationships of the teachers and students within the classroom and explore the potential for future team working and collaboration in the infant classroom Methodology In seeking the appropriate methodology for this particular study, the context and social situation of the research were considered. To this end, it was noted that as the experiences of both the ECCE students and the teachers were the focus of this research and due to the interactive, social and individual nature of infant classroom settings, a qualitative strategy was therefore selected. Two methods in particular were selected: Focus group Semi-structured interview, consisting of guided questions followed by more open topics. As Hitchcock and Hughes note:

"There must be structure then in an unstructured interview… The researcher does not totally abandon any pre-interview work but consideration is given to the nature of the encounter and the kinds of general areas the researcher wishes to explore. The researcher might work to a rough checklist of ideas or areas she wants to explore in the interview but will be prepared to let the interviewees 'travel' wherever they like." (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995: 162) Data from the students was gathered through focus groups which generated discussion through open-ended questions on their roles, responsibilities and relationships within the classroom. Thirty-four students voluntarily participated in the research, signing a consent form prior to participation. Four focus groups were conducted, each group comprising of five to ten students. The researchers were familiar with the students (through a teaching capacity) and to reduce potential bias (such as the students discussing what they thought the researchers wanted to hear from them) efforts were made to create an informal environment by providing snacks and light refreshments. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with a purposeful sample of the teachers involved in the experience, drawn from the schools represented by the students who had attended the focus groups. Eleven teachers from a mix of urban and rural schools in the Munster area were interviewed by two researchers. The teachers also signed consent forms and the confidentiality of the material was assured. In order to address the issue of inter-observer reliability, both researchers agreed on the format for the interviews in advance. Six open-ended questions were formulated to allow both researchers to explore similar topics such as the type of activities that the student engaged in; how they felt the student related to the children; the advantages/disadvantages to having the

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student in the classrooms and background information as to their working with other professionals in the classroom on previous occasions. Findings From the perspective of the students: Predominantly, the student assumed the role of an assistant with a particular emphasis on working with children on an individual one to one basis. Several students mentioned the importance of 'getting to know the children' or 'getting down at their level'. It was evident that certain children required more individual learning support and that the teacher may not have had time to give individual attention. As one student mentioned, "they needed that individual help while she couldn't do that with all the children". This was most notable in classrooms where there were children with special educational needs or children with English as a second language and in multi-grade classroom environments (classes having more than one class level of children in the same room). It was apparent that the students were conscious of the pupil teacher ratio compared to a day care or preschool environment and felt that the teacher was under pressure to deliver the curriculum and "get it done and get on to what's next and I kind of felt it was totally

on time, time, time". There was acknowledgement of the difficulties caused by the number of children in the class:

"She said we need someone in the classroom to help us. And I just thought to myself even with her and myself in the room, it was hard at times, so I just don't know how she'd do it on her own." The students also reported a lack of emphasis on play and activity based learning and observed the predominant use of worksheets, which they attributed to time constraints and lack of resources. It was also noted that the children often could not read the directions on the worksheets; "You could have easily done it with toys rather than using

books". Some of the students reported having high levels of responsibility and involvement, particularly in areas such as physical education, stories and art activities, while a small minority felt 'underestimated'. A recurrent and unexpected issue to emerge from each focus group was the notion of respect and it was highlighted as a significant difference to other placement settings. The students reported feeling valued and respected as professionals in this working environment.

"You know it was different in the primary school compared to how you were treated in the creche. The professionalism was obvious."

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"It was a real professional conversation, you could feel like you could contribute to it a lot more and they really welcomed you and your thoughts and your ideas". Another key issue to emerge was how valuable the experience had been in demonstrating the link between learning in the preschool and the infant classroom and the transition from one to the other:

"I think that it's invaluable to know the next stage and how it's going to work. How their learning will progress and stuff, I just think that's been the best thing, just to see where they go from when they leave pre-school, what's next for them." A number of students also reported how they had underestimated the abilities of the children in the infant classrooms, commenting on the rapid progression in learning evident within a year in the classroom setting. Their preconceptions of the infant classroom, based on their own experiences as children were also challenged "I liked primary school when I was there, I enjoyed it but like, I

would much prefer to be there now…" From the perspective of the teacher: Many of the teachers were unfamiliar with the BA ECCE programme as such, they were unsure as to how to incorporate the students into the classroom setting. Most teachers were familiar with student teachers coming to the classroom with a predefined role to take responsibility for the teaching of the children but understood that the role of this ECCE student was different. They appeared to be conscious that they did not engage the students in menial tasks but wanted the experience to benefit the student's professional development. They would have encouraged the use of specific guidelines or a checklist approach outlining the activities that student could or should undertake e.g. 'must read a

story' in order to gauge the appropriate level of responsibility. The majority of teachers felt that the student was a significant asset to the classroom and facilitated their own working. The contribution of 'an extra pair of hands' was noted in most interviews:

"It was great to have an extra pair of hands, she could relate to them during playtime and also with their writing, go around to the children, that was a big help. She was like a classroom assistant really. Even if I had to leave the classroom for a minute, normally I couldn't do that, even to go to the bathroom." Reference was particularly made to their contribution to children with special needs and their ability to give them individual attention. The teachers were aware that certain children needed more attention, such as children suspected of having special needs but

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still awaiting assessment. A positive response to the student involvement was noted by multi-grade class teachers. The teachers felt that the experience was useful for the students and for people working at preschool level to see what goes on in the infant classroom so that they can be aware of this at preschool level. Some teachers, despite speaking positively about the experience, appeared to be happy working independently to satisfy the criteria of the Primary School Curriculum (DES, 1999a). One teacher found that explaining lesson plans, what she was doing with the children and her rationale to another adult was time consuming. Many also had questions as to the future role of the students:

"I know that the students will not just be classroom assistants with a short course but they will not be teaching in the classroom either so where will they fit in, I wasn't too sure. What exactly will their role be?" Discussion This placement experience was a valuable experience, not only in terms of the personal and professional development of the student, but also in providing an insight into the working of a modern day infant classroom. The role and level of responsibility given to the student varied, as did the value the teachers placed on having personnel with a background in ECCE in the classroom. It was not evident that the teachers specifically felt ECCE professionals would be an asset to their working. It was evident that the teachers were used to assuming a dominant role, some had experience of working with classroom or special need 'assistants' and appreciated the 'assistance'. The ability to work collaboratively in a partnership approach may require education in the area of multiprofessional perspectives (Powell, 2005). The majority of students reported very positive working relationships. They strongly emphasized how they felt respected and valued as professionals within the school environment. For some, this was a novel experience, despite completing five previous placements in a variety of settings. This aspect of the research requires further investigation and raises issues around the professionalisation of the ECCE sector. Further exploration of the attitudes of early years practitioners to students in the field and further training should be undertaken. The experience also facilitated a sharing of pedagogical practice for both ECCE student and teacher, highlighting the potential for further collaborative working and greater knowledge sharing between early years practitioners and teachers in order to facilitate the transition from preschool to the classroom.

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Based on the perspectives of the students and the teachers, it is evident that there are many challenges facing the infant class teacher. Trying to celebrate 'the uniqueness of the

child' (DES, 1999a) through activity-based learning may be overshadowed by the pupilteacher ratio, multi-grade classes, the inclusion of children with special educational needs and the increase in the number of children with English as their second language. The students observed a lack of emphasis on play and activity-based learning which they attributed to time constraints and lack of resources, concurring with recent literature (Murphy, 2004; OECD, 2004) and with earlier research based on the 1971 Curriculum (Horgan, 1995). It would appear that in order to meet the holistic needs of each child in the contemporary infant classroom, further adult participation is required and key policy documents have recommended the participation of ECCE professionals (DES, 1999b) (NESF, 2005). The potential benefits or otherwise of having ECCE professionals in the classroom on child development should be investigated. Further exploration of the potential contributory role of ECCE professionals and ECCE initiatives such as Síolta, the National

Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (CECDE, 2006) and the forthcoming Framework for Early Learning (NCCA, forthcoming) within the infant classrooms is also needed. The findings presented in this paper have been exploratory in nature; however, these preliminary findings have implications for future policy and practice within the ECCE sector in Ireland. This small-scale study indicates the need for a deeper understanding on a number of issues affecting early years provision. The emerging data from the perspectives of both the ECCE students and the infant teachers suggest that collaborative interprofessional working arrangements within the infant classroom could be beneficial for all parties and should have a particularly positive effect on the learning and development of the young child. References Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006). Síolta, the National Quality

Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Coolahan, J. (Ed.) (1998). Report on The National Forum on Early Childhood. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Education and Science (1999a). Primary School Curriculum. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Education and Science (1999b). Ready to Learn - A White Paper on Early

Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office.

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Hitchcock, G. and D. Hughes (1995). Research and the Teacher: a Qualitative Introduction

to School-Based Research. London: Routledge. Horgan, M.A. (1995). Management of the Junior Infant Curriculum in Irish Primary Schools - Rhetoric Versus Reality. Compare, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 253-261. Murphy, B. (2004). Practice in Irish Infant Classrooms in the Context of the Irish Primary School Curriculum (1999). International Journal of Early Years Education, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 245-257. National Children's Office (2000). The National Children's Strategy: Our Children - Their

Lives. Dublin: The Stationery Office. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (2004). Towards a Framework for Early

Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (Forthcoming). The Framework for Early

Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. National Economic and Social Forum (2005). Early Childhood Care and Education. Dublin: National Economic and Social Forum. OECD (2004). Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in Ireland. Paris: OECD. Powell, J. (2005). Multiprofessional Perspectives (in) Jones, L., Holmes, R. and Powell, J. (Eds.) Early Childhood Studies: A Multiprofessional Perspective Berkshire: Open University.

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Playful Challenges: Values and Qualities of Early Intervention in Early Childhood Settings

Playful Challenges: Values and Qualities of Early Intervention in Early Childhood Settings Kaye Cederman Introduction Today, early childhood care and education in Ireland exists in a very new context. In the last decade, the environment in which early childhood pedagogy is practiced is increasingly dominated by a proliferation of images, ideas, cultures, and technologies. As Vásquez (2006: 42) argues, "Complex, interactive, and far-reaching change ushered in by

globalisation processes compels educators, scholars, and policymakers to consider a pedagogy of the future". In the field of early childhood care and education this means alerting practitioners to the techniques and skills which give them the best chances of meeting the learning needs of all of the diverse range of children under six who presently attend early childhood settings. Tierney (2006: 78) would suggest that this practitioner "is someone who develops an

understanding of the cultural worlds of [children] and their communities and who has the ability to help improvise within and across these spaces". My interest in exploring current pedagogy and techniques which heighten communication across cultural worlds leads me to extrapolate from some of our most sensitive examples of teaching and learning, in this case, from the model of early intervention practice. The recent research project Synergy (Cederman, 2006), undertaken for the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE), investigated what might be distinctive about high quality early intervention. The research qualitatively explored how children with special needs were experiencing early intervention in a variety of early childhood settings in North Tipperary. In other words, key characteristics of quality early intervention were identified and there was a focus on how successful outcomes were brought into being by the children, their parents and the North Tipperary Early Intervention team (NTEI). I argue that key findings from the research have critical application for the education of all very young children. To substantiate this claim, this paper focuses upon two vital qualities of early intervention, which, as Cederman (2006) shows, are greatly valued by parents and early interventionists and have the potential to lead to successful outcomes. These are firstly, the relationship of professionals with parents, and secondly, an approach to child-led pedagogy where learning is embedded in play and where children learn in an environment of 'playful challenge'. Focus upon these qualities enables us to think about the education of the very young in a way which might guarantee, as Singer describes it, "children's active participation" (2005: 618).

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The Relationship of Parents and Professionals The relationship between parents and professionals which is described in Synergy can be best introduced by repeating the joy and delight that Elizabeth experiences with her child's progress under the guidance of the early intervention team. Elizabeth: “My experience has been very well now, delighted with it. The progress like

that Rachel has made over the year she has been with the Early Intervention like - so I found it brilliant for her and - yeah. She's learned so much in the year that she couldn't do last year. And in the year that she's been with them she's been, she's become more outgoing and she's starting to vocalise her words now and so she is coming on great now.” The notion of 'high quality' early intervention is also understood in very active terms, in the values, qualities, behaviours and performances of the early intervention team members. The research participants stress that 'high quality' to them means that the NTEI team embodies approachability, openness, helpfulness, thoroughness, interpersonal style, patience, sharing knowledge, and team-work. The values the parents greatly esteem and mention repeatedly are those of communication, information, relationship, attention, security, reassurance, interaction and guidance. These words are all about relationship. As one parent, Bernie, describes it, "They met us. They spoke. You know what I mean. They

didn't mind what questions we asked or what was fired at them. They were - they sat, they listened." Pauline below talks about how the team includes her in their practice and indicates too that she feels part of the team, which is one of the core objectives of early intervention practice in North Tipperary. Pauline: "They're all very nice. The team. They're lovely people. If you have any

problems or, you know, you're worried about anything, you can kind of say it. Whereas before you kind of had to make an appointment, you know. Its kind of the team are all working together like. And we assess and go back over everything like. They'll send me a - then a print-out - you know of how I feel he's coming on or not coming on. You know, we'd all kind of discuss Adam, it is very good. Adam has his own carer at the creche and Kathleen (from the NTEI Team) will kind of meet with her and give her some kind of ideas what to do.” It is the sensitivity of members of the NTEI team, their ability to 'step into the parent's shoes' that drives the parent-team relationship in Aine's narrative below. She claims that Carol (the Early Intervention Specialist) really understands that family life does not always pivot around the one child with special needs: Aine: “I think Carol really, really understands, or seems to understand. And she always

sort of asks questions that nobody else seems to ask. She would say something like

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- One weekend we were away in Belfast and usually people say "Oh that's a long drive" but she was saying "How does David cope with that drive?" and "How do you manage keep him in his seat?" And she, you know, she kind of knew that it's not just the long drive, there is so much else going on in that four hour drive, you know. Things like that. She really seems to understand that all the focus is not on the child. She asks me questions as well about how we are doing, you know. She's very good that way.” Important too, is that many of the participants used the term 'family' to reflect their relationship with this team. Hannah's feeling is that, "all of the team we would have to

say are excellent, you know. And they are very committed people and very easy to approach. And you know they feel almost like family". The parents' intense emphasis upon community and shared relationship is especially heightened by Hannah's later phrase, "kind of like a big family". Hannah's feeling about her relationship with the NTEI team complements Linder's (2005) recent argument that in most state-of-the-art intervention models, the role of the professional has shifted to be more involved with the adults in the child's life:

“The professional is becoming a coach, a consultant, and a collaborative partner in the intervention process…This involves on-going discussion with the important adults in the child's life to examine, reflect upon, and refine their knowledge and skills…There is a major shift in philosophy and practice from most disciplines and many professionals will require additional training and supervision to adequately make the transition to this new role” (Linder, 2005: 6-7). Her claim is that the attainment of quality outcomes demands quality programmes, skilled professionals, coordinated and integrated programmes, as well as the monitoring and support needed to sustain ongoing improvements in the field. Linder's (2005) term ‘collaborative partner’ reflects the sensitive familial type of relationship between parents and professionals described in Synergy. If the research highlights the value of the collaborative relationship between parents and those who work with their children, it also stresses the value of embedding learning in naturalistic play. This describes how every child with special needs, and, I would argue, every child in care and education settings, learns to lead play through following what they are spontaneously interested in.

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Child-d directed Play Greenspan and Weider (1997; 1998) base their emphasis on play upon a developmental model that enables the child with 'biological challenges' to progress through the techniques upon which language, intelligence and interactions with the world are based (1998: 46). They stress that the foundations of communication and thought are found in Floortime, a method of interaction and play designed to develop the focus and calm needed to survive in a stimulating world. The basics of interaction are also found in intimacy, two-way communication, intentionality, the awareness of emotions and emotional thinking. The goals of 'Floortime' are to help the child engage with their parents, become more intentional and respond when their parents respond to what they did, in short, the parent needs to learn to interact and get the child involved with them. Linder (2005) also prioritises child-directed play. Her model of Transdisciplinary Playbased Assessment is used by the NTEI as an assessment tool and play is also the key method of intervention she advocates. The research describes the involvement of the team as they play with the child and family, and how the parents recognise the emotional thrill and pleasure felt by their child involved in play. For example, Maura's claim is that "[w]e have our full team, totally involved, shoes off, on all fours, totally involved with the

kids. My child can be clapped on the back by the team and he's thrilled you know". It can be argued that the team has changed how Roisin below understands her daughter through their child-directed play with her. The team has helped this whole family communicate and understand Rachel's need for support and how it feels from the child's perspective to have to struggle to achieve. The child herself, her feelings and needs, are at the very hub of this extract as she begins to develop language and play-skills. The skills this family has learnt from the team mean that mother and child can both be ‘happier’and more sociable. Roisin: “Yeah - I've really brilliant time for the NTEI team. Dave and all of them get

into, you know, they sit down and actually be kids with them, whereas other people, when we were in [another town], it was like, "I'm the grownup, you're just a child", you know. But in the team here it's a group thing and everybody gets involved. I've great respect for them now. I'm quite happy to go there and its great benefit for all my family like, coz it shows us what to do like with Rachel. And how to bring her on. Like Rachel, before you'd be saying - she couldn't speak or - and she couldn't do anything and it was very, at times it would get very frustrating for you. But now they've shown you that, they've shown how Rachel feels as well as you feels. And how frustrating it is for Rachel and that makes you think well she needs support and the way she's getting it like - it shows you how to communicate with her properly and help her achieve her goals. Now I can bring her places and she can play and she can make friends like and I can - I can do more because before she didn't want to do anything and she just sort of sat confined and you'd be there and the other kids would

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be there and they couldn't understand - and then they didn't want her there because they couldn't play with her. But now she is starting to play with them, so that's happier for me. Coz then you can go places and she's quite happy to be there.” Playful challenge can also be extended by Kristeva's notion of 'revolt' (2002). For Kristeva, 'revolt' means acquiring the habit of ongoing inquiry in the endeavour to harness what is most alive and promising. For children with special needs, and I would argue, all children, this means really questioning how we best relate to children. It means perceptively following the child's lead and challenging them just enough so that they have the opportunity to acquire a sense of well-being about what they do and who they are. Not the well-being gained through pleasing an adult, although this will happen, but that of internalising their own motivation for learning. Our role here is to watch, wait, and listen in silence, alert to following the child's lead. In watching children undertake 'playful challenge', what is 'most alive and promising' is watching the tiniest voices being able to be heard, the smallest actions prioritised and the slightest gestures reciprocated. In terms of pedagogy, this means educators really understanding the ambivalence of play. Setting up spaces where there is an exchange between the children's bodily surfaces and the world immediately beyond that. By allowing children to be challenged while they lead us into play, practitioners can allow children's actions to encapsulate wonder, decision-making and information-sharing. Rousseau (1966: 12) argued that "the first languages were singable and passionate

before they became simple and methodical". I am arguing that in the setting of 'playful challenge' there is the potential for all children to experience the language of song and delight, and a sense of wholeness, pleasure and belonging, regardless of their level of development. The secret for childcare and education settings is to re-imagine our places of learning and care and to be conscious of nurturing a sense of relationship and challenge and connecting children holistically to the makings of their emotional, physical and cognitive selves, their intellect, memory and imagination. In conclusion, by embedding learning in the warmest of relationships and child-directed naturalistic play we reconnect young children to the vocabulary and vitality of real sensations, and the challenges of today's world, of complex, interactive, and far-reaching change (Vásquez, 2006). To my mind, what underpins this way of thinking about our interactions with children is an ongoing quality of uncertainty. This means that there is no one ideal 'meaning' given to play and learning but that children get the opportunity to learn through a myriad of sensations in settings that prioritise relationships and playful challenge.

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References Cederman, K. (2006). Synergy: An Exploration of High Quality Early Intervention for

Children with Special Needs in Diverse Early Childhood Care and Education Settings. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Greenspan, S. I. and Wieder, S. (1997). Developmental Patterns and Outcomes in Infants and Children with Disorders in Relating and Communicating. Journal of Development and

Learning Disorders, Vol. 1, pp. 87-141. Greenspan, S. I. and Wieder, S. (1998). The Child with Special Needs: Encouraging

Intellectual & Emotional Growth. New York: Perseus Publishing. Kristeva, J. (2002). Revolt, She Said. New York: Semiotext(e). Linder, T. (1993). Transdisciplinary Play-based Assessment-Revised. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Rousseau, J. (1966). On the Origin of Language. Translated by John H. Moran and Alexander Gode. New York: F. Ungar Publishing Co. Singer, E. (2005). The Liberation of the Child: A Recurrent Theme in the History of Education in Western Societies. Early Childhood Development and Care, Vol. 175, No. 6, August 2005, pp. 611-620. Tierney, R. J. (2006). Global/Cultural Teachers Creating Possibilities. Pedagogies: An

International Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 77-87. Vásquez, O. (2006). A Pedagogy of the Future. Pedagogies: An International Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 43-48.

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Developing Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education Services: The Impact of a Continuing Professional Development Programme Imelda Duffy Introduction Experiences during early childhood, before the age of compulsory education, hold significant relevance, not just to the child's current development, but also to later lifelong learning because these experiences provide the foundation for future development and learning (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2000; Friedman, 2005; Schweinhart et al., 2005). This understanding has occurred side-by-side with changing conceptualisations of 'the child'. Childhood itself is not a biological given, but a socially constructed concept that has been deconstructed and reconstructed quite rapidly in recent years (Moss, 2006). Children are seen as social actors in their own right, social agents and citizens. This conceptualisation of 'the child' holds Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) as a right with an emphasis on attending to the development of the quality of services (Department of Health and Children, 2000). Quality in ECCE is not viewed as a unitary or static concept (Friendly et al., 2006), and most research related to quality measurement makes a distinction between structural and process quality (Ackerman, 2005). The structural aspects of quality relating to adult-child ratios, space, facilities etc. can by their nature be more easily identified and regulated than the more dynamic, process aspects of quality, such as interactions, relationships and behaviours. So what impacts on those more elusive process aspects of quality? A critical feature of any high quality early years care and learning programme is a knowledgeable and skilled staff (Sylva et al., 2003; Fontaine et al., 2006) and “the

professional development of teachers is related to the quality of early childhood programs, and program quality predicts developmental outcomes for children” (National Research Council, 2001: 7). The Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Programme The CPD programme was developed by three large community ECCE providers who had identified a need to establish a cohesive focus, vision and framework within their services in order to further the development of quality. In 2003 these providers decided to implement the High/Scope curriculum and educational approach in their services and the CPD programme began.

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"Active learning - whether planned by adults or initiated by children - is the central element of the High/Scope Preschool Curriculum. Children learn through direct, hands-on experiences with people, objects, events, and ideas. Trained adults who understand child development and how to scaffold the important areas of learning in the preschool years offer guidance and support." (High/Scope, 2007) The programme is based on the understanding that CPD implies ”expertise, pursuit of

advanced training, and maintenance of currency in an evolving knowledge base'” (Helterbran and Fennimore, 2004: 268). It aims to create a professional community of practice where practitioners construct their own knowledge through enquiry and reflective practice. Wood and Bennett (2000) suggest that such communities can empower teachers to improve pedagogical practice. The CPD programme began with a High/Scope Curriculum Implementation Course (CIC). Practitioners attended one full-day workshop a month where a particular aspect of the curriculum was explored. Epstein's (1993) study on inservice training found that for a CPD workshop to have a real impact on practice it needs to be based on a model of experiential learning with active participation, opportunities for sharing with colleagues and follow-up. The CIC workshops are built on this model. The CIC is viewed as a process not an event, and learning as socially and culturally constructed. Throughout the course, practitioners are required to examine attitudes, perceptions and beliefs relating to their own practice with the aim of supporting them to become reflective about their practice. Reflective practice involves levels of critical thinking and the ability to judge ideas and evidence rather then unquestioningly accepting them. This asking of “searching questions of the material with which they have engaged and of their

own beliefs” (Bourner, 2003: 269) was actively encouraged and supported through the processes of reflective journaling and constant group discussion. The course ends with a site visit during which the High/Scope Programme Quality Assessment (PQA) tool (High/Scope, 2003) is used to assess the level of implementation and quality of service provided. Practitioners who had completed their CIC continued to meet as a cluster group up to six times a year to continue to explore aspects of the curriculum and their practice with their colleagues and the High/Scope trainer. These groups were regarded as Discourse Communities where practitioners could draw on the trainer as a resource, and through questioning, dialogue and discussion, develop shared ways of thinking about their practice.

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Methodology and Data Collection The environmental rating scale used in this study was the High/Scope PQA tool (High/Scope, 2003). In the PQA a broad array of programme characteristics are scored on a 5-point scale. This study used the first three sections of the baseline PQA, completed in autumn 2003 before the CPD programme began, and the end of course PQA's completed in autumn 2005. These sections cover Learning Environment, Daily Routine and AdultChild Interaction and contain thirty-four items in all. These items are listed in the left-hand column of Table 1. Table 1. Summary Of PQA Mean Scores Across All Three Services PQA Items

Maximum Score

Mean Scores 2003 2005

Change

I. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Section Score A. Safe and healthy environment B. Defined interest areas C. Logically located interest areas D. Outdoor space, equipment, and materials E. Organisation and labelling of materials F. Varied, manipulative, open-ended, and authentic materials G. Plentiful materials H. Diversity-related materials I. Displays of child-initiated work Average Learning Environment Item Score

45 5 5 5 5 5

17.67 2.67 1 2 2.67 1.67

34.33 5 4 4.67 3.33 3.67

16.66 2.33 3 2.67 0.63 2

5 5 5 5

2.33 2.67 1 1.67 1.96

3.67 4.67 3 3 3.81

1.34 2 2 1.33 1.85

II. DAILY ROUTINE Section Score A. Consistent daily routine B. Parts of the day C. An appropriate amount of time for each part of the day D. Time for child planning E. Time for child-initiated activities F. Time for child recall G. Small-group time H. Large-group time I. Choices during transition time J. Clean-up time with reasonable choices K. Snack or meal time L. Outside time Average Daily Routine Item Score

55 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

23 2 3.33 2.67 1.33 3 1 1.67 1 1.33 2.67 1.67 1.67 1.91

53 4.33 4.67 4.67 4.33 5 4 5 4 4.33 3.67 5 4 4.42

30 2.33 1.34 2 3 2 3 3.33 3 3 1 3.33 2.33 2.51

III. ADULT-CCHILD INTERACTION Section Score A. Meeting basic physical needs B. Handling separation form home C. Warm and caring atmosphere D. Support for child communication E. Support for non-English speakers F. Adults as partners in play G. Encouragement of child initiatives H. Support for child learning at group times I. Opportunities for child exploration J. Acknowledgement of child efforts K. Encouragement for peer interaction L. Independent problem solving M. Conflict resolution Average Adult-CChild Interaction Item Score

60 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

29.33 4.67 2.33 2.67 2.67 N/A 3 3 2 2.33 2 2.67 1.33 1 2.44

43.67 4.67 5 5 3 N/A 3.67 3.67 3 3.67 3 3.67 4 3 3.64

14.34 0 2.67 2.67 0.33 N/A 0.67 0.67 1 1.34 1 1 2.67 2 1.2

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This quantitative data was combined with qualitative data derived from a focus group interview. All 11 practitioners working in the preschool services, who had completed the CPD programme, were invited to take part and six participated. The interview style most fitting for this was semi-structured with emphasis on the practitioners' perceptions of the development of quality and their personal practice within the context of the CPD programme. Results An average score for each item, section and overall total, across all three preschool services, was determined from the 2003 baseline and the 2005 PQA observations. These scores and the differences between them are presented in Table 1. The average score for each PQA item and section increased over time, indicating an increase in quality as measured by the PQA.

PQA Mean Scores The learning environments are now divided into distinct interest/play areas and materials are arranged logically, grouped according to function and labelled to allow for the development of a find-use-return cycle. The services now have a publicly stated, consistent, predictable yet flexible daily routine, planned by the practitioners. These routines are structured to meet the needs of the children and allow for opportunities to engage in different social groupings and activities every day.

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PQA Mean Score Change 2003 - 2005

Although Adult-Child Interaction showed the lowest increase over time, the Practitioners perceived the CPD programme as impacting most on these process aspects of quality;

"The children now have a full conversation. I'd say that's the most impact it's had, it's not you talking down to them….now it's a full conversation about what's going on, there's a lot more talking, involving everybody." Practitioners’ Reflections on the CPD Programme Practitioners' evaluation of the effectiveness of the CPD programme ethos and structure was very positive. They specifically identified sharing and discussion with peers as central to the learning process and the site visits were described as positive, affirming experiences. This sense of progression and continuous development was bolstered by the practitioners' participation in the cluster group training. They reported how collaboration and sharing within a group of colleagues from different services helped them to continue to develop their services. Practitioners’ Reflections on their Practice Practitioners openly discussed the changes in how they viewed the children, describing a definite movement from a concept of the child as dependent and in need of protection to a view of the child as capable and competent. This new conceptualisation of the children has been accompanied by a dramatic change in how practitioners interact with the children and conceptualise their role. They have moved from viewing themselves as controlling, directing custodians to supportive, facilitating, enabling partners and they now feel that their relationships with the children are more positive and balanced.

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Practitioners' epistemological beliefs have also changed considerably. Epistemological belief can be defined as ranging on a continuum from “a dualistic view that knowledge

is simple and certain” right through to a relativistic view that “knowledge is complex, tentative and uncertain” (Berthelsen et al., 2002: 504). The practitioners have moved from a position of certainty about what and how each child should be learning at each stage of development to a more open reflective and relativistic approach. Didactic and instructive methodologies were used prior to the CPD programme in order to 'teach' the children or 'promote' their development, relying on pre-planned activities selected by the practitioners. However, practitioners' re-conceptualised role in the children's learning and development means that they now work at levels determined by each individual child's stage of development and lead by their current strengths and interests.

"You're actually educating children but it's not in a formal structured way, it's not sitting with a blackboard saying today we are going to ….You know they are constantly learning but with your support not with your direction, and it gives you a purpose." Practitioners identified that the development in their practice is a result of reflection;

"I think what we did (CPD programme) gets you thinking…and even if I do something, or if I say something, I'm thinking, I'll actually reflect on it" Discussion Wood and Bennett (2000) state that in order for change to happen, practice must be viewed as problematic; the ECCE services in this study were not satisfied with the quality of their programmes and this was the impetus for change and the establishment of the CPD programme. Implementing a validated curriculum has been shown to impact on service quality; “curriculum plays a key role in expanding the definition of quality to include process

features” (CECDE, 2004: 109) and practitioners in this study clearly stated that the implementation of the High/Scope curriculum gave a framework and guidance to their practice which lead to an increase in confidence and feelings of competence in their practice. The improvement in structural and process quality, as measured by the PQA, occurred gradually over the years. Structural aspects of quality show more marked increases than process aspects, but it is the process aspects of quality that engage the practitioners'

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interest and focus. This would seem to indicate levels of professional self-awareness and reflective practice. Practitioners have found it challenging yet possible, in a short length of time, to effect positive change in the structural aspects of the quality of their service while acknowledging that the more dynamic or process focused aspects require more time, personal attention and reflection. The programme is a transformative model of CPD incorporating award-bearing training, coaching and mentoring, communities of practice, collaborative learning and action research. Kennedy (2005) surmises that this model would increase the capacity for professional autonomy involving partnerships between practitioners and educators with a focus on 'enquiry'. The study illustrates the possibilities for professional development offered to practitioners when CPD places an emphasis on reflective practice which is ongoing, flexible, framed within a community of practice and linked to a common framework of shared aims. References Ackerman, D. J. (2005). Getting Teachers from Here to There: Examining Issues Related to an Early Care and Education Teacher Policy. Early Childhood Research and Practice, Vol. 7, No. 1. [Accessed at http://www.ecrp.uiuc.edu/v7n1/ackerman.html, 23rd February, 2006]. Berthelsen, D., Brownlee, J., and Boulton-Lewis, G. (2002). Caregivers' Epistemological Beliefs in Toddler Programs. Early Child Development and Care, Vol. 172, No. 5, pp. 503516. Bourner, T. (2003). Assessing Reflective Learning. Education and Training, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 267-272. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2004). Making Connections: A

Review of International Policies, Practices and Research Relating to Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Department of Health and Children (2000). The National Children's Strategy: Our Children

- Their Lives. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Epstein, A. S. (1993). Training for Quality: Improving Early Childhood Programs through

Systematic Inservice Training. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press.

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Fontaine, N. S., Torre, L. D., Grafwallner, R. and Underhill, B. (2006). Increasing Quality in

Early Care and Learning Environments. Early Child Development and Care, Vol. 176, No. 2, pp. 157-169. Friendly, M., Doherty, G. and Beach, J. (2006). Quality by Design: What Do We Know about

Quality in Early Learning and Childcare, and What Do We Think? A Literature Review. Childcare Resource and Research Unit. [Accessed at http://www.childcarequality.ca/ wdocs/QbD_LiteratureReview.pdf, 5th July, 2006]. Friedman, D. (2005). What Science is Telling Us: How Neurobiology and Developmental

Psychology are Changing the Way Policymakers and Communities Should Think About the Developing Child. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. [Accessed at http://www.developingchild.net/pubs/persp/pdf/What_Science_Telling.pdf, 29th April, 2008]. Helterbran, V. R. and Fennimore. B. S. (2004). Collaborative Early Childhood Professional Development: Building from a Base of Teacher Investigation. Early Childhood Education

Journal, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 267-271. High/Scope Educational Research Foundation (2003). PQA: Preschool Program Quality

Assessment Form, 2nd Edition. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. High/Scope (2007). [Accessed at http://www.highscope.org/Content.asp?ContentId=63. 17th January, 2007]. Kennedy, A. (2005). Models of Continuing Professional Development: A Framework for Analysis. Journal of In-service Education, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 235-250. Moss, P. (2006). Structures, Understandings and Discourses: Possibilities for Re-envisioning the Early Childhood Worker. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 3041. Schonkoff, J. P. and Phillips, D. A. (Eds.) (2000). From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., and Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime Effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through Age 40. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press.

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Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B. and Elliot, K. (2003).

The Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) Project: Findings from the Pre-school Period,

Summary

of

Findings.

[Accessed

at

www.ioe.ac.uk/cdl/eppe/pdfs/

eppe_brief2503.pdf, 4th May, 2006]. Wood, E. and Bennett, N. (2000). Changing Theories, Changing Practice: Exploring Early Childhood Teachers' Professional Learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 635-647.

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Practical Professionalism Maresa Duignan Introduction This paper discusses the nature of professionalism in the early childhood care and education (ECCE) sector in Ireland. The discussion is based upon analysis of four national policy documents that have been published since the late 1990's. It proposes that there is evidence of an emergent consensus on the nature of professionalism in practice in ECCE in Ireland and identifies the core characteristics of this consensual view. The Practice Context - Historical The provision of early childhood care and education (ECCE) services for children aged birth to six years in Ireland has traditionally been regarded by the state as the responsibility of parents. Hence the fact that a very diverse range of provision exists, usually developed and delivered by community and voluntary or private providers who respond to parents needs at a local level. The major exceptions to this rule are the Infant Classes of Primary schools where a significant proportion of four and five year old children are enrolled (Department of Education and Science [DES], 2004). Service provision outside of schools includes full day care services for working parents, both centre-based and home-based (childminding), sessional preschool services, which operate to a wide range of philosophies and curricula (e.g. Montessori, Steiner, High/Scope) and a range of early intervention initiatives for children with special educational needs or at risk of educational disadvantage. In the past decade, state involvement in the provision of ECCE services has significantly increased. A number of policy objectives can be identified as the main drivers of this increased attention. Firstly, a booming economy places increased demands on the labour market and for the first time in Irish history, it became necessary to encourage women to return to or remain in the workforce. Secondly, rising awareness of the importance of early childhood as a time for intervention to combat social exclusion, poverty and also to mediate educational disadvantage was stimulating the development of a wide range of policy initiatives (CECDE, 2003). International pressure emanating from Europe (Equality Agenda and Barcelona Targets); from Ireland's ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) in 1992 (UN, 1989) and from national lobby groups representing children's rights from a number of perspectives, also added to the impetus for developing services for young children and their families. Government funding increased dramatically with the establishment in 2000 of the Equal Opportunities Childcare Programme (EOCP) (2000-2006). This initiative, primarily

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designed to address the provision of childcare for working parents, impacted significantly on the profile of service provision. In addition to increasing the numbers of services, it also addressed issues related to the quality of service provision by funding staffing in qualifying settings, by establishing a national childcare management infrastructure, and by funding voluntary support organisations to develop support systems and initiatives for their membership. The Early Childhood Workforce As with provision, a two-track trajectory of development can be identified for those working within the education sector and those working in the childcare sector. In the case of education, professional qualifications are highly regulated and prescribed by law. Individuals wishing to practice as teachers in the Infant Classes of primary schools are required to have achieved a third level degree in primary education or a recognised equivalent. The professional identity of this cohort of the early childhood workforce is clearly located within education and the wider teaching profession. The situation of the remainder of the workforce is not so easily or clearly defined. In the same way as care and education services have developed over time in an ad hoc manner resulting in enormous diversity, the workforce also has evolved in the absence of structure and regulation with the equivalent complexity and diversity. There is a dearth of baseline data on the nature of the early childhood workforce so it is difficult to describe with any degree of authority. However, in 1999, a national census of childcare was conducted and included questions that attempted to profile the nature of the workforce in the surveyed settings. Findings revealed that levels of nationally accredited qualifications were very low (approx. 15%) amongst staff in early years settings and that the level of these qualifications was sub-degree. It was also reported that salaries were very low with concomitant low status for the work. Work was often part time in nature and the vast majority of the workforce was female (Area Development Management [ADM], 2003a). Whilst there has been no more recent comparable study which would afford an opportunity to update this data, ADM has reported on qualification levels amongst staff in receipt of EOCP funding (ADM, 2005) and in addition, a number of locally based surveys have been conducted by City and County Childcare Committees (CCCs), (Dublin City Childcare Committee, 2004; Kavanagh and Healy-Magwa, 2005; Fingal County Childcare Committee, 2005). When viewed collectively, these reports give some insight into the current situation. In general, significant improvements have been achieved in the numbers of staff who have achieved a nationally accredited qualification in childcare with an estimated figure of 70% of staff now holding some form of nationally accredited qualification in childcare. Closer examination of reported figures reveals that the majority of these qualifications are at the

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Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) Level Two, which would now equate to Level Five on the National Framework for Qualifications (www.nfq.ie). To put this in perspective, a B.A. degree is considered to be a Level seven qualification. Moreover, in many of these reports, it is still cited that childcare work remains female dominated, low status and low paid (Dublin City Childcare Committee, 2004; Kavanagh and Healy-Magwa, 2005; Fingal County Childcare Committee, 2005). Professionalism in Practice? Despite the difficulties that continue to exist in relation to professional identity amongst those working with young children in Ireland, there is evidence that a developing discourse on professionalism in practice has been taking place over the past decade. This discourse has been facilitated by the creation, by policy makers, of a number of fora where debate and discussion across the diverse workforce that characterises early childhood services in Ireland has taken place. The progress and outcomes of this discourse may be distilled from the policy publications that have emanated from these processes. Four key documents may be identified as central in this debate, they are: The National

Childcare Strategy (DJELR, 1999), Ready to Learn - A White Paper on Early Childhood Education (DES, 1999), Quality Childcare and Lifelong Learning: Model Framework for Education, Training and Professional Development (DJELR, 2002) and finally Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (CECDE, 2006). The National Childcare Strategy (DJELR, 1999) was published as the result of a wide ranging consultation process with an expert working group drawn from representatives of many of the key stakeholder groups involved in the provision of childcare in Ireland at the time. It focused on the need to develop childcare as a support for working parents and particularly to afford equality of access for mothers to the labour force. One of the key issues identified was the need to address the staffing of childcare provision. Despite the fact that these reports highlighted the difficulty in accessing accurate information on these issues, the final report of the expert working group did publish an agreed set of occupational profiles with associated qualification levels for childcare services (DJELR, 1999: 32). Whilst the DJELR was chairing the deliberations of the expert working group on childcare, the DES called a National Forum on Early Childhood Education (Coolahan, 1998), a three day event at which invited stakeholder groups were asked to deliberate on the broad range of issues related to the provision of early education to children aged birth to six years, (with a particular focus on three to six year old children who were deemed to be more in need of education input). Ironically though, whilst the policy situation was separate, scrutiny of the participant lists in these two policy making events show that the same core stakeholders were represented at both events (Coolahan, 1998; DJELR, 1999).

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Within this Forum, the issue of the early years education workforce was debated and a number of core knowledge areas were identified as essential in pre-service education for those adults wishing to work in an education capacity with children aged birth to six years (Coolahan, 1998). These included child development and learning principles, creation of a safe and caring environment, teaching methodologies, curriculum, administration and record keeping and working with parents and guardians (Coolahan, 1998). It was acknowledged that in general “… the work of those dealing with young children has been

undervalued ….and does not carry the social cache which many other personnel groups have secured for their occupations, which are often less demanding.” (Coolahan, 1998: 103). It was also acknowledged that much diversity of provision and practice existed and that whilst this diversity might offer strengths, the absence of interaction or productive dialogue between the different groups was a drawback to the future development of the workforce. The report of the DES forum went on to provide the basis for the production of

Ready to Learn, a White Paper on Early Childhood Education (DES, 1999). In 2001, the Certifying Bodies Subgroup of the National Coordinating Childcare Committee (NCCC), which had been instituted by the DJELR as part of the EOCP national childcare infrastructure, provided an opportunity for the diverse workforce of ECCE providers and practitioners, to participate in another consultation process. The key objective of this consultation was to develop a model framework for education, training and qualifications for ECCE in Ireland, which could feed into the National Qualifications Framework that was being developed by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI, 2005; DJELR, 2002). In order to produce this framework, a consultation on occupational profiles was carried out, as well as a detailed consultation on the core knowledge, skills and competencies appropriate to a professional qualification in the field of practice that was now becoming generally known as early childhood care and education (ECCE). The discourse around these issues provoked significant debate on issues of professionalism and indeed the thorny issue of professional identity was once again revisited (OMNA, 2001). Whilst there was no resolution on the issue of a single professional identity, significant progress was made regarding identifying occupational roles and associated education and training, and perhaps more importantly, articulating a set of agreed values that should underpin practice in ECCE. The debate on the value statements contained in the Model Framework was a significant catalyst for provoking debate on what the parameters of professionalism were in practice in ECCE in Ireland. All the key representative organisations were consulted extensively on the wording of each statement, and whilst there were some areas where controversy arose, it was finally agreed in September 2002, that the DJELR could publish the Model Framework document and present it to the NQAI as an agreed statement from practitioners in ECCE regarding the parameters of their professional practice.

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The value statements, which for the first time capture a vision of professionalism in practice in ECCE in Ireland, include the following: The Early Childhood Care and Education Sector values: The rights of children, who are active agents in their own growth and development Professional development as central to good practice The role of the practitioner as the facilitator of enhanced well-being and development of the child Diversity by acknowledging and promoting each child's and each adult's individual, personal and cultural identity The right of children to protection from any form of abuse, neglect and discrimination Experiences and activities which support learning and allow children to actively explore, to experience, to make choices and decisions and to share in the learning process Play as the natural, constructive mode of children's interactions with their peers, adults and environment (DJELR, 2002: 17). This is a very comprehensive vision for professionalism in practice. In addition, the document also made specific reference to management practice considered to be appropriate in early childhood services. “In the context of early childhood, managing

services in an ethical manner requires collaborative, consultative, communicative and respectful decision-making” (DJELR, 2002: 16). In respect of occupational profiles, this publication built upon those proposed in the

National Childcare Strategy (DJELR, 1999) but made them much clearer and more explicitly related to levels of expected knowledge, skill, competencies and, importantly, responsibility in practice. The achievement of this publication demonstrates a developing capacity for those working in ECCE services in Ireland, to be reflective about the nature of their work, to be able to identify distinct parameters around the body of knowledge essential to the work and perhaps, more critically, to be able to articulate the values and ethics which must underpin best practice. In other words, a vision of professionalism was evident. In 2002, the DES established the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE) arising from the recommendations of the White Paper on Early Childhood Education (DJELR, 1999). In particular, it was the CECDE brief to develop Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education that provided the necessary catalyst and opportunity to revive the debate on professional practice in ECCE in Ireland. Of particular note is the fact that the CECDE has a brief to work with all settings where children aged birth to six years are present, including for the first time, the Infant Classes in primary

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schools. The Framework therefore would be applicable to professional practice in all settings whether they had historically been characterised as 'care' or 'education' focused. Over a three year period from late 2002, a series of research and consultation reports were published as the evidence base for the development of the quality framework (CECDE, 2003; 2004a; b; c; 2005). Within these documents, perspectives on the issues of defining, assessing and supporting quality were gleaned from national and international sources. Detailed analysis of this research was then used to formulate the definitions of quality in the form of a set of national Principles, Standards and Components of quality (CECDE, 2006). These were subject to rigorous scrutiny by a consultative committee made up of fifty stakeholder organisations whose constituencies spanned the breadth of interest groups that are involved in ECCE. A very high degree of endorsement was achieved for the proposed content of the framework with only minor revisions of wording. In June 2006, the Minister for Children officially launched the draft National Quality Framework, now known as Síolta, which is an Irish word meaning seeds (CECDE, 2006). The importance of this launch is not insignificant in the history of the development of professionalism in practice in ECCE. Whilst the ultimate intention of the DES is to have a national quality assurance programme that will ensure quality early education experiences for the children of Ireland (DES, 1999: 54), what has been achieved with the publication of Síolta, and its equitable dissemination to the diverse workforce, is perhaps the most significant professional development activity in the history of early childhood provision in Ireland. Distribution of the materials has been supported by a series of practice workshops (Fallon, 2007), where those directly engaged in working with children are coached in the use of the Síolta materials in their everyday practice. The collective outcome of this activity is a raised awareness of the nature and importance of the work of ECCE. This is, for the first time, presented as the same work irrespective of where it takes place. Síolta presents a vision for quality in all dimensions of practice in ECCE and as a vision, which has been endorsed by all those engaged in such practice, it could legitimately be described as a vision of professionalism in practice. Conclusion In conclusion therefore, it is evident that the ECCE workforce in Ireland is on a developmental journey that may be conceptualized as a process of professionalisation. Whilst the issue of professional identity is problematic due to the diverse nature of provision and practice, the past decade has witnessed the emergence of a 'practical professionalism', which transcends traditional professional boundaries and identities. This has been catalyzed, facilitated and documented through a series of significant policy developments culminating in the publication of Síolta, the National Quality Framework for

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Early Childhood Education (CECDE, 2006). The vision of professionalism in practice that emerges from these documents is based on sound principles of democracy, respect, partnership and community which, when informed by appropriate pre-service and inservice professional education, provides an essential basis upon which to build quality ECCE services in Ireland today and into the future. References Area Development Management (2003a). National Childcare Census Report: Baseline

Data 1999-2000. Dublin: Area Development Management. Area Development Management (2003b). EOCP Quality Sub-Measure NVCO Priorities and

Range of Actions for Possible Future Funding (2004-2006) - Discussion and Guidance Paper. Dublin: Area Development Management. Area Development Management (2005). Results of 2004 EOCP Annual Beneficiary

Questionnaire. Dublin: Area Development Management. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2003). An Audit of Research on

Early Childhood Care and Education in Ireland 1990-2003. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2004a). Talking About Quality -

Report of a Consultation Process on Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2004b). Insights on Quality - A

National Review of Policy, Practice and Research relating to Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education in Ireland 1990-2004. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2004c). Making Connections - A

Review of International Policies, Practices and Research relating to Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2005). Early Childhood in Ireland

- Evidence and Perspectives. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006). Síolta, the National Quality

Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education.

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Coolahan, J. (Ed.) (1998). Report on the National Forum for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Education and Science (1999). Ready to Learn - A White Paper on Early

Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Education and Science (2004). Annual Report. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (1999). National Childcare Strategy,

Report of the Partnership 2000 Expert Working Group on Childcare. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (2002). Quality Childcare and Lifelong

Learning: Model Framework for Education, Training and Professional Development in the Early Childhood Care and Education Sector. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Dublin City Childcare Committee (2004). Childcare Training Needs Assessment. Dublin: Unique Perspectives. Fallon, J. (2007). Engaging with Practitioners through Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education in Ireland: A Workshop Model. Paper presented at the CECDE International Conference, Vision into Practice, Dublin Castle, February 2007. Fingal County Childcare Committee (2005). Census and Assessment of Childcare Facilities

and Services in Fingal County. Dublin: Fingal County Childcare Committee. Kavanagh, R. and Healy-Magwa, N. (2005). Professional Development in the Childcare

Sector in Waterford City and County - A Discussion Paper. Waterford: Waterford City Childcare Committee. National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (2005). Awards in the Framework: Placement

of 'Existing and Former Awards'. Dublin: National Qualifications Authority of Ireland. OMNA (2001). First Steps. Report of a Consultation Process. (Unpublished). United Nations (1989). United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations.

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Engaging With Practitioners Through Síoltaa, The National Quality Framework For Early Childhood Education: A Workshop Model Jacqueline Fallon Introduction The Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE) is an initiative of the Department of Education and Science (DES). It was established in 2002 to further the aims and objectives of the White Paper on Early Childhood Education, Ready to Learn (DES, 1999). One of its primary objectives on its inception was to develop a set of national standards for quality practice in early childhood education, and this objective was achieved with the publication in May 2006 of Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (CECDE, 2006).

Síolta is a quality assurance programme. The materials, which have been published in draft form, comprise one strand of what is envisaged as a three strand programme Defining, Supporting and Assessing quality practice. The current materials are based on the following elements: Principles: The twelve Principles express an agreed vision for quality provision of early childhood experiences in Ireland. Standards: There are sixteen standards which translate the vision of the Principles into statements for practical implementation. Components: Each Standard is further broken down into its component parts which function as indicators of quality practice. Signposts for Reflection: In order to prompt and promote reflective practice within the Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) community, each component is accompanied by a selection of open ended questions and related prompts as a basis for discussion and reflection. In the Introductory Handbook which accompanies the materials, preliminary discussion documents on the remaining strands of Assessing and Supporting are included. The workshop model being presented in this paper forms part of the Supporting Quality strand. One of the most important processes utilised in the development of the Framework was consultation: an extensive public consultation process with a broad range of stakeholders was undertaken as part of the research to underpin the Framework (CECDE, 2004a); subsequently, the CECDE Consultative Committee was closely involved in providing feedback and advice on each section and every element of the Síolta materials. The CECDE has always emphasised that Síolta represents a joint endeavour between the

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stakeholders and the Centre. This perspective has greatly influenced the CECDE in developing the workshop model described in this paper. In the months before and immediately following the publication of the Framework, the CECDE focused on engaging with practitioners and other stakeholders in disseminating the materials and raising awareness of the potential of Síolta to support quality practice. Initially, this involved presentations on the materials to a variety of groups and audiences. It became clear within a very short period, even prior to publication - both from our own experiences of presenting and from the responses and requests of practitioners themselves - that a more direct experience of the materials and processes involved in implementing Síolta was required. This prompted the CECDE to prioritise the development of a workshop for practitioners which could be implemented in a variety of contexts but whose ultimate aim is the achievement of quality practice. Purpose and Aims of the Workshop In devising the workshop model, the CECDE was clear as to its purpose. The overall purpose of the workshop is to support implementation of the quality standards defined in

Síolta in the context of the Principles of quality practice. The aims of the workshop are as follows: To promote reflective practice To support collegiality among practitioners To embed theory in practice and foster deepening of subject knowledge To provide a structure for engagement with Síolta To facilitate networking among practitioners To effect change in practice. Tucker et al., (2002: 2) have noted that "…reflection and self-monitoring… are the

hallmarks of the true professional." A characteristic of Síolta is the centrality of and respect for the ECCE professional and the clearest manifestation of this is the unambiguous focus on reflective processes demonstrated through the Signposts for Reflection. Engaging with fellow professionals in reflective processes in a spirit of collegiality is also supportive of quality practice and is of particular relevance in the Irish context in which early childhood provision has traditionally been diverse and fragmented (CECDE, 2004b). The aim of embedding theory in practice is an extension of the CECDE commitment to evidence informed development (CECDE, 2003a; b; 2004b). However, specific conditions are required to achieve this aim, and the Síolta workshop model also aims to provide those conditions and contexts. In the context of promoting evidence-informed development, Sanderson (2002: 8) refers to "[n]etworking (or 'relational interaction)" and Kirst (2000: 385) notes that "… the primacy of personal contact emerges as a major

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aspect of successful research dissemination." The workshop provides a structured context, able to address all the Standards, in which professionals and other stakeholders can interact and network in a manner conducive to improved quality practices in early childhood education. This workshop has been designed to demonstrate to participants the flexibility of the Síolta materials for use by individual practitioners, in team-working, in management and for education and training purposes. Underpinning the aims and purpose outlined above is the value of the workshop to practitioners in terms of continuing professional development in a context of rapid change. The Síolta workshop model is informed by Mezirow's work on the transformative dimensions of adult learning (Mezirow, 1991). This seeks to explain the way in which adults adapt to change through reflection and critical discourse, leading to paradigm shifts in existing perspectives. Síolta represents a new departure in the history of ECCE in Ireland and implementing change to this degree is challenging for all stakeholders, particularly practitioners. Mezirow has identified a set of goals which should be adopted by those wishing to achieve transformational learning in adults. These goals have been summarised as follows: Foster independent learning Develop problem solving abilities - provide real life situations that are meaningful and reflective of actual challenges in practice Foster decision making skills - offering opportunities for choice and supporting understanding of the range and nature of choice and promoting confidence in the decision making process Foster a self-corrective, reflexive approach to learning Emphasis experiential, participative and projective instructional methods and use modelling where appropriate Reinforce the self concept of the learner as an active agent in the learning process by providing opportunity for progressive mastery, supportive feedback, participation in mutual support networks and avoiding competitive judgment of performance (Duignan, 2005). These goals have influenced the processes incorporated into the Síolta workshop model, with particular emphasis on reflection and experiential learning centred around the critical activities of professional practice. The workshop is characterised by: Self-reflection A focus on process Building on existing expertise Capacity building.

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Workshop Structure The workshop is structured into two parts, and each part is further comprised of a number of defined sections. The workshop structure is the same for all sixteen Standards, but the example which will be used here is the workshop on Interactions. Section 1 The initial section of the workshop introduces the work of the CECDE, its role and objectives as well as the research dimension of our brief. The workshop then moves on to describe Síolta to the participants; this includes an overview of its development; its place in the landscape of ECCE in Ireland; an introduction to the Principles, Standards and Components and the interconnectivity of these elements; and an explanation of the way in which it is mediated for different settings and age groups. Section 2 Introduction to the Standard The workshop then moves on to the interactive section of the programme. The Standard under discussion is introduced, in this case Standard 5, Interactions which states: Fostering constructive interactions (child/child, child/adult and adult/adult) requires explicit policies, procedures and practice that emphasise the value of process and are based on mutual respect, equal partnership and sensitivity. Following the introduction of the Standard, a brief statement sourced from the literature is introduced to establish the relevance and importance of the standard area and the rationale for its consideration through the workshop. In the case of Standard 5, the item of information from the research is the following chart illustrating findings from the Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) study (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002). Percentage of pedagogical interactions (cognitive and monitoring) in settings varying in effectiveness

(Siraj-Blatchford, 2005)

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In this instance, the facilitator explains the concept of sustained shared thinking, as explicated in REPEY and draws the participants' attention to the close parallels between this concept and the quality interactions envisaged in Síolta. This also introduces the participants to a source of significant research and information on best practice. Group Discussion The next stage of the workshop is to introduce the participants to the Discussion points which will form the basis for the group work, the core activity of the workshop. In this model, in order to encourage the participants to make full use of the flexibility and adaptability of the Síolta materials, the discussion points are based on the Components1 but are not word for word transcriptions. For example: Component 5.4: The adult interactive style is focused on process as opposed to outcomes. It is balanced between talking and listening, offers the child a choice of responses and encourages expanded use of language. It follows the child's lead and interests, and challenges the child appropriately. Adapted for discussion as: When I'm with the children, I focus on what we are doing, not the end results. The way I interact helps each child to expand her/his use of language. At this point, the participants are invited to break into small groups. Each participant will have been allocated to a group and given a copy of the appropriate Discussion point for that group. One person in each group is given responsibility for providing feedback in the form of an agreed three-point action plan which is the focus for the group discussion, although not a necessary outcome. Sample Discussion Sheet Group 1 Outcome: I offer each child the chance to interact with other children of the same age and of different ages. Three things I can do: 1. I will __________________________________ 2. I will __________________________________ 3. I will __________________________________

Note: 1 As referred to earlier, each Standard is broken down into a number of Components which function as indicators of quality.

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Participants are asked to bear in mind what has come to be referred to as the 'Monday Morning Rule'; i.e. any action proposed must be implementable under current conditions in the setting as opposed to being dependent on increased resources or other significant structural change. The practitioners are asked to consider and reflect on current practice and endeavour to identify change which is achievable and will improve the quality of the practice under discussion. The time allocated to this activity is 30 minutes, a reasonable time for practitioners in busy settings to allocate to review and planning activities where longer periods are not an option. In this way, the workshop demonstrates to practitioners how Síolta, a substantial document, can be adapted for use on an ongoing basis. Following the group discussion, each group is invited to share the action plan with the larger group and to give some background on the discussion which led to the action plan. Heretofore, the CECDE, in conducting the workshop has arranged for all the action plans to be collated into one document which is then circulated to all the participants as a resource. Follow-o on Information and Conclusion Once the group discussion and feedback session has been concluded, and while the discussion is still fresh in the minds of the participants, some follow-up research information on the topic under discussion is presented and the references made available for follow-up by the participants. In the example of the Interactions workshop, this included closer reference to the REPEY (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002) study, the related Effective Provision of Pre-school Education study (Sylva et al., 2003) and the literature review for the Birth to Three Matters programme (David et al., 2003). To conclude the session, the focus is brought back onto Síolta and its contribution to the achievement of quality in the Standard area. In the case of this particular example of the workshop model, the role of Síolta in the provision of quality interactions for all children in the early education setting is explained. Further Developments Following a period of almost six months in which workshops on a number of different Standards were conducted, the CECDE reviewed the process. Demand for the workshops had far exceeded expectations and there was a continuous stream of requests for more workshops. Having established that the demand existed and having achieved the initial objective of disseminating Síolta and demonstrating its potential as a resource for practitioners, the CECDE now decided to move onto the next phase of dissemination and to share the model with the wider ECCE sector. Currently, preparations are being made for a workshop demonstration event to take place in late Spring or early Summer of this year. At that time, the CECDE will invite an initial group, drawn from agencies with responsibility for supporting quality practice, to a two-day seminar. The purpose of the seminar is to familiarise the participants with the model, its adaptation for each Standard,

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organisational and facilitation issues, source materials, etc. related to conducting the workshops with groups of practitioners. As the first step towards this event, the CECDE is in the process of developing the Síolta Workshop Materials Resource Pack, the production of which is being supported by FÁS, the National Training and Employment Authority. The first step being undertaken is the preparation of a set of research digests, one per Standard. Each digest will review current research literature with particular reference to the Components of each Standard and the digest will then be the source of research information for the workshops. It is envisaged that the digests will be updated at regular intervals. These research digests, along with templates of the PowerPoint presentation for each Standard, templates of discussion/feedback sheets and a CD-Rom of all the materials, will be made available to the participants in the resource pack. This resource pack will provide all the materials necessary for conducting workshops on all the Síolta Standards. An evaluation of the roll-out of the workshops by the initial group of participants in the first workshop seminar will inform adaptation of the workshop materials and the seminar itself. As a further resource, the CECDE has begun work on a dedicated website for the Síolta Workshop Model. Persons who have participated in the workshop seminar may register with the website and become part of a Síolta users network. Registered users will have access to materials and support via the website which will be responsive to the needs of those registered. Conclusion The impetus which led the CECDE to devise this workshop model came from the ECCE sector itself, and demonstrates the commitment of the sector to ongoing quality improvement. CECDE staff who conducted workshops were constantly surprised at the sheer numbers of practitioners who attended, further evidence of that commitment. There is an obvious thirst for opportunities and contexts in which practitioners can address issues of quality practice. By making this structured workshop available, along with all the necessary materials, the CECDE hopes to support and facilitate ongoing consideration of quality practice which empowers practitioners and other stakeholders and ultimately improves the quality of early childhood experiences for our youngest children.

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References Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2003a). Research Strategy; A

Work in Progress. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2003b). An Audit of Research on

Early Childhood Care and Education in Ireland 1990-2003. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2004a). Talking About Quality:

Report of a Consultation Process on Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2004b). On Target? An Audit of

Provision of Services Targeting Disadvantage and Special Needs Among Children From Birth to Six Years in Ireland. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006).

Síolta, the National

Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. David, T., Goouch, K., Powell, S. and Abbott, L. (2003). Review of the Literature to Support

Birth to Three Matters - A Framework to Support Children in their Earliest Years. London: Department of Education and Skills. Department of Education and Science (1999). Ready to Learn - A White Paper on Early

Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Duignan, M. (2005). A Consideration of the Role and Nature of Continuing Professional Development in the Achievement of Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education Services in Ireland. Paper presented at the EECERA Conference, Young Children as Citizens:

Identity, Belonging, Participation, Dublin, August/September 2005. Kirst, M.W. (2000). Bridging Education Research and Education Policymaking. Oxford

Review of Education, Vol. 26, Nos. 3&4, pp. 379-391. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sanderson, I. (2002). Evaluation, Policy Learning and Evidence-based Policy Making. Public

Administration, Vol. 80, No. 1, pp. 1-22.

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Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2005). Quality Interactions in the Early Years. Paper presented at the

TACTYC Annual Conference Birth to Eight Matters! Seeking Seamlessness - Continuity? Integration? Creativity? November 2005, Cardiff. Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock, S., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2002). Researching

Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years - Research Report No. 356. London: Department for Education and Skills. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., and Elliot, K. (2003). The Effective

Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Findings From the Pre-school Period: Summary of Findings. London: The Institute of Education. Tucker, P., Strange, J. and Gareis, C. (2002). Handbook on Teacher Portfolios for Evaluation

and Professional Development. Larchmont, N.Y.: Eye on Education.

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The Challenges of Becoming a Profession Imelda Graham Introduction On 29th November 2006, the Cork branch of the Association of Childcare Professionals in Ireland came into being. The council of this association has the task of developing their newly formed body in such a way as to facilitate the rising professionalism of those working within the childcare sector in Ireland. The founding of this association was a momentous event, and reflects the growing value and importance of this area of work. This paper will argue that the support provided by a strong professional association will facilitate and guarantee the implementation of high quality within childcare services. It will show that childcare has moved strongly towards becoming a recognised profession and has taken the preliminary steps towards establishing its own professional association at national level. The paper will examine the challenges facing the association, drawing on research and experience from other professions. It will suggest key ways in which the new association can provide support to the childcare profession and the ways in which the childcare sector can maximise these developments in order to become a fully fledged profession delivering services of the highest quality to children and families. Professions and Professional Associations 'Professional' is a term widely used in modern society. It has been defined by Cruess et

al. (2004) as: “An occupation whose core element is work based upon the mastery of a complex body of knowledge and skills. It is a vocation in which knowledge of some department of science or learning or the practice of an art founded upon it is used in the service of others.” Terms such as para-professional can denote the type of client relationship that exists such as dealing with groups rather than the more traditional form of a one-to-one that typifies a professional person such as a lawyer. Childcare workers, dealing as they do with groups in a similar manner to teachers, have often been seen as less than a full professional. The professions are part of the societal system of classifying people according to their occupation. This ancient system of classification has been commonplace for centuries, as can be seen, for example, in the surnames, dictated by occupation, adopted in the old rolls or registers of the early guilds. Several writers have identified the typical attributes of professionals. Moore (1970) describes the characteristics of professionals as a ‘cluster

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of attributes’, among which are: having a full-time occupation in their professional field having a commitment to a calling belonging to a formalised organisation having undergone specialist training or education having a service orientation practising autonomy in their role as professionals These, and other similar descriptions, contribute to what has been termed by Runté (2003) as a 'professional ideology'. Each profession, as it develops, seeks to measure itself against these attributes to support the idea that it has attained professional status. Moore (1970) states that to have one's occupational conduct judged as professional is highly regarded in all post-industrial societies and in at least the modernising sectors of others. The roots of professional associations in Europe and the British Isles lie in the early Middle Ages. Initially, all trades, crafts and vocations were grouped in similar types of guilds. The gradual cleavage of the trades from the professions began when some of the earliest professions developed associations with the universities. As the end of the twentieth century drew near, the explosion in the number of professionals was reflected in the corresponding rise in the number of their associations. The more familiar form of modern professional association emerged, with the strong individual identity that each profession embodies. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (1933) observed that

"A number of men, though they perform similar functions, do not make a profession if they remain in isolation. A profession can only be said to exist when there are bonds between the practitioners, and these bonds can take but one shape - that of formal association." It has been shown that there has been a dramatic growth in the professions in modern times (Watkins et al., 1992). However, despite this growth, a number of writers argue that the power and influence exercised by the professions is diminishing due to a number of factors, such as segmentation; technological advances; political factors; economic factors; and in Ireland, a lack of collective action (Krause, 1998). However, while the power exercised by the associations may be weakening, newly emergent professions such as Childcare have a clear role to play in modern society both on behalf of their client groups and their own fellow professionals. Emergence of Childcare as a Profession The division of labour in Irish society led to the bulk of childcare being undertaken by women. Family support has traditionally been the main way in which both parents found

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it possible to work outside the home. Neighbours and close friends also provided, and still provide, a large portion of care for children. In July 2002 the Central Statistics Office showed that 67,500 families of primary school children availed of non-parental childcare for their children (Central Statistics Office, 2002). This requirement was met through a range of formal and informal options, with unpaid relatives accounting for approximately 46%, paid carers accounting for 32%, unpaid relatives accounting for 14%, creches accounting for 6% and other facilities accounting for 3% of care for children in the school age bracket. The rise of the pre-school playgroups movement in the mid 1960s was an early factor in changing the landscape of childcare in Ireland. The economic growth from the late 1980s onwards heralded another change and the government in the 1990s began to pay heed to the demand for more childcare places as the economic imperative for more people to participate in the workforce took hold. A range of policy documents were published relating to Early Childhood Development and Education, such as the Study of the

Economics of Childcare in Ireland (Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform [DJELR], 1998) and the National Childcare Strategy, Report of the Partnership 2000 Expert Working

Group (DJELR, 1999). This led to an increasing recognition of the role that childcare workers played, and to the development of expanded roles for them. This recognition has been acknowledged by Coolahan (1998) and the DJELR (2002) who have said that personnel working with children in the early years are of paramount importance in ensuring the provision of quality education and care services. This helped to foster self-belief among childcare workers and contributed to the development of a clear professional identity. The funding invested in the sector in recent years through the National Development Plan (Department of Finance, 2000), and in particular through the establishment of the Equal Opportunities in Childcare Programme (DJELR, 2000) and the National Childcare Investment Programme (2006 to 2010) (Office of the Minister for Children [OMC], 2006) albeit with an economic rationale behind it, has been of great value in helping the self recognition of this grouping as professionals. However, recently a number of reports issued by the Pre-School Inspectorate (Health Services Executive, 2007) have found standards lacking in some instances. In the past, there had been no clear voice to speak out on behalf of the workers in such cases. So it is timely that the professional association has come into being now. As a new group, childcare professionals need to use their association wisely to move the profession forward and establish and maintain ever-higher standards. As a profession speaking with a clear voice, they will be able to have input into decision-making regarding developments in their field. The association will be able to develop ethical

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standards of practice; to foster the continuing professional development of their members; and to provide support, advice and encouragement for those entering the profession. The Development of the Association of Childcare Professionals The new representative body for childcare workers and practitioners, the Association of Childcare Professionals, is currently operating at a regional level as the Cork Branch. There are indications that other counties will follow shortly and ultimately it is hoped that it will become a national association. The association has elected a council of twenty experienced people. They are setting up a legal structure, and establishing a number of sub-groups to work on various aspects of the association's development. One of the key initial goals of the regional branch will be to offer a strong network to create a sense of community among people who can often be quite isolated, especially if they are working in a small service or as a childminder. The association is currently establishing a baseline for entry to full membership of the association. This baseline will set a standard for people without qualifications to aim for if they want to become part of this community, and will encourage people to take up training and education in the field. Later on, different categories of membership at a higher level will reward further development and provide a strong contribution to the profession. The establishment and rigorous enforcement of codes of practice and ethical guidelines will allow for the development of a strong and positive public image, thus enhancing the status of childcare workers. In turn it is hoped that this will be recognised through realistic rates of pay within the sector. As the association develops and its reputation grows, it will be possible to develop policies on relevant items and to begin to influence policy. Continuing professional development will also be assisted though the development of programmes that allow members to build their own personal development portfolios with current knowledge and expert skills. This will ensure that children are really benefiting from being cared for by professionals of high standing. A hazard that can befall associations that do not build well on knowledge developed over time is that of discontinuous development. Research conducted by Graham (2006) has shown that this can occur in professional associations where planning is not followed up by definitive targets for implementation, both short and long-term, and where sound systems and structures are not put in place to ensure that there is continuity of leadership which retains and builds upon the knowledge and experience gained by previous members. It differs from what Johnson and Scholes (2002) call 'Punctuated Equilibrium' whereby development is consistent, but perhaps at an uneven pace. When discontinuous

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development occurs, the association progresses for a period of time, however momentum and knowledge are lost and subsequent councils and leaders will have to try to repeat the earlier progress in order to develop further. This is illustrated in figure 1: Figure 1: Discontinuous Development vs Punctuated Equilibrium

The association needs to ensure that it remains aware of the wider environment and that it does not focus exclusively on internal development. To do this can lead to what Johnson and Scholes (2002) call 'strategic drift'. Organisations that suffer from this can lose members as they do not provide up-to-date support and members become frustrated and leave. Chandler (1962) has shown that strategic drift may not be noticed by organisations until they are considerably out of step, and that organisations can take a very long time to re-align themselves. Many of course will weaken irrecoverably. Good financial systems need to be put in place at an early stage. Adequate financial planning will ensure that other systems can be provided, such as good administrative support, to make sure that members' needs are met promptly. Community-building can be supported through the early establishment of a journal or newsletter. This could be online to reduce costs. In time, this can become a strong focus for members, especially if the content is interesting, informative and relevant. Other services that can be planned for the future are regular seminars and conferences; the development of resources that can be shared among members; links with other associations and groups both nationwide and internationally. Some associations also seek to gain group benefits, in areas like insurance and pensions.

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In Summary Through the new Association of Childcare Professionals in Ireland, Cork Branch, childcare workers are establishing a distinct voice within the wider community and have exhibited the attributes of a professional ideology. The new regional professional association can look forward to a period of prolonged growth and development. During this time, it is hoped that it will become a national body, providing representation and support to many within the childcare sector, and giving them a strong voice in the Ireland of the future. The association faces many challenges internally and externally. Internally they need to manage growth and to develop wisely, and externally to face the challenges of an inconsistent environment. Wise strategic decisions will need to be taken, and ultimately the desire to keep the needs of children to the fore will provide childcare professionals with the motivation to grow and develop. References Carr-Saunders, A. M. and Wilson, P. A. (1933). The Professions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Central Statistics Office (2002). Quarterly National Household Survey, Second Quarter

2002. Dublin: Central Statistics Office. Chandler, A. (1962). Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of Industrial

Enterprise. New York: Doubleday Press. Coolahan, J. (Ed.) (1998). Report on the National Forum for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Cruess, S., Johnston, S. and Cruess, R. (2004). "Profession": A Working Definition for Medical Educators. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 74-76. [Accessed at http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15328015tlm1601_15;jsessionid= oNGFy1g_cm7eQLRbPZ?cookieSet=1&journalCode=tlm, 7th August, 2006]. Department of Education and Science (1999). Ready to Learn - A White Paper on Early

Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Finance (2000). National Development Plan. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (1998). Study of the Economics of

Childcare in Ireland. Dublin: The Stationery Office.

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Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (1999). National Childcare Strategy,

Report of the Partnership 2000 Expert Working Group on Childcare. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (2000). Equal Opportunities Childcare

Programme. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (2002). Quality Childcare and Life Long

Learning: Model Framework for Education, Training and Professional Development in the Early Childhood Care and Education Sector. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Graham, I. (2006). Strategic Development in Professional Associations. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology. Health Services Executive (2007). Health Services Executive Pre-School Inspection Reports. [Accessed at http://www.hse.ie /en/Publications/PreSchoolInspectionReports/, 19th November, 2007]. Johnson, G. and Scholes, K. (Eds.) (2001). Exploring Corporate Strategy. Essex: Pearson Education. Krause Elliot, A. (1996). Death of the Guilds: Professions, States and the Advance of

Capitalism, 1930 to the Present. Yale: Yale University Press. Lenihan, B. in Dail Eireann, Parlimentary Debates. [Accessed at http://historicaldebates.oireachtas .ie/D/0632/D.0632.200702220142.html, 19th November, 2007]. Moore, W. (1970). The Professions, Roles and Rules. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Office of the Minister for Children (2006). National Childcare Investment Programme. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Runte, R. Is Teaching a Profession? [Accessed at http://www.edu.uleth.ca/~runte/ professional/Teaprof.htm, 23rd January, 2003]. Watkins, J., Drury, L. and Preddy, D. (1992). From Evolution to Revolution: Pressures on

Professional Life in the 1990s. Bristol: University of Bristol, Department for Continuing Education.

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Exploring Quality in Early Educational Communities Nicole Green Introduction "The age of quality is upon us," state Dahlberg, et al. (1999: 87). The term quality is used widely and varyingly in early childhood curriculum documents, and in conversations among administrators, educators, policy makers and communities. Such occurrences highlight a definition of quality which includes a focus on what teachers should do, the way in which children should learn, and how environments should be arranged and resourced to support learning. It would be difficult to justify any argument which did not agree that access to quality early childhood education and care for all children and families can be foundational in strengthening lifelong learning; however, the definitions and criteria of quality denotes a sense of 'taken-for-grantedness' - that quality is appropriate and standardized across cultures, communities and/or early childhood programs (Dahlberg, et al. 1999). Postmodern scholars and researchers such as Cannella (1997), Steinberg (1999) and Dahlberg

and

Moss

(2005)

provide

thought-provoking

essays

regarding

reconceptualization in early childhood which focus on social justice and human agency. Relevant literature is a catalyst for critical conversations about the discourse of educational agendas for young children and early childhood professionals. The work of such scholars and researchers has included a critical look at the discourse of quality in early childhood education and care. In particular, they view quality as a sociallyconstructed, dynamic and culturally-based term (da Silva and Wise, 2006; Grey, 1999) and they question decision-making regarding quality in relation to education (who decides); what factors have, and continue to, influence understandings and practices of quality early childhood programs; and the complex nature of teaching and learning with children in varying contexts. Moss (2005: 406) advises that:

"working with 'quality' may be a valid choice in certain conditions, but that to do so involves a judgement about the use of the concept rather than simply taking it for granted, and being aware that a political and ethical choice is being made." Rather than accepting standardised criteria of quality as objective realities to adhere to, implement and evaluate accordingly, this paper addresses the postmodern challenge by asking, ‘what could an exploration of quality look like within an early childhood educational community which uses such documents as starting points for exploring teaching and learning with children and their families?’

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Envisaging an Exploration of Quality As the OECD (2001: 9) highlights, determining quality in early childhood communities includes some countries focusing on externally-measured evaluations, while "other

countries favour co-constructing the programme aims and objectives at local level, engaging a range of stakeholders in the process." This paper shares the vision of coconstruction and proposes that an exploration of quality in early childhood educational communities could be conducted as an inquiry in which all stakeholders reflect, discuss, plan, implement and evaluate their practices, the environment, learning and teaching together. The methodology of action research, with its phases and/or cycles, provides a framework for such an inquiry, and is appropriate for researching quality as it supports recursive cycles of addressing quality through developing understanding, planning, implementation and critical reflection of their own practice, to facilitate and implement change. Adams (2005: 201) demonstrated that, "the process of adopting a reflective approach to practice

- benefiting from informed support within a culture that values and celebrates pedagogical thinking - appears to prompt the intellectual stimulation required to analyse practice critically." MacNaughton (1996) advocates that improvement in the provision of quality educational experiences for young children could be aided by greater use of action research in which learning communities reflect on their work and make changes in their practice. Creswell (2005: 562) guides that, "action research is a dynamic, flexible process and that

no blueprint exists for how to proceed." Recognising that early childhood communities will not be identical in the ways in which they cope with the challenges of practice and carrying through innovations in a reflective way, the following discussion avoids providing a step-by-step, detailed blueprint. What is offered is an outline of five elements which every aspect of an action research inquiry could include when focused on exploring quality in early childhood communities. A Place Which Provides Structure, Yet is Open to Possibilities A place for an exploration of quality will suit the inquirers; spaces which fulfil the group's needs. It is important to take great care in creating a place for an action research inquiry with teachers, staff, caregivers and students. Places where inquirers come together should provide warmth, safety for risk-taking, and a place to reflect and respond, to challenge and be challenged. In an exploration of quality, structure can be provided using what Sumara and Davis (1997) call 'commonplace locations' - the boundaries and conditions for activity in which all inquirers discuss and explore meanings about teaching and learning knowledge,

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beliefs, experiences and practices. The inquirers, together, will develop an environment for talking honestly and openly, and for beginning within themselves (their knowledge and beliefs, their experiences and practices). As Aoki (1988) advises, an inquiry of exploring quality must begin with the self-perceptions of teachers, staff, caregivers and students in the school community who are living the curriculum. The inquirers' written, oral and visual stories and experiences, fiction and non-fiction literature, and curriculum documents and artefacts would provide these 'commonplace locations'. An exploration of quality would also begin by developing an understanding of the varied and layered contexts in which teaching and learning with children and their families takes place - the political, the economic, the social, the cultural, the macro and the micro. An exploration of quality is an active process that asks the inquirers to explore the ways in which their practices are shaped and constrained by wider social structures, as well as how their changing actions may reshape the social practices which shape their beliefs, understandings and ways of living, learning and teaching (Kemmis and Wilkinson, 1998). Evolving and Organic and Characteristic of Change An inquiry of exploring quality begins in a place of unknowing about a set final product. Rather, the focus is on the process. Uncertainty exists about how the collaboration in the inquiry community will develop (Robertson, 2000). The power within the group will prescribe the nature of the process. Such inquiries would explore the processes of quality in terms of the groups' experiences, meanings, questions and goals, rather than as adhering to specific educational objectives. Sumara and Davis (1997) have introduced the idea of 'simplexity', in which dependency on initial conditions with the space of the possible is fixed at the start. The authors also discuss 'complicity', in which the future is dependent on the present but not determined by it. An inquiry of exploring quality as described in this paper would be about complicity - organic and evolving, beginning with who am I (individual)? And then, through reflexivity, the inquirers begin to ask, what are we (community) interested in? An inquiry of exploring quality moves away from what must or should happen toward what might or could happen. Furthermore, analysing, deconstructing and reconceptualising teaching and learning excellence should not be time governed; there is a need to linger longer in inquiries of exploring quality (Dahlberg, et al. 1999) and implement processes and structures to support continual inquiry and dialogue as a professional practice and commitment to excellence for children.

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Theory and Phronesis, Self-rreflection and Personal Transformation An exploration of quality emerges directly out of personal experience, critical reflection, and is embedded in theoretical discourse. As previously discussed, personal exploration and transformation begins an inquiry of exploring quality. How often to do we make the space and time to listen to teaching and learning stories? Willinsky (1998: 1 - 2) writes of the importance of sharing bibliographies, "we are schooled in differences great and small,

in borderlines and boundaries, in historical struggles and exotic practices…What has been learned can be learned again…". In an exploration of quality, the inquirers require the space and support to begin to explore who they are, and who they are in the lives of children, and what assumptions and biases they bring with them. Structure is also provided by theory. As Dahlberg, et al. (1999: 142) propose, "A deep

theoretical perspective combined with experience from practice opens up beneficial possibilities for dialogues and confrontation." At the same time, it is important to be mindful of the tension between literature reviewed as a structuring framework and literature reviewed as a kind of conversation between theory and the stories of life contained in the inquiry (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000). A community of inquirers can use their own theoretical understandings and access other literature if appropriate and necessary during the inquiry with teachers, staff, caregivers and students. Standardised criteria of quality could be used as a catalyst for beginning the dialogue in an exploration of quality. However, rather than using criteria of quality as standards of measure and excellence of teaching and learning practices, knowledge would be viewed as ambiguous, contextualized, incomplete and produced in diverse ways. The inquiry group would explore knowledge as non-universal, changing and non-absolute, and take responsibility for their own learning and meaning making (Cannella, 1997). The inquiry would also appreciate praxis - transferring knowledge and/or theory into practice - and phronesis - practical wisdom which comes from taking action based on theories and ideas, reflecting back and honouring different ways of knowing from experience. An exploration of quality would not be designed to provide or find right answers, but involve an engagement in the process of the inquirers developing an understanding of their own practices, and the situations in which these practices are carried out - to focus on what they do and the discourses in which they understand and interpret their teaching and learning. Inclusiveness, Interconnection and Solidarity Pedagogical and philosophical work involved in an exploration of quality requires not only the space but also the support for critical analysis, deconstruction, reflection and reconceptualization. An exploration of quality involves a shared common commitment from students, teachers, staff and caregivers. In an exploration of quality, there is a

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facilitator, yet no one would be in 'charge'. Students, caregivers, teachers and staff would all have a voice and participatory roles. It is important to stress that research about children is increasingly shifting from doing research on children to doing research with children. Voices of children are not always heard over the 'more authoritative' voices of other stakeholders in educational systems. With the support of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989) and research on the new sociology of childhood (Moss, 2005), more researchers have considered children's perspectives on their everyday lives. These perspectives are an important source of information on what engages them in learning and why and, as Davie, et al. (1996: 133) state, "children are

entitled to live in a society which respects their rights to be listened to and to participate in decisions which affect their lives." As the group moves through the inquiry of exploring quality there would be critical conversations about the discourse of teaching and learning in a way that opens up opportunities for educators, caregivers and students to discuss new languages and constructions that come out of their discussions rather than dominant disciplines or capitalist fads (Cannella, 1997). Furthermore if new language is developed, then the inquirers would continue to deconstruct what this language means in terms of teaching, learning and children. A Moral/Ethical Impulse An exploration of quality is also a deeply moral activity, just as teaching is a deeply moral activity (Sumara and Davis, 1997). An inquiry of exploring quality would reflect relationships of mutual obligations and responsibilities that form the essence of collaboration (Carson, 1996). An inquiry of exploring quality foregrounds relationships and is ineluctably, morally implicated and responsible (Sumara and Davis, 1999). The whole group must also take responsibility for making moral choices about what is relevant, appropriate and of excellence for children, teachers and families in an early childhood educational community. An inquiry of exploring quality is also based on respect. While the term respect has different meanings and different actions for each person within their own culture, Cannella (1997: 169) is favoured as a way of viewing respect, which requires an "…appreciation of the value of all other beings, acceptance of multiple ways of thinking

and being in the world, and the willingness to fight for an equitable and just community for everyone." Concluding Thoughts Rather than viewing the discourse of quality as taken-for-granted, appropriate and standardized across cultures, communities and/or early childhood programs, an inquiry

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process such as one which is guided by the methodology of action research, draws upon criteria of quality as starting points for further analysis, deconstruction, reflection and reconceptualization within the political, economic, social, cultural, macro and micro contexts of the pedagogical work. The five elements described in this paper offer students, teachers, staff and caregivers guidance in establishing an ongoing process of quality which continually strives for excellence in teaching and learning in their own particular contexts.

References Adams, S. (2005). Practitioners and Play: Reflecting in a Different Way (in) Moyles, J. (Ed.).

The Excellence of Play, 2nd Ed., England: Open University Press, pp. 213-227. Aoki, T. T. (1998). Layered Voices of Teaching: The Uncannily Correct and the Elusively True. (in) Pinar, W. F. and Reynolds, W. M. (Eds.) Understanding Curriculum as Phenomenological

and Deconstructed Text. New York: Longman, pp. 17-27. Cannella, G. S. (1997). Deconstructing Early Childhood Education: Social Justice and

Revolution. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. Carson, T. (1996). Not Ethics But Obligation: Confronting the Crisis of Relationship in Collaborative Work. Salt, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 13-18. Clandinin, D. J. and Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in

Qualitative Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational Research - Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Quantitative and Qualitative Research (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. da Silva, L. and Wise, S. (2006). Parent Perspectives on Childcare Quality Among a Culturally Diverse Sample. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 6-14. Dahlberg, G. and Moss, P. (2005). Ethics and Politics in Early Childhood Education. London: Routledge. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (Eds.) (1999). Beyond Quality in Early Childhood

Education and Care: Postmodern Perspectives. London: Falmer Press. Davie, R., Upton, G. and Varma, V. (1996). The Voice of Childhood. Washington: Falmer Press.

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Davis, B. and Sumara, D. (2000). Curriculum Forms: On the Assumed Shapes of Knowing and Knowledge. Journal of Curriculum Studies, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 821-845. Grey, A.E. (1999). A Vision of Quality in Early Childhood Education. Australian Journal of

Early Childhood, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 1-4. Kemmis, S. and Wilkinson, M. (1998). Participatory Action Research and the Study of Practice (in) Atweh, B., Kemmis, S. and Weeks, P. (Eds.), Action Research in Practice:

Partnerships in Social Justice in Education, London: Routledge, pp. 21-36. MacNaughton, G. (1996). Research for Quality: A Case for Action Research in Early Childhood Services. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 29-33. Moss, P. (2005). Theoretical Examinations of Quality: Making the Narrative of Quality Stutter. Early Education and Development, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 405-420. OECD (2001). Starting Strong: Early Childhood Education and Care. [Accessed at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd /4/9/1897313.pdf, November 10th, 2003]. Robertson, J. (2000). The Three Rs of Action Research Methodology: Reciprocity, Reflexivity and Reflection-on-reality. Educational Action Research, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 307325. Steinberg, S. (1999). Early Education as a Gendered Construction (in) Pinar, W. F. (Ed.).

Contemporary Curriculum Discourses: Twenty Years of JCT. New York: Peter Lang, pp. 474482. Sumara, D. and Davis, B. (1997). Enlarging the Space of the Possible: Complexity, Complicity, and Action-research Practices (in) Carson, T. and Sumara, D. (Eds.). Action

Research as a Living Practice. New York: Peter Lang, pp. 299-312. Willinsky, J. (1998). Learning to Divide the World: Education at Empire's End. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

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Early Years Professional Status: Pilot Evaluation and Issues

Early Years Professional Status: Pilot Evaluation and Issues Denise Hevey, Eunice Lumsden and Sue Moxon

Introduction Until the late 1990s, early years and childcare in the UK had been characterized by minimal government intervention, conflicting attitudes to working parents and provision of variable quality staffed largely by low paid and poorly qualified women. Evidence from a large scale study (Sylva et al., 2003) confirmed that high quality provision and better outcomes for children are linked to higher levels of qualification in staff. In March 2006, in response to a consultation on a Children's Workforce Strategy (Department for Education and Skills [DfES], 2006a), the United Kingdom government announced its intention to create a new form of graduate, multi-disciplinary Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) and a target of an EYPS holder in every full day-care setting by 2015. The University of Northampton was one of eleven training providers selected to pilot the assessment process during Autumn 2006. This paper reports on the outcomes and lessons learned from this first cohort to be awarded EYPS. It critically evaluates EYPS as an initiative and considers implications for the future. Background Lack of co-ordination and information sharing between education, health and social services has repeatedly been identified as a key factor in child protection failures. The UK government's response in the form of Every Child Matters: Change for Children (DfES, 2003) set the scene for radical moves towards integration of children's services. A legal framework for integration of Education and Social Care under Directors of Children's Services was established through the Children Act 2004. The following year the government issued the Children's Workforce Strategy Consultation Document (DfES, 2005) with proposals for systematic work-force planning, recruitment, training, and development for all those who work with children. The proposals for early years were heavily influenced by the findings of the Effective Provision of Pre-school Education project (EPPE) (Sylva et al., 2003) which demonstrated a positive correlation between the level of qualifications of staff, particularly the nursery leader, and better outcomes for children. The proposals included the creation of a new form of multi-disciplinary Early Years Professional (EYP) at graduate level to provide curriculum leadership across the birth to five age range. EYP Status would have broad equivalence to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) but, whereas primary teachers in the UK can theoretically work anywhere in the school system, EYPs would be restricted to work with under-fives. The Childcare Act 2006 (DfES,

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2006b) abolished the distinction between care and education for children under five and created a new Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) from birth to the end of August after their fifth birthday (statutory school age in the UK) with effect from September 2008 (DfES, 2006d). Targets were set for an EYP in all 3,500 Children's Centres by 2010 and an EYP in every full-day care setting (around 30,000 settings) by 2015 backed up by a £250 billion

Transformation Fund (DfES, 2006c). This was to support training and provide recruitment incentives for employment of graduates in the private, voluntary and independent (PVI) sector where qualification levels were lowest. Implementation of the EYPS strategy was delegated to the newly created Children's Workforce Development Council (CWDC) which was required to develop and trial by the end of 2006 "a robust process for conferring the status of Early Years Professional Status

(EYP) on those who can demonstrate the required standard." (DfES, 2006b: 30.) By Easter 2006 draft standards had been sent out for consultation. The University of Northampton was selected as one of eleven pilot sites with a target of recruiting sixty candidates by September 2006. National standards and guidance for EYPS (CWDC, 2006a), together with a 'prospectus' (CWDC, 2006b) defined the EYP role. CWDC stated that in future, only those with EYP status would be able to lead practice across the Early Years Foundation Stage. The EYPS Validation Process The EYPS Validation process was designed by consultants on behalf of CWDC. It incorporates four days of preparation and a half day formative 'needs assessment' (skillsbased exercises carried out at a management centre), followed by a series of written tasks and production of a portfolio of supportive evidence (CWDC, 2006c). The final summative assessment takes place during a visit to the candidate's workplace carried out by a trained assessor and comprises a tour of the setting with explanatory commentary, scrutiny of the written tasks and supporting evidence and interviews with the candidate and with selected 'witnesses' in relation to how he/she meets the standards (CWDC, 2006c). The Pilot Group Sixty-two potential candidates were recruited as meeting the eligibility requirements for the Validation process including a minimum of an Ordinary Degree (level six) in a relevant subject plus experience across the birth to five-age range. The backgrounds of the candidates varied from recent graduates with good Early Childhood Studies Honours

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Degrees but limited experience, to nursery owner/managers with twenty years experience and Certificates of Education dating back to before teaching was an allgraduate profession. Of the original sixty-two potential candidates, 14 dropped out, before or during initial preparation days, when it became clear that the demands of assessment were not consistent with ongoing work commitments. One candidate did not show, another was eliminated at the 'needs assessment' stage and a further two dropped out prior to summative assessment due to pressure of work. The final assessment visit was completed by forty-four candidates of whom thirty-nine were judged to have met the national standards in full. Evaluation of the Pilot Candidate Preparation Feedback sheets were completed by all candidates at each stage of the process. Eightysix percent of candidates rated the preparation days as very, or extremely, helpful (average score 4.2 out of 5). Needs Assessment Candidates were asked to what extent they found each of the four different exercises 'challenging' or 'enjoyable'. The most challenging (4.2 out of 5) and least enjoyable (2.9) was a timed 'in-tray' exercise (typical nursery problems requiring a response). The simulated staff interview (role play with an actor) was also found to be challenging (3.9 out of 5) though most candidates found it quite enjoyable as well (3.4) and six candidates described it as the best part of the process. An observed group discussion was reported as the most enjoyable of the four exercises (4.3 out of 5) but still rated as quite challenging (3.5). Finally, the personal interview related to standards was the least challenging (3.0) but most enjoyable (3.6). The quality of the organisation and of the assessors and actors received universally high ratings (4.7 - 4.8). Candidates were asked to comment on what they had learned from the needs assessment experience. Comments included:

'Much to learn about working together' 'Not to be so complacent' 'Made me evaluate what I know' 'Recognised areas in which I need additional work' 'How broad my job is'

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The Setting Visit A similar system of feedback sheets was used to follow up the final assessment visit. The most challenging parts of the process were reported to be interviews with the assessor in relation to a 'critical incident' - how they handled an unplanned event - (3.5 out of 5) and in relation to meeting the standards (3.3). These were both rated as quite enjoyable (3.3 and 3.2 respectively). What candidates enjoyed most and found least challenging was providing a guided tour of the setting with a commentary explaining their role and ethos (enjoyability rating 3.8; level of challenge 2.9). Eighty-eight per cent of candidates rated the professionalism of the assessor and the rigour of the assessment process very highly (4 or 5). What was perhaps surprising in view of the high satisfaction ratings of the preparation days was the spread of ratings of preparedness for the final assessment event (average 2.9 out of 5). This could be indicative of a mismatch between preparation exercises and the final assessment process. Issues and Concerns re: EYPS Overall the pilot may be judged to have been a success. It ran relatively smoothly, there were no major problems or disasters, the majority of candidates were satisfied with the process and were deservedly successful in being awarded EYP Status. However, the pilot raised a number of concerns in relation to the process of validation and in relation to EYP Status. Role of Needs Assessment The 'needs assessment' process was extremely resource intensive (ratio of six staff to eight candidates for half a day) but had limited formative value since feedback came only four to six weeks before final assessment - too late for candidates to undertake any significant training to redress any identified skills deficits. This resource could be better used at the recruitment and selection stage when candidates are allocated to an appropriate training pathway depending on their qualifications, skills and experience. Suitability of Assessment Methods The design of the final assessment made no provision for observation of the candidates' practice. Instead corroboratory comments on the effectiveness of candidates' practice were solicited from witnesses. However, where a candidate is the owner/ manager of an early years setting and the witnesses are his/her staff, their independence must be questioned. Any assessment process for EYPS that does not include observation of candidates' practice - in particular the quality of their relationships and engagement with children - must be considered seriously flawed.

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Bureaucracy The requirement for verbatim recording of all interviews and observations, followed by transfer of extracts on to summary forms, may be an ideal way of producing an audit trail (promoting reliability) but it is not conducive to effective probing questioning. (Several candidates provided unsolicited comments that verbatim recording got in the way of effective personal interviews). It results in a degree of superficiality that reduces validity in relation to professional outcomes and is an inefficient use of highly qualified assessors. It is suggested that structured professional dialogue would be more effective with appropriately trained assessors making judgements directly against criteria. Audio or video recording could be used for purposes of moderation, external examination or in cases of dispute. Such assessment practices are commonplace in Higher Education and in professional body qualifications. Over-aambitious Targets for EYPS The UK Government target for an EYP in every day care setting by 2015 is ambitious given that currently the highest level of qualification for the majority (between fifty-two per cent and seventy-six percent of staff according to Owen (2006) is level three and only five to six per cent have graduate (level six) qualifications (Abbott and Hevey, 2001). The paucity of staff with degrees in the PVI sector has been further substantiated during attempts to recruit candidates for this pilot. In other professional areas, graduate level qualifications have been introduced in stages over an extended time period. For example, in the UK the requirements for Nursing and Teaching progressed from a Certificate (level four) to a Diploma (level five) and eventually to a Degree (level six) qualification over a period of some twenty years. EYPS versus QTS The question of the status of Early Years Professionals relative to teachers has yet to be resolved. Government has not yet pronounced on whether teachers will continue to lead the curriculum in the new Early Years Foundation Stage, even though their training only covers the upper half of the age range, or whether they will be required to 'top-up' with birth to three training and gain EYPS as well. Neither has anything yet been said about the pay and conditions of EYPS holders relative to teachers. Without resolution of these issues many graduates are likely to pursue teacher training rather than EYPS. Levels of Expectation The EYPS standards require candidates not just to demonstrate their own effective practice but to demonstrate effectiveness in leading and supporting the practice of others through, for example, modelling, coaching, mentoring and acting as a change agent. This is a higher level than is expected of the majority of newly qualified professionals. Newly Qualified Teachers, for example, are supported throughout their first NQT year.

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The Grandmother Principle EYPS has been launched into a sector which is managed largely by highly experienced but poorly qualified practitioners. In many other areas the emergence of a new profession has been accompanied by fast-track routes to professional recognition for the most competent and experienced, regardless of formal qualifications. So for example, membership of the Institute of Learning and Teaching in Higher Education can be achieved by established lecturers through a portfolio of evidence rather than through taking a prescribed course. An Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) system was introduced for the National Vocational Qualification Level 3 in Childcare and Education in order to fast-track those with appropriate knowledge and competence gained from experience. Some sort of similar system may be needed to avoid alienation of senior staff with outstanding records in day-care but for whom opportunities for relevant, graduate level education and training have previously been lacking. Conclusion The above analysis points to the absence of a coherent strategy for introducing EYPS and a failure to recognise the fundamental issues around professionalisation of a workforce. This is not entirely surprising given the timescales for EYPS implementation as dictated by the UK Government's political agenda. Overall it is suggested that: Needs assessment should be repositioned to provide formative feedback at a stage when it is most useful. The final assessment process should be based on a more professional, less bureaucratic model and should be given validity in the eyes of early years practitioners through incorporating observation of practice. The expectations of newly qualified EYPs should be comparable to those of other graduate professionals or the status re-badged as post-qualifying. While not in anyway wishing to lower rigour or standards in assessment, the 'grandmother principle' needs resolution. The over-arching concern is that a 'once-in-a-lifetime' opportunity to raise standards in early years will be lost. The best graduates will still go into teaching whilst existing experienced practitioners will become alienated rather than enthused about improving their practice. References Abbott, L. and Hevey, D. (2001). Training to Work in the Early Years: Developing the Climbing Frame (in) Pugh, G. (Ed.) Contemporary Issues in the Early Years: Working

Collaboratively for Children. 3rd edition. London: Sage, pp. 179-193. Children's Workforce Development Council (2006a). Early Years Professional Prospectus. Leeds: Children's Workforce Development Council.

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Children's Workforce Development Council (2006b). Early Years Professional: Guidance to

the Standards for the Award of Early Years Professional Status. Leeds: Children's Workforce Development Council. Children's Workforce Development Council (2006c). Early Years Professional: Candidate

Handbook (DRAFT). Leeds: Children's Workforce Development Council. Department for Education and Skills (2003). Every Child Matters: Change for Children. [Accessed at www.everychildmatters.gov.uk, 3rd February, 2007]. Department for Education and Skills (2004). Children Act 2004. London: The Stationery Office. [Accessed at http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/ukpga_20040031_en_1, 3rd February, 2007]. Department for Education and Skills (2005). Children's Workforce Strategy Consultation

Document. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. [Accessed at http://www.ttrb.ac.uk/viewArticle2.aspx?contentId=10867, 3rd February, 2007]. Department for Education and Skills (2006a). Children's Workforce Strategy: the

Government's Response to Consultation. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Department for Education and Skills (2006b). Childcare Act 2006. London: The Stationery Office. [Accessed at www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2006/pdf/ukpga_20060021_en.pdf, 3rd February, 2007]. Department for Education and Skills (2006c). Early Years Workforce Development and

Transformation Fund. [Accessed at www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/deliveringservices/ workforcereform/earlyyearsworkforce./, 3rd February, 2007]. Department for Education and Skills (2006d). The Early Years Foundation Stage. A

Consultation Document. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. HM Treasury (2004). Choice for Parents: The Best Start for Children - a Ten-year Childcare

Strategy. London: The Stationery Office. Owen, S. (2006). Training and Workforce Issues in the Early Years (in) Pugh, G. and Duffy, B. (Eds.) Contemporary Issues in the Early Years. 4th edition. London: Sage, pp. 183 - 194. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., Taggart, B. and Elliot, K. (2003).

The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education Project: Findings from the Pre-School Period. DfES Research Brief No: RBX15-03. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications.

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Multiple Perspectives on Quality - Partnership on Quality Evaluation and Professional Development in Early Childhood Institutions Helena Luís, Madalena Alves, Arlete Gonçalves, Gabriela Amaro, Helena Sousa, Julieta Vieira, Maria José Calheiros, Nélia Montez, Rosa Montez and Teresa Cunha1 Introduction The last decade has seen some important developments in preschool education in Portugal. In 1996, the Ministry of Education launched the Programme for the Expansion and Development of Preschool Education (Ministry of Education [ME], 1996) and in 1997, the Pre-school Education Bill (ME, 1997) was published. These led to the enlargement and expansion of the pre-school network and operationalised both the social and educational components involved in the process - the childcare component extending support to families and the pedagogical component centred on the educational development of children. After a period of expansion, a second objective emerged, related to the improvement of quality in the provision of pre-school services. Although there was an increase in the professional qualifications required to be a pre-school teacher in Portugal, there still remained a number of limitations in staff training for early childhood education, especially in the private sector. Responding to this need for better training, the Ministry of Education promoted the Portuguese adaptation of the EEL Project - Effective Early Learning Project (Pascal et al., 1996), with the purpose of evaluating and monitoring curricular development in early childhood education and helping professionals with instruments for quality evaluation. Using this framework, a group of practitioners and researchers developed a research project consisting of a process of quality evaluation. Each class/school developed a process of quality evaluation and defined an educative plan of action. The evaluation process allowed for the integration of some essential perspectives, since it was done in partnership - it included the perspectives of parents, professionals and children. This paper presents a synthesis of the reflection produced by the research group about the quality evaluation process and the impact of that process, as perceived by the team, on professional and institutional development.

Note: 1 Escola Superior de Educacao de Santarém, Agrupamento D. Joao II, Centro Social Interparoquial de Santarém. Participation at this Conference was possible due to a grant from Fundacao Calouste Gulbenkian.

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Conceptual Framework The EEL Project is a program that aims to develop the quality of early childhood education settings and consequently make children's learning more effective. The Project's main principles include (1) the idea that the quality of each school is evaluated by the way it is perceived by educators, parents and children and (2) that participation in the quality evaluation process encourages participant responsibility towards the process of change and quality improvement. The conceptual framework for quality development in preschool education involves three aspects: context, process and results (Pascal and Bertram, 1996). All of which are interrelated and important for quality early childhood care. These will be discussed in more detail under Methological Principles below. Participants The adaptation of the EEL framework to the Portuguese situation was done through several case studies conducted in different geographical areas in the country. This paper presents some of the results from the case studies that took place in six early childhood classes, three belonging to the public pre-school education network, and another three to the private pre-school education network in the same geographical area. The authors of this paper were the participants of the research team that developed these six cases study. They had previous training on the EEL framework and most of them participated and collaborated with the School of Education (ESES) in the initial training of early childhood educators. For the purpose of the project, they formed a group that included six early childhood educators responsible for the six classes, one pedagogical coordinator, one special education teacher, and two supervisors of the School of Education that acted as external supporters. Methodological Principles The process of evaluation and quality improvement, as described in the Portuguese version of the EEL manual (ME, 2001), has four phases: Evaluation, Planning, Improvement and Reflection. However, the constraints of the initial period for developing this project - February to June of 2006 - meant that only the first two phases of the process, Evaluation and Planning, could be studied. Particular attention was paid to the instruments used in this process, and the team reflected on their potentialities. The process of documenting quality included document analysis, interviews, questionnaires and observations adapted from the Portuguese version of the EEL Manual (ME, 2001) and addressed ten quality dimensions. They also included the perspectives of all partners children, parents, educators and external advisors.

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The context involves ten domains of quality - the main purposes and objectives; learning experiences; teaching strategies; planning, evaluation and documentation; staff; space; relations; equal opportunities; parents and community participation; monitoring and quality evaluation.

Process is evaluated by two scales, adapted from instruments initially created by Laevers for the Experiential Education Project (Laevers and Van Sanden, 1997):

- The Child Involvement Scale (Laevers, 1994; Pascal et al., 1996) measures the level of involvement of children's activities. It is based on the notion that when there is a deep level of learning (Laevers, 1993), children show 'involvement signs' that include concentration, energy, creativity, persistence and satisfaction. Children's involvement can be scored in a scale of 1 to 5. There is evidence that involvement is an indicator of the effectiveness of the learning experience.

- The Adult Engagement Scale (Laevers, 1994; Pascal et al., 1996) intends to observe the educator 'style', that is, to describe the personal qualities that indicate the capacity to motivate and take account of the child's learning process (Laevers, 1991). This scale was previously used in Portuguese contexts and was familiar to most participants (Luís, 1998; Luís et al., 2004). The scale is centred around three distinct categories that define the quality of interaction: sensitivity - capacity to recognise and to respect the feelings and emotional well-being of the child; stimulation - focuses on introducing and presenting a learning experience and the capacity to stimulate thinking or children's communication; and autonomy - the degree of freedom given to children to choose activities, to try by themselves, to judge the products of their own activity, to negotiate and to solve problems and conflicts.

Results and learning effectiveness can be analyzed by the impact on children's development, adult development and institutional development. Instruments Each class/school assembled a portfolio with the collected data, and each educator wrote down her personal reflections about the process and methodology. The potentialities and areas for improvement were underlined. This portfolio was discussed among the team (research group and external advisors) and an Action Plan was implemented based on the previous evaluation. The results presented in this paper refer only to the content analysis of the portfolios.

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Data Analysis and Discussion The analysis will focus on (1) the reflection made throughout the process by the early childhood educators who participated in the project; (2) a synthesis of this reflection and; (3) the potentialities of a quality evaluation process developed in partnership. The ten quality dimensions of the EEL project provided a structure that was considered adequate and pertinent for context analysis - through observational analysis. This facilitated the group reflection process and the development of an action plan. Documenting parents' perspectives was important and contributed to a more objective and global evaluation. Parents were capable of expressing opinions about different quality dimensions. The view of these participants revealed some critical points that were not always obvious to the educator, but also confirmed the positive aspects of on-going strategies. The teachers' portfolios also focused on documenting children's perspectives. This was done through child interviews and observation of daily activities and of their involvement in daily activities. All educators agreed that interviewing children was an important tool. This strategy stimulated reflection about children and the way they viewed the organization and the activities they developed. It gave them an active voice and promoted involvement and active participation. Educators enhanced the relevancy and adequacy of the children's affirmations, ideas, critiques and suggestions, contained in children's answers:

"It gave information on what the children thought and changes they wanted to see in their setting. An example is the increasing disinterest in the table games. They considered the purchase of more difficult games and even were positive about the amount of games that we should buy in order to make that area more appealing." (Educator C in Luís et al., 2006) Educators considered that the information collected was useful for the improvement of quality, by identifying and/or confirming some critical points and, consequently, helping to define and/or adjust future action:

"The effect of the interview and observation of children was immediate - these opinions were determinant. It was impossible to be indifferent to them, an immediate readjustment was made. Sometimes I feel that 'the view of the children' gets diluted and mixed with 'my view' and this exercise is necessary" (Educator B in Luís et al., 2006) As said before, educators considered the child interviews and observations useful to promote reflection on the dynamics of the preschool, and consequent involvement and

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quality improvement. In fact, the success of the interviews indicates that if adequacy and quality of children's education is a goal to be reached, the active participation of those in the process is not only possible but also indispensable:

"There was an increasing need to listen to children and involve them in the educative action, not as mere receivers of the adult 'curriculum' and ideas but as active, critical and constructive agents of one common project (…); it is a priority to promote children's active participation in the organisation of the educational settings, in the projects, planning and evaluation that takes place in preschool." (Educator D in Luís et al., 2006) Referring to adult observation, feedback given to educators after observing adult engagement was considered positive and facilitated self-reflection on pedagogical attitudes. The three dimensions - sensibility, stimulation and autonomy - were considered important. This Scale was considered difficult to apply, requiring a trained external observer. An open and trusting environment that created confidence was also considered essential for peer exposure. Final Considerations In Portugal, there are many early childhood educators that work alone and do not have enough support for team working. That contributes to a sense of 'loneliness' for some in their educational practice. The importance of building a network of early childhood educators - that would provide support and sharing of experiences was identified as an important factor for professional development. Observing children's involvement made a significant contribution to a deeper knowledge of children's learning processes and permitted the analysis of children's learning experiences. Observing children also made evident the need to use/ construct instruments that may assess the process of learning and that do not exclusively focus on results or average comparisons. Documenting children's perspectives was considered crucial. In Portugal, as in other countries, a new understanding of childhood and children is emerging under the influence of the sociology of childhood (Sarmento, 2004), but this knowledge is not yet disseminated enough among specialists, practitioners and society in general. This paradigm includes the ideas that "children are social actors, participating in constructing

and determining their own lives, but also the lives of those around them and the societies in which they live, and contributing to learning as agents building on experiential knowledge. In short, they have agency." (Dahlberg, et al., 1999: 49). To implement an evaluation and a quality development process, it is indispensable to establish a partnership between institutional leaders, the educational community and early childhood educators. There is also a need for specific in-service training.

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Finally, these case studies showed that promoting a process of quality evaluation and development through adoption of the EEL framework, and creating the conditions for its implementation at a national level would be perceived, as a positive action for professional and institutional development in early childhood education. References Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (1999). Beyond Quality in Early Childhood Education

and Care. Postmodern Perspectives. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Laevers, F. (Ed.) (1991). The Quality of Pre-Primary Education. An Exploration of The

Relation Between Treatment Characteristics, Process Variables And Effects. Int. Report. Leuven: Afdeling Didaktiek-Ku. Laevers, F. (1993). Deep Level Learning: An Exemplary Application on the Area of Physical Knowledge. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 53-68. Laevers. F. (1994). The Leuven Involvement Scale for Young Children LIS-YC. Manual e

videogravacoes. Leuven: Centrum voor ErvaringsGericht Onderwijs vzw. Laevers, F., and Van Sanden, P. (1997). Pour Une Approche Expérientielle Au Niveau

Préscolaire. Livre De Base (1aEd. 1980). Leuven: Centrum Voor Ervaringsgericht Onderwijs Vzw/ Centre Pour Un Enseignement Expérientiel. Luís, H. (1998). A Percepcao Da Relacao Educador Com A Criança E O Estilo De Interaccao

Educativa. Contributos Para A Promoçao Da Qualidade Dos Contextos Pré-Escolares. Universidade do Minho. (master thesis, not published). Luís, H., Alves, M., Gonçalves, A., Amaro, G., Sousa, H., Vieira, J., Calheiros, M., Montez, N., Montez, R. and Cunha, T. (2006). Relatório Final do Grupo 5. Desenvolvimento da

Qualidade na Educaçao Pré-escolar. DGIDC (not published). Luís, H., Calheiros, M. J., and Cunha, T. (2004). Avaliar e Desenvolver a Qualidade em parceria. Relato da construçao de um processo de avaliaçao num jardim de infancia da rede pública. (Aceite para publicaçao na Revista do Millenium do Instituto Politécnico de Viseu). Presented at IV Simpósio Internacional GEDEI Avaliacao em Educacao de Infancia:

contextos, processos e produtos, Instituto Politécnico de Viseu, 23rd and 24th January, 2004.

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Ministério da Educacao (1996). Programme for the Expansion and Development of Pre-

School Education. Lisboa: Departamento da Educacao Básica - Núcleo de Educacao PréEscolar. Ministério da Educacao (1997). Orientacoes Curriculares Para a Educacao Pré-Escolar. Lisboa: Departamento da Educacao Básica - Núcleo de Educacao Pré-Escolar. Ministério da Educacao (2001). Projecto DQP, Desenvolvendo a Qualidade em Parcerias. Lisboa: Departamento da Educacao Básica - Núcleo de Educacao Pré-Escolar. Pascal, C. and Bertram, T. (1996). Desenvolvendo a Qualidade em Parcerias. Nove Estudos

de caso. Porto: Porto Editora. Pascal, C. and Bertram, T. (2000). O Projecto Desenvolvendo a Qualidade em Parcerias. Sucessos e Reflexes. Infância e Educacao. Investigacao e práticas, No. 2, pp. 17-30. Porto: GEDEI/ Porto Editora. Pascal, C., Bertram, A. D., Ramsden, F., Georgeson, J., Saunders, M., and Mould, C. (1996).

Evaluating and Developing Quality in Early Childhood Settings: A Professional Development Programme. Worcester: Amber Publications. Sarmento, M. (2004). As Culturas Da Infância Nas Entrecuzilhadas Da Segunda Modernidade (in) Sarmento, M. and Cerisara, B. (Org.) Criancas E Miúdos: Perspectivas

Sociopedagógicas Da Infância E Educacao. Lisboa: ASA Editores S.A., pp. 9-34.

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Developing the Early Years Workforce: Student Perceptions of the Early Years Sector-EEndorsed Foundation Degree Eunice Lumsden Introduction The policy agenda of improving the skills, knowledge and understanding of those employed in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) needs to be understood within widening participation and lifelong learning initiatives. O'Hara and Bingham (2004) argue that foundation degrees have a key role in enhancing educational opportunities for those who did not pursue further education when leaving school. However, as they state,

"…the competing demands of employment and family makes study for mature students doubly difficult." (O'Hara and Bingham, 2004: 208) This paper offers a contribution to the literature relating to developments in the early years workforce and the impact of widening participation and lifelong learning on Early Years Sector-Endorsed Foundation Degree (EYSEFD) students at an English university. Literature on the development of foundation degrees and the unique role of the EYSEFD is also focused on. It reports on ongoing research into the impact of the course on the personal and professional lives of the first two cohorts of students. This research aims to make visible the lives and experiences of a group of students as they become part of wider policy initiatives. The early years' workforce is characterised as having low pay and status and is predominantly female (Hargreaves and Hopper, 2006; Karstadt et al., 2003; Osgood, 2006). Additionally, it demands more than just the desire to teach. As Moyles (2001: 187) argues, practitioners "often express a 'passion' for their

role and for children which is perhaps difficult for those in other phases of education to understand." ECEC demands that the ability to support learning is "characterised by an ethic of care," (Osgood, 2006: 190) and is an area of provision where quality and 'passion' are uniquely combined. However, the division between public and private provision is complex. Osgood further argues that the government intention to develop the private sector and the increasing pressure for cost effective and profit making provision "…is

unbefitting in the overwhelming female-dominated context of early childhood education and care…" and therefore provides fertile ground for the feminist researcher (Osgood 2006: 190). Foundation Degrees, the Context 2000 saw the British Government introduce Foundation Degrees to meet the changing needs of the workforce and in 2003 the Labour Government reiterated the commitment

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to foundation degrees as the main focus for work-based higher education qualifications (Department for Education and Skills [DfES], 2003). By 2004 there were over 24,000 students enrolled on over 800 foundation degrees being provided at over one hundred Higher and Further Education establishments (DfES, 2004b). The growth in this area also brought the expectation that students completing foundation degrees could progress to full honours degree programmes. Alongside this exponential growth in work-based learning is the British Government's commitment to developing provision for children and young people through the Every Child Matters Agenda (DfES, 2004b) and the focus on developing the early years workforce (Children's Workforce Development Council [CWDC], 2006). There is also a wider international focus, as our increasing understanding of the emotional and physical development of children is impacting on the provision of early years across the world. In England the Effective Provision of Pre-school Education Project (Sylva et al., 2004) has raised issues of quality provision and influenced policy development. Additionally, the vision of the government in developing the workforce (DfES, 2006a) is having a major impact on the qualification requirements for the early years' workforce. There has been the unprecedented development of a new professional with Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) (CWDC, 2006). The status is at graduate level and the first cohort undertaking the pilot programme qualified in January 2007 (Hevey and Lumsden, 2007). Alongside this development is the commitment that by 2015 those working in settings providing full time day care will be qualified to a minimum of Level 3 (CWDC, 2006). The timing of the EYSEFD has been opportune in relation to the rapid changes in ECEC, though there was no indication that it would have such a pivotal role in providing an academic pathway for early years' practitioners to pursue EYPS. The first EYSEFD began in 2002; a year later, over 3,500 students enrolled on the first year of EYSEFD in England and, according to Sure Start (2003), this made it the most popular foundation degree in the country. For the first time this predominantly female, low paid workforce had the opportunity to access higher academic study with financial support. The importance of the development of the EYSEFD has led to the British Government commissioning a research programme from the perspectives of the students, the mentors and workplace (DfES, 2006b; c; d). National findings evidence a picture of a predominately white female student cohort, in their late thirties, who indicated that their levels of confidence had improved and they had struggled balancing the demands of study and home.

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Research Design The research is part of a longitudinal study following EYSEFD students who began their studies in 2004 and 2005 and has used Feminist methodology (Ramazanoglu and Holland, 2002) to make visible the experiences of this particular group of women whose work lives reflect issues such as the relationship between motherhood, childcare and the subsequent financial value ascribed to this role. The researcher has also been mindful of the underpinning ethics (British Education Research Association, 2004) especially as the research cohort would not necessarily locate themselves within the feminist debate, seeing themselves as women who had made the choice to work in the early years to meet their own needs and those of their families. The design was also sensitive to maximising participation without putting an additional burden on an already overstretched student cohort, therefore questionnaires were used to gather data in the first two stages of the research. These were completed at the end of Year One (thirty-six participants) and at the end of Year Two (twenty-eight participants). This method also meant that the data could provide more than just a dialogue with the participants about their experiences, as data was harvested that allowed comparison with national research and therefore moved away from what Kitzinger (2004: 138) describes as '…an over reliance on self-report methods…' that have been evident in feminist research methods. The initial questionnaire aimed to gather data about why the students decided to undertake the course, their hopes and aspirations. The second questionnaire aimed to elicit how their knowledge and understanding had developed, the impact on their workplace, home life and progression to the honours degree. Data Findings and Analysis The composition of the student sample reflected the findings of the national research in relation to gender, age and ethnicity. The first two EYSEFD cohorts classified themselves as White British. They were female and thirty were aged thirty-six and over. All participants indicated applying for the course for their personal and professional development and after completion, most had aspirations for their future careers that would require professional training and therefore increases in pay and status. 45% indicated that they wanted to become teachers, 14% wanted to move into family or social work, 11% did not want to change their role and 30% were unsure. Central to the degree is ensuring that students are able to develop their knowledge and understanding of education, health, social care and multi-professional working. Research participants indicated high levels of satisfaction in relation to these areas (Figure One). One of the interesting characteristics of the group was the determination to develop their

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academic writing skills and the grades being awarded. When they were asked what they had enjoyed most about the course 68% indicated everything, 7% being able to put theory into practice and 25% their academic and personal development. Additionally, all twenty-eight research participants completing the second questionnaire indicated, in line with national evaluations, that they had developed high levels of personal and professional confidence (Table One). Figure One Participant satisfaction ratings Knowledge and Understanding of Education

Knowledge and Understanding of Child Health

GOOD EXCELLENT

GOOD EXCELLENT

14.3% 25.0%

22.2% 18.5%

60.7%

59.3% VERY GOOD

Knowledge and Understanding of Safeguarding Children

VERY GOOD

Knowledge and Understanding of Multi-p professional Working

SATISFACTORY 7.1%

EXCELLENT 42.9%

17.9%

GOOD

EXCELLENT GOOD

28.6%

35.7%

35.7%

32.1% VERY GOOD

VERY GOOD

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Table One Personal and professional development

" I look at things differently, deeper; I understand things from a child perception more." "I have grown as a person. My professional development is respected by management." "Made me more knowledgeable, confident and professional." "I now want to continue studying. More confident in my ability and knowledge." The impact on their home lives also reflects issues in national evaluations. The main concerns centred on juggling competing demands and time. For some, managing work, home and the assessment schedule was stressful. There was also an impact on parent/child learning. One participant wrote:

"I have had to ask the children to help me as I developed my computer/internet skills which they enjoyed doing - they always wanted to know how I got on with my assignments. I think it has been a good thing to see an adult parent learning and doing their homework alongside me." Two positive measures of the impact on stage two participants are new employment and progression to honours level study (Table Two). This study compared favourably to the national follow-up survey (DfES, 2006d) with a higher percent gaining new employment, participants indicating the degree had given them confidence to apply. Table Two Employment and Honours Degree Progression

Participants New employment Progression to Honours degree

National follow-u up Survey

University Survey Stage Two

593

28

80 (13%)

11 (39%)

N/A

22 (79%)

While the national follow-up survey did not specifically ask about progression to honours level study, the majority stated they would pursue further courses in the future. In this study a high percentage actually progressed to the honours degree programme. As one participant stated: "This level of learning was something I did not feel I was ever able to

achieve." This is a view echoed by many of the participants and it fulfils the government aim that foundation degree students would progress to an honours degree programme.

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Conclusion This paper aimed to explore how a feminist perspective can support understanding of how higher education impacts on a unique group of low paid, low status, female early years workers. Data gathered aims to add to our understanding of how the government agendas of widening participation, lifelong learning and improving the standards of early years provision come together to raise aspirations for this gendered workforce. This specific research group reflects wider research findings; the enrichment of their lives is evident. They also provide data on how their specific engagement has had wider implications both in the home and workplace. It is therefore clear that on several levels, policy is having a positive impact in the early years sector. Whilst over a third of the research participants in this study have had their qualifications recognised through improved status and pay, this is not reflected in national surveys. This area needs government focus if the workforce is not to become disillusioned and disempowered. They deserve to have their raised aspirations met through improved employment contracts that recognise the investment they have made in developing their knowledge, understanding and skills. If the British Government continues with their failure to address the low pay and status issues inherent in this workforce, the newly skilled practitioners will find that the doors they thought would be opened are closed before they even start. References British Educational Research Association (2004). Revised Ethical Guidelines For Educational

Research. Nottingham: British Educational Research Association. Children's Workforce Development Council (2006). Developing the Early Years Workforce. [Accessed at www.cwdcouncil.org.uk, 5th January, 2007]. Department for Education and Skills (2003). The Future of Higher Education. Norwich: HMSO. Department for Education and Skills (2004a). Every Child Matters: Change for Children. London: HMSO. Department for Education and Skills (2004b). Foundation Degree Task Force Report to

Ministers: A Summary. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Department for Education and Skills (2005). Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the

Children's Workforce. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications.

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Department for Education and Skills (2006a). Children's Workforce Strategy: Building A

World-Class Workforce For Children, Young People And Families. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Department for Education and Skills (2006b). Evaluating the Early Years Sector-Endorsed

Foundation Degree: A Qualitative Study Of Students' Views And Experiences. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Department for Education and Skills (2006c). Evaluating the Early Years Sector-Endorsed

Foundation Degree: A Qualitative Study Of Employers' And Mentors' Experiences. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Department for Education and Skills (2006d). Evaluating the Early Years Sector-Endorsed

Foundation Degree: Report Of The Follow-Up Student Survey. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills Publications. Hargreaves, L. and Hopper, B. (2006). Early Years, Low Status? Early Years Teachers' Perceptions of Their Occupational Status. Early Years, Vol. 26, No. 2, July 2006, pp. 171186. Karstadt, L., Lilley, T. and Miller, L. (2003). Profession Roles In Early Childhood (in) Devereux, J. and Miller, L. (2003) Working With Children In The Early Years. London: David Fulton Publishers. Hevey, D. and Lumsden, E. (2007). The Early Years Professional. Paper presented at the CECDE Conference Vision into Practice, Dublin Castle, 9th February 2007. Kitzinger, C. (2004). Feminist Approaches (in) Searle, C., Gabo, G., Gubrium, J. and Silverman, D. (Eds.) Qualitative Research in Practice. London: Sage, pp. 125-40. Moyles, J. (2001). Passion, Paradox and Professionalism In Early Years Education. Early

Years, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 81-95. O'Hara, M. and Bingham, R. (2004). Widening Participation On Early Childhood Studies Degrees And Early Years Education Degrees. Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 207-217. Osgood, J. (2006). Professionalism and Performativity: The Feminist Challenge Facing Early Years Practitioners. Early Years, Vol 26, No. 2, pp. 187-199.

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Ramazanoglu, C. and Holland, J. (2002). Feminist Methodology: Challenges and Choices. London: Sage Publications. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of PreSchool Education (EPPE) Project: Technical Paper 12 The Final

Report: Effective PreSchool Education. London: DfES / Institute of Education, University of London. Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2001). An Ethnographic Approach To Researching Young Children's Learning (in) Doing Early Childhood Research: International

Perspectives on Theory and Practice. Buckingham: Open University Press. Sure Start (2003). [Accessed at http://www.surestart.gov.uk/publications/newsletter/ surestartnews/surestartnews9/, 28th December, 2006].

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Mirror, Mirror, On The Wall: Reflections Of The Early Years Professional Gill McGillivray What does the term 'professional' mean to the workforce in early years care and education? The need to ask such a question has been exacerbated by recent government policy development in children's services in England with the introduction of the status of Early Years Professional in 2006 (Osgood, 2006; Moss, 2006). This milestone provides an opportunity to reflect on the historical development of the workforce to influence the sector as it is today. Terminology that identifies those who are the early years workforce is confusing (practitioner, nursery worker, nanny, childcarer and more recently, the early years professional), so a multiplicity of titles may have contributed to confusion about identity, creating uncertainty as to what the various titles, roles and responsibilities mean. Literature The development of the early years workforce in England has been influenced by the historical separation of those who care for babies and young children and those who educate them (Sylva and Pugh, 2005). The history of childhood provides insight into past perceptions of children as small adults, in need of training in order to take their place in the world of 'grown ups' (Aries, 1962). Other images and constructs may enhance an understanding of how those who cared for children were seen as minders, a low status role that mirrored the low status of children in society. In the late 1990s, as part of the National Childcare Strategy (Department for Education and Skills [DfES], 1998), the amalgamation of child care and education was not without its challenges; pay, status and conditions of care services compared badly with those in the education sector who generally had higher pay, longer holidays and a shorter working day. Key events such as the Second World War and the death of Victoria Climbie have also had significant impact on demand and provision of childcare, and child protection respectively. Such events inevitably impact on the workforce too, as fundamental ways of working are challenged and can lead to problematisation. Tucker (1999) argues that problematisation arises from historical influences; media, research and policy portrayal. In the field of early years, current discourse relating to affordable childcare, the early years workforce, working parents and the effects (both beneficial and damaging) of childcare reinforces perceptions of the need for a workforce that is redemptive and offers the children it works with protection and safety (Cohen et

al., 2004). Social perceptions of children and childhood that have created

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problematisation for the early years workforce include early years care as gender constructs such as 'women's work' (Moss, 2003). A tension arises from the dichotomy between a workforce that is construed as caring, maternal and gendered, as opposed to professional, highly trained, well qualified and equal to teachers and nurses. Tucker (2004: 84) proposes that any framework that examines professional identity should be able to:

"assist analysis of those forms of discourse that are used to define particular forms of work; show how ideas are struggled over and contested at various levels of experience; and demonstrate how such matters directly impact upon the professional identities which individuals and groups adopt in their everyday work". In addition, Tucker (2004) offers a framework for analysis that identifies factors involved in the construction of professional identity (see Figure 1). Such factors are helpful in beginning to develop lines of enquiry for this research, and recur in Ellis and Whittington (1988) and Eraut (1994). Figure 1. Factors involved in the construction of professional identity (Tucker 2004: 88)

Use of ideological effects to shape the discourse of the 'official' (through social policy etc) to determine the potential 'treatment' of children

Link between prevailing discourses and contemporary priorities and practices

Professional identities

Influence of trainingchanging curriculum objectives and methods of assessment

Dynamic tension between 'macro' and 'micro' levelsroles, relationships expectations

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Eraut (1994) identifies the training and education that typifies professions, such as a period of time for learning the 'trade' and enrolment on specialist training courses. The increase in Early Childhood Studies degree courses available at Higher Education Institutions reflects the wider opportunities now available for training and development at higher levels for the early years workforce. Some key themes emerging from literature relating to professional identity were terminology (related to what name the workforce is known by); social policy and the economy and its impact on childcare and education (thus the workforce too); training, qualifications, education and continuing professional development; and issues of gender, status, power and relationships. Methodology Documentary analysis offered potential as a research method to explore text in the context of the above themes and prevailing discourses at different points in time. Fealy (2004) undertook discourse analysis relating to nurses in Ireland. He revealed how the public discourse was influenced by culture and socio-political influences, from his analysis of nursing periodicals from the 1920s to the 1980s. Fealy (2004: 649) sought text relating to "what nurses were doing and saying, including evidence of professional debate." This method offered a line of enquiry in the search for equivalent discourse relating to early years professionals. Language used in the context of the early years workforce set in a chronological context could illustrate changes in policy development.

"Discourse is a form of power exercised by particular social groups; discourse decides 'who' speaks and what they say, for no one has the right to say anything. …Hence power and knowledge are joined. As social practices put knowledge to work, it is the discourses that produce truth" (Swingewood, 2000: 197). Sources that provided historical documentary evidence of discourse pertinent to the early years workforce were selected, with the aim of asking the following key questions of the documents: 1. What terms are used to identify members of the early years workforce (who are not teachers)? 2. What levels of training, qualifications, type of employment, knowledge, understanding and skills and personal qualities are explicit or implicit within the documents? 3. What discourse relates to status, gender and power? Discourse It became apparent that the sources located for the earlier decades had scant mention of the early years workforce, other than teachers. Such a paucity suggests an invisibility, and

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that the children who were receiving care and education did so from an anonymous workforce, and thus there are implications for its identity. Table 1 below shows terms used to identify the workforce in texts. Table 1. Terms used to describe the workforce Decade

Terminology

1950s

Nursery school helper

1960s

Nursery assistants

1970s

Nursery matron, childminders, qualified nursery nurses, NNEB trained personnel, nursery nurses

1980s

Adults, other adult staff, nanny

1990s

Those working with young children, workers, professionals, nursery staff, staff, those working with under fives, nanny

2000s

Practitioners, nursery nurses, day nursery workers, early years workforce, early years professionals, pedagogues, 'new' teachers

The range of terms presented in Table 1 suggests change, ambiguity and uncertainty. If the terms used are considered in a chronological context, changes can be traced in response to key policy developments: the post World War 2 emphasis on mothers staying at home to care for their children; the expansion of nursery education in the 1970s; the National Childcare Strategy emerging at the end of the 1990s preceded by Margaret Thatcher's nursery voucher scheme; to the current workforce reform. Terms become more varied, general and generic, encompassing those members of the workforce who may be working in a voluntary or unqualified capacity. In the 2000s, new terms are introduced that have not been used before such as 'pedagogue'. Such breadth in an attempt to be inclusive could also create uncertainty. The Children's Workforce consultation (DfES, 2005) sought views on 'pedagogue' or 'new teacher' models: the title Early Years Professional was the outcome, rejecting both. Searching for textual discourse on issues related to being a professional (training, qualifications, status, personal and professional qualities, gender) identified in the literature provided additional insight. Table 2 indicates views held by academics, researchers, policy writers and others on such issues.

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Table 2. Discourse on Issues Related to being a Professional Decade

Text

1940s

"Women were carefully chosen for their personal and practical experience of the mothering of young children. Where possible they were womenfolk who had had children of their own, and whose children were growing up." (Stross, 1946: 701)

1960s

"The status and salary for aides and nursery assistants would be superior to that of welfare and meals assistants." (Plowden, 1967: 331)

1970s

"You are responsible and practical, with a sense of humour and a real liking for children - the naughty ones as well as the sweeties" and "It is a student's temperament that counts, along with good sense." (Elias, 1972: 14) "They are not grasping money (no-one gets prosperous on illegal minding);…they are providing a sadly necessary but very low-grade service." (Jackson, 1973: 523) "Some concern has been felt about the adequacy of existing courses for work which call for maturity, special skills and more than a little knowledge of child development and family relationships." (Kellmer Pringle and Naidoo, 1975: 132)

1980s

"Are you kind, loving, sympathetic and yet firm with young children?" (Turnor, 1984: 9) "Too often the nursery nurse issue is swept under the carpet …Nursery nurses host a cluster of grievances, both real and imagined, and imposed and self-inflicted." (Heaslip, 1987: 34) "We cannot ignore the importance of training as a source of information and ideas about child development and pedagogic techniques appropriate for children aged under five." (Osborn and Millbank, 1987: 45) "She must be warm and outgoing and sensitive to the needs of others. Coexisting with her maturity there must be a childlike relish for the joy of playing." (Henderson and Lucas, 1989: 96)

1990s

"A view exacerbated by differences in pay and conditions of employment between qualified teachers and permanent day nursery staff." (Audit Commission, 1996: 69) "The standards of training and qualifications should remain high at each stage. Working with young children is a complex and demanding task - it requires a team of professionals who are appropriately trained to adopt a variety of roles and responsibilities." (Ball, 1994: 58)

2000s

"We need to do more to ensure that working with children is seen as an attractive career, and improve skills and inter-professional relationships. Many of those who work with children ….feel undervalued, and in some cases under siege" (DfES, 2003: 22) "Working with pre-school children should have as much status as a profession as teaching children in schools" (HM Treasury, 2004: 4)

Repeated demand for improved training and qualifications structure since the 1970s still remains and reinforces a sense of lack of action and strategy in addressing the need to improve training, qualifications and career structure for the early years workforce over past decades. Gender is inextricably tied into the early years workforce: if the workforce is largely made up of women, some of whom will be mothers, is there inherent tension between the role of caregiver to a child whose mother has left to go to work, and the role of mother who should be at home to bring up her children (Cohen et al., 2004)? Themes relating to personal qualities are the need to be maternal, sensitive, knowledgeable, to have an inherent 'talent' and almost to have childlike qualities

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themselves in order to be an effective worker. It could be concluded that prior to recent times, assumptions were made that it was only necessary to have such inherent qualities and be a mother to become a member of the workforce and not to be able to meet any other pre-requisites (Fealy, 2004). Conclusion What has discourse revealed in terms of insight into the professional identity of the early years workforce? The definition of what a professional is suggests that it requires a high level of training and education. This is an aspiration that is only now becoming within the grasp of the early years workforce. The unheeded demand for improved status and training however suggest voices unheard. Invisibility may also be sustained through lack of voice and presence in policy and discussion. Power and knowledge are implicit in the discourse presented in this research. Changes over time reveal knowledge that ranges from subversion (illegal minding) to resentment (having grievances about relative status compared to teachers, for example), to being expected to have a liking for children and play in order to become a practitioner. Siraj-Blatchford (1993) cites the vulnerability of women, the influence of media and modern misconceptions as exacerbating factors in the lack of status of early years work. Some (Liddle 2006) believe that being an early years practitioner is the same as being a parent, and is dismissive of the need to promote the status and training of the workforce. It could be argued that a struggle is emerging and the power to bring about change lies with the workforce and its supporters. References Aries, P. (1962). Centuries of Childhood. London: Cape Publishing. Audit Commission (1996). Under Fives Count. Management Handbook. London: The Audit Commission. Ball, C. (1994). Start Right. The Importance of Early Learning. London: Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. Cohen, B., Moss, P., Petrie, P. and Wallace, J. (2004). A New Deal for Children? Bristol: The Policy Press. Department for Education and Employment (1998). Meeting the Childcare Challenge. London: The Stationery Office.

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Department for Education and Skills (2003). Every Child Matters. London: Department for Education and Skills/ SureStart. Department for Education and Skills (2005). Children's Workforce Strategy. London: Department for Education and Skills. Elias, E. (1972). So You Want to Work with Children. Nursery World, 13th January, 2007. Ellis, R. and Whittington, D. (1988). Social Skills, Competence and Quality (in) Professional

Competence and Quality Assurance in the Caring Professions (10). London: Chapman and Hall. Eraut, M. (1994). Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence. London: Routledge Falmer. Fealy, G. M. (2004). 'The Good Nurse': Visions and Values in Images of the Nurse. Journal

of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 649 - 656. Heaslip, P. (1987). Does the Glass Slipper Fit Cinderella? Nursery Teachers and Their Training (in) Clark, M. M. (Ed.) Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships in the Education

of Young Children. Occasional Publication No. 13. Educational Review. Faculty of Education, University of Birmingham. Henderson, A. and Lucas, J. (1989). Pre-school Playgroups: The Handbook. London: Unwin. HM Treasury (2004). Choice for Parents, The Best Start for Children: A Ten-year Strategy

for Children. London: HM Treasury. Jackson, B. (1973). The Childminders. New Society. 29th November, 2006. Kellmer Pringle, M. and Naidoo, S. (1975). Early Child Care in Britain. London: Gordon and Breach. Liddle, R. (2006). Stupidity Has Its Place. The Sunday Times, 6th August, 2006. Moss, P. (2003). Beyond Caring: The Case for Reforming the Childcare and Early Years

Workforce. Facing the Future Policy Paper No 5. London: Daycare Trust. Moss, P. (2006). Structures, Understandings and Discourses: Possibilities for Re-envisioning the Early Childhood Worker. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 30 - 41.

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Osborn, A. F. and Millbank, J. E. (1987). The Effects of Early Education. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Osgood, J. (2006). Deconstructing Professionalism in Early Childhood Education: Resisting the Regulatory Gaze. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 5 - 14. Plowden, B. (1967). Children and Their Primary Schools. London: HMSO. Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1993). Educational Research and Reform: Some Implications for the Professional Identity of Early Years Teachers. British Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 393 - 408. Stross, B. (1946). Young Children (Care and Education). Parliamentary Debates 6th December. Hansard. Fifth Series, Vol. 431. Swingewood, A. (2000). A Short History of Sociological Thought. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Sylva, K. and Pugh, G. (2005). Transforming the Early Years in England. Oxford Review of

Education, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 11 - 27. Tucker, S. (1999). Making the Link: Dual 'Problematisation', Discourse and Work with Young People. Journal of Youth Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 283 - 295. Tucker, S. (2004). Youth Working: Professional Identities Given, Received or Contested? (in) Roche, J., Tucker, S., Thomson, R. and Flynn, R. (Eds.) Youth in Society. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications. Turnor, M. (1984). So You Want to be a Nannie? Nursery World, 24th May, 1984.

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Towards the Development of a Professional Development Portfolio for Childcare Practitioners Rosemary Murphy Introduction The development of a professional development portfolio for childcare practitioners has evolved from research carried out and published by Waterford County and City Childcare Committees in 2005. The research entitled Professional Development in the Childcare

Sector in Waterford City & County: A Discussion Paper examined the levels of experience, training, networking, employment practice, pay and working conditions, trade union membership of both community-based and self-employed childcare service providers and practitioners. The objective of the research was to explore the factors affecting the professional development of childcare practitioners. The Professional Development Portfolio aims to provide a useful tool in which the childcare practitioner can collate his/her professional development. It is envisaged that the Portfolio may be used for the purpose of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) in the future. Findings from the Research The main findings from the primary research indicated that a high number of the respondents either held or were undertaking a nationally accredited childcare qualification, mainly a Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) level five award. For example, of 125 childcare practitioner respondents, sixty-six reported having a nationally accredited childcare qualification (NACQ) and thirty-six were currently participating in nationally accredited training giving a total of 102 practitioners holding a NACQ or currently undertaking a NACQ. The primary research results also indicated a high level of participation in local quality training (LQT) - for example of 122 childcare practitioner respondents, 116 had participated in LQT (Waterford City and County Childcare Committees, 2005). Fifty-two of the 115 childcare practitioner respondents reported that they attended seminars and conferences and fifty-six reported that they participated in a local service provider network (Waterford City and County Childcare Committee, 2005). Between ninety-five and one hundred per cent of all respondents, including childcare practitioners, community based and self-employed service providers agreed or strongly agreed that a professional body for the development of workers in the childcare sector should be established. Childcare practitioner respondents rated a code of practice, pay and working conditions, local quality/in-service training, NACQ and the number of years experience in childcare as the top five factors for professional development (Waterford City and County Childcare Committee, 2005).

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With regard to levels of experience, of 122 respondents, seven reported working in childcare less than one year, fifty reported working between one and four years, thirtythree reported working between five and nine years, twelve reported working between ten and fourteen years and twenty reported working fifteen or more years (Waterford City and County Childcare Committees, 2005). The findings indicate a fall-off trend after working between one and four years in childcare. This finding is of concern as it may indicate a difficulty with retention of workers within the sector. With regard to pay, twenty-five responses were received from practitioners who reported working full-time; of these eight fell below the recommended range outlined in the Border Counties Childcare Network (BCCN) Recommended Pay Scales for Early Years

Workers. Seventy-five responses were received from practitioners working part-time; of these ten fell below a rate of eight euro per hour (the minimum wage was seven euro and sixty-five cent per hour in May 2005). The majority of respondents were earning between eight and thirteen euro per hour (Waterford City and County Childcare Committees, 2005). With regard to having a written contract of employment, sixty-three percent of 105 childcare practitioner respondents reported having a contract in place. Of nineteen childcare practitioner respondents, ten contributed towards a pension. Twelve of 104 practitioner respondents were members of a trade union (Waterford City and County Childcare Committees, 2005). The strong level of commitment to ongoing professional development of the research participants is evident from the research findings, which show a high level of participation in NACT, LQT and networking events. However, findings with regard to the levels of pay and working conditions and the retention of workers are a matter of concern. The benefits and challenges and the need for professional development in the childcare sector are documented in a number of recent national publications and serve to highlight and strengthen many of the research findings. For example, the OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in Ireland states that;

"…the present situation of staffing and training in the childcare sector is unsatisfactory…. While strong efforts are being made to train and professionalize, the sector is still characterised by high staff turnover (with negative effects on young children), low pay, weak professional profiling, limited access to in-service training and limited career mobility." (DES, 2004: 83).

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Research carried out by the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE) concluded that;

"…the availability of a qualified workforce with clearly defined career structures, good terms and conditions of employment and regular opportunities for continuing professional development is fundamental to the development of quality in ECCE. …Professional practice in ECCE must be recognised, rewarded and supported. Clear career pathways, opportunities for education and training and a national code of ethics should be developed and implemented." (Duignan and Walsh, 2004: 101-102). Under principle four (ongoing quality development in policy, infrastructure and service provision) of the National Economic and Social Forum (NESF) Report it is recommended that;

"… a minimum standard of training for ECEC staff should be agreed and phased in over the next five years and that a national pay scale should be established for ECCE workers as a matter of urgency by the Department of Enterprise, Trade and Employment." (NESF Report No.31, 2005: xvi) Professional Development Portfolio for Childcare Practitioners The idea of the Portfolio is not a new one; many professions adopt the use of a portfolio to collate and provide evidence of ongoing professional development and the portfolio may be used by the various professionals to retain membership of the governing/regulating body. In developing the Portfolio, a Conceptual Framework for Professional Development (Graph 1) has been created to illustrate the factors impacting on the trend to professionalise. Graph 1 Status conferred by Society and State

Knowledge

Síolta, The National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education Reflective Practice

Employment Best Practice

Skills

Framework for Early Learning (NCCA)

Attributes

Child Care (Pre-School Services) Regulations

National Framework of Qualifications

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Knowledge, Skills, Attributes and Reflective Practice Professional development may be seen as a dynamic process of formal (e.g. NACQ), nonformal (e.g. LQT, networking) and informal learning (e.g. life and work experience) (National Qualifications Authority of Ireland [NQAI], 2005). The area inside the triangle represents the professional development of the childcare practitioner and includes the acquisition and development of knowledge, skills, attributes and reflective practice gained from this process. Policy Documents The professionalism of the childcare practitioner is strongly influenced by national policy and a legislation framework including Síolta, The National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (CECDE, 2006), the forthcoming Framework for Early Learning (NCCA, forthcoming), and by the Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (Department of Health and Children [DHC], 2006) which clearly set out the recommended and regulatory principles and standards for best practice. Status The status of women, children and childcare conferred by society and the state is also an influencing factor. The role of women within the family is enshrined in the Constitution of Ireland (Articles 41.1.1, 41.2.1, and 41.2.2) (Government of Ireland, 1937) and within this context, childcare has evolved from the private and voluntary sphere, remaining largely the domain of women and holding a low economic value in society. The National Children's Strategy (DHC, 2000), National Childcare Strategy (Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform [DJELR], 2000) and the establishment of the Office of the Minister for Children provide a national policy framework for children and childcare. The Equal Opportunities Childcare Programme (EOCP) 2000-2006, introduced as an equality measure for women, provided a significant investment in childcare. All of these developments have helped to enhance the status of childcare in recent years. Employment Best Practice Since the introduction of the EOCP in 2000, a target of 17,000 trained personnel employed within the sector has been set for the period of the National Childcare Investment Programme (NCIP) 2006-2010. Both private and community-based childcare service employers and employees are bound by employment and equality legislation and as indicated from the primary research findings, there are a number of issues for concern with regard to levels of pay and the terms and conditions of employment within the sector. The importance of good terms and conditions of employment (Duignan and Walsh, 2004) and the need for a minimum standard of training and national pay scale (NESF, 2005) to support professional practice have been highlighted previously.

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National Framework of Qualifications The National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) set up under the Qualifications (Education and Training) Act 1999 (Government of Ireland, 1999) is responsible for establishing and maintaining the National Framework of Qualifications (NQAI, 2003) and for establishing and promoting the maintenance of standards of awards given by the awarding bodies e.g. Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) and Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) and for promoting and facilitating access, transfer and progression. The National Framework of Qualifications, operational since 2006, provides a ten level framework with an initial set of fifteen award types from a FETAC certificate at level one to a HETAC doctoral degree at level ten. The Framework facilitates the process of life long learning and provides a range of entry, access and progression routes for learners at all levels. Recognition of Prior Learning The Principles and Operational Guidelines for the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) in Further and Higher Education and Training (NQAI, 2005) provide the guidelines to the awarding bodies in the development of their policies and procedures for RPL. Training providers must now include a policy on RPL for entry/access to programmes, exemptions from programme requirements and access to full awards in order to meet their requirement for Quality Assurance and programme validation. RPL has been defined in the FETAC RPL: Policy and Guidelines (Draft) as;

"…a series of steps in the process to enable learners to gain recognition for prior learning for an award These are: i. Identifying the award ii. Determining eligibility iii. Analysis of knowledge, skill and competence iv. Gathering evidence v. Assessment of the evidence vi. Making a recommendation" (FETAC, 2005: 15). The Portfolio itself is an A4 ring binder divided into five sections - an introduction and Sections A-D: 1. Introduction 2. Section A: The European C.V./Europass 3. Section B: Skills and Knowledge 3.1 Child Development 3.2 Education and Play

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3.3 Social Environment 3.4 Health, Hygiene, Nutrition and Safety 3.5 Personal and Professional Development 3.6 Communication, Management and Administration 3.7 Supervised Practice 3.8 Full Awards 4. Section C: Employment 4.1 CV (shortened version) 4.2 Job Description 4.3 Person Specification 4.4 Contract of Employment 4.5 Salary Scale 4.6 Appraisal 5. Section D: References and Useful Contacts Introduction The introduction outlines the background and gives an overview of the Professional Development Portfolio. The introduction provides guidelines on how to use the Portfolio. Section A: The European C.V./Europass The Europass provides a comprehensive record of the practitioners' personal information, work experience (informal learning), education and training (formal learning) and competencies acquired in the course of life and career (informal and/or non-formal learning). Completion of the Europass is essential in determining eligibility for an award when used for the purpose of RPL. Section B: Skills and Knowledge This section is divided into sub-sections to include the core areas of knowledge and skills as identified in Quality Childcare & Lifelong Learning Model Framework for Education,

Training and Professional Development in the Early Childhood Care and Education Sector (DJELR, 2002). Waterford County Childcare Committee issue a Certificate of Attendance and Self-evaluation Form to participants in LQT courses/programmes/workshops, seminars and conferences. The Certificate of Attendance sets out the details and main content of the LQT, Conference/Seminar and can be used by participants along with the completed Self-evaluation Form to support evidence of learning. The Certificate and Selfevaluation Form can be included in the relevant sub-section of the Portfolio - for example Certificate of Attendance and Self-evaluation for Manual Handling or Food Safety Training may be included in the sub-section Health, Hygiene, Nutrition and Safety. Minor awards may also be included - for example, FETAC Level 5 Child Development may be included in the sub-section Child Development, or FETAC Level 5 Occupational First Aid may be

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included in the sub-section Health, Hygiene, Nutrition and Safety. Through this process, the practitioner builds up evidence of learning that may be used for entry/access to programmes, exemptions from programme requirements and access to full awards. Section C: Employment The section aims to raise awareness, promote and support employment best practice. Section D: References and Useful Contacts This section provides a list of references and useful contacts. Conclusion There is a strong level of commitment to ongoing professional development within the childcare sector in Waterford City and County as evidenced in the primary research findings. However, levels of pay and working conditions and the retention of workers is a matter of concern. There is a need for professional development in the sector highlighted by the findings from the primary research carried out by the Waterford City and County Childcare Committees in 2005. The Conceptual Framework for Professional Development aims to illustrate the factors impacting on the trend to professionalise. These factors are taken into account in the design of the Portfolio. While it is envisaged that the Professional Development Portfolio will provide a useful tool in which the childcare practitioner can collate his/her professional development and may be used for the purpose of RPL, significant challenges remain. Training providers are required to have RPL policies in place as part of the Quality Assurance and validation process, however the provision of information to key stakeholders and the training of suitably qualified personnel as RPL mentors, assessors and external evaluators will require an allocation of resources. It is hoped that the Conceptual Framework for Professional Development will raise awareness of the factors impacting on a growing professionalism within the sector and that the Professional Development Portfolio will provide a practical tool to promote and support the professional development of the childcare practitioner. References Border Counties Childcare Network. Recommended Pay Scales for Early Years Workers. [Accessed at http://www.bccn.ie/salary%20scales.htm, 16th November, 2006]. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006). Síolta, The National Quality

Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Chidhood Development and Education.

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Department of Education and Science (2004). OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in Ireland. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Health and Children (2000). The National Children's Strategy: Our Children

- Their Lives. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Health and Children (2006). Child Care (Pre-School Services) (No. 2)

Regulations 2006 and Explanatory Guide to Requirements and Procedures for Notification and Inspection. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (2000). National Childcare Strategy:

Report of the Partnership 2000 Expert Working Group on Childcare. Dublin: Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform. Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform (2002). Quality Childcare & Lifelong

Learning: Model Framework for Education, Training and Professional Development in the Early Childhood Care and Education Sector. Dublin: Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform. Duignan, M. and Walsh, T. (2004). Insights on Quality; A National Review of Policy,

Practice and Research Relating to Quality in Early Childhood Care and Education in Ireland 1990-2004. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Further Education and Training Awards Council (2005). RPL: Policy and Guidelines (Draft). Dublin: Further Education and Training Awards Council. [Accessed at www.fetac.ie, 16th November, 2006]. Government of Ireland (1937). Constitution of Ireland. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Government of Ireland (1999). Qualifications (Education and Training) Act. Dublin: The Stationery Office. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (Forthcoming). The Framework for Early

Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. National Economic and Social Forum (2005). NESF Early Childhood Care and Education

Report No.31. Dublin: National Economic and Social Forum. National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (2003). Policies and Criteria for the

Establishment of the National Framework of Qualifications. Dublin: National Qualifications Authority of Ireland.

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National Qualification Authority of Ireland (2005). Principles and Operational Guidelines

for the Recognition of Prior Learning in Further and Higher Education and Training. [Accessed at www.nqai.ie, 16th November, 2006]. Waterford County Childcare Committee (2005). Professional Development Portfolio for

Childcare Practitioners. Waterford: Waterford County Childcare Committee. Waterford City and County Childcare Committees (2005). Professional Development in the

Childcare Sector in Waterford City & County A Discussion Paper. Waterford: Waterford City and County Childcare Committees

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From Theory Into Practice; Teachers Supporting Children's Self Regulation In Conflict Situations within an Early Years Setting Sue Bingham and David Whitebread Introduction and Background

"Human relationships…are the building blocks of healthy development." (Shonkoff and Phillips, 2000: 4) Early Years teachers are pivotal in shaping a young child's first experiences of being in a society outside the family and in scaffolding their learning to adapt, cope and succeed in emotionally and socially demanding situations. The child's early learning of particular 'rules' for the classroom or school essentially becomes the basic framework for ways of behaving in general life, in any group, where the needs and desires of others as well as oneself have to be taken into account and reflected in behaviour. This paper reports a small piece of research in one early years classroom which explored the extent to which conflict situations can be used to promote young children's social and emotional learning. Social and emotional competence in the early years classroom requires children to develop emotional regulation, social knowledge and understanding, and specific social skills. A child's capacity for emotional self-regulation is essential to social competence and acceptance amongst peers because the skills of emotional control are necessary for managing aggressive impulses, responding appropriately to a peer's feelings, affirming friendships and co-operating within a group. Emotional self-regulation is also important for formal learning because capacities to follow instructions, focus attention and cooperate with teachers and peers in a classroom require feelings and behaviours to be managed. Conflicts are common in three and four year olds' peer relations (Parker and Gottman, 1989; Shantz, 1987), but they are rarely terminal to relationships and children of this age do not regard conflict as incompatible with friendship (Shantz, 1989). Because cooperative play occupies an increasingly central place in social relations, preschoolers tend to regulate their squabbles so that they do not undermine the broader purposes of working together. In this respect, peer social relations appear to evoke certain types of behaviour more frequently than do family contexts. Dunn (1988), for example, examined the use of reasoned argument by three year-olds at home with mother and siblings and by the same children when alone with a close friend. It was found that conciliatory, reasoned argument was more common in peer conflicts (at twenty-two percent) than in domestic strife (at nine percent). Not only does emotional understanding with peers enhance the incentive for pro-social behaviour and reduced aggressive conduct among

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pre-schoolers, it also contributes to the quality of social skills that elicit peer acceptance or rejection and fosters the emergence of lasting friendships in early childhood (Dunn and Herrara, 1997). In this sense, rather than being an entirely negative experience, conflicts between young children can be an important source of emotional and social learning. The key objective of the action research project reported in this paper was to support children within a particular pre-school setting in exercising control over their actions specifically within situations of conflict. Recent research has shown that young children are capable of developing greater self-regulation than previously thought in a number of areas of development (Bronson, 2000; Whitebread et al., 2005). The present project explored the extent to which three and four year-old children's emotional and social selfregulation can be enhanced by supporting them to resolve common conflict situations within an educational setting. An Example of Conflict: The Problem of 'Lining Up' During the course of the present project, a number of conflict situations were identified and worked upon. As a consequence, a particular methodology was developed which is exemplified here in relation to one situation, the problem of 'lining up'. This methodology consisted of the following elements: detailed observation and analysis of the conflict situation, and the children's conflict behaviour; presentation of the problem to the children; consultation with the children, leading to some proposed solutions; further consultation and evaluation with the children of the success of the revised procedures. Observations Video recordings, tape recordings and observations were made of the lining up routines and the types of conflict observed were categorised, as 'power struggles' (e.g. wanting to be the 'leader' of the line), 'possession disputes' (e.g. 'I was there first' or 'That's my space') and 'mild physical aggression' (e.g. pushing or barging into the line). Analysis of the observations of these behaviours revealed that children seemed to be confused about the objective behind lining up as well as the process of doing so. Some children evidently did not realise that they were supposed to go to the end of the line, some did not understand the concept of the 'end of the line', some children seemed to think they were being sensible by 'filling in' a gap in the line, not realising that others may see this as 'pushing in' and other children simply left huge spaces within the line for no discernable reason. Moreover, it was clear that, although the children used the term 'the end of the line' quite freely in telling each other how to queue up, many children had

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not yet grasped the concept of finding the intangible 'end', which led to many instances of 'pushing in'! First of all, the staff discussed some options surrounding the routine of lining up, to see what would be workable and how the children's forthcoming discussion might need to be shaped. The discussion even considered whether there is any real benefit to the young child in learning to line up appropriately at this age. It was concluded, however, that queuing is a necessary social competence with whose rules even a three year old child is expected to comply in the real world - at the supermarket checkout, or the ice cream van for example - and that the problem of lining up presented the children with an educationally valuable social and emotional problem. Presentation of the Problem to the Children Within the 'Feelings' Circle Time of the two weeks leading up to the 'Discussion Week', the focus had been upon 'being fair', in terms of treating other people as they like to be treated themselves. During 'Lining Up' time after Circle Time one morning, a situation was stage-managed, where the teacher commented on how many faces displaying 'negative feelings' could be seen and heard; some children looked cross, some sad and some children were even shouting or crying in the line. The question was posed 'What does this show?'. One or two children said that it showed that there was a problem, so the teacher asked what could be done about it. The children suggested talking about it, so everyone went back into the classroom and re-formed the Circle. Consulting the Children Analysis of the transcript of the consultation reveals that initially, the focus of the discussion time was on clarifying the objectives behind lining up. The reasons for going to the end of the line, what in fact constitutes 'the end of the line' or 'a gap' in the line, and the term 'pushing in' were all clarified through discussion: JT:

We could all go to the back of the line and if there's too much people, some people could go over there (pointing) so we could have a bigger line.

Teacher:

Good idea, James …I think you said you didn't want the line to be too squashy, so we could make the line longer, with enough space for everyone. Was that your idea, James?

JT:

Yeah.

Teacher:

So people aren't squashed?

JT:

Yeah. We could leave a gap if someone wants to be in the middle.

Teacher:

Hmmm. Gaps in the line make us muddled up. Sometimes when children come out from the loo, they see a gap and go into it. They think it looks like the end of the line and they get muddled up.

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IS:

Then some children might tell them they are pushing in.

JT:

But we don't want our friends to be squashed.

Teacher:

No, we don't.

HW:

How about if we just made a little space in between each person?

Teacher:

Shall I write that on our page of ideas? OK… Just a little space between each

(General 'yes' noises). person in the line, so we aren't squashed. IS:

Not big gaps though.

Teacher:

OK. (Writes) No big gaps in the line.

EMc:

When we squash people we might fall over.

FC:

We might fall over when we're walking. You might bump your head or get blood.

IS:

I hear people saying OW that's squashy.

In response to the issue about 'pushing in', one boy suggested having an 'end of the line person', to point out where there were gaps in the line and direct those children joining it where to stand. The children also decided that they wanted a line on the floor in the corridor, to mark where the front of the line was: IS:

Maybe we need something to show all the children where is the front of the line too. `Cause some children can't read their names like me.

Teacher:

Another good idea. I wonder what we could do?

HW:

We could make a sign.

Teacher:

Yes we could.

GC:

We draw a line on the floor like when we do the sweeping up when it gets sand on the floor. We could use the chalk.

WD: Teacher:

No - chalk goes away. Hmm. Yes, if all the children's feet walked on the chalk line it might get rubbed off.

GC:

We could use a teacher's pen so it don't come off.

FW:

We could put a sticker on the place.

It was agreed that the fairest way would be take turns as being 'the leader' of the line. The children asked that a list of the class be put on the wall and the names ticked off as each child had a turn day by day, so that they could see whose turn was next: Teacher:

I wonder how we could remember whose turn is next, so we don't forget or miss anyone out by mistake?

?:

Write it down!

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Teacher:

Oh, I heard another good idea then.

IS:

I said it!

HW:

We could do the register!

TE:

We could have one register for the front and one for the back.

Teacher:

Would that be a fair way to sort it out, Tim? (He nods). Yes, because some people like being at the back of the line and they want their turn.

HW:

And one for the middle.

Teacher:

There are lots of people to go in the middle, Henry, aren't there?

HW:

(After a little while…) Yes but only one leader and only one back leader.

Teacher:

So, we're going to have a list of all the Nursery children's names, so we can see whose turn it is to be the leader every day and we'll be able to see who has already had a turn and whose turn it is tomorrow. And another list for the back of the line. Does that seem a fair way to do it?

Evaluation After several days of trying out the new system of lining up, a second, impromptu consultation took place in which the ideas the children had come up with were assessed in the light of their implementation. This discussion came about when one of the adults spotted the 'leader' of the line for that day, walking along the line counting the children. When she asked what he was counting, he replied that he was counting 'smiley faces'! The idea of counting 'smiley faces' as a measure of the successful implementation of the new system was stunning in its simplicity and logic! The assessment of there being a problem with lining up in the first place had been to look with the children at how many faces were showing 'negative feelings' within the line-up. Counting faces showing happy feelings was a direct extension of the same idea and one which the children themselves could effect, making the measuring of success immediate and relevant. Discussion In line with recent work concerned with developing a pedagogy for self-regulation in young children (Whitebread and Coltman, 2007) the present project supported the view that, given the opportunity and appropriate support, three to four year-olds show a clear capacity for considerable emotional and social self-regulation. Key to the success of the intervention developed here was the identification, through careful observation, of a problem which was meaningful to the children, and the development of a process which supported the children themselves in articulating the nature of the problem and devising strategies aimed at its resolution. Once consulted, the children suggested ideas with a high degree of enthusiasm, originality and inventiveness, and showed the evident ability to collaborate effectively in a social group to solve their common problem.

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The act of articulating ideas and understandings, of putting into words how they went about things and what they wanted to do in the future revealed a great deal about the children's learning - what they found interesting, what strategies they used for making sense of the world and even some misunderstandings - and undoubtedly helped them to be more reflective and self-regulating in the conflict situation itself. In the process, the children learned that rules can protect as well as restrict and help a community to regulate itself. The consultation approach highlighted succinctly the relationship between individual and group self-regulation. The consultation process also appeared to very effectively bind the children together emotionally and socially, creating a real sense of community. The children also listened well to each other during each consultation process, which gave everyone time to reflect on what was being discussed. On several occasions, for example, one child endorsed and developed an idea or point of view expressed by another. Underlying the success of this whole approach, however, and perhaps most importantly, was the building of a relationship of trust and genuinely shared control between the adult educators and the children. References Bronson, M. B. (2000). Self Regulation in Early Childhood; Nature and Nurture. New York: The Guilford Press. Dunn, J. (1988). The Beginnings of Social Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Dunn, J. and Herrara, C. (1997). Conflict Resolution with Friends, Siblings and Mothers: A Developmental Perspective. Aggressive Behaviour, Vol. 23, No. 5, pp. 343-357. Parker, J. G. and Gottman, J. M. (1989). Social and Emotional Development in a Relational Context: Friendship Interaction from Early Childhood to Adolescence (in) Berndt, T. J. and Ladd, G. W. (Eds.) Peer Relationships in Child Development. New York: Wiley, pp. 95-107. Shantz, C. U. (1987). Conflicts between Children. Child Development, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 283 - 505. Shonkoff, J. P. and Phillips, D. A. (Eds.) (2000). From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The

Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Whitebread, D., Anderson, H., Coltman, P., Page, C., Pino Pasternak, D. and Mehta, S. (2005). Developing Independent Learning in the Early Years. Education 3-13, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 40-50.

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Whitebread, D. and Coltman, P. (2007). Developing Young Children as Self-Regulating Learners (in) Moyles, J. (Ed.) Beginning Teaching, Beginning Learning, 3rd Ed. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

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Listening for Children's Stories: The NCCA's Portraiture Study

Listening for Children's Stories: The NCCA’s Portraiture Study Paul Brennan, Mary Daly, Arlene Forster, Margaret Maxwell, Rosaleen Murphy, Emer O'Connor and Avril Sweeney Introduction The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) which advises the Minister for Education and Science on curriculum for early childhood, primary and post-primary education is currently developing the Framework for Early Learning for children from birth to six years of age (NCCA, forthcoming). The Framework is based on an understanding of children as being active in shaping and creating their own lives. This perspective supports the inclusion of children's voices in decisions which affect them as outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) (United Nations, 1990) and in the National Children's Strategy (Department of Health and Children [DHC], 2000). To this end, the NCCA has used a portraiture study to facilitate children as partners in developing the

Framework for Early Learning. The portraiture study is presented in Listening for Children's Stories: Children as Partners

in the Framework for Early Learning (NCCA, 2007). The study was undertaken to include the voices of children in the Framework for Early Learning and in doing so aims to ensure that the Framework will connect with the everyday experiences of children and early childhood practitioners in a variety of settings in Ireland. Using excerpts from the portraits, this paper identifies messages about children's early learning and development which will inform the NCCA's work in developing the national Framework for Early Learning. Portraiture Portraiture is a form of qualitative research enquiry. Lawrence-Lightfoot and Hoffmann Davis (1997) described it as a form of inquiry which bridges the realms of science and art and involves painting with words. Each portrait is placed in a social and cultural context and is shaped through dialogue between the researcher and the research participants. While portraiture has many similarities with other qualitative research methods, it has two distinguishing features (Lawrence-Lightfoot and Hoffmann Davis, 1997). The first is that portraiture begins by searching for what is good and healthy about the experiences of the participants. While portraiture has been criticised for this emphasis on the positive (English, 2000), this positive focus was ideally suited to the NCCA's priority to bring children's good experiences to the development of the Framework for Early Learning. The second defining feature of portraiture is that the researcher listens for a story whereas in other areas of ethnographic research the researcher listens to the story of the research participants. Again this was very pertinent to the NCCA's work given the age range and communicative abilities of the participating children.

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Ethical Considerations Given the young age of the children in the portraiture study (under six years) and the fact that the study involved the use of methodologies such as digital photography and audioand video-recording, the study raised particular ethical concerns. In light of this the NCCA drew on work developed by Landsdown and Lancaster (2001) to provide guidance on respecting different aspects of children's contribution. In addition, the NCCA's work was informed by the principles for best practice in child protection as presented in Children

First, National Guidelines for the Protection and Welfare of Children (DHC, 1999). The NCCA also drew on the work of Hill (2005) in developing protocols for safeguarding the welfare and protection of the children and the researchers1. Due to the ages of the children involved the issue of informed consent was especially relevant and children's participation was subject to their parents'/guardians' consent. In keeping with good practice and with the UNCRC (1990), children were also asked to give consent or assent as it is known in these cases (Murphy, 2005). Interpreting findings also posed challenges. The researcher in portraiture adopts an active, engaged position which involves participating in, identifying and selecting the story and helping to shape the story's coherence. This active engaged stance means that the self of the researcher is critical to the way of listening, selecting, interpreting and composing the portrait (Lawrence-Lightfoot and Hoffmann Davis, 1997). This subjective interpretation of the findings needs consideration. As Dunn (2005: 98) points out, researchers need to be "very cautious about making inferences of any generality" from naturalistic observations. However, as Dunn also points out, naturalistic observations such as those undertaken in the portraiture study are "an invaluable tool" as they show the researcher "what the

children themselves are interested in, curious about and amused by" (Dunn, 2005: 99). The completed portraits reflect the richness of the children's everyday experiences. While the individual portraits are deeply embedded in the socio-cultural context of the settings in which they were developed, and do not claim to be generalisable nationally or to represent best practice, they gave rich insights into the twelve participating children's experiences as interpreted by the NCCA researchers. Study Design Seven members of the NCCA Early Childhood Team worked with twelve children in the portraiture study. Eleven early childhood settings were included, as one portrait captured the experiences of two brothers in a home setting. Four girls and eight boys ranging in age from nine months to almost six years took part in the study. Settings were visited a maximum of six times during the period from April to June 2006 and the range of settings Note: 1 See Daly, Forster, Murphy, Sweeney, Brennan and O'Connor (2007) for further information.

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involved included a family home, two creches, a nursery, a childminder setting, a naíonra (an Irish medium pre-school), a Traveller pre-school, a Montessori pre-school, an Early Start class2 and two Junior Infant classes in the primary school. For reasons of confidentiality, names and other identifying details were changed in the finished portraits. Gathering and Interpreting the Information The NCCA's overarching question in the portraiture study was What are the children's

positive experiences in their particular setting? In designing the study, the NCCA drew on the Mosaic Approach (Clark and Moss, 2001) and used a range of methods to capture the children's experiences in their settings: Observation (researcher's own perspective) Photography (of and by the children) Audio- and video-recording (of and by the children) Child conferencing (interview with the child and a friend) Walking tours and mapmaking (the child takes the researcher on a tour and makes a map as a means of exploring the information recorded on the tour) Interviews with parents and practitioners Presentation of portraits The portraits were presented in three overlapping age groups as follows: babies (birth to eighteen months) toddlers (twelve months to three years) young children (two and a half to six years). The study included portraits of two babies, two toddlers and eight young children. Each portrait began with background information on the child and his/her setting. The child's experiences and reflections on his/her time in the setting were presented through the lens of the Framework for Early Learning's four broad and interlinked themes: Well-being; Identity and Belonging; Communicating; and Exploring and Thinking (NCCA, 2004). Photographs and quotations were used to illustrate some of the child's experiences. Findings Through their everyday activities and interactions with those around them, the children in the portraiture study conveyed a number of key messages to the researchers. These

Note: 2 The Early Start Programme is a one-year intervention offered in selected primary schools in Ireland in areas designated disadvantaged. The programme objective is to tackle educational disadvantage by targeting three to four year old children (in the year prior to school entry) who are deemed to be at risk of not reaching their potential within the school system. The programme is managed, funded and evaluated by the Department of Education and Science.

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messages connected with the findings from the NCCA's consultation in 2004, and with the extensive literature review undertaken in developing the Framework for Early Learning including a series of commissioned background papers. These papers included: Children's Early Learning and Development (French, 2007) Perspectives on the Relationship Between Education and Care in Early Childhood (Hayes, 2007) Play as a Context for Early Learning and Development (Kernan, 2007) Supporting Early Learning Through Assessment (under development). The portraiture study enabled the NCCA to 'see' the messages through the children's reallife experiences. In this way, the study will help the NCCA to ensure the Framework for

Early Learning is relevant and helpful to those who care for and educate children under the age of six years in Ireland. The researchers were particularly struck by the level of absorption and concentration that the children displayed when the significant adults in their lives interacted with them; when they were able to spend time on freely-chosen and carefully planned activities; and when they were interacting with peers or siblings. The portraits also vividly demonstrated the holistic nature of early learning and development; they showed for example how the children's well-being and identity underpinned the development of their thinking skills; how important it was for them to be able to communicate effectively with the important people in their lives; and how the different aspects of their experiences in the early childhood settings interlinked to provide a context for learning and development. Three of the messages listed above - the importance of relationships, play and communication - are now explored in more detail using excerpts from the portraits. Relationships Warm and supportive relationships are at the heart of early learning and development (NCCA, 2004). The researchers observed some of the close relationships the children had within their family and between the children and the adults and the other children in their settings. They noted how these relationships facilitated the children's learning and development:

“When his key worker picked him up, Cathal initiated a 'kissing' game with some lovely reciprocal exchanges, including laughing, giggling and delighted squeals. This one-to-one exchange within a trusting and secure relationship is important for Cathal's emotional safety and positive self-image” (Cathal, aged nine months). “Patrick and Seán's mum says that no one can love and care for the boys the way she and their dad do…They make a priority of spending time with each of the boys on his own. Mum plays with, reads to, listens to and talks to them. Dad takes the boys to

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the farm and also plays football with them in the evenings” (Patrick, aged four, and Seán, aged nineteen months). Play Play is a natural and universal medium for children's early thinking, learning and development and is central to their well-being (NCCA, 2004). While children learn much through unassisted play, learning is enriched and extended when the adult is involved. Play occurs in relationships between co-players, their actions and the meanings they coconstruct in a particular context. During the study, the researchers observed many examples of the children at play, indoors and outdoors, in both structured and unstructured contexts. The children frequently became absorbed in the play scenarios, and appeared to thoroughly enjoy the opportunities for learning and discovery that these presented:

“At News Time in Andrew's junior infant class, two children act as reporter and cameraman/woman. Andrew loves being picked to be the reporter … One day, Megan brought in a spotted toy dog. 'Where did you get your dog?' Andrew asked. 'In Wales', Megan replied. No-one, including Megan, was quite sure where Wales is or how to get there. 'It was dark', said Megan so the teacher took down the globe and they found Wales and Ireland on it” (Andrew, aged five years eleven months). “Caroline and Rory were at the water tray. They filled and emptied containers, poured water into the waterwheels and watched them turn. Rory picked up an orange ball and put it on top of the waterwheel. When Caroline poured water over it the ball rotated in place. They had discovered how to make it move using the water.” (Caroline, aged four and a half years). A number of the children in the study seemed to especially favour outdoor and physical play, as their obvious enjoyment and animation demonstrated:

“Alan kicked a ball at a target, retrieving it and lining the ball up to kick at the same target again. He was absorbed for more than ten minutes in the activity, clearly repeating and revisiting the same activity in an attempt to perfect his aiming skills“ (Alan, aged five years). Communication The ability to communicate is at the very heart of early learning and development (NCCA, 2004). Throughout the portraiture study, children were observed using various forms of communication including verbal interaction, movement, gestures, sounds and facial expressions to establish and maintain social relations with others, to express and to share their thoughts and feelings and to represent and to understand the world around them.

“When Amy dances, her whole expression changes and her sense of happiness and delight are clearly communicated.... Though her mastery of language is excellent she

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is quite reserved but through music and dance she gets the freedom to express herself through a different medium” (Amy, aged two and a half years). “Molly, Harry's Key worker, took his hand and began to play "Round and round the garden like a teddy bear", running her finger round the palm of his hand and then up his arm. When she tickled him at the end of the verse he laughed. She repeated the activity and then stopped. Harry waited for a response, and when none was forthcoming, he took her hand and put it back on his for the game to begin all over again” (Harry, aged three years). Applying Portraiture to Assessment Practice The Mosaic Approach (Clark and Moss, 2001) used by the NCCA in compiling the portraits potentially has much to offer practitioners in their work with children, particularly in planning for and assessing children's learning and development. The Mosaic Approach offers an integrated methodology for 'listening' for children's stories. This is achieved by combining the visual (photographs and examples of children's work) with the verbal (child conferencing and informal interviews with parents). Clark et al. (2005: 29) described the approach as a "strength-based framework for viewing young children as

competent, active meaning makers and explorers of their environment". Portraits like those in the NCCA study provide a narrative account of the children's everyday interactions, experiences and activities. The portraits provide a detailed picture of children over time and have potential to illustrate progress and achievement in children's learning and development. Building the portraits is a process rather than an end in itself, where practitioners are "researchers and assessment is research" (Clark et. al. 2005: 141). Portraiture involves the practitioner describing the child's learning and development in terms of what is good and healthy - what the child can do. Carr (2001: 11) described the narrative approach to assessment as a credit model which started with a positive image of the child as an active learner with distinctive strengths, abilities and interests. Similar to Carr's learning stories, portraiture enables the practitioner to foreground the child's positive learning dispositions, skills and attitudes, placing learning in a particular social and cultural context, at a particular time and in the presence of particular people and objects. It helps the practitioner to identify the child's current and future learning and development needs, and to plan ways of supporting these needs. Conclusion The portraiture study has enlivened and enlightened the work of the NCCA in developing the Framework for Early Learning (due to be completed in 2008). It has reinforced messages that emerged from the literature review about what is most important for early learning and development. It has enabled children to influence the development of the Framework. The researchers listened for the voices of children as young as nine months,

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as expressed through their actions, demeanour and behaviour, as well as in words in the case of the older children. By doing this, the study has helped to connect the Framework with the everyday experiences and realities of children and practitioners in a range of early childhood settings in Ireland. Finally, it has highlighted possibilities for the future use of the portraiture methodology in early childhood settings. References Carr, M. (2001). Assessment in Early Childhood Settings: Learning Stories. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Clark, A., Kjorholt, A., and Moss, P. (2005). Beyond Listening: Children's Perspectives on

Early Childhood Services. UK: Policy Press. Clark, A. and Moss, P. (2001). Listening to Young Children: The Mosaic Approach. London: National Children's Bureau and Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Daly, M., Forster, M., Murphy, R., Sweeney A., Maxwell, M., Brennan, P. and O'Connor, E. (2007). Children's Voices in the Framework for Early Learning - A Portraiture Study. An

Leanbh Óg, the OMEP Ireland Journal of Early Childhood Studies, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 57-71. Department of Education and Science (1998). Education Act. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Health and Children (1999). Children First - National Guidelines for the

Protection and Welfare of Children. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Health and Children (2000). The National Children's Strategy: Our Children

- Their Lives. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Dunn, J. (2005). Naturalistic Observations of Children and their Families (in) Greene, S. and Hogan, D. Researching Children's Experiences: Approaches and Methods. London: Sage Publications, pp. 87-101. English, F. (2000). A Critical Appraisal of Sara Lawrence-Lightfoot's Portraiture as a Method of Educational Research. Educational Researcher, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 21-26. French, G. (2007). The Framework for Early Learning: Background Paper.

Children's Early Learning and Development. Commissioned by the NCCA. [Accessed at www.ncca.ie., 12th January, 2007].

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Hayes, N. (2007). The Framework for Early Learning: Background Paper. Perspectives on

the Relationship Between Education and Care in Early Childhood. Commissioned by the NCCA. [Accessed at www.ncca.ie., 17th January, 2007]. Hill, M. (2005). Ethical Considerations in Researching Children's Experiences (in) Hogan D. and Greene, S. (Eds.) Researching Children's Experiences: Approaches and Methods. London: Sage Publications, pp. 61-86. Kernan, M. (2007). The Framework for Early Learning: Background Paper. Play as a

Context for Learning and Development. Commissioned by the NCCA. [Accessed at www.ncca.ie., 17th January, 2007]. Landsdown, G. and Lancaster, Y. P. (2001). Promoting Children's Welfare by Respecting Their Rights (in) Pugh, G. (Ed.) Contemporary Issues in the Early Years. London: Paul Chapman, pp. 40-52. Lawrence-Lightfoot, S. and Hoffmann Davis, J. (1997). The Art and Science of Portraiture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Murphy, R. (2005). Ethical Issues in Early Childhood Research (in) Murphy, R. (Ed.)

Exploring Children's Lives: A Handbook of Early Childhood Research. Cork: Early Childhood Research Unit UCC in collaboration with OMEP Ireland, pp. 169-174. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (2004). Towards a Framework for Early

Learning: A Consultative Document. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (2007). Listening for Children's Stories:

Children as Partners in the Framework for Early Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (Forthcoming). The Framework for Early

Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. United Nations (1990). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations.

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Advocating With and On Behalf of Children - The Barnardos Experience Norah Gibbons Introduction Corsaro (1997: 65) states

"Adults most often view children in a forward-looking way, that is, with an eye to what they will become - future adults with a place in the social order and contributions to make to it. Rarely are they viewed in a way that appreciates what they are - children with ongoing lives, needs and desires." Barnardos is an independent charity working with vulnerable children and their families in Ireland. It has operated in the Republic of Ireland since 1962 and is now a major contributor to the development of policy and the provision of vital services for children and families. Barnardos employs over 300 people and its work is further supported by more than 200 volunteers, from every age and background. Barnardos works directly and indirectly with over 12,000 vulnerable children and their families each year, many of whom have fallen outside traditional support mechanisms through poverty, educational disadvantage or social exclusion. Barnardos provides thirtytwo projects in Ireland, which are mainly based in areas that suffer from serious neglect and disadvantage. In addition, Barnardos runs a national information and resource centre for parents and professionals working in the field of child care. Barnardos' vision is an Ireland where childhood is valued and all children and young people are cherished equally. Barnardos' mission is to challenge and support families, communities, society and government to make Ireland the best place in the world to be a child, focusing specifically on children and young people whose well-being is under threat (Barnardos, 2005a). Barnardos Advocacy Department In 2005 Barnardos launched its twelve year strategy and investment programme which seeks to contribute towards building a society whose cornerstone is the needs and rights of children and young people. One new departure for Barnardos was the establishment of an Advocacy Department in order to ensure that the issues affecting the children and families that Barnardos works with were being raised at a national political level. Four priority areas were identified to focus the work of the Advocacy Department. These are: Child Poverty Child Protection Educational Disadvantage Alcohol Abuse

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Three cross-cutting concerns inform all Barnardos advocacy work: children's rights; implementation of the National Children's Strategy (Department of Health and Children [DHC], 2000) and the inclusion of all children in Ireland. Cohen et al. (2001: 7) define social justice advocacy as:

"the pursuit of influencing outcomes - including public policy and resource allocation decisions within political, economic and social systems and institutions - that directly affect people's lives." Cohen et al. further describe advocacy as a tool for challenging social injustice that seeks to shape the framework through which issues are seen and it aims to propel citizens, policy makers and Government towards taking significant remedial action in relation to an identified problem. It is not a one-off event and is part of a process of change. The definition developed by Cohen et al. encapsulates the two types of advocacy that Barnardos as an organisation is involved in. Case advocacy operates at an individual level and can involve Barnardos staff working with a child and/or family to influence the outcome of an issue specific to them for example, working with a family and a school to ensure a child does not get excluded from education or helping a family secure assessment and treatment for their child who has a language delay. Barnardos Advocacy Department on the other hand is involved in systemic advocacy which aims for structural change in policies, legislation and practice. The guiding principles that underpin advocacy activities are being solution-focused, coming from a position of expertise and experience, and being research-based and independent. Barnardos recognises that on its own it cannot achieve its ultimate goal to make Ireland the best place in the world to be a child. It works therefore to build and participate in coalitions and partnerships that have at their core a focus on improving the lives of children. Barnardos uses a range of targeted strategies, points of intervention and actions to pursue its advocacy goals, for example, researching and developing policy positions based on the experiences of the communities, families and children Barnardos works with. Real and meaningful participation of children and families is as important as analysing the external policy environment in arriving at a particular policy position that will bring real change for children and families. The approach is pro-active, co-operative, innovative and solutions-focused. Children's Participation and Consultation Central to the work of the Advocacy Department is ensuring that the voices, opinions and experiences of children are heard. The involvement of children in policy making and the development of participation fora is enshrined in the National Children's Strategy (DHC,

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2000) where the first goal of the strategy is to give children a voice in matters which affect them and to give their views due weight in accordance with their age and maturity. This goal mirrors Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations [UN], 1989). Some current national structures for participation include: Comhairle na nÓg Dáil na nÓg National Children's Advisory Forum Student Council Working Group Recent consultation with young people regarding the age of sexual consent (Barnardos, 2007) Among others, Hill et al. (2004) have argued that despite the rhetoric on participation, achieving a goal of meaningful participation of children in policy making remains as elusive as ever. Hill et al. (2004) usefully distinguish participation from consultation and suggest that participation denotes direct involvement in decision making while consultation is defined as seeking children's views through various means. Based on that definition, Barnardos uses both models. In its advocacy work, Barnardos consults children using a variety of methods including focus groups, interviews and workshop consultations and using different media such as discussion, written materials, art and drama work. Consultation with children and families brings a rich seam of understanding when researching an issue. For example, with regard to the issue of poverty, Barnardos have learnt that children, while rightly objecting to any attempt to hang a label of poverty on them, are well able to understand and describe the effects on daily life for children who live with very little disposable income. Hearing and representing those experiences helps Barnardos to influence and shift policy makers beyond a focus on traditional 'children's issues' such as child income support and provision of services directly to children to an understanding of how the public policies that affect the lives of children and young people cut across government departments. For example, policies developed and implemented by the Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government directly impact on the planning of areas, and on the housing in which children live. The key to effective consultation and participation is well planned preparation and trained staff. In keeping the best interests of children and young people to the fore, the following principles should guide all forms of consultation and participation: Consent - gaining formal consent from guardians / parents is essential. In addition, participation should be voluntary. Confidentiality - that anonymity will be guaranteed or if engaged in public consultation that the views of children will be used for the purpose intended only. Also

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that any engagement with the media by children and young people will be done in a respectful manner. Transparency - that the participants are aware from the outset what exactly is being undertaken and where their contribution fits in. Equality and Inclusion - that participation in the consultation would be available to all children who are interested in it. Respect and Integrity - that their views would be taken seriously rather than being a tokenistic exercise. Feedback - that the participants would be informed of the outcome of the consultation. Below are two small examples of Barnardos experience of engaging in participation and/ or consultation with children. The first example, the Children's User Satisfaction Survey, can be described as participation in that children will be among the decision makers influencing the shape of service provision by the agency over the next ten years. The second model of consultation described captured the experiences and views of children which were used in an advocacy campaign to influence the public and national political spheres. Children's User Satisfaction Survey 2005 - Services The purpose of the Children's User Satisfaction Survey was to find out what children in Barnardos services thought of the services available to them and what, if any, changes they would like to see in the way that services are delivered. A self-completion survey was considered the most appropriate method for collecting information on children's satisfaction with services. This decision was made bearing in mind the strengths and weaknesses of the method. The strengths are that it is confidential; it is also child friendly; it requires voluntary participation and has limited staff involvement. However, it can also yield results that are not necessarily representative; there is limited quality control and participants must be literate in order to complete the survey. The survey was designed to capture the views and opinions of the children and young people accessing Barnardos' services. The questionnaire was made up of nine questions, all of which were open-ended. Children were asked to tell us what activities they participated in at the project, what they liked best about the project, what they liked least and what, if anything, they might change about the project. The questionnaire was distributed in bulk to each Family Support Project to invite all children to participate rather than choosing a sample of children. A total of 698 questionnaires were sent out and 172 were completed and returned; of this number 169 were usable. This final figure represents a response rate of twenty-four per cent.

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The survey found that children are in general satisfied or very satisfied with the types of services provided, the level of contact and support that they receive, and the way in which their needs are responded to. The findings of the survey, combined with ongoing service redesign and evaluation, is now being used to recalibrate services to ensure that they reflect the needs of the children and families that Barnardos works with and that they achieve the outcomes established. The ongoing full participation of children has been selected as one outcome that is to be measured over time. Seven Steps to Ending Child Poverty - Advocacy Barnardos launched a national child poverty campaign in October 2005 with the main objectives being to raise public awareness of the extent of child poverty in Ireland and to influence political decision-makers to take the necessary steps in the 2006 National Budget and beyond to end child poverty. To achieve this, a variety of campaigning tools was used including policy formation, multimedia advertising, PR and political lobbying. The public aspect of the campaign hinged on a call to action namely "One in seven children in Ireland lives silently in poverty. Give them

a voice. Yours." We told the public they could help make these children heard by signing the Barnardos End Child Poverty Petition on-line. The petition was then sent to a list of Government ministers with relevant portfolios as well as the Opposition spokespersons with relevant responsibilities for the areas in which we were seeking change. The Advocacy Department worked directly with some families and children through focus groups and interviews to hear their experiences and gain their opinions on the key public messages of the campaign, as well as the main policy recommendations. It provided an opportunity to ensure that the policy recommendations being proposed were grounded in the real lived experiences of the children and families Barnardos works with and to identify the real issues affecting their lives. In addition, interviews were held with some of the Barnardos' projects staff members to gain understanding and insight into the main issues affecting children growing up in poverty. Priorities and Realities Identified by Children and Families The following quotes illustrate some of the priorities that were identified and further developed through the focus groups and interviews. They clearly illustrate the day-to-day realities of living in poverty.

"I would love if there was more stuff for children to do like a playground but our area is not safe to play in." (Girl aged ten, Dublin). "Everything that you would like to do with your children you can't because everything costs so much. I would love to include my children but it is not possible on my budget." (Mother of three, Cork).

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"I get a loan of €1,000 from a loan shark for uniforms, books and other stuff." (Mother of five, Dublin).

"The child was living in temporary accommodation with both parents in a one bedroom basement flat which was dark, in a poor state of repair, sparsely furnished with no garden or outdoor facilities." (Barnardos' employee describes the living conditions of one three-year-old boy).

"My thirteen year old son has a hole in his eardrum that was discovered when he was seven. We were told they couldn't operate on him until he turned eleven, but he is now thirteen and we still haven't heard back. The hole is growing as he grows and is affecting his hearing and needs urgent attention." (Mother of five, Dublin). Campaign Outcomes Phase One of this ongoing campaign began with a national launch and the publication of the policy report Seven Steps to Ending Child Poverty (Barnardos, 2005). Some of the families who participated also engaged in media work highlighting the issues that directly affected them. Determining the effectiveness and outcomes of the campaign is a challenge for all advocacy campaigns because of the presence of so many other variables in the political, economic and social spheres. However, we can say that the campaign was influential in a number of areas which are detailed below. In addition, having the inclusion of the voices of the children, and the experiences of the families we work with added invaluable credibility to our recommendations and was commented on from a number of sources including political leaders. The key outcomes of the campaign are as follows: A number of the policy recommendations proposed in Seven Steps to Ending Child

Poverty (Barnardos, 2005) were implemented as evidenced by Budget 2006. Each Opposition spokesperson and almost every Minister targeted by the on-line advocacy petition produced a detailed response outlining their position on child poverty where previously there had been none. Some 800 people used the Barnardos website to email Ministers and relevant opposition spokespersons calling for Ministers to implement the Barnardos recommendations. In terms of overall public awareness of the issue of child poverty, Catalyst MC Ltd. (a market research and performance improvement service) who undertook pre- and post-campaign public awareness research, showed that the campaign message of 'Child Poverty' as an issue appeared to have hit home with a post-campaign result of seventy-nine percent, compared to thirty-eight percent before the campaign. Barnardos also received significant news coverage in the national and local print and broadcast media.

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The ongoing developments of the campaign and the subsequent outcomes were fed back to the children and families through the Advocacy Department working directly with the project leaders. Conclusion Advocacy in all its forms, at individual level or systemic level, is essential to improving the lives of children and young people. The involvement of children and young people through effective participation and consultation is crucial to ensure that the outcomes at an individual, national policy and societal level are reflective of their needs and rights. We as a society owe it to our children to listen to them and to enable them to make their voices heard. For Barnardos, advocacy is grounded in the services provided and in the lived experiences of children and families. References Barnardos (2005a). Barnardos' Strategic Vision 2005-2017. Dublin: Barnardos. Barnardos (2005b). Seven Steps to Ending Child Poverty. Dublin: Barnardos. Barnardos (2007). Barnardos Childhood Poll 2007- Views from Parents and Teenagers: A

Quantitative

Study.

[Accessed

at

http://www.barnardos.ie/publications/files/

advo_childhoodpoll2007.pdf, 6th April, 2007]. Cohen, D., de la Vega, R. and Watson, G. (2001). Advocacy for Social Justice: A Global

Action and Reflection Guide. USA: Kumarian Press. Corsaro, W. (1997). The Sociology of Childhood. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Department of Health and Children (2000). The National Children's Strategy; Our Children,

Their Lives. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Hill, M., Davis, J., Prout, A. and Tisdall, J. (2004). Moving the Participation Agenda Forward.

Children and Society, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 77-96. McAuley, K. and Brattman, M. (2003). Hearing Young Voices: Guidelines for Consulting

with Children and Young People in Relation to Developing Public Policy and Services in Ireland. Dublin: Open Your Eyes to Child Poverty Initiative. United Nations (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations.

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Listening With Children: Research, Policy and Practice Fergus Hogan and Máire O'Reilly

Introduction Irish social policy and legal systems have recently become concerned with children's rights, most notably children's rights to be recognised as persons. The United Nations

Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations [UN], 1989), the Child Care Act (Department of Health [DoH], 1991) and the National Children's Strategy (Department of Health and Children [DHC], 2000) together with the establishment of the Office of the Minister for Children (OMC) in 2005 and the appointment of the Children's Ombudsman (2004) have all underpinned the endeavour to give children a voice in their own right. While there has been some recent attention to hearing teenagers voices in research and policy formation, The Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE) has already recognised in their research strategy that: "the question of consultation with and

empowerment of children in the early years is largely underdeveloped" (CECDE, 2003: 2). This movement toward including children's voices in research has created a new demand for accessing children's narratives. However, the manner of engaging, listening with and making sense of children's views remains somewhat challenging. The Centre for Social and Family Research, Waterford Institute of Technology is focused on developing research methodologies that honour and hear the voice of the child as central to research, policy and practice. Central to our previous work (Ferguson and O'Reilly, 2001; Ferguson and Hogan, 2004) is the recognition of the importance of providing children with the opportunity to be included in research about their lives. This paper draws from our report,

Listening to Children: Children's Stories of Domestic Violence (Hogan and O'Reilly, 2007), highlighting considerations with regard to the ethics of interviewing children in such research and the consequent methodological issues involved. Developing Child Centered Research; Holding Children at the Centre of Domestic Violence Research, Policy and Practice Recent Irish research has highlighted the extent of domestic violence in intimate relationships (Bradley et al., 2002; Mc Keown and Kidd, 2003; Watson and Parsons, 2005; Buckley et al., 2006). However much of this research has focused on the narrative accounts of what professionals and/or mothers have to say about the effect of the violence on children (Abrahams, 1994; Edelson, 1995; O'Connor and Wilson, 2004). Much of this research can be seen as being child centred in that its central concern is the welfare and protection of children, however placing children at the centre of research is significantly different where their views and experiences of having witnessed domestic

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violence are directly explored. This research firmly views children as active agents in contemporary Irish society by privileging their narratives and interviewing them directly about their experiences. This paper is framed with a vision of children, even those who have, as in the case of our study, experienced violent and fractured childhoods, as being competent subjects in a social world rather than deficit objects to be randomly abused and manipulated. Notwithstanding this attitudinal disposition towards children, as researchers we struggled with issues of ethics, method and engagement and offer these struggles here in an attempt to further the development of collaborative research with children. Aims and Objectives of This Study The central focus of this research, commissioned by the OMC, was to gather original narrative accounts from children who have lived with domestic violence exploring (a) their experiences of the violence itself and (b) the types of service responses they found most helpful. Methodologically our study employed qualitative in-depth interviews with a purposive sample of key professionals (n=22), mothers (n=19) and children (n=22). Interviewees were sampled through women's refuges and support services after a careful process of negotiation with gatekeepers. The sample of children consists of twenty-two children and includes thirteen females and nine males ranging in age from five to twenty-one years. These twenty-two children were members of fifteen households; ten of the children had either recently stayed in a refuge, or were currently in refuge at the time of the research interview; eleven children were accessed through community support services; and one child was accessed through a residential unit. The sample reflects three distinct (if small) subgroups of children; (1) seven of the children were aged between five - eleven years; (2) twelve children were aged between twelve and seventeen years, and (3) three 'children' were young adults aged between eighteen - twenty one years, who reflected on their childhood growing up with domestic violence as a constant in their lives and the service responses. Ethical Issues Involved in Interviewing Children Sound ethical practice governing the inclusion of children in non-medical research has received very little attention until recently (Greene and Hogan, 2005; Guirin and Heary, 2006). Given the nature of this study, ethical considerations were paramount. Key ethical issues were; (1) Children's informed consent; (2) Issues of confidentiality; (3) Limits to confidentiality/Child protection concerns; (4) Recognising the possible impact of interviews on children.

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Informed Consent Perhaps one of the most challenging ethical concerns is obtaining children's informed consent. This raised questions such as; do children really understand the aims of the research? Do they feel able to refuse or compelled to participate as a 'favour' to a gatekeeper whom they have a relationship with? At what age can children make informed decisions? Hill (2005) points out that some researchers (although few) have rehearsed with children how they can say no. In this study, preliminary discussions with children provided a space within which children could say no. Alderson (1995) highlights how children's agreement to be involved in research must be open to review at all stages of the process. Thus we were extremely careful to practice process consent, whereby children can and indeed did exercise their right to withdraw from the study at any stage. Children were reminded as the interview progressed of their choices around what they were comfortable discussing. As outlined by Morrow and Richards (1996) ethical issues were considered at all stages of the research, "they are not

simply a preliminary stage or hurdle to be got out the way at the beginning"' (Hill, 2005: 65). Children were informed that they could terminate the interview at any stage, should only talk about issues they felt comfortable with, and should ask the researcher to 'explain more' or 'move on' if any particular questions were uncomfortable. Interviews were driven by the children themselves in terms of content and duration. Confidentiality Issues of confidentiality in social science research includes ensuring the anonymity and privacy of interviewee's details and narrative. In discussing confidentiality with the children themselves we carefully explained the aims of the research, who was commissioning the research and why; and that the interview would be taped and typed by someone other than the researcher. Assurance was given that only the researchers and the typist would have access to the transcripts. However we did clearly inform children that what they told us would be put into a report. It was extremely important to make children aware that what they told us would be placed in the public domain, albeit anonymously. Children were assured that what they told us, the researchers, would remain confidential. Children were also informed that what they said would remain

anonymous in the final report. Limits to Such Confidentiality/Child Protection Concerns Limits to confidentiality were also explained in advance of the interview with all participants including when child protection and issues of risk and safety are concerned. Within the Centre for Social and Family Research at WIT we adhere fully to the child protection guidelines outlined in Children First: National Guidelines for the Protection and

Welfare of Children (DHC, 1999). Thus as part of the process of seeking written informed

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consent we explain that where a child protection issue is raised with us in the interviews we will join with the interviewee in reporting the issue to the Health Services Executive. Recognising the Possible Impact of Interview with Children Given the sensitive nature of the interviews themselves and how we wanted to ask children about their experiences of living with domestic violence and also living with the range of service responses, we were conscious that such interviews may 'bring things up' for children and we were concerned to hold the interviews in a way that did not further hurt the children. A key ethical concern (of both the researchers and the gatekeepers see discussion below) was the potential to damage children through the research process. However we firmly believe that the time spent explaining and discussing the research with the children prior to the interview, the reassurance offered throughout the interview, and the time spent with children post interview, meant that every effort was made to minimise any potential negative impact. Notwithstanding these strategies, as researchers we can never guarantee that the research interview will not have a negative effect. However to exclude children from research on such grounds denies children a voice in hugely important debates about their lives. These central ethical considerations had a direct influence in how we developed our methodological approach to the research project. Methodological Dilemmas The aims of our study required a methodology that allowed us draw on the experiences of a strategically designed sample of children, mothers and key professionals. A qualitative approach was adopted, through the use of in-depth interviews, which provided rich contextualised data from children on their experiences of living with domestic violence and domestic violence services as they relate to children. Access/Gatekeepers: The sampling framework utilised purposive sampling which is designed to enhance understandings of selected individuals by selecting "information rich

cases, that is individuals, groups, organisations, or behaviours that provide the greatest insight into the research question" (Devers and Frankel, 2000: 264). Thus, the first phase of our recruitment was to purposefully target children, through their mothers, via the professionals working with victims of domestic violence. Before we met with any children we first had to meet with, and discuss in detail our research, with two sets of gate keepers, service providers and children's mothers. In doing this we also gathered rich data on this subject from both groups (which we draw on in detail in the full report). While this process was both a necessary and time consuming way into children's lives, it was not particularly fruitful in ultimately gaining access to children. In effect, negotiating two stages of gatekeepers in this way doubled the possibility of being refused access to

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children. In the first instance, professionals differed in terms of who they considered to be suitable mothers to refer to us; some believed that women and children currently living in a refuge were 'too vulnerable' to be interviewed for research. Other professionals felt that it was unethical to contact women and children who had left the refuge, either because they had returned to live with the violent man, or because the professionals wanted to allow the women and children some 'closure' to their experience. The complexity of ethical concerns resulted in a gatekeeper filtering process which ultimately dictated the overall sample profile. Setting and Presence of Other Staff All of the interviews were carried out in a site of the child and mothers' choosing, thus we held interviews in rooms provided at refuges, community centres and children's homes. We introduced ourselves to the children in the presence of their mothers and as part of seeking their informed consent we gave them the choice of being interviewed by either of the researchers (male or female) but we did not notice any discernable pattern in their response, most children said they did not mind. We offered to interview them in the company of their mother if they wished, but again children did not opt for this and interviews with them happened in rooms next to where their mothers were being interviewed. The availability of relevant child care professionals post-interview, should children be distressed by the research, was identified as an ethical requirement. All agencies that provided access to women and children were requested to provide such support, with any associated costs borne by the research. In some cases child care workers accompanied the researchers to children's homes or were available to meet with children in the relevant agency. Conclusion Children's capacity to reflect on their (sometimes painful) experiences was evidenced in this research. Accessing and utilising such reflections requires very careful consideration. Ethical issues were always to the forefront of this research, to the extent that key methodological decisions were made solely on ethical grounds. Notwithstanding these ethical concerns, the importance of understanding children's experiences, of often traumatic situations, from the perspective of the child cannot be over estimated. The voice of the child, in this research, has made a huge contribution towards our understanding of the impact of domestic violence on children and how we might best protect children and promote their welfare. The importance of including children in research as active agents rather than passive subjects is now recognised. The challenge for social researchers is to explore children's private experiences and present them for public debate using non-intrusive and safe methods.

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References Abrahams, C. (1994). The Hidden Victims - Children and Domestic Violence. London: NCH Action for Children. Alderson, P. (1995). Listening to Children: Children, Ethics and Social Research. London: Barnardos. Bradley, F., Smith, M., Long, J. and O'Dowd, T. (2002). Reported Frequency of Domestic Violence: Cross Sectional Survey of Women Attending General Practice. British Medical

Journal, Vol. 324 (7332), pp. 271-275. Buckley, H., Whelan, S., and Holt, S. (2006). Listen to Me! Children's Experiences of

Domestic Violence. Dublin: Children's Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2003). Research Strategy: A Work

in Progress. [Accessed at http://www.cecde.ie/english/pdf/research_strategy.pdf, 20th January, 2007]. Department of Health (1991). Child Care Act, 1991. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Health and Children (1999). Children First: National Guidelines for the

Protection & Welfare of Children. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Health and Children (2000). Our Children - Their Lives: The National

Children's Strategy. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Devers, K. and Frankel, R. (2000). Study Design in Qualitative Research - 2: Sampling and Data Collection Strategies. Education for Health, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 263-271. Edelson, J. L. (1995). Mothers and Children: Understanding the Links Between Women Battering and Child Abuse. Paper presented at the Strategic Planning Workshop on

Violence against Women, National Institute of Justice, Washington, DC. Ferguson, H and Hogan, F. (2004). Strengthening Families Through Fathers. Dublin: Department of Social and Family Affairs. Ferguson, H. and O' Reilly. M. (2001). Keeping Children Safe: Child Abuse, Child Protection

and the Promotion of Welfare. Dublin: A&A Farmar.

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Greene, S. and Hill, M. (2005). Researching Children's Experiences: Methods And Methodological Issues (in) Green, S. and Hogan, D (Eds.) Researching Children's

Experiences: Approaches and Methods. London: Sage Publications, pp. 1-21. Greene, S. and Hogan, D. (2005). Researching Children's Experiences: Approaches and

Methods. London: Sage Publications. Guerin, S. and Heary, C. (2006). Research With Children In Psychology: The Value Of A Child-Centred Approach. The Irish Journal of Psychology. Vol. 27, No.1-2, pp. 6-7. Hill, M. (2005). Ethical Considerations In Researching Children's Experiences (in) Greene, S. and Hogan, D. (Eds.). Researching Children's Experiences: Approaches and Methods. London: Sage Publications, pp. 61-86. Hogan, F. and O'Reilly, M. (2007). Listening to Children: Children's Stories of Domestic

Violence. Dublin: The Stationery Office. McGee, C. (2000). Childhood Experiences of Domestic Violence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. McKeown, K. and Kidd, P. (2003). Men and Domestic Violence: What the Research Tells Us. Dublin: Department of Health and Children. Morrow, V. and Richards, M. (1996). The Ethics Of Social Research With Children: An Overview. Children in Society, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 90-105. O'Connor, M. and Wilson, N. (2004). Safe Home: Sonas Housing Association Model of

Supported Transitional Housing. Dublin: Sonas Housing Association. Rice, M. and Broome, M. (2004). Incentives for Children in Research. Journal of Nursing

Scholarship, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 167-172. United Nations (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations. Watson, D. and Parsons, S. (2005). Domestic Abuse of Women and Men in Ireland: Report

of the National Study of Domestic Abuse. Dublin: National Crime Council & the Economic and Social Research Institute.

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Weithorn, L. A. and Shearer, D. G. (1994). Children's Involvement In Research Participation Decisions: Psychological Considerations (in) Grodin, M. A. and Glantz, L. H. (Eds.). Children

As Research Subjects. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 133-179.

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Diversity and Inclusion

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The Media Initiative For Children 'Respecting Difference' Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years Eleanor Mearns Introduction This paper discusses the pilot and evaluation of the Media Initiative for Children (MIFC) Respecting Difference, an early years programme designed to help young children develop positive attitudes to difference. The paper also discusses the launch of the programme in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland and the development of the training for practitioners and teachers implementing the programme in early years settings. The MIFC is an innovative programme which was developed by Early Years - The Organisation for Young Children (formerly known as NIPPA [Northern Ireland]) and the Peace Initiatives Institute (Pii, USA). It combines a series of cartoon media messages with a pre-school programme. Together they aim to build a better understanding among children of physical, racial and cultural differences. A more recently developed, additional media message, addresses bullying behaviours. The messages are shown on television three times a year with the aim of reaching the wider community and giving support to the programme. The cartoons are set in a play park and feature animated characters that young children are attracted to and can easily identify with. The cartoons focus on the experiences of the characters around exclusion and diversity issues. In the cartoons one character is initially left out of the play because they are perceived as being different. The messages in the cartoons are reinforced in early years settings through the use of resources including a DVD of the cartoons, puppets of the characters, jig-saws, feelings cubes, lotto games and activities around the resources that prompt children to talk about their feelings and attitudes to the issues explored in the cartoons.

Figure 1. The main characters from the Media Initiative for Children (© Pii)

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Background Although a number of studies have been published in recent years exploring older children and young peoples' experiences and attitudes living in conflict-affected societies (Koplewicz, et al., 2003; Connolly and Healy, 2004; Muldoon, 2004; Jones, 2005; McEvoyLevy, 2006), there is a lack of research on very young children's attitudes and experiences. The only such study relating to Northern Ireland is that of Connolly et al. (2002). It was this study that greatly influenced the development of the MIFC as it showed that by the age of six a significant proportion of children (one in six) were making sectarian remarks. However, it was decided that the development of the MIFC should not just address the issue of sectarianism but focus on all aspects of difference. Many early years practitioners were already working with children around diversity issues and it was felt that the MIFC would build on this good foundation. An Advisory Council was set in place from the onset, to oversee the development of the MIFC. Membership of the council is wide ranging and currently includes representatives from the Community Relations Council, two regional universities, Channel 4, the statutory sector, integrated sector, Northern Ireland Commissioner for Children and Young People (NICCY), Ombudsman for Children (OCO) and several Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) from Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Three media messages and curricular materials were initially developed around disability, race/ethnicity and sectarianism during 2003 and piloted in February/March 2004. An additional media message and accompanying materials were developed around bullying behaviours in 2006. A message around the Traveller community is currently being developed. Evaluation of the Pilot Programme The pilot programme of the initial three media messages was implemented in ten early years settings across Northern Ireland over a three week period. During this time, the media messages were also shown on television in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Evaluation of the pilot programme was led by Professor Paul Connolly from Queens University Belfast. The methodology and findings are summarised below: Methodology for the Evaluation The methodological approach took the form of a quasi-experimental design involving ten pre-school settings; five settings (n=95) undertook the pilot programme and five (matched) settings (n=70) acted as a control group. The evaluation measured children's attitudes before and after the implementation of the pilot programme.

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Before the programme was implemented in the intervention groups, children in all ten groups were shown photographs of a number of different children, including children wearing eye patches, children from the Chinese community, children wearing Celtic and Rangers tee shirts etc. Each child was asked which child he/she would like to play with. As the child pointed to a photograph, that photograph was removed and the child was then asked which child they would like to play with now. The removal of the photographs continued down to the last photograph. Photographs were also shown of a group of children playing together and one child looking on. Each child was asked if she/he knew what was happening in the photographs. Objectives Objective of the evaluation was to measure whether the pilot programme had any effect on the children's: ability to understand how being excluded makes someone feel ability to recognise instances of exclusion without prompting willingness to play with others, including those who are different to themselves. At the end of three weeks all ten groups were shown the same photographs again. Results showed a small but significant difference in the attitudes and awareness of children in the intervention groups as shown in the tables below. Table 1: Ability to recognise instances of exclusion without prompting

Table 2: Ability to understand how being excluded makes someone feel

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Table 3: Willingness to play with others, including those who are different

Table 4: Willingness to play with others, including those who are different Willingness to Play with Chinese Girl

Summary After just three weeks, the pilot programme was found to increase children's willingness to play with others, including some of those who are different to themselves. The children's ability to understand how being excluded makes someone feel also increased as did their ability to recognise instances of exclusion without prompting. See: www.piimifc.org for the full report. Feedback from Practitioners The feedback from the practitioners who had participated in the pilot programme was very positive. They reported that children had been very attracted to the media messages and the accompanying resources. They did however feel somewhat uncomfortable about implementing the third media message which addresses sectarian issues. Staff acknowledged that they needed more training and guidance in this area. As a result, a comprehensive programme of training and support has been developed. Programme Launch, Training for Practitioners and Partnership with Parents The training of early years practitioners to implement the programme is a vital component of this initiative and since the pilot, much work has gone into the development of this. Training currently consists of a two-day introductory course, which gives practitioners an opportunity to reflect on their own values, attitudes and prejudices as well as a chance to look in detail at the programme. Diversity is translated into practice as practitioners are given ideas to help them maximise the potential of the MIFC resources.

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A one-day follow-up course, designed to take feedback on how the programme is going and to give practitioners an opportunity to explore cultural differences in Northern Ireland is also available. This element of the work builds up practitioners' confidence and provides an opportunity to discuss cultural differences. It also creates a good model of communication across the communities. Since November 2005, the training has been delivered on a cross border basis. Early years' staff from more than 450 settings in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland have now completed the introductory training. Connolly et al. (2006) suggests that showing the messages on national television has helped to avoid the development of misunderstanding among the wider community about the MIFC as well as attracting the interest of young children. This has made implementing the programme in early years settings much easier for practitioners and teachers. Engaging meaningfully with parents and the development of a community outreach approach is another crucial component of the programme. Home-links exercises have been incorporated into the programme. Sample letters are provided suggesting activities to open up conversations between parents and children around feelings, disabilities, different sports and different cultural activities. Staff in early years settings are also encouraged to invite parents to view the media messages and resources to allay any fears they may have of their children participating in a programme addressing issues of diversity. It is also planned to increase staff training from three to four days in order to extend the section on working with parents. Conclusion A key objective of the MIFC is that children will have an opportunity to discuss similarities and differences between themselves, their peers, families and members of the community. Its aim is to enable children to effectively express feelings associated with similarities and differences including those of inclusion and exclusion and begin to understand the meaning of acceptance and respect for others. It is also hoped to make the training and resources available to every pre-school in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland in the voluntary and statutory sectors. New research in sixty settings in Northern Ireland and twenty settings in the Republic of Ireland will take place from November 2007. This research will be carried out over a six month period and will not only look at outcomes for children but also outcomes for practitioners and parents.

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The research carried out to date has shown positive outcomes for young children. The next phase of research aims to also show outcomes for parents and practitioners in terms of increased awareness of the importance of doing diversity work with young children and the types of approaches required. The main objective is to increase confidence among adults when dealing with diversity issues with children and to reduce prejudices held about others in relation to race, religion and disability. References Connolly, P., Fitzpatrick, S., Gallagher, T. and Harris, P. (2006). Addressing Diversity and Inclusion in the Early Years in Conflict-affected Societies: A Case Study of the Media Initiative for Children 1 - Northern Ireland. International Journal of Early Years Education, Vol. 14, No 3, pp. 263-278. Connolly, P. and Healy, J. (2004). Children and the Conflict in Northern Ireland: The

Experiences and Perspectives of 3-11 Year Olds. Belfast: Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister. Connolly, P., Smith, A. and Kelly, B. (2002). Too Young to Notice? The Cultural and Political

Awareness of 3-6 Year Olds in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Community Relations Council. Jones, L. (2005). Then They Started Shooting: Growing Up in Wartime Bosnia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Koplewiecz, H., Furman, G. and Goodman, R. (2003). Turbulent Times/Prophetic Dreams:

Art from Israeli and Palestinian Children. Jerusalem: Devora Publishing. McEvoy-Levy, S. (2006). Troublemakers or Peacemakers? Youth and Post-accord Peace

Building. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Muldoon, O. (2004). Children of the Troubles: The Impact of Political Violence in Northern Ireland. Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 629-642.

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Intercultural Books in Practice Máire Mhic Mhathúna and Úna Hill Introduction This paper examines the practical use of intercultural and multicultural books in Early Years settings in the Irish context. Mendoza and Reese (2001: 1) define intercultural and multicultural books as "picture books that depict the variety of ethnic, racial, and cultural

groups within society." Multiculturalism implies an emphasis on celebrating cultural difference, while interculturalism takes a broader view of culture and considers issues such as discrimination and racism (Murray and O'Doherty, 2001; Irish National Teachers’ Organisation [INTO], 2002). We use both terms in this paper and focus on picture books in particular as they provide a child-centred focus for input and sharing ideas with young children from birth to six years of age. The 2006 census (Central Statistics Office [CSO], 2006) tells us that Ireland has its highest population since 1861 and that migration is the dominant factor in this increase. This is a new experience for Ireland as we adapt to the scale and diversity of recent immigration and, is a very different experience from countries such as the U.K. and the U.S.A. who have experienced different patterns of immigration. Policy developments within the Irish Early Education sector also reflect changing Irish society. One of the core principles of

Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education [CECDE], 2006), advises that quality early childhood settings should provide rich and varied experiences which support children's ability to value social and cultural diversity, within the cultural heritage of Ireland. The

Diversity and Equality Guidelines for Childcare Providers (2006) published by the Office of the Minister for Children (OMC) refer to picture books explicitly and ask childcare providers to consider images, text and language when selecting children's books. Methodology Drawing from Irish and international diversity literature. a questionnaire was devised, piloted, and posted to seventy early years centres in the Dublin area in October 2006. The centres involved provide practice placements for Early Childhood Education degree level students in the Dublin Institute of Technology. While surveys can be limited by the scope of design and method, they may provide the best way to canvas widely within a particular cultural group (O'Leary, 2004). The limitations of this method are that we may be only hearing the voices of practitioners who have an interest in this topic or who wish to express their views. Responses from thirty-five settings were received or 50 per cent of those contacted. The responses to questions regarding criteria for selecting multicultural and intercultural books, the books recommended by practitioners and the parents' views will be discussed in this paper.

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Criteria for Selecting Intercultural Books Practitioners were asked to identify three important factors when choosing these books. Thirty five responses were received and following careful analysis, a number of common elements emerged: Inclusion: Twenty practitioners mentioned various aspects of inclusion. Diversity: Thirteen people mentioned diversity. Practitioners thought that intercultural books created awareness of and respect for other nationalities. Diversity in social backgrounds, family structures and skin tones should be portrayed, as well as those of the children in the group. Celebration/Information: Ten practitioners mentioned celebration/ traditions/information regarding people from other countries and cultures. Some emphasised customs, costumes and festivals. Others were more interested in general lifestyle; such as how people live, what they eat and what they wear. Stereotyping: Seven practitioners specifically mentioned the danger of presenting stereotypical images and stories to the children. They advised that people should be depicted appropriately and not just in traditional dress: "They should accurately reflect

other countries and religions." Equality: Five people mentioned equality. "Books should recognise equality with old and

young, disabled and able, colour and race." There should be no exclusion and they should be respectful of all. Story: Sixteen people referred to the story per se. The books should contain a good story of interest to all the children, based on experiences relevant to all young children. The

"multicultural aspect should be woven into the story." Age appropriateness: Fifteen practitioners cited age appropriateness as being important.

"The pictures and story should be attractive and developmentally appropriate for preschool children." Illustrations: Ten people referred to illustrations. They said that the illustrations should be colourful, realistic and positive. They should be large and clear, with real-life photos as well as illustrations. Language: Six practitioners referred to the importance of age-appropriate language. Some practitioners read books in different languages and showed the children different scripts

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e.g. Cyrillic or Arabic. Other practitioners found dual language books, with the text in English and another language, very good. Discussion on Criteria for Selecting Intercultural and Multicultural Books Following the survey and a review of literature, the criteria identified by the practitioners and by Irish and international authors on diversity were compared, to see how the perspectives of each group were reflected in the criteria they articulated. Practitioners and authors wanted a positive message to be given about diversity. They both warned about the danger of stereotyping and wanted people to be depicted appropriately in their everyday lives as well as at festivals or in traditional costumes. They both advised that books should feature the children of minority groups within the Early Years setting. Both practitioners and authors value multicultural books for the insights they can give to children in regard to valuing each other and the linguistic, religious, cultural, gender and class backgrounds in the setting and beyond (Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke, 2000). Overall, however, there was a greater emphasis on children in the practitioners' survey. They stressed that the story should be relevant to all the children in the group as well as reflecting the background of the international children. Some practitioners preferred a close connection to the children's experiences and others highlighted the importance of extending the children's knowledge. The age-appropriateness of the story and the text was a major concern of practitioners and many stressed the importance of finding good books with a story that the children were interested in and could follow. They also wanted books with large, clear pictures that the children could see. This emphasis reflects the experience of practitioners in reading stories to children. Clearly, the story must hold children's attention if the session is to proceed smoothly and a good storyline must be a priority with intercultural as well as all other types of books. The criteria in the literature tended to be more issue focused. Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke (2000), Murray and O'Doherty (2001) and Mendoza and Reese (2001) ask if minority groups outside the early years setting are portrayed in the books. Derman-Sparks (1989), Dau (2001) and OMC (2006) include gender issues and children with additional needs. Power is discussed in the literature from a critical pedagogy perspective. Siraj-Blatchford and Clarke (2000) ask if the majority of ethnic characters always hold power and make the most important decisions. Mendoza and Reese (2001) and Willoughby (2004) raise the issue of the authenticity of the story and illustrations and warn that bias, stereotypes and misinformation may be hidden. Issues such as discrimination, racism and the use of the anti-bias approach to counter these prejudices feature strongly in the diversity literature by authors including Derman-Sparks (1989), Murray and O'Doherty (2001), OMC (2006) and Robinson and Jones Diaz (2006). One practitioner thought that such issues

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were related to the developmental stage of the children: "We would discuss issues like

this (discrimination) with the after-school children." There was a great deal of similarity between the practitioners and authors, with practitioners placing a greater emphasis on focusing on children and authors promoting critical analysis of the portrayal of diversity. This reflects the roles and concerns of both parties, with practitioners working directly with groups of children and authors trying to raise awareness of critical issues. Recommended Books Over fifty books were recommended. The full list of books that the practitioners recommended is available in the online resource section on the CECDE website (www.cecde.ie). There were more non-fiction than fiction books, thirty-three versus twenty-two. The fiction stories were either set in Africa, dealt with everyday experiences in children's lives in western countries, or were fantasy stories. Table 1: The five most recommended fiction books Title

Author, date, place, publisher

No. of recommendations

Handa's Surprise

Eileen Browne, 1995, London: Walker Books.

8

Handa's Hen

Eileen Browne, 1995, London: Walker Books.

4

So Much

Trish Cooke, 1996, London: Walker Books.

4

We're Going on a Lion Hunt

David Axtell, 2001, London: Ted Smart/ Book People.

3

Amazing Grace

Mary Hoffman and Caroline Binch, 1991, London: Frances Lincoln.

3

The non-fiction books dealt with themes such as celebrations, the lives of children around the world, skin tone, hair, religion, food and cookery, family structures and children's rights.

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Table 2: The five most recommended non-ffiction books Title

Author, date, place, publisher

No. of recommendations

Watoto Pack

Trócaire, 2002, Maynooth: Trócaire.

06

All Kinds of People

Emma Damon, 1995, London: Tango Books.

03

Children Just Like Me

Barnabas and Anabel Kindersley, 1995, London: Dorling Kindersley.

03

Oxford First Book of Children of the World

Rebecca Treays, 2000, Oxford : Oxford University Press.

02

Wake Up World

Beatrice Hollyer, 1999, London: Frances Lincoln.

02

Discussion on Recommended Books The high number of information type books (thirty-three non-fiction versus twenty-two fiction) shows that practitioners view intercultural books as a tool to celebrate diversity, to inform and educate, and to widen the cultural knowledge base of the children. Marshall (1998) states that books can help children to appreciate their own uniqueness as well as the characteristics that make others unique and practitioners say that children are very interested in learning about cultural difference in a non-judgemental way, in aspects such as life-style, clothes, skin colour, food and animals. It would be easy to label such books are belonging to a 'tourist' or surface approach to diversity (Dau, 2001) but one practitioner said that some children in her group were delighted to recognise clothes, food and celebrations that they experienced on their visits to their parents' country of origin. Sims Bishop (cited in Mendoza and Reese, 2001: 5) sees a dual role for multicultural children's literature: it can serve as mirror or as a window. Children may see their own lives reflected in a book or it may be an image of someone else's life. In trying to avoid the danger of stereotypical portrayal of cultural diversity, we may be missing an important dimension of diversity, the portrayal and celebration of difference. Very few comments in the survey referred to issues of discrimination or racism, an issue which featured highly in the diversity literature outlined above. Yet many practitioners were aware of related issues such as stereotyping and the value of portraying a range of family structures and cultural backgrounds. It is extremely important that adults working with young children are aware of "the difficulties involved for children from marginalised

backgrounds, that all cultures carry equal status and that all children are equally represented and can feel that they belong." (Murray and O'Doherty, 2001: 42). However, theories of developmentally appropriate practice and other constructivist approaches to education advise that learning should be based on the children's prior knowledge and experience. Mendoza and Reese (2001) advise that it may be in the best interests of

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children to have a solid grounding in accurate, culturally sensitive images before attempting to deal with books that portray problems. The positive images can be seen as contributing to a body of prior knowledge, a base from which to question and critique bias. This last step of critical pedagogy (Ramsey, 2006) is a challenge for all settings and may be one that not all settings have considered. Parents' Reported Views on Intercultural and Multicultural Books Twenty-six people responded to the question on parents' views on their use of intercultural and multicultural books, out of the total of thirty-five settings. Ten practitioners said that they received positive feedback from Irish and newcomer parents about their use of intercultural books. "They (parents) always appreciate the children

learning more about the world around them." Eight practitioners stated that they had never consulted parents on this issue. Six other practitioners stated that parents rarely commented on book use. "Cannot answer this as parents rarely comment on stories." Ten practitioners responded to the question on the accuracy of the newcomer parents' home background. Three practitioners felt that newcomer parents were happy about the depictions of their home country/background but three other practitioners felt that parents were dissatisfied. One practitioner felt that the books they have did not reflect all the children in their services and that it was difficult to find books on countries other than those in Africa. Eight people answered the question on the accuracy of the portrayal of newcomer families in Ireland. Three practitioners felt that parents were satisfied with this aspect and one service described how they used photography to create their own books to reflect the children's experience of early childhood education. However five settings said that books did not reflect the families' current lives. Discussion on Reported Parents' Views The importance of the link between parents and practitioners is well identified in practice and research in Early Childhood Education and Diversity. "Establishing real dialogue

between service providers and families will help bridge the gap between home culture and the setting." (OMC, 2006: 28). Positive responses to this question were given by the settings that had consulted parents. As Seitzinger-Hepburn (2004: 65) states

"Parent-provider partnerships are crucial in being able to work together so that the early care provider can sensitise their approaches to the culture of the child's home and so that the parent can learn about the providers' practices to support child development." Fourteen services indicated that parents were not consulted or informed of their work in this area and nine settings did not answer this question, which may indicate that this is an area they should consider.

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Conclusion The practitioners who responded to this survey showed a great interest in multicultural and intercultural books. They viewed these books as a tool to celebrate diversity, to inform, to educate and to widen the cultural knowledge base of the children. They were also aware of the many issues which surround the use of multicultural and intercultural books in Early Years settings, including respect and equal representation of all cultures, the danger of stereotyping and the age appropriateness of the stories. Practitioners reported receiving positive responses from parents who were consulted about these books and this is an area that would benefit from further research. This consultation could address the issue of the authenticity of the portrayal of different cultures and offer opportunities to explain Irish culture to those new to the country. Based on the strengths, skills and knowledge shown by practitioners working with young children and the review of the literature, several issues in relation to training and practice emerge: In-service training needs to build on practitioners' experience and to take their views on what is appropriate for young children into consideration. The views of current practitioners should also inform pre-service education and training; Insights from international research and experience will continue to be helpful in analysing the dynamic Irish situation; Settings need to involve parents in the selection, reading and discussion of intercultural and multicultural books. Finally, we would like to thank the practitioners who responded to the survey very much for their cooperation. It is through such collaboration that progress can be made in relation to practice and research for the benefit of all children in Early Years settings. References Central Statistics Office (2006). Census 2006. Dublin: Central Statistics Office. [Accessed at www.cso.ie/census/Census2006Results.htm, 20th January, 2007]. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006). Síolta, the National Quality

Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Dau, E. (2001). The Anti-bias Approach in Early Childhood. 2nd. Ed. French Forest, NSW: Longman.

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Derman-Sparks, L. (1989). Anti-Bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Irish National Teachers' Organisation (2002). INTO Intercultural Guidelines for Schools.

Valuing Difference, Combating Racism, Promoting Inclusiveness and Equality. Dublin: Irish National Teachers' Organisation. Marshall, C. (1998). Using Children's Storybooks to Encourage Discussions among Diverse Populations. Childhood Education, Vol. 74, No. 4, pp. 194-199. Mendoza, J. and Reese, D. (2001). Examining Multicultural Picture Books for the Early Childhood Classroom: Possibilities and Pitfalls. Early Childhood Research and Practice Vol. 3, No. 2. [Accessed at http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v3n2/mendoza.html, 11th September, 2006]. Murray, C. and O' Doherty, A. (2001). "éist." Dublin: Pavee Point. Office of the Minister for Children (2006). Diversity and Equality Guidelines for Childcare

Providers. Dublin: Office of the Minister for Children. O'Leary, Z. (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Ramsey, P. (2006). Early Childhood Multicultural Education (in) Spodek, B. and Saracho, O. (Eds.) Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 279-301. Robinson, K. and Jones Diaz, C. (2006). Diversity and Difference in Early Childhood Education. Berks.: Open University Press. Seitzinger-Hepburn, K. (2004). Building Culturally and Linguistically Competent Services to

Support Young Children, Their Families, and School Readiness. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation. Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Clarke, P. (2000). Supporting Identity, Diversity and Language in the

Early Years. Bucks: Open University Press. Willoughby, M. (2004). Every Child Matters: Developing Anti-Discriminatory Practice in

Early Childhood Services. Dublin: Barnardos' National Children's Resource Centre.

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Moving Beyond Grimm's Fairytales for Representations of Black and White: Diversity as an Integral Component of Quality Provision in Early Childhood Education Maria O' Dwyer When considering quality and its axial position within the sphere of early childhood care and education, it is critical to bear in mind the evolving and transformative character of this quality - by its very nature, the concept of this quality is multi-faceted and interpretive. As Síolta, the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education (Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education [CECDE], 2006), demonstrates, quality is defined, supported and assessed through a series of inter-related Principles and Standards. This paper considers the use of children's literature as a pivotal tool in the application of one of Síolta's core Principles (Diversity), using one of the Standards (Identity and Belonging) as a demonstrative model for quality practice. It considers the traditional role of fairytales and folklore in early childhood education and explores their contribution to children's construction of identity, in an attempt to offer both the theorist and practitioner an insight into their role(s) in deconstructing the messages conveyed in such literature. Childcare and early childhood education have become political acts. Virtually every component of both is underwritten by rules of what is considered right and appropriate, as opposed to what is perceived as politically incorrect and/or controversial. This is particularly pertinent to the inclusion of diversity training and education, where practitioners often shy away from issues such as race, religion and disability, for fear of saying or doing the 'wrong thing'. Where no scripted curricula exist, there is a certain evident reluctance to explore such issues. It is therefore necessary to consider the interpretive, reflective role of the practitioner in such a situation. This is perhaps best illustrated by example, using Síolta as the model of practice, with children's literature as the medium of implementation.

Síolta outlines the Principle of diversity as being where “quality early childhood settings acknowledge and respect diversity and ensure that all children and families have their individual, cultural and linguistic identity validated” (CECDE, 2006: 7). Given the holistic and inter-connected nature of the National Quality Framework, this Principle can be further developed through any one of its Standards of Quality. Let us take, for example, the Standard on Identity and Belonging, which states that

“promoting positive identities and a strong sense of belonging requires clearly defined policies, procedures and practice that empower every child and adult to develop a confident self- and group-identity, and to have a positive understanding and regard for the identity and rights of others” (CECDE, 2006: 93).

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In encouraging the practitioner to consider how the environment reflects and promotes the culture and background of all children present in the setting, and promotes positive understanding for the identity and rights of themselves and each other, he/she is prompted to consider the books and materials used in the setting. Do they, for example, avoid the depiction of stereotypical role models and cultural images (based on gender, culture, age, ability etc.)? It is at this juncture that the discretion and experience of the individual practitioner comes to the forefront, as such a task is largely interpretive and context-driven. While the fairytale Sleeping Beauty, for example, may represent little more than a romantic tale for one practitioner, another might see it as the triumph of good over evil, with the former represented by all things white, the latter embodied by all things black. Such an apparent delineation may therefore represent stereotypical racism and so the fairytale is deemed unsuitable for young children. Similarly, the tale of the Three Little Pigs could be opened to such scrutiny: Is it just a tale of three good little pigs and an evil wolf or does it have obvious socio-economic underpinnings? Can the wolf not blow down the house of stone because it is a more expensive, and therefore safer, place to live? As over-stretched and theoretical as such debates may seem (especially when one considers the very young age of the target audience), they are nevertheless representative of the issues facing practitioners in the quest for ensuring 'political correctness' in the setting. After all, as Doran (2004: 66) points out, "cultural variations on

basic fairy-tale themes reflect the values and identities of the societies they represent". A snapshot of some popular traditional and new children's stories demonstrate the wholly interpretive nature of literature and its use with children: Dr. Doolittle (Lofting, 1920) and

Mary Poppins (Travers, 1934) depict the experience of colonialism as essentially positive, while the story of Tarzan is dominated by the necessity of good breeding - it is, after all, Tarzan's innate upper-class nature that enables him to overcome the social conditioning of being brought up by apes. Roald Dahl's Oompa Loompas in Charlie and the Chocolate

Factory (Dahl, 1964) were originally depicted as pygmies, while the 1980's saw a backlash against Noddy (Blyton, 1949), founded in the belief that two grown adult men (in the form of Noddy and Big Ears) sharing a bed had obvious homosexual underpinnings. Even Thomas the Tank Engine has not escaped such de-construction (Gibbons, 1995) - in one of the stories a rebel bus called 'Bulgy' (believed to be a front for 'Bolshie') is punished for daring to challenge the dominance of the trains, and calling for their revolutionary overthrow, ends his life humiliatingly as a hen house. The recent

Harry Potter (Rowling, 1997) phenomenon was not without controversy. Many Christian groups denounced the books as being more about the occult than magic, attributing its popularity to a paradigm shift from the social context that was the old biblical view (e.g. suggesting that it makes it more difficult for children today, with less biblical knowledge, to evaluate good and evil or to resist such threats to their faith).

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The essential point is that any piece of literature can be deconstructed. 'Hidden' messages can be found, gender disparity and racism can be evidenced, and underlying morals detected. Take, for example, Tolkien's Lord of the Rings (Tolkien, 1954) trilogy. On the one hand, Tolkien could be commended for his portrayal of strong female characters and the use of multiple races to convey his story, while on the other, his work could be interpreted as being inherently racist. He could be perceived as dealing in absolutes, which demonstrate a belief that race determines morality; if you are an elf, you are good. If you are an orc, you are evil. The challenge lies in determining what is both age and contextappropriate for children, by determining the extent to which they understand the various messages (perceived or otherwise) conveyed by the literature. In determining what is appropriate for use with the aforementioned Identity and Belonging Standard, a practitioner may find it useful to consider the developmental and socialisation stages of the children in the setting (ranging in age from birth to six years old). With such an age group, the 'collaborative classroom' approach to literature, bolstered by Booth et al. (1997), may be overly ambitious - though further group discussion about the story and its characters should be encouraged, the dualistic contrasts between light and darkness, black and white, or good and evil may well be lost on a fouryear old. Piagetan theory characterises children of that age as being unapologetically egocentric so unless they can relate directly to the story-line, their interpretation of it is largely surface. Their understanding of evil, for example, is based on personal fears and perceptions. Children are inevitably frightened by the idea of evil, and so are fascinated by stories which overcome this fear. They feel personally involved when evil is vanquished and good triumphs (the premise of most fairytales). They gain a type of control over a terror which seems to be lurking in the shadows, threatening them with what clinical psychologists such as Fuller (1999) refer to as 'learned helplessness'. The fact that every culture has its own variations of traditional and popular fairytales for children, which encompass that culture's core values and morals, is indicative of the relevance of the relationship between a child's sense of identity formation and literature. The surface of traditional fantasy, characteristically, is unreal; cars fly through the air, children walk through wardrobes and animals are imbued with human characteristics such as speaking, wearing clothes etc. Fantasy's depths, by contrast, are real, disclosing basic and balanced truths about people and life. Though brilliantly farcical or satirical, these works have the power to simultaneously teach and delight. Returning once again to Harry Potter (Rowling, 1997), there are clear examples of identity formation and recognition. At the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry (where the novels are set), adult authority is wise and benevolent. All of the story's child protagonists respect it as being the way society operates. Differences between worthy and unworthy adults or children are, in the end, unmistakable as elaborate rules govern the behaviour of the main characters.

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Children are taught to understand their own identity in relation to adults and adult authority, a fact mirrored in all early childhood care and education settings. Children gain security from knowing that there are certain standards that all of us are expected to live up to - literature reflects this by labeling the deviant from these standards as the 'bad guy'. As Fuller (1999) contends, good and evil are concepts that represent the essential rules of behaviour without which no society can survive. In addition to the concept of self-identity, Siolta's Standard on Identity and Belonging encourages the practitioner to consider the relevance of group-identity within the particular setting. Again, literature has a notable impact on this type of identity formation, as our identity is constructed in an ongoing mirroring process with others. To know who we are, we need to learn who 'others' are and vice versa. The skill lies in ensuring that we do not use binary oppositions to generate false 'us' and 'them' interpretations of identity. While some of these oppositions, such as the prevalence of truth over falsehood, seem reasonable, others (favouring white over black or masculine over feminine) may have harmful repercussions. As society is in a constant state of historical and cultural flux, the mirror images of ourselves that we perceive are being constantly altered. It is important that this ongoing redefinition is reflected in the selection and use of appropriate children's literature. The fear in deconstructing literature is the risk of alienation it inherently presents. By providing the kind of examples outlined above, has the practitioner been discouraged from (even frightened of!) using basic fairytales and folkore with young children? The hope would be that conversely, he/she has been made aware of the vast area of debate that could be opened by children's literature, and is therefore encouraged to be both reflective and realistically interpretive of its use in the setting. The Council on Interracial

Books for Children (2006) offers practitioners some functional guidelines when deciding on the types of literature to use with young children: Check the illustrations - look out for stereotypes, tokenism and gender-based role assignments. Check the story line for standards of success (e.g. does it take dominant, white behaviour standards for a person from a minority group to succeed?) and the resolution of problems (e.g. are the reasons for poverty and oppression explained, or are they accepted as inevitable?). Look at the lifestyles - when stories of 'home' are used, for example, are trailers included to depict Traveller lifestyles? Consider the relationship between people - how are family relationships depicted? In Traveller families, are there always lots of children? Is the traditional family always portrayed as two-parent? Note the heroes - each different ethnic group has their own heroes but are they represented in the literature chosen?

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Consider the effect on a child's self-image - are norms established which limit a child's aspirations and self-concept? What effect can it have on images of the colour white as the ultimate in beauty, cleanliness, virtue etc.? Consider the author's perspective - no author can be wholly objective (even within children's literature) as they write out of a cultural, as well as a personal context. In that sense, is the book overtly patriarchal or feminist? Identify loaded words - certain words ('savage', 'primitive', 'lazy' etc.) may have insulting undertones. It is important that they are recognised and discussed, to disband any stereotypes they may represent. Such guidelines are echoed in Síolta, where the practitioner is encouraged to reflect on their practice and experiences in the setting. The selection and use of books and materials further bolsters this need for self-analysis. Children's literature has never been richer, more challenging or more political. Though it has its opponents - Maria Montessori being among the most notable - the use of fairytales and fables continue to be one of the staples of most early childhood care and education settings. While many cynics refer to such literature as 'fakelore' (Singh, 1998), it undeniably serves its purpose in linguistically and pictorially conveying the moral messages and values of the culture(s) it represents. It achieves this by a variety of techniques such as labeling, narrative procedure, sustainable endings, the universalisation of values, euphemisms, metaphors and so forth. It is the responsibility of the individual practitioner to evaluate these techniques and their impact. References Blyton, E. (1949). Little Noddy Goes to Toyland. London: Sampson Low. Booth, T., Swann, W., Masterton, M. and Potts, P. (1997). Curricula for Diversity in

Education. London: Routledge. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006). Síolta, The National Quality

Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Council on Interracial Books for Children (2006). Ten Quick Ways to Analyze Children's

Books for Racism and Sexism. California: Birch Lane Library. Dahl, R. (1964). Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

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Doran, R. (2004). A Critical Examination of the Use of Fairy Tale Literature with Pre-Primary Children in Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood Education and Care Programs (in) Schonfeld, H., O'Brien., S. and Walsh, T. (Eds.). Questions of Quality: Conference

Proceedings. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education, pp. 62-69. Ernst, S. B. (1995). Gender Issues in Books for Children and Young Adults (in) Lehr, S. (Ed.).

Battling Dragons: Issues and Controversy in Children's Literature. New Hampshire: Heinemann, pp. 66-78. Fuller, R. (1999). Understanding Good and Evil in Children's Literature. New Horizons For Learning. [Accessed at http://www.newhorizons.org/lifelong/childhood/fuller2.htm, 12th January, 2006]. Gibbons, A. (1995). Once Upon a Time. Socialist Review. Issue 190, pp. 4-8. Lofting, H. (1920). The Story of Doctor Dolittle, Being the History of his Peculiar Life at

Home and Astonishing Adventures in Foreign Parts. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company. Malcolm, N. (1998). Children's Books in the Age of Pluralism. Youth Library Review, Issue 25, pp. 7-14. Rowling, J. K. (1997). Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. London: Bloomsbury. Singh, M. (1998). Gender Issues in Children's Literature. ERIC Digest, No. 135, pp. 1-4. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Lord of the Rings. London: Allen & Unwin. Travers, P. (1934). Mary Poppins. London: Howe.

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Co-EExisting with Different Cultures: Implications for Early Learning Environments Valerie Rhomberg

Introduction Gonzalez-Mena (2005) indicates that children learn about diversity through their interactions with significant adults, Crowther (2003) emphasizes how the learning environment where children play can assist children's knowledge of diversity, and Rhomberg (1999) points out the importance of providing children with daily experiences that foster the acquisition of diversity concepts. Hall and Rhomberg (1995) and Rhomberg (2007) highlight the fact that successful early learning environments which target the appreciation of diversity promote the ability to coexist with different cultures in infant through to school-aged settings. This paper examines components which facilitate the creation of learning environments that support holistic inclusion. It will provide some insight into the meaning/s of 'culture', suggest useful strategies and methodologies for co-existence with different cultures, investigate barriers preventing meaningful co-existence with diversity, explore how this affects and relates to early learning environments, and consider the direct impact evidence-based research results could have on program design and practices which support co-existence with different cultures in early learning environments. 'Culture' Described Any kind of discussion which involves the word 'culture' warrants a definition of the term 'culture'. For the purpose of this paper, 'culture' will be referred to from Rhomberg's (1999: 18-23) perspective: "concepts related to all and everything that has to do with

living one's life." These concepts, known as anti-bias/diversity concepts, or Areas of Bias, according to Rhomberg (2007) refer to a variety of dimensions, and are listed and described below:

Ability

physical, mental, emotional capabilities

Age

perception of what makes someone old or young

Appearance

body height, scars, burns, freckles or other bodily marks

Belief

religious, political, spiritual and 'believe in nothing' beliefs

Class

social and economic elements that indicate a person's status

Culture

common traits of living that are shared with members of the same group

Family form structure and composition of families and roles assigned within the family Gender

a person's sex, male or female, and roles assigned based on sex

Language

the spoken word and all of its global variations, scripts

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Lifestyle

ways of living one's life (e.g., on a boat, in a tent, travelling/nomadic, not related to class)

Race

a set of physical characteristics genetically determined, such as skin colour, hair; each race might incorporate many ethnic groups

Sexuality

sexual orientation and preferences (for younger children reflected through family composition, such as single-parent families, same-sex parents, a mother and father, etc.)

All individuals are due respect and acceptance irrespective of differences. Yet it is differences, as outlined above, which cause individuals to discriminate and be discriminated against. In order to co-exist with different cultures and avoid discriminatory behaviours, within the 'concept' framework of differences, professionals working in early learning environments must confront and challenge their values, beliefs and actions regarding differences and diversity. This will assist in attaining the goals and principles regarding differences/diversity on which early learning environments should base their program. To this end, Derman-Sparks (1989) identified four anti-bias goals and six principles. Goals and Principles Professionals who consider the following goals when designing the learning environment will create possibilities for co-existence with different cultures and diversity within those environments. The learning environment should: Promote positive sense of self but not superiority Promote empathy with diversity Promote problem-solving/critical thinking regarding differences Promote action when encountering unfairness related to differences Similarly, the following principles, if adhered to in early learning program models, will support the goals and result in positive co-existence with various cultures and the concepts related to these: A curriculum for every child: all children are continuously developing attitudes about people different from themselves An everyday integrated approach, not 'added on', diversity is reflected in every activity, equipment, staff and volunteers Avoid tokenism, reflects diversity by having more than one diversity concept Experiences/curricula are developmentally grounded: start with the issues arising from the children's attitudes, observations, actions, such as gender, age, ability and all the concepts related to diversity/anti-bias as described in the Areas of Bias Include teacher and parent as part of the process It takes time

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Each of the principles and goals is connected either to a physical environmental component or to an activity-related element. The goals in particular can be tied to specific skills, which in turn are linked to one or more developmental areas of growth. Acquisition of these skills takes place through a progression of stages. The first of these is Awareness. Awareness leads into Familiarity which then leads into attainment of Empathy and finally results in Activism. Meaningful Integration As with the acquisition of any concept, acquisition of those concepts associated with antibias/diversity depends first and foremost upon the creation of an awareness of these concepts. These progression stages can be achieved by exposure plus experiences to each of the areas of bias. In tune with the principles of Anti-Bias, this 'exposure' experience can be realized through the meaningful integration of diversity concepts and providing an holistic atmosphere within the early learning environment on a daily basis. An early learning environment devoid of any or most of the areas of bias concepts will prevent the co-existence with different cultures. What does this meaningful integration encompass? According to Rhomberg (2007: 17),

"An anti-bias method considers practices that build upon awareness and realization of self, then of others, moving onto recognition and understanding of self and others in relation to sameness and differences. This scaffolding builds upon exposure to'individual-specific' familiar concepts related to anti-bias/diversity and leads into experiences with unfamiliar diversity concepts. The intent is to integrate an 'unfamiliar' concept at each step, in order for it to become a 'familiar'." The anticipated outcome would be an empathetic and valued understanding and acceptance of all the diversity concept components. This would then enable a global understanding of people and items connected to them. How can professionals involved in early learning environments facilitate the possibility of implementing these anti-bias practices? What follows is an explanation of three methodologies: Incorporation, Personalization, and Expansion/Extension, as suggested by Rhomberg (1999), each of which can either be used on its own or in conjunction with each other, depending on the age/s of children served, and can provide approaches that will ease the implementation of meaningful integration. Methodologies Explained Incorporation approach: This approach can be applied to all ages. It is of particular importance when working with the infant and toddler groups, because of these ages' developmental inability to fully understand abstract concepts. Authors such as Bowman et at. (2001), who have studied

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Piaget and Vygotsky's works, as well brain researchers Shonkoff and Phillips (2001), indicate that direct experiences inform thinking and learning. The Incorporation approach requires exposure to one or more of the twelve areas of bias and previously described concepts, through inclusion of, or incorporation of concrete items, materials, toys, that realistically and non-stereotypically reflect one or more of the concepts related to the Areas of Bias. This exposure, from infancy on, promotes awareness of self and others, leading to positive feelings of self and a sense of familiarity about others. Seeing images similar to self and families reflected in items, helps foster a positive self concept in each child - the first goal of anti-bias. Exposing infants to items and encouraging interactions with items which encompass each of the Areas of Bias becomes crucial if we wish children to be familiar with and comfortable with diversity and eventually acquire empathy for others, the second goal of anti-bias. The ability to empathize eventually leads to the preschooler's and school-ager's capability to critically think about unfairness and advocate on behalf of self and others when in unfair situations, the third and fourth goals of anti-bias. Exposure entails concreteness. Concrete items reflecting areas of bias need to be available in children's environment on a continuous basis. Tied in with this is the examination of these environments to ensure that stereotypical messages, tokenism and exclusion of any kind are not present. Items such as puzzles, blocks, shakers and sensory materials are considered to have anti-bias concepts incorporated into them when one or more of the Areas of Bias can either be seen (e.g. family composition picture), taken in through the sense of smell (e.g. a spice in playdough), heard (e.g. the sound of an instrument or music/songs; another language) or touched (e.g. dolls of various skin colours/races). How many Areas of Bias any one item can depict, will depend on the age and development of the child. Through the incorporation approach, early learning environments can constantly expose the child to each of the diversity concept areas. Commonalities as well as differences will become part and parcel of daily life, making what could be perceived as something 'extraordinary', ordinary. Through ongoing design and delivery of developmental activities that naturally incorporate Areas of Bias reflective materials, children will eventually accept diversity as a natural part of life. Co-existence with different cultures is a natural outcome. Personalization approach: This approach can also be used with all ages and refers to the fact that actual, real

persons, 'representative' of one of the concept Areas of Bias, are invited into the program, and are encouraged, as well as given the opportunity, to interact with the children. This can happen through the person's involvement in the delivery of an activity. Examples of

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those who might be invited into a program include family members of children and staff, community organizations catering to the needs of specific groups as well as friends of a centre's families and staff. Thus, people of varying abilities, ages, races and cultures, reflecting each of the concept Areas of Bias can be present in a program. Active participation of persons reflecting global diversity not only exposes children to, and thus makes them aware of differences in people, it also assists in enabling familiarity with people who might not usually be involved in the children's lives. Positive interactions with diverse people provide opportunities for strengthening selfawareness as well as an awareness of others. Very naturally, similarities and differences can be explored; fear of the unfamiliar can be eliminated. Utilizing the Personalisation approach when involved in the design and implementation of activities will help achieve the facilitation of a positive self identity, and because of the personal aspect contained in the approach, will naturally lead children towards feelings of empathy and respect with people who are 'different'. The presence of a real person reflecting diversity, whose interactions with the children provide positive experiences, accomplishes the second goal of anti-bias: empathy with diversity. It could also lead into the third and fourth goals of problem solving/critical thinking about differences, and unfairness, and on action-taking that addresses unfairness. Whether these two goals can actually be achieved, will depend on the type of comments and questions from the children; this in turn will depend on the ages and experiences of the children. Thus, the Personalisation approach could effectively facilitate each of the four goals of anti-bias education. A word of caution regarding its use: whatever activities/interactions guests are invited to join in or lead, stereotyping a person into a particular 'niche' must be avoided. The intent of this approach is to enable children to understand that any person is capable of doing 'all that has to do with living'; that this is not contingent upon abilities, looks, social class, or any of the concept areas included in anti-bias education; that there are many ways of doing all that has to do with living: there is no one or only way of doing all of these. Therefore, if, for example, the plan is to invite a person who is older to be involved in a cooking activity, hopefully the same person can also be invited back to be involved in an active physical activity. This prevents acquisition of the possible stereotype that people who are older are inactive and sedentary. Sensitive reflection on the part of the practitioner is required when considering the Personalization Approach. Extension approach: This approach can be used with the preschool and school-age group only. The approach consists of the use of open-ended or divergent questions, such as, during a puzzle activity, 'do you think someone who is blind could do a puzzle?' that could catapult any activity into one of the concept Areas of Bias. In so doing, the approach promotes critical thinking

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and possibly pro-action to right unfairness and effect change that will respect and acknowledge differences. Because of the capabilities required to think and give answers to the divergent questions, it is inappropriate to apply this approach to the infant and toddler ages. When used in conjunction with the Incorporation and/or Personalization approaches, almost any activity can be facilitated in such a way that familiarity with many of the 12 concept Areas of Bias can be achieved with the implementation of a single activity. Potential Barriers There will always be barriers when attempting to implement any of the aforementioned. Some, such as personal values, tokenism, and stereotypes have been woven into the above discussion. Two others to be aware of are lack of appropriate anti-bias policies and lack of sufficient anti-bias concept reflective materials. From the results of a 2002 evidence-based research study, Rhomberg (2006) found that all participants faced challenges when attempting to implement anti-bias components, most notably lack of support from immediate supervisors, lack of appropriate materials and lack of supportive anti-bias content in policies. In addition, thirty one percent of respondents were uncomfortable with people of different faiths, sexual orientation, and families with same-sex parents. This would indicate that when professionals are planning for early learning environments, some would find it challenging to integrate content related to these subjects into their program, minimizing or excluding it. Implications For Early Learning Environments Co-existing with different cultures demands moving beyond the usual. It asks professionals working in these environments to constantly rethink, revise and react on new information and research and on informed and knowledgeable observations on their part. Kassotis (2003) proposed four keys for success, useful in attaining an atmosphere of co-existence with different cultures: creation of the environment, non-systematic implementation of concepts, systematic implementation of concepts and ongoing integration. Inclusion of these will create an holistic welcoming atmosphere for everyone; children, families, staff, volunteers and visitors. References Bowman, B., Donovan, M., and Burns, S. (2001). Eager To Learn: Educating Our

Preschoolers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Crowther, I. (2003). Creating Effective Learning Environments. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

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Derman-Sparks, L. (1989). Anti-Bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children. Washington, D.C.: NAEYC. Gonzales-Mena, J. (2005). Foundations of Early Childhood Education: Teaching Children in

a Diverse Society. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing. Hall, N. and Rhomberg, V. (1995). The Affective Curriculum: Teaching the Anti-Bias

Approach to Young Children. Toronto: Nelson Publishing. Kassotis, T. (2003). Four Steps to an Anti-Bias Playroom. Interaction, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 15 -17. Rhomberg, V. (1999). Anti-bias Curriculum Approaches. Interaction, Vol. 13, No.1, pp. 15 23. Rhomberg, V. (2006). Bridging the Gap Between Research and Practice. Paper presented at the 17th Annual EECRA Conference on Democracy and Culture in Early Childhood

Education, Iceland University of Education, Reykjavik, 1 September, 2006 Rhomberg, V. (2007). Nurturing Young Minds: Linking Brain Research to Antibias/Diversity Concepts. Interaction, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 17-21. Shonkoff, J., and Phillips, D. (2001). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early

Childhood Development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

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A Pedagogy of Connection: The Place of Play Carmel Brennan and Nóirín Hayes This paper emerges from a research project entitled ‘Partners in Play: How children

organise their participation in social pretend play’ (Brennan, 2007), an ethnographic, interpretive study designed to explicate how children develop shared activity and meaning in play. The data was collected in a preschool playgroup over nine months and consists of 196 documented (with video) play episodes. The research is located within a sociocultural perspective and proposes (1) that all learning is mediated by culture and (2) that children, through a process of collective interpretation and reconstruction, appropriate cultural ways of knowing and create collective understandings about discourses and practices that frame their lives together. How do children organise joint participation in play? How do they negotiate shared understanding of cultural values, roles, relationships and identities? The paper addresses these questions and draws on the research data (including video) to demonstrate the processes involved. The research has implications for the development of learning environments, at the physical, organisational and pedagogical level. The analysis demonstrates the role of play in children's learning and indicates the critical need to balance the individual basis of the traditional pedagogical approach with a pedagogy of connection, so that children (and adults) are empowered to contribute to the construction of knowledge. Theory and Methodology Background What Piaget (Piaget, 1937/71) sees as individual constructions emerging from the internal cognitive structures of the child, Vygotsky (1978) sees as, first and foremost, social constructions, subsequently internalised by the child. Post-Vygotskians (Rogoff, 1990; Cole, 1996) argue that the intermental and internal processes are concurrent and reciprocal. The individual and the social are in ongoing transaction. In the interaction moments, children interpret, reconstruct and internalise the intended and unintended lessons in how the world works: physically, socially, emotionally and cognitively. This appropriation process not only communicates meaning but provides the tools for the ongoing reconstruction and implementation of meaning and practice to meet the needs of changing groups and goals. Working with this perspective, the research views children as social agents with an innate drive to learn a culture and to share thinking with others (Stern, 1977; Trevarthen, 1998) and aims to focus on children as they appropriate from the adult world (1) the system of social relationships and interactions and (2) the cultural conceptual and symbolic system (Nicolopoulou, 1993).

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Sociodramatic play is a context and medium for exercising these drives, providing both motivation and opportunity to repeatedly reconstruct concepts, practices and relationships. Children bring their interpretations of the real world to their play and then the combination of pretence and exaggeration works to make their practices and meaning more explicit both for themselves and for the observer. Coordinating their contributions to create play stories involves adjustment and shared reconstruction of meaning. Transferring to new and varied pretend contexts and renegotiating with play partners is a learning process, involving moments of conflict and practical consciousness, when children struggle to accommodate and contribute to new meaning and demands. The methodological approach follows logically from the aim and theoretical perspective. Interpretive ethnography involves the study of the experiences, perspectives and actions of the research subjects in natural situations and treats the perspectives and actions as socially grounded both within the immediate contexts in which people live and work and within the wider framework of the society. The meaning created between people is not objective and is always open to subjective interpretation. The analysis offered here is largely the subjective interpretation of the researcher and dependent for validation on (1) rich description that locates activity within social goals and relationships (2) a prolonged period of time spent in the research setting that allowed the researcher to become familiar with the community and (3) triangulation supports such as participant observation, fieldnotes, video recordings, interviews and checking with children and staff and consultation with expert advisory groups. In the end, the research offers a particular perspective and the aim is to persuade the reader of the validity of that perspective. The evidence presented here is representative of extensive data collected (with the permission of children, parents and staff) over the academic year. This paper proposes to examine data collected (Brennan, 2007) to analyse the children's play to (1) demonstrate the process of appropriation (2) identify the interactional strategies involved and (3) consider the outcomes. It begins with an analysis of a play episode to explicate the cultural knowledge, complex goals and interactional strategies that contribute to the play development and to demonstrate key moments of appropriation. It then briefly reviews the data to explore the outcomes of appropriation in terms of children's conception and practice of gender differentiation.

'The Kiss': Summary In this play episode, Liam and Greg first opt to be workers and then 'Daddies', so that they can engage with Susan and Trudi as their two daughters. In the emerging play narrative, the two Daddies go to work leaving their daughters in bed. James intrudes on the play and is delegated the role of 'kid'. He is disruptive, steals a father's phone and has to be managed. Other children tease and look for a chase. The fathers return and Greg greets his sleeping daughter with a kiss, a source of embarrassment to Liam. Susan moves into

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housekeeping mode but Greg retains his fatherly power by giving directives and gifts. He then decides that he wants to stay in the homecorner and play with Susan so he changes, against Liam's wishes, to a 'brother' role. Subsequently, Susan becomes a robber who steals Greg's phone. Common Frames and Emergent Play Stories Common previous experience and shared patterns of play frame the play episode. 'Daddies going to work' is a regular play theme, as is shopping and domestic work. Such themes are facilitated by the children's common experience of home and parental work, the history of such play themes in the setting and the various combinations and permutations of players who engage. The play narrative, however, remains unpredictable because each enactment deals with changed circumstances, unexpected intrusions and contributions and consequent changed dynamics. Here, the children the workers meet on route, the play entry bid of James, the sub-clauses initiated by the phone theft and the partnership between Greg and Susan bring this play episode in new directions. The theme of 'robber' arises, for example, and in retrospect we can connect it to the central position of mobile phones in the drama because of James's ad hoc entry and theft. Each play episode, while sharing similar frames, brings new developments and demands new responses. Complex Goals As in real life, there are many concurrent plots and goals, and intersecting narratives. Trudi and Susan are in conflict because Trudi resents Susan and Greg playing together and is threatening to withdraw her friendship. This recurring conflict often fragments the play. On this occasion it remains a sub plot. James and other recruits are interested in a game of chasing. Liam wants to foreground his play partnership with Greg whereas Greg is more interested in playing with Susan. Play agendas, friendship agendas and power agendas compete for prominence. The children need to manage the complex goals and sub plots to develop a collaborative and coherent play theme. The following is a short excerpt from the 40 minute episode: Greg and Liam, the two Daddies, are building a wall. 'Kids don't come to work…go back home', they tell James. James brandishes a phone that Liam claims to own. He asks Greg to retrieve it. Liam to Greg

Get my phone off him

Greg tries briefly and then takes Liam by the arm: Greg

I'll buy you a new phone…

They return home. The two daughters are in bed. Greg

You kiss Trudi, OK?

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Greg kisses Susan. Liam refuses, covers his face in embarrassment and then catches Greg's eye. Greg is very embarrassed. He shouts at the girls to save face. Greg

Wake up you smellies…. Wake up…Wake up…Wake up, you deadheads

Susan, in a shy baby voice, tells him about her 'blankey'. Susan

I'm going shopping

Greg to Susan

Here's slippers, Darling…I'll show you how they fit

Cultural Knowledge In their play, the children give us many clues about their families and community. They have already appropriated a common cultural framework that now guides their meaningmaking and allows them to produce recognisable initiatives at action, verbal and emotional level appropriate to their roles. They are familiar with beds, cookers, microwaves, dishwashers and mobile phones. Within their roles, the children interpret and reconstruct discourses of work and gender and power. The fathers go to work and present as both powerful and caring. The pretend children don't go to work. They coconstruct themselves as less knowledgeable and in need of control and direction. The children demonstrate their awareness that body and verbal language convey status. Greg struts as the worker while Susan shrinks and giggles as the child. Status, for them, is further identified by such tangible features as clothes, tools, money and responsibilities. Mobile phones carry status and recognising technical and style features is important cultural knowledge in this community. These are concepts, practices and discourses that are abstracted from real life and recontextualised in the play narrative. The children may not consciously reflect on their behaviours but thinking and feeling in action is accompanied by shifts in consciousness and practice. Cultural Discourses The children recognise that there are social discourses which afford and constrain the agency of particular persons or categories of persons in social contexts. 'Kids don't come

to work - go back home' is an attempt to pull into line someone who has stepped outside the accepted discourse. Crossing the threshold of acceptable behaviour, as when Greg kisses Susan, instigates a moment of conflict and momentarily suspends the play frame. The limits of pretence are overstretched and the children are conscious of transgression. Liam and Greg both show their embarrassment. Greg's social alertness allows him to tune in. He notes Liam's hand covering his eyes and he reads his disapproval. The interaction is part of the developing discourse of gendered behaviour within this group, an interpretation from the adult world and reconstructed here. It is an interpretation made public, even to the children themselves, maybe for the first time. In the interaction moment between Greg and Liam,

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mediated by strong cultural messages, they negotiate the cultural meaning of such a kiss and in the same moment they internalise lessons about acceptable behaviour. Here is the foundation of both morality and social regulation. Greg is shamed by his faux pas, a strong emotional reaction that will ensure that he does not repeat the mistake. He immediately projects himself back into the public arena, where he instinctively knows that identity is created, to correct the identity misconstruction. He re-establishes his masculinity by roughly shouting at the girls, calling them 'smellies' and giving them further directives. These moments of crisis in the play instigate conscious adjustment and transformation. Interactive Skills How do these children connect on the intermental plane? Use of artefacts, clear actions and naming their initiatives with 'Pretend we're workers' 'We're the Daddies' 'The kid’s

gone with the phone' are devices for making their intentions legible and open to response. Demonstrating initiatives in this way serves, often unintentionally, as a way of self registration and as a way of connecting with others. It links others into their thinking and intentions and makes them predictable. Play partners must be able to read social cues. Then they can respond by following and extending the initiative. The more easily intentions can be read through action, verbal and emotional expression, the easier the collaboration (Aarts, 2000). Communicating initiatives clearly allows children to establish common ground, to coordinate their activities and to be agentive with further initiatives. These are the elements of intersubjectivity identified by Matusov (2001). Collective Appropriation The data in this research shows that children want both to register themselves as intentional and powerful individuals and, as Corsaro (2003) found, to share their world with others. The challenge, constantly presented in the data, is to manage a balance between the two. Participation requires both individual agency and group cooperation. Children do not necessarily fully understand or empathise with one another's contribution. They contribute to the collective flow and in the process build a cultural framework that is a 'heteroglossia' or blending of voices (Sawyer, 1997), which has a binding effect psychologically and behaviourally on the participants. This does not mean that every individual behaves or thinks in the same way but that they live within a collectively constructed framework. Through this process of co-ordinating their interpretations and contributions, children reconstruct the cultural relational and conceptual system. They reconstruct, for example, the roles and relationships of boys and girls. Within this research data, Lydia tells Alice that the spectacles she chooses are only for boys; Kylie is embarrassed to be caught wearing a builder's hat; Terri designates the homecorner as a female-only zone. The boys teach one another how to be masculine in the roles of workers, Power Rangers and pirates. Greg, who kisses his daughter in the episode described above, six months later, berates Stephen for being a hairdresser, saying: 'That's

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for girls, you idiot'. Stephen learns to attune to the gender discourse. These children are transformed by the discourses and practices that they collaboratively appropriate. Conclusion This research identifies the process of appropriation in play and demonstrates that appropriation is a transaction with other people in the community and consequently particular to that community. Children want to belong and therefore they are keen to be skilful in the ways that are recognised and valued among significant people in their lives. To understand children's knowledge construction, we must understand these values and practices. This can be challenging for pedagogues whose cultural framework is very different to that of the children they work with. It requires that we develop close links with families and communities. The research foregrounds learning in social interaction towards cultural goals. It is a perspective that involves a shift from the traditional Piagetian view of the child as lone scientist to understanding the collective, intermental nature of knowing. The perspective centralises the child's need to connect with others and the critical importance of interactive skills, cultural knowledge and cultural goals as both the medium and outcome of learning. The pedagogue's principle role becomes helping children to connect, to communicate and to belong, supporting them in the interactive moments when these skills and identities are constructed. Helping children to communicate their initiatives at action, verbal and emotional level (Aarts 2000), to read and follow the cues of others and to generate trust is a starting point. With these skills and adult support children gain access to the construction of cultural knowledge and goals and ways of thinking. Sociodramatic play offers both a rich context and medium for this learning. The research consequently re-values and re-centralises the role of play in an early childhood curriculum that focuses on connecting on the intermental plane. References Aarts, M. (2000). Marte Meo: Basic Manual. Harderwijk, Netherlands: Aarts Productions. Brennan, C. (2007). Partners in Play: How Children Organise their Participation in

Sociodramatic Play. Dublin: Dublin Institute of Technology. Cole, M. (1996). Cultural Psychology: A Once and Future Discipline. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Corsaro, W. A. (2003). We're Friends, Right? Inside Kids' Culture. Washington D.C.: Joseph Henry Press.

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Matusov, B. (2001). Intersubjectivity as a Way of Informing Teaching Design for a Community of Learners Classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 383-402. Nicolopoulou, A. (1993). Play, Cognitive Development and the Social World; Piaget, Vygotsky and Beyond. Human Development, No. 36, pp. 1-23. Piaget, J. (1971). The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York: Basic Books. Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sawyer, R. K. (1997). Pretend Play as Improvisation: Conversation in the Preschool

Classroom. Mahwah, N. J.: Erlbaum Associates Inc. Stern, D. (1977). The First Relationship: Infant and Mother. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Trevarthen, C. (1998). The Child's Need to Learn a Culture (in) Woodhead, M., Faulkner, D. and Littleton, K. (Eds.) (1998). Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood. London: Routledge, pp. 87-100. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

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The Curriculum in the Infant Classes in Primary Schools in Ireland - Creating Learning Experiences

The Curriculum in the Infant Classes in Primary Schools in Ireland Creating Learning Experiences Deirbhile Nic Craith and Anne Fay Introduction Children in Ireland can attend primary school from the age of four until twelve, and although compulsory attendance does not start until six years of age, traditionally the majority of four and five year olds have always enrolled in infant classes in primary schools (Coolahan, 1981). Primary schools (including special schools) currently cater for 80,732 children under the age of six years in Junior Infants and Senior Infants (Department of Education and Science, 2006). Some national schools in areas designated as disadvantaged cater for three year old children in 'Early Start' programmes, taught by primary school teachers with the assistance of qualified childcare workers. This paper looks at the revised curriculum as it is implemented in the infant classes in primary schools, and draws on some of the findings of a national curriculum survey conducted by the Irish National Teachers' Organisation (INTO) in 2005 (INTO, forthcoming) and a focus group conducted with infant teachers which further explored the methodologies employed in implementing the curriculum in the early years. Early Primary Education The Primary School Curriculum is designed to nurture the child in all dimensions of his or her life - "spiritual, moral, cognitive, emotional, imaginative, aesthetic, social and

physical" (Government of Ireland, 1999: 6). The principles underlying the primary curriculum in Ireland are based on theories of child development and growth, including the theories of Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky on how children think and learn. The curriculum's vision of education is expressed in the form of three general aims:

"To enable the child to live as a child and to realise his or her potential as a unique individual To enable the child to develop as a social being through living and cooperating with others and so contribute to the good of society To prepare the child for further education and lifelong learning." (Government of Ireland, 1999: 7) The curriculum accords equal importance to what a child learns and to the process by which he or she learns it. A key principle is that there are different kinds of learning and that children learn in different ways (Government of Ireland, 1999). The curriculum, therefore, articulates a wide range of approaches to learning and seeks to enhance children's enjoyment of learning and motivation to learn. The curriculum is characterised by breadth and balance, is relevant to the developmental and educational needs of

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children and reflects a developmental approach to learning. Concepts and skills are developed through the exploration of the content of the curriculum, and integrated learning experiences are provided to children through planning at school level to facilitate the adaptation and interpretation of the curriculum to meet the needs of the children. A number of pedagogical principles characterise the learning process envisaged by the curriculum. The following are some of these principles:

"The child's sense of wonder and natural curiosity is a primary motivating factor in learning The child is an active agent in his or her learning The child's existing knowledge and experience form the base for learning Learning should involve guided activity and discovery methods Language is central to the learning process Social and emotional dimensions are important factors in learning Learning is most effective when it is integrated Collaborative learning should feature in the learning process The range of individual difference should be taken into account in the learning process" (Government of Ireland, 1999: 8-9) Much consultation took place as part of the development of the primary curriculum, leading to a consensus on a number of issues of relevance to primary education. One such area of consensus was the crucial role of early childhood education (Government of Ireland, 1999). The primary school curriculum that developed, therefore, is considered appropriate to the developmental and learning needs of the young child. The processes of exploration, activity, discovery, investigation, play and problem solving are the foundations on which provision for early childhood education is constructed and take place within the curriculum framework (INTO, 1995). In addition, a commitment to life long learning is nurtured from the earliest years. The aim of the primary teacher should be to nurture in children the confidence, self-reliance, initiative, imagination, independence and sense of responsibility that will enable them to engage with the world in which they are a part and contribute towards shaping it (Government of Ireland, 1999: 7). The Primary Curriculum is currently divided into four main segments, the first of which caters for the infant classes - children from four to six. Curriculum content is presented in seven curriculum areas, all of which feature in the infant classes - language; mathematics; social, environmental and scientific education; arts education; physical education; social, personal and health education; and religious education (Government of Ireland, 1999: 40). All aspects of the child's development are interrelated and the developmental process is interactive and complex.

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Though the current primary curriculum caters for the four to six year old, the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) is currently developing a curriculum framework for children from birth to six years, which will probably impact in some form on the current primary school curriculum for the infant classes (NCCA, forthcoming). Curriculum Evaluations The INTO Education Committee has carried out evaluations of teachers' views on curriculum and its implementation since the 1970s. Its first survey was carried out in 1975 (INTO, unpublished) following the introduction of the 1971 curriculum. Additional surveys were carried out in 1985 and 1996 (INTO, 1987; 1996). Following in the tradition of carrying out major curriculum surveys every ten years, the INTO Education Committee decided to issue a questionnaire to a random sample of teachers in 2005 in order to ascertain their views on the revised primary curriculum. This is the first survey carried out by the INTO in relation to the revised curriculum of 1999 (INTO, forthcoming). A total of 2,067 questionnaires were distributed in November 2005 to INTO members (all primary teachers) randomly selected from the membership database in the Republic of Ireland. There was a response rate of 35% (717 questionnaires). The questionnaire covered all seven curricular areas, and sought to ascertain teachers' views in relation to the implementation of the Primary School Curriculum. The data was analysed using SPSS. Over a third of the respondents (36%) taught children in the infant classes (INTO, forthcoming). Findings of the 2005 INTO Curriculum Survey in Relation to Methodologies in Infant Classrooms For the purposes of this paper, some of the main findings concerning the use of various methodologies in mathematics and in social, environmental and scientific education are presented. Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency with which they used various methodologies in mathematics and social and environmental studies. Mathematics In mathematics, teachers of infant classes were more likely than their colleagues in other classes to use investigation and the environment in their teaching of mathematics. They were also more likely to integrate mathematics with other subjects. These differences, outlined in the table below, were statistically significant. All class teachers frequently used talk and discussion and active, collaborative and co-operative learning. Table 1: Frequency of Use of Methodologies in Maths Methodology

Infant Teachers

Investigation

99%

Class Teachers 1st to 6th 84%

The environment

95%

69%

Integration

97%

84%

Talk and discussion

98%

98%

Active, collaborative and cooperative learning

98%

91%

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In general, the responses show that overall the vast majority of teachers use a wide range of teaching methodologies for the mathematics programme. Resources Textbooks remain the most used resource for the teaching of mathematics with 99% of infant teachers using them often. Reasons for the high use of textbooks were not given, and further research would be required to explore this issue. All teachers of infants used concrete materials as did the vast majority of other class teachers (95%). Mathematics related games were more likely to be used by teachers of infant classes (91%) in comparison with other class teachers (83%). Though not as widely used, ICT games were used by 73% of infant class teachers and by 63% of other class teachers. Constructivism Almost half the respondents (49%) listed some problem in using a constructivist approach to the teaching of the revised mathematics curriculum, although teachers of infant classes were less likely than their colleagues (42% in comparison with 51% of teachers in first to sixth class) to experience difficulty. Reasons for such difficulty most frequently mentioned were: large class sizes, organisational difficulties, time constraints and a lack of resources. SESE: Science Science was included as a new dimension to the Primary School Curriculum in 1999. In terms of the methodologies used by teachers in teaching science, the use of exploration was the only methodology more likely to be used by infant teachers in comparison with their colleagues in other classes. All other methodologies, with the exception of ICT, were frequently used by all teachers. See table 2 below. Table 2: Frequency of Use of Various Methodologies in Science Infant Teachers

Class Teachers 1st to 6th

Free exploration

Methodology

89%

78%

Environment

99%

96%

Guided discovery

94%

92%

Practical investigations

92%

92%

ICT

36%

44%

Teachers of infants were also more likely than their colleagues to have a nature table in their classroom - 87% of infant teachers in comparison to 66% of other class teachers. Only one quarter (25%) of all teachers had an investigation table in their classrooms. Over a third of infant teachers (38%) and over a quarter of other class teachers (26%) took their pupils for walks in the school environment.

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The Perspectives of Infant Teachers In order to further explore the curriculum survey findings, particularly as they related to teachers of infants, the INTO decided to hold a focus group discussion with a cohort of teachers of infants. This focus group discussion took place in Cork with ten teachers of infant classes (one male and nine female) in a variety of types of schools, including large and small urban and rural schools. The discussion centred on open questions in relation to the implementation of the primary school curriculum in the infant classes. The discussion was transcribed and then analysed according to a number of themes which emerged. These themes included parental expectations, class size and classroom support (INTO, forthcoming). Parental Expectations All infant teachers indicated that they provided activities and play opportunities in the infant classroom. However, they stated that parents often didn't understand the importance of play as a central approach to learning in the infant classroom. Some parents expected the children to be reading and writing which is what they associated with attending school (INTO, forthcoming). One teacher referred to the need to explain the Junior Infant programme to parents and recommended holding a meeting with parents to explain the process. She stated:

Any time I have a meeting in June or September I would say, this (play) is more beneficial for them. I would go through the benefits of each of those activities. (INTO, forthcoming). This is an indication of the frustration felt by infant teachers in relation to implementing a play-based curriculum. Multi-g grade Situations From the focus group discussion, it emerged that teaching Infants in multi-grade situations creates particular challenges for teachers. One such challenge is facilitating a play and an activity-based programme for the infant children while teaching older children such as those in 1st or 2nd class, in a more formal manner. Teachers stated that they felt guilty that they could not provide a full Infant experience for the children in their classroom due to the large numbers, mixed classes and the lack of space. This guilt is illustrated by the following comment from one teacher:

'I certainly feel that with four classes that my Junior and Senior Infants are robbed of an Infant's experience in school. I can't be doing songs and games and stories with them because I also have First and Second class and it breaks my heart. (INTO, forthcoming).

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Class Size The numbers of pupils in the classes was an issue for all teachers. Whether children were in multi-grade classes or in single-grade classes, it was clear that there were too many children in the class with one teacher. Teachers pointed to the different ratios for three and four year olds in playschools and four and five year olds in primary schools, creating difficulties in terms of providing a continuity of education. According to one participant: “This week in playschool it can be 1:10 and next week, let's face it, in primary school it

can be 30:1 and they still have the same needs” (INTO, forthcoming). Group and Pair Work As the survey showed (INTO, forthcoming), there is no significant difference between the methodologies used by teachers of Infants and primary teachers in 1st to 6th class. However, in the focus group discussion, the Infant teachers stressed that they did use group and pair work in the Infant class. One teacher introduced a 'buddy' system with the specific purpose of assisting an autistic child but stated that as a mechanism of working in pairs that it was a very valuable practice and one which she would continue. It is also evident that a lot of activities in the infant classroom are teacher-led, and it was commented upon that the methodologies in relation to the revised curriculum in general are the methodologies that infant teachers had always used. Classroom Support Teachers recognised the valuable support provided by assistants in the classroom. Special needs assistants are available in classrooms where pupils with special needs are enrolled. However, teachers of infants who have the experience of assistants have recommended that support personnel should be available in all infant classrooms and particularly in those of multi grade classrooms.

"When I started teaching I had four classes with no class assistant for the first six months and I used to go home and think I did nothing with the infants today, but since I got an assistant in my classroom I now feel that the infants are having an infant experience” (INTO, forthcoming). Textbooks and Workbooks The survey discovered that Primary teachers use textbooks and workbooks to a great extent in their classrooms. The teachers are well aware of the disadvantages of relying excessively on textbooks and workbooks but find them very useful in terms of classroom management particularly in multi-grade classes. Other benefits associated with the use of workbooks are that they can be useful in terms of keeping a record of what children have completed. In spite of their use of the textbooks the teachers did express reservations about them, but also pointed out that once workbooks were purchased, parents expected the workbooks to be completed.

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Integration One of the key methodologies of the revised curriculum is the integration of the various subjects. Integration is seen as a valuable mechanism for reducing the workload associated with many individual subject areas. However, the infant teachers expressed reservations about the planning demands of integration where they stated that in practice, teachers of infants taught according to themes drawing on the various subject areas.

I would personally find that it is not the subjects that are problematic but the segregation of the subjects, e.g. SESE, Geography and Science where you have to join them together and put them down together, it takes forever trying to integrate them. (INTO, forthcoming). Integration, as a methodology, is supported by teachers of infants, as they usually teach thematically and welcome material supporting them with this process. Conclusion As evidenced by teachers' experiences outlined in this paper, there is a need for further investment in early years' education in the primary school. With few exceptions, the number of pupils in infant classes is far too large. It is government policy that all classes for pupils under nine years of age should have fewer than twenty pupils, but this has yet to be implemented. The particular needs of young children in disadvantaged areas and in multi-grade classes also need to be addressed with a maximum class size of fifteen pupils per class recommended in these circumstances (INTO, 2006). It is also INTO policy that in addition to the class teacher, there should also be a qualified childcare worker assisting in all infant classrooms (INTO, 2006). Furthermore, not all schools have appropriate classroom facilities to implement the infant curriculum (INTO, 2006). Large classroom spaces, with access to water, areas for wet play, home corners and library areas, are required to implement a play and activity based curriculum. Equipment and materials, for both indoor and outdoor activities are required in all infant classrooms. Adequate state funding - both initial and annual - is necessary to address this issue. Notwithstanding the fact that these issues remain to be addressed (i.e. class size, materials and equipment, classroom and school facilities, professional development), primary schools in Ireland are fortunate to have well qualified, committed and dedicated teachers, who have demonstrated their commitment over the years to providing high quality early education to three, four and five year-old children in Irish primary schools.

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References Coolahan, J. (1981). Irish Education: Its History and Structure. Dublin: Institute of Public Administration. Department of Education and Science (2006). Statistical Report 2004-2005. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Government of Ireland (1999). Primary School Curriculum: Introduction. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Government of Ireland (1990). Report of the Review Body on the Primary Curriculum. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Irish National Teachers' Organisation (1975). Primary School Curriculum: Survey Results. Dublin: Irish National Teachers' Organisation. Irish National Teachers' Organisation (1987). Primary School Curriculum: Report and

Discussion Papers. Dublin: Irish National Teachers' Organisation. Irish National Teachers' Organisation (1996). Primary School Curriculum: An Evolutionary

Process. Dublin: Irish National Teachers' Organisation. Irish National Teachers' Organisation (2006). Leading Early Years Education. Dublin: Irish National Teachers' Organisation. Irish National Teachers' Organisation (forthcoming). Survey of the Primary School

Curriculum. Dublin: Irish National Teachers' Organisation. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (forthcoming). A Curriculum Framework

for Early Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment.

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Creating and Promoting Outdoor Learning Environments

Creating and Promoting Outdoor Learning Environments Carol Duffy

Introduction Play and the outdoors naturally complement each other. The outdoors has been our playground and classroom for hundreds of thousands of years. Playing and interacting in the outdoors has provided humans with knowledge, skills, and affinity with nature that has supported the development of our species to date. Yet as this paper suggests we find ourselves in a position where outdoor play has become devalued and under threat from societal and attitudinal changes. Narrow one-dimensional views that box learning environments into indoor classrooms fail to recognise the potential and necessity of holistic outdoor learning environments for young children. Bilton (2004: 4) states "Outside

is a natural environment for children; there is a freedom associated with the space that cannot be replicated inside". Consider your childhood, where did you play outdoors? Now consider all the knowledge, life skills, memories, and affinities you were accumulating as you played naturally. As you played independently you learned how to conquer or manage your environment, make and keep friends, assess and take risks, all the while developing affinity with places and spaces that hopefully have stayed with you to this day. Remembering helps us to reconnect and value the learning experiences we may have taken for granted. Just one generation ago it was common to hear adults complain they could not get the children to come in from outdoors; currently it's more common to hear they cannot get the children to go out. Bilton (2004), Louv (2005) and Friedman (2006) express concern at the lack of opportunity for a growing number of children to access and experience play in the outdoors. Changing societal trends see children shifting from outdoor play to more sedentary and solitary indoor pastimes which can have negative implications for their health and well being. It therefore becomes vital that we foster an engagement and affinity with the outdoors from a very early age. This paper argues that the importance of the outdoors for children's physical and mental health, well-being and development needs to be more widely recognised and promoted. IPPA, the Early Childhood Organisation, is committed to improving quality within the sector and provides support programmes to practitioners in developing their indoor and outdoor play curriculum. This small scale action research project draws on data from a sample of early childcare practitioners participating on IPPA training and quality programmes. Three cycles of

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research were undertaken, 1 researching current outdoor play provision 2 documenting how practitioners were supported to develop their outdoor learning environments and create learning stories 3 investigating the potential of the learning story (Carr, 2001) as a medium to promote outdoor play. Context As part of my work with IPPA as a Training and Quality Specialist, I became concerned at the general poor provision for outdoor play witnessed within the sector. My interest and love of the natural world drew me to the increasing number of emerging theories on the importance and potential of nature and outdoor play for children's development, health and well-being. Delivering IPPA's Quality Improvement Programme, I was familiar with the concept of 'Learning Stories' (Carr, 2001). These are short narratives which identify children's learning. An integral element of the quality programme consists of supporting practitioners to develop learning stories. These stories combine images and text for the purpose of sharing children's learning. An adaptation of this model afforded opportunities to support the creation and promotion of outdoor learning environments by showing the children actively learning outdoors through an emergent play curriculum. So an action research question was born, entitled: Are learning stories an effective tool to promote outdoor play for young children? Literature Review The research was underpinned by two strands of thinking. Moore (1997); Ouvry (2000); Bilton (2005) and Louv (2005) are all advocates of outdoor play and nature experiences for children. Their theories indicate the importance of engagement with nature and outdoor play for children's development, well being, physical, and mental health. Bilton (2004: 7) states that "Children in a good outdoor play area will appear active, absorbed,

motivated, and purposeful - a very satisfying sight." The World Forum on Early Care and Education held a working forum on Nature Education in 2006. Dana Friedman's report on collected ideas from this forum states "Nature is

crucial for total development of the whole child, regardless of stage, ability, or problem." The report goes on to acknowledge the importance of the provision of natural settings for play and exploration: "Children's pretend play outdoors in natural settings tends to be

more complex/therapeutic than indoors" (Friedman, 2006). This is a timely reminder as many of the outdoor spaces being provided are little more than rubber-matted sterile enclosures.

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The second strand of this research revolved around the adaptation of Carr's (2001) 'Learning Stories' model. Learning stories are short narratives that identify the learning experiences children have on a daily basis in childcare settings. They were designed as a learning assessment tool. The model is adapted by placing the focus on combined images and narratives, which demonstrate an emergent outdoors curriculum in action. They simultaneously inform and promote as they celebrate the children as learners and explorers of their world. Alterio and Mc Drury (2003) claim that storytelling and life stories provide potent learning tools for adult learners. Methodology An emancipatory action research model underpinned this research (Lynch, 2000; Mc Niff, 2000.) The research was carried out with the practitioners as opposed to on them. The practitioners were research partners in what Lynch (2000) describes as a 'research coalition'. Involving the practitioners in the research empowered them towards transformative action. Qualitative data was gathered by means of interviews, discussion groups, observations, on site visits to services, and digital and video recordings. The project had three research cycles. Cycle 1: Ten early years practitioners based in Dublin, Kildare, and Meath, who were undertaking an IPPA training programme were interviewed in relation to their outdoor provision. Data was also gathered by means of discussion groups from participants on three outdoor play workshops undertaken in Dublin, Tipperary, and Clare. A cross section of urban, rural, sessional, and full day care was represented. Cycle 2: Due to the limited scope of the project, a smaller cohort of three childcare centres were involved in this cycle. The practitioners in these services attended workshops on outdoor play and developing learning stories. They each received an on site support visit. In each of the centres the practitioners and I jointly developed learning stories that demonstrated their emergent outdoor play curriculum in action. Cycle 3: This cycle documented one centre's presentation to parents. A parents' evening was arranged and a powerpoint presentation of the learning stories was made. Twenty-one parents attended. Sixty-five percent of the children had a parent attend. After the presentation, an informal discussion took place over coffee. Comments from the parents were noted during this discussion. One week later, the practitioners were interviewed in relation to the process.

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Findings Cycle 1 Main findings from interviews and discussions: There was little value placed on the outdoors as a learning environment. Fresh air and exercise were the benefits identified by the majority. Difficulties with ratios, staffing, weather, attitudes, surfaces and equipment were cited. Conflicting interpretations of the Childcare Regulations by both practitioners and statutory inspection teams were problematic. Practitioners expressed concern at regular parental requests for children to be kept indoors/ or kept clean. There was little or no explicit promotion of the benefits of outdoor play by the practitioners. No specific outdoor play policies or strategies were documented. Main Findings from observations: Two of the centres had well designed and equipped outdoor areas, which were hives of activity during my visits. The practitioners interacted well with the children. I observed them building dens, playing catch, and sitting chatting. Of the other centres, three of the sessional services had no access to outdoor space, two had limited access to a school yard, the remaining three had outdoor spaces that were underutilised. In general, the design and layout of the spaces was poor. Equipment and materials were predominantly plastic slides, trikes, or playhouses. The interactions centred on supervising slides, walking around with the children, and playing circle games. In all of the centres the outdoor play times were instigated by the adults. Cycle 2: Specific training supports were put in place to improve the quality of outdoor provision before the learning stories were developed. These included two workshops, one on outdoor play, the other on developing learning stories. These were followed by an on site support visit. Tracking one centre during the training process, they had improved the layout of their outdoor space, added extra open ended play materials and courageously changed the whole routine of the playgroup by offering the choice of indoor or outdoor play to the children throughout the morning. This centre was chosen to partake in the third research cycle. Two months after the training sessions were completed, I revisited the centre to gather video and digital images of the children at play. Learning stories were jointly developed from these images, and a parents' evening was planned. Cycle 3 This was the first parents' evening held by the centre and I supported the team on the evening by co presenting the learning story. As can be seen from the following comments it was very successful and raised awareness of the children's learning.

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Comments from Parents after Presentation

"I never thought about their play like that before. I just sent them out to play." "I have to be honest I sent my child to playgroup just to socialise and thought it didn't matter if he missed days as he was only playing, I now see how much he is learning and how important it is for him that he attends." "I felt so proud of him when Carol1 was showing us how he helped the other children, I hadn't noticed before how much he knew about building. He must have been watching his dad and uncles." "It brought me back to all the things we used to play outdoors and how much fun we had, my little girl loves playing outside just like I did." "I couldn't believe that someone had come from Dublin to this little playgroup and was telling us these wonderful things about our kids playing." One week later, I discussed with the practitioners the impact of the process. They felt it had improved their teamwork and raised their morale. They themselves had a much greater appreciation of the benefits of outdoor play and felt better able to articulate it to parents. The new routine which offered the choice of outdoor play was working really well, but it brought with it a few teething problems; specifically managing the additional mucky shoes and the frequent dressing and undressing for outdoors. New learning stories were being written which they felt really focused them on the children's play. They were following the children's interests more and providing more natural and open ended materials. It was summed up by one of the practitioners "We are outdoors much more.

It's exhausting sometimes, but I love it". Challenges Identified: The importance and value of outdoor learning environments is not well recognised. Attitudinal change towards outdoor play is required by many parents, practitioners, and policy makers. It is interesting to note that the centres in this study who provided quality outdoor environments were staffed by people who had a genuine interest in and love of the outdoors. They came into the job with a positive disposition towards outdoor experiences for children. The number of limiting and unsuitable outdoor environments in childcare centres is a cause for concern. As many children are spending longer hours in full day care, and centres care for larger numbers of children, the importance of providing spacious, natural, outdoor environments increases. Too often outdoor space appears to be given the last and least consideration. Note: 1 Pseudonym

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Practitioners benefit from specific training and support that empowers them to create, utilise, and promote outdoor learning environments. High levels of support and resources are needed in many centres to instigate the major changes needed. With attitudinal change however, many inexpensive improvements could be made instantly. Recommendations The valuing of outdoor learning environments needs to happen across the board by parents, early years practitioners, the pre-school services inspectorate, designers and architects. Training and support for practitioners and the inspectorate is required in 1. Valuing the role and potential of the outdoor learning environment 2. Design and layout of outdoor space 3. Articulation of the rationale/benefits of outdoor play and experiences 4. Outdoor activities and experiences Conclusions Based on my findings, I would have to concur that learning stories are an effective tool in promoting outdoor play. Developing and sharing the learning stories not only contributed to the development of the childcare centres involved, it informed parents and helped to raise the value of children's play. The research has highlighted the urgent need within the early childcare and education sector to examine and improve the current outdoor provision for young children. Realistically for this to occur, the value and importance of outdoor learning environments has to gain greater recognition. An unforeseen outcome of this research was that it provided IPPA with the material and impetus to develop and publish a book Nurture Through Nature (IPPA, 2006) for practitioners and parents which promotes outdoor play. Drawing from this research the book, through the medium of learning stories, shows children's experiences in a range of outdoor environments, explores possibilities in relation to creating outdoor learning environments, and raises awareness of its benefits. The publication enables the vital message to reach a wider audience. This conference theme of Vision into Practice aimed to examine ways that we can make quality a reality in the lives of young children. My vision into practice is the provision of quality outdoor environments in every childcare centre in Ireland. This project has shown how to put practice into vision through image-rich learning stories and the benefits derived from them.

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References Alterio, M. and Mc Drury, J. (2003). Learning Through Storytelling in Higher Education

Using Reflection and Experience to Improve Learning. London: Routledge Falmer. Bilton, H. (2004). Playing Outside. London: David Fulton Publishers. Carr, M. (2001). Assessment in Early Childhood Settings. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Friedman, D. (2006). Working Forum on Nature Education for Young Children. Report on

Collected Ideas. [Accessed at http://www.worldforumfoundation.org/wf/wf2006_ nature/collected_ideas.php, 16th January, 2007]. IPPA, the Early Childhood Organisation (2006). Nurture through Nature. Dublin: IPPA, the Early Childhood Organisation. Louv, R. (2005). Last Child in the Woods: Nature Deficit Disorder. North Carolina: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. Lynch, K. (2000). Equality Studies, the Academy and the Role of Research in Emancipatory Social Change. The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 41-69, reprinted in Mc Niff, J., Mc Namara, G. and Leonard, D. (Eds.). Action Research in Ireland. Dorset: September Books. Mc Niff, J. (2002). Action Research Principles and Practice, 2nd edition. London: Routledge. Moore, R. and Wong, H. (1997). Natural Learning: Creating Environments for

Rediscovering Nature's Way of Teaching. Berkeley, California: MIG Communications. Ouvry, M. (2000). Exercising Muscles and Minds: Outdoor Play and the Early Years

Curriculum. London: National Early Years Network.

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Effective Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education: A Review of Literature and Implications for Practice in Infant Classes in Primary Schools in Ireland Elizabeth Dunphy Introduction Pedagogy may be defined as the practice (or the art, the science or the craft) of teaching (Siraj-Blatchford, 2004). In recent years, mainly as a result of the interest in the articulation of learning theories, we are increasingly able to differentiate pedagogical strategies by reference to developmental levels of children (Bowman et al., 2001). This implies serious re-consideration, in the Irish context, of the nature of the role of the teacher in young children's learning. Adams et al. (2004: 81) describe aspirations for early years practice as practice wherein

"…learning is seen in a holistic non-compartmentalised way, where play, first-hand experiences and talk are the principal means of learning, where children's capacity to explore and imagine for themselves is nourished by open-ended invitations to engage with the world, and where observation of individual children is the key to developing both curriculum and pedagogy." Current Pedagogical Practices in Infant Classes in Ireland A number of recent reports (Coolahan, 1998; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2004) are highly critical of the sometimes overly formalised pedagogical practices that are generally observed in infant classes in Ireland. The overall impression gained by the OECD Thematic Review team (2004: 58) was one of

“…whole class teaching, with children sitting quietly at tables. The approach appeared to be directive and formal compared to practices observed and theoretically underpinned in other countries…” The team observed what they described as “…a predominately didactic approach towards

early learning” (2004: 84) in infant classes. They suggested that the model of the teacher as the source of learning from whom young children receive knowledge is still strongly felt within the system. They noted that notions such as the well-being and involvement of children, or the construction of knowledge through play, participation and choice, all needed to be developed. Arising from the OECD's observations, teachers are urged to adopt pedagogical styles more suited to the characteristics of young children. In recent years there has been a theoretical shift in how we perceive teaching and learning. This shift is keenly felt in early childhood education as elsewhere, where ideas about individualistic learning and

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development have now been replaced by ideas about the social and cultural nature of learning (Anning et al., 2004). In particular the idea that interactions (between adults and children and between children themselves) are at the core of the teaching/learning process is influencing the debate about quality practice in early childhood education (e.g. Fleer and Richardson, 2004). Teachers of infant classes in primary schools are themselves becoming increasingly aware of recommendations for a re-examination of pedagogy for young children at school (Irish National Teachers’ Organisation [INTO], 2006). Underpinning Principles An analysis of the principles for learning in the primary school curriculum (Government of Ireland, 1999) reveals a high level of coherence between these principles and the aspirations for early childhood practice as articulated above by Adams et al. (2004). The principles explicitly refer to issues such as the integration of learning (and the irrelevance to the young child of discrete subjects); the fostering of the child's sense of wonder and natural curiosity and the exploration of this through play; the importance of environment based learning and first-hand experiences that actively engage the child with the immediate environment and those who live in it; the centrality of language for learning and the incorporation of talk and discussion as a key learning strategy; the recognition of the innate creativity of each individual and the individuality of creative responses and expressions; the necessity to select methods of assessment that best suit needs at a particular time. While teachers of infant classes in Ireland have traditionally worked with the statutory curriculum for primary schools, specific guidance for those responsible for the development and learning of children in the age range birth to six years is currently being prepared by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA). Responses to

Towards a Framework for Early Learning: A Consultation Paper (NCCA, 2004) indicated considerable support for this development (www.ncca.ie). The framework will state principles of early learning and development and the assumption is that they will be entirely consistent with those which underpin the primary curriculum. Alongside the principles of learning underlying The Primary Curriculum (Government of Ireland, 1999), teachers working in early years classrooms now also have the benefit of

Síolta, The National Quality Framework For Early Childhood Education (Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education [CECDE], 2006). The set of inter-dependent principles on which Síolta is premised is designed to underpin and provide the context for quality practice in early education and care settings in Ireland. These two sets of principles

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can be seen as complementary: the latter focused on the context for learning, and the former on the principles of learning. Researching Effective Early Years Pedagogy The Effective Provision of Pre-school Education (EPPE) project was a recent large-scale longitudinal study of effective pre-school provision carried out in England (Sylva et al., 2004). It identified the most effective strategies that are applied with children in the age range three to six years, in order to best support the development of skills, knowledge and attitudes and to ensure a good start to school. Researchers identified those strategies through a process whereby they first identified effective settings and they then focused on the features of these settings. Effective settings, i.e. those which improved children's developmental outcomes (social/behavioural and cognitive) beyond that which would have been expected given the child's developmental profile at age three and their social background, were characterised by a number of features. In particular, high quality adultchild verbal interactions and child-initiated activity balanced with adult-led activity emerged as critical. It was observed that child-initiated play often provided the best opportunities in which adults could extend children's thinking. The most effective pedagogy for young children was seen to be one that combines both 'teaching' and the provision of freely chosen play and potentially instructive play activities. The most effective settings were found to be those where the quality of the adult-child interactions was such that 'sustained shared thinking' was a feature. Such thinking was most likely to occur in one-to-one interactions between adult and child or during the course of focused group work. Sustained shared thinking is defined by Sylva et al. (2004: vi) as occurring where

“…two or more individuals work together in an interrelated way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate an activity, extend a narrative etc. Both parties must contribute to the thinking and it must develop and extend the understanding.” The Researching Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years (REPEY) Report (Siraj-Blatchford et

al., 2002) presents findings from intensive case studies of fourteen of EPPE's highly effective settings (including two reception classes). The report focused on findings with respect to adult-child interactions as an area of particular impact. It was reported that while the authors concluded that “…periods of sustained shared thinking are a necessary

pre-requisite for the most effective early years settings…” they did not happen very often, even in effective settings. The analysis also led the authors to conclude that “…knowledge and understanding of the particular area that is being addressed is vital ….

A good grasp of appropriate 'pedagogical content knowledge' is a vital component of pedagogy.”(Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002: 11). The most highly qualified staff were found to be the most effective in their interactions with the children, using the most sustained shared thinking interactions.

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Moving Forward with Effective Pedagogy In relation to principles, infant teachers should re-visit those principles of learning in the primary curriculum and reconsider how they may be realised in early childhood education, where the particular characteristics and the learning needs of young learners must be foregrounded above other considerations. Findings from the EPPE study provide clear signposts for infant teachers regarding effective pedagogy. Other research reiterates these findings. For instance, as a result of their examination and explication of what effective teachers of young children in England actually do, Moyles et al. (2002) emphasis certain aspects of pedgagogy: the quality of the teacher-child interactions; the importance of the provision of opportunities for play; and the establishment of a playful ethos. As a result of their in-depth study of pedagogy in a small sample of reception classes, also in England, Adams et al. (2004) urged those teachers to review the balance of time they spend on the real 'basics' of the early childhood curriculum. These they identify as sustained, shared, purposeful talk; complex, imaginary experiences; and authentic, engaging, first-hand experiences. With respect to the first of these imperatives, i.e. talk and discussion, Adams et al. (2004) observed relatively infrequent opportunities for children in the nine reception classes they studied to engage in sustained talk and interaction with adults and other children and indeed they cited other evidence that this appears to be the case, generally. In the most effective settings the importance of the teacher extending child-initiated interactions was also clearly identified. These findings and those of other studies (e.g. Norman, 1992) suggest that when teachers plan and organise to work with children on a small-group basis, then sustained shared interactions, extensions of thinking and cognitive challenges are more likely to occur. In the Irish context then, teachers need to consider when and how in the course of the infant-school day, such pedagogical opportunities can be identified. Teachers need to re-appraise the importance, for learning, of opportunities for complex and imaginary play. However, provision alone will not guarantee learning (Moyles et al., 2002) and unless teachers understand the purposes of various types of play and the different roles they themselves must assume in relation to such activities, they may not result in cognitive challenge and worthwhile learning. With respect to the third imperative i.e. authentic, engaging, real-life experiences, Adams

et al. (2004) found these to be relatively rare events in the experiences of young learners in their case study schools. Rich et al. (2005) define such experiences as ones in which children handle authentic things for real purposes, go to places and meet people and are out and about. They argue that such experiences are essential since otherwise children have little to draw on in their talk or storying, in their drawing and creative work, or in their play.

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Respecting young children's unique learning and developmental needs then, requires a pedagogy that has distinctive aspects and is clearly differentiated from that which sometimes dominates schooling for older children. The above research indicates that if teachers and others concerned with the effectiveness of early years pedagogy in infant classes in primary schools in Ireland were to 'audit' (Adams et al., 2004) the time that children in their classes spend engaged in sustained, purposeful talk, complex imaginary experiences and authentic, engaging, real-life experiences then they would have a very good yardstick with which to measure the appropriateness and effectiveness of the pedagogy. The current advice available to infant teachers (Government of Ireland, 1999) is in some ways entirely consistent with a number of aspects of effective pedagogical strategies for early childhood. However, imagination, creativity and daring in the interpretation and implementation of the curriculum would greatly enhance the quality of young children's learning experiences in infant classes in primary schools. There is an urgent need to balance the systematic curriculum recommended with an emergent curriculum based on children's immediate interests and the experiences encountered by them in their daily lives. In essence, pedagogical practices in infant classes need to be 'child-centred' in the sense that the first concern of the teacher, in efforts to support young children as learners, must be young children's particular learning characteristics and their specific learning needs. Teachers' legitimate concerns for the development, with respect of different curriculum areas, of young children's skills, knowledge and understandings and attitudes can only be accommodated within the broader considerations of young children as learners. Conclusion It is argued that changes in curriculum have only an indirect effect on teaching styles and pedagogy and that particular pedagogical strategies that teachers employ

“…will be determined by a whole range of factors, including their previous experiences and training, their individual personality, their conception of childhood and learning, as well as the particular contexts in which they work, the accommodation and resources that are available and the influence of co-workers.” (Siraj-Blatchford, 1999: 23) Changing and developing early childhood pedagogy in infant classes is ultimately in the hands of teachers. However, teachers cannot do this alone. They need support, both in terms of in-service, and in terms of support for the provision of appropriate learning experiences for young children. Lack of opportunity for teachers to engage in reflection and, consequently, their limited understanding of the principles underpinning change are concerns that need to be addressed in efforts to develop and enhance early childhood pedagogy in primary schools in Ireland. Support from fellow teachers and especially from principal teachers and from Department of Education and Science inspectors is crucial.

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References Adams, S., Alexander, E., Drummond, M. J. and Moyles, J. (2004). Inside the Foundation

Stage: Recreating the Reception Year. London: Association of Teachers and Lecturers. Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (Eds.) (2004). Early Childhood Education: Society and

Culture. London: Sage. Bowman, B., Donovan, S. and Burns, S. (Eds.) (2001). Eager To Learn: Educating Our

Preschoolers. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (2006). Síolta, The National Quality

Framework for Early Childhood Education. Dublin: Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education. Coolahan, J. (Ed.) (1998). The Report of The National Forum For Early Childhood Education. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Fleer, M. and Richardson, C. (2004). Mapping the Transformation of Learning (in) Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (Eds.). Early Childhood Education: Society and Culture. London: Sage, pp. 119-133. Government of Ireland (1999). The Primary School Curriculum. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Irish National Teachers’ Organisation (2006). Leading Early Years Education: Proceedings

of Nov '05 Consultative Conference on Education. Dublin: Irish National Teachers’ Organisation. Moyles, J., Adams, S. and Musgrove, A. (2002). SPEEL: Study of Pedagogical Effectiveness

in Early Learning. London: Department for Education and Skills. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (2004). Towards a Framework for Early

Learning: A Consultative Document. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. Norman, K. (1992). Thinking Voices: The Work of The National Oracy Project. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development (2004). OECD Thematic Review of

Early Childhood Education & Care Policy in Ireland. Dublin: The Stationery Office.

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Rich, D., Casanova, D., Dixon, A., Drummond, M., Durrant, A. and Myer, C. (2005). First

Hand Experience: What Matters to Children. UK: Rich Learning Opportunities. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004). Technical

Paper 12 - The Final Report: Effective Provision of Pre-school Education. London: Institute of Education. Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1999). Early Childhood Pedagogy: Practice, Principles and Research (in) Mortimore, P. (Ed.). Understanding Pedagogy and Its Impact on Learning. London: Paul Chapman. Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2004). Quality Teaching in the Early Years (in) Anning, A., Cullen, J. and Fleer, M. (Eds.). Early Childhood Education: Society and Culture. London, Sage Publications, pp. 137-148. Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock, S., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2002). Researching

Effective Pedagogy in the Early Years. London: Department for Education and Skills.

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Elegant Interior and Exterior Play Spaces for Young Children

Elegant Interior and Exterior Play Spaces for Young Children Michael F. Kalinowski Introduction Well before Emile encountered Nature (Kessen, 1965), the relationship of children to the spaces in which they are found has been of interest. Of perhaps even greater interest to educators has been the relationship of children to spaces designed specifically for them, although many feel that achieving quality in the design and construction of such spaces, even more than achieving quality in the design and construction of equipment and materials for children, still remains elusive. In the United States, early definitions of quality, according to Ruopp et al. (1979: 61) focused on, "a loving home-like environment

in which the child is safe, adequately fed, active and happy". Prescott (1994) identified factors such as softness that appeared to indicate a responsive quality of the environment to the child, and Olds (2001) listed four basic environmental needs: encouraging movement, supporting comfort, fostering competence, and encouraging a sense of control. Fowler (1980: 85) noted that, "the ways in which each environment is arranged can

greatly help or hinder young children's learning", and more recently, the quality of spaces for children (Olds, 2001; Fallon, 2003; Schonfeld, 2006; Friedman, 2007) has been related to specific mental, social and/or emotional developmental benefits. Architects (Le Corbusier, 1968) and early childhood specialists (Clarke-Stewart, 1987), suggested that the physical environment and design may play an essential role in helping define quality in programs for young children, and specifically on the relationship of indoor (Swim, 2004; Gandini and Greenman, 2005; Greenman, 2007) and outdoor (Frost, 1992; Berry, 2001; Sutterby and Thornton, 2005) child care spaces to quality. To Torelli and Durrett (1996: 12),

“A well-designed environment is, of course, safe for infants and toddlers but, more than that, it supports their emotional well-being, stimulates their senses, and challenges their motor skills. A quality design aims to create a classroom that is highly functional, aesthetically attractive, age-appropriate, child-directed, and teachersupported. A well-designed group care environment promotes children's individual and social development.” How might one begin to identify design indicators of program quality that go beyond these indicators, and beyond common constructs of safety (Beaty, 2003), minimum licensing regulations, general environmental rating scales (Harms and Clifford, 1998), developmental appropriateness (Bredekamp, 1987), and children's competency (Maxwell, 2007)? One approach might be to consider the aesthetic impact of design on

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children. Maslow and Mintz's studies in the 1950s (Hearron and Hildebrand, 2007: 184) demonstrated the "impact of the environment's aesthetic quality on human interactions

and perceptions". Let us consider aesthetic quality and its possible impact on designs for children with a new term: distinctive elegance. What is Distinctive Elegance? Elegance implies refinement, grace and beauty. It has much to do with taste, but relatively little to do with money. There are perhaps as many wonderful examples of financially challenged facilities striving for elegance as there are particularly ostentatious facilities demonstrating crude excess. As French (1994: 2-3) noted,

"One characteristic of functional design is elegance. Most people find a buttercup beautiful … [T]he buttercup has an essential elegance, much more fundamental than its mere appearance. It is an elegant solution to a difficult problem in functional design … and its beautiful outward form is a reflection of its economical design…. [T]he locomotive is (also) an elegant design, economical in its use of energy and material, with its balanced mechanisms and well-proportioned parts, full of ingenious detail and thoughtful refinements, and the overall coherence and unity that results so often from a single purpose intelligently pursued. It has beauty for the educated eye - and because of its simple action the education need only be slight - and that beauty comes nearly all from its functional design, and very little from conscious aesthetic intention." Distinctive elegance in designs for young children requires at least five conditions: 1. A distinctively elegant space must be what Prescott (1994) calls a place to remember, a place Wien, et al. (2005) call special and one that appeals to both occupants and observers. It attracts and sustains attention and induces fondness. In the words of Nelson (2004: 1), the founding father of hypertext: "I am a design chauvinist. I believe that good design is magical and not to be lightly

tinkered with. The difference between a great design and a lousy one is in the meshing of the thousand details that either fit or don't, and the spirit of the passionate intellect that has been tied to them, or tried". A distinctly elegant space must demonstrate respect for all its inhabitants. It should call to children as well as adults. In US classrooms, the prevailing design concept is often 'child proofing', which suggests an emphasis on safety, perhaps by an assumption that young children are like Huns and may destroy everything in sight; therefore, early childhood spaces should be like bunkers. 2. A distinctly elegant space considers scale and proportion. It should fit, like baby bear's chair and porridge. To Kidd (1987: ix),

"A Japanese room, composed of an astonishing number of straight lines and right

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angles, whatever its size, is best observed seated on the floor. From this vantage point the lines seem to radiate from us". Rooms for young children should be best observed, appreciated and evaluated from a point one-half to one meter above the floor. 3. A distinctly elegant space demonstrates an appreciation of the materials utilized and strives for perfection of detail. Any real understanding of a space must begin with an appreciation of the materials used in its construction. For example, the dovetailed corners of a birch Nienhuis box for sandpaper letters for a Montessori classroom shows thought in the choice of material and care in the construction of the corner detail; this demonstrates respect. Such care and attention makes that box a delight to see and hold, and encourages children to treat it with respect. Let us also consider chairs. As Merton (quoted in Andrews and Andrews, 1973: xiii) reminds us,

"The peculiar grace of a Shaker chair is due to the fact that it was made by someone capable of believing that an angel might come and sit on it." The ubiquitous plastic chair in US classrooms, with little thought to proportion, hip to knee length, or back support is a disrepectful choice, and does not imply respect. 4. A distinctly elegant space models restraint, complexity, idiosyncracy, variety, subtlety, refinement, grace and beauty. Distinctly elegant rooms are the antithesis of typically cluttered US classrooms which look like they are in the middle of what we call a 'garage; or 'tag' sale, with the visual chaos against which Nancy Rambusch, founder of the American Montessori Society, used to rail, complaining that the Thanksgiving turkeys were still up on the walls when the Easter bunnies arrived. Children are not idiots and spaces for them should acknowledge that they appreciate visual restraint, challenge, and can discern good design. 5. A distinctly elegant space should be culturally reflective but universally appreciated and admired. Like a great chef, one should try to use whatever materials are indigenously accurate, appropriately scaled, and close at hand. Alexander (1964), in writing about the notion of fit in design, notes,

"The form is a part of the world over which we have control, and which we decide to shape while leaving the rest of the world as it is. The context is that part of the world, which puts demands on this form: anything in the world that makes demands of the form is context. Fitness is a relation of mutual acceptability between these two." One expects a preschool playground in Fortaleza, Brazil to look different than one in Vilnius, Lithuania. I will now briefly introduce five examples of distinctively elegant interior and exterior designs.

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Distinctively Elegant Indoor Spaces Maddex (2006: 1) notes that Frank Lloyd Wright states, "the enclosed space within is the

reality of the building" and set out to let, "the room inside be the architecture outside". Ospedale Innocenti, Florence, Italy

In 1294 the Silk Weaver's Guild in Florence, Italy assumed the role of protectors and educators of the city's abandoned, primarily illegitimate children, and later initiated a tax on silk to support their activities. In 1419 they started construction of the first separate hospital to house and educate foundlings. Brunelleschi, who designed the dome for Florence's Cathedral was admitted to the Silk Guild as a goldsmith and helped create a masterpiece of early Renaissance architecture for the foundling hospital and its surrounding square (Fanelli, 1980). As a result, Agatha Smeralda, the first child accepted at the hospital as well as the thousands of other young children, all given the name Innocenti, were housed in an elegant and highly rational design. The building housed orphans during both World Wars and still houses a scuola materna in the back and a child advocacy institute as well as a museum (Becocci Editore, 1977). For our purposes, this facility demonstrates all that is possible when the best architects and artists contribute to a design for young children. Ecole Maternelle Rosa Bonheur, Nice, France Rosa Bonheur was a French realist painter (1822-1899), considered by the Albright-Knox Gallery in Buffalo, New York as the most famous woman artist of the first three quarters of the nineteenth century. She was primarily known for her paintings of horses, and was the first woman to receive a cross of the Legion of Honor in France, personally bestowed by the wife of emperor Napoleon III to show, as she said, that "genius has no sex" (Smith, 2007). The Rosa Bonheur nursery school is an outstanding example of renovation, in a glorious setting, with a poured observatory floor, art niches in ancient exterior walls, a kiln as an integral component of a integrated art program, glass block interior walls, round sinks and bunk bed cots.

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Tikan Paivakoti, Kuokkala, Finland This facility for 100 children, next to the university town of Jyvaskyla, offers full and parttime care. While its exterior is gray and outside play spaces are not particularly interesting, its interior is wonderful. There one finds a sauna, child-scaled wading/swimming pool, an interior slide from the second floor, thoughtful storage with excellent cubbies, and very well crafted furniture including stacking benches. There are also fireplaces, a terrific playhouse under the stairs, heated floors, and perhaps the only elegant interior in the world that includes velvet paintings. Distinctively Elegant Outdoor Spaces Colégio Baptista Santos Dumont, Fortaleza, Brazil

Take a cement pyramid and cut off the top, take another and cut off the top and build a large opening in the side, and then take a third and build a playhouse inside. Truncated pyramids are the design concept for this preschool, which proves that programs can provide novelty, elegance, and particularly interesting experiences to young children on a very limited budget. Kindergarten #141, Vilnius, Lithuania

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In Vilnius kindergartens were given numbers rather than names. Number 141 is a most unique outdoor play space, made completely of small tiles, including a tiled floor surface, tiled playhouses and climbing structures, and tidepools that catch the rain or can be filled. Easy to clean, unforgiving for slips and falls, slightly psychedelic, and perhaps on the very fringe of elegance, but included here for its uniqueness, and its conceptualization. Conclusion From these and other facilities, it is clear that the United States has much to learn from other programs around the world, particularly in relation to design. Part of the value in looking at facilities outside my own country is what McGlade terms eyes wide open (McDonnell, 2008: C6). When one is in a new environment, things are different and fresh, often created with a different perspective, and as a result one tends to pay closer attention. My observations of programs outside the U.S. have greatly informed me about the limitations of many current designs, and required me to question why so many spaces and furnishings in the U.S. have fallen into such predictable, and often far from optimal patterns. Baby Bear was correct in looking for porridge that is 'just right'. Children desire what Hunt (1964: xxii) called optimum incongruity, a match between where they are at this moment and what, developmentally, is needed to help them get where they want to go next. Good teachers are often intuitively aware of this problem of the match; designers and architects often are not. However, French designer Jean Touitou (Bagley, 2008: 192) believes that a child is never too young to, "develop an appreciation for quality goods….

Even if you grow up to be an accountant, it's better to be surrounded by beautiful furniture than by ugly furniture". Naoto Fukusawa, perhaps the most influential product designer in Japan (Rawsthorn, 2008: 126) believes we must no longer focus on objects in isolation but consider how each is related to the way it is used, the things around it, and the entire surroundings, what the French curator Bourriaud might call relational aesthetics (Browne, 2008: 131). This requires new reflections on the design of spaces for children, respect for their ability to appreciate quality even at a very young age, and a desire to create environments that can initiate and sustain their attention. References Alexander, C. (1964). Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Andrews, E. and Andrews, F. (1973). Religion in Wood: A Book of Shaker Furniture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Bagley, C. (2008). Class Action. W, pp.190-192.

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Beaty, J. (2003). Safety in Preschool Programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Becocci Editore. (1977). Spedale degli Innocenti: The Foundling Hospital and its Museum. Florence: Author. Berry, P. (2001). Playgrounds that Work: Creating Outdoor Play Environments for Children

Birth to Eight Years. Baulkham Hills, AU: Pandemelon Press. Bredekamp, S. (Ed.) (1987). Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood

Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age Eight. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Browne, A. (2008). Asian Fusion. New York Times Style Magazine, pp. 128-133. Clarke-Stewart, A. (1987). In Search of Consistencies in Child Care Research (in) Phillips, D. (Ed.) Quality in Child Care: What Does Research Tell Us? Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, pp. 105-120. Engel, H. (1964). The Japanese House: A Tradition for Contemporary Architecture. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle. Fallon, J. (2003). Quality Counts. ChildLinks. [Accessed at www.cecde.ie/english/pdf/ Articles/Quality%20Counts.pdf., 15th January, 2007]. Fanelli, G. (1980). Brunelleschi. Florence: Scala. Fowler, W. (1980). Infant and Child Care: A Guide to Education in Group Settings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. French, M. (1994). Invention and Evolution: Design in Nature and Engineering [2nd ed]. New York: Cambridge University Press. Friedman, D. (2007). Quality Rating Systems: The Experiences of Directors. Exchange, Issue 173, pp. 6-13. Frost, J. (1992). Play and Playscapes. Albany, NY: Delmar. Gandini, L. and Greenman, J. (2005). Caring Spaces: Learning Places: Children's

Environments That Work. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press.

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Greenman, J. (2007). Places to Live: Important Dimensions of Child Care Settings.

Exchange, No. 178, pp. 21-24. Harms, T. and Clifford, R. M. (1998). Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale. New York: Teachers College Press. Hearron, P. and Hildebrand, V. (2007). Management of Child Development Centers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, pp. 184. Hunt, J. (1964). Introduction: Revisiting Montessori (in) Montessori, M. The Montessori

Method. New York: Schocken Books, pp. xi-xxxix. Kessen, W. (1965). The Child. New York: Wiley. Kidd, D. (1987). Foreword (in) Slesin, S., Cliff, S. and Rozensztroch, D. Japanese Style. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, pp. ix-xi. Le Corbusier. (1968). Les Carnets et la Recherche Patiente: The Nursery Schools. New York: Orion Press. McDonnel, S. (2008). When the Muse Jumps Aboard: Inspiration Often Strikes When in Fresh Surroundings. The New York Times, pp. C6. Maddex, D. (2006). Frank Lloyd Wright Inside and Out. New York: Barnes & Noble. Maxwell, L. (2007). Competency in Child Care Settings: The Role of the Physical Environment. Environment & Behavior, Vol. 39 No. 2, pp. 229-245. Nelson, T. (2004). A Cosmology for a Different Computer Universe: Data Model, Mechanisms, Virtual Machine and Visualization Infrastructure. Journal of Digital

Information, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1. Olds, A. (2001). Child Care Design Guide. New York: McGraw Hill. Phillips Exeter Academy (2007). The Amazing Harkness Philosophy. [Accessed at http://www.exeter.edu/admissions/147_harkness.aspx, 19th November, 2007] Prescott, E. (1994). The Physical Environment-A Powerful Regulator of Experience. Child

Care Information Exchange, No. 100, pp. 9-15.

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Rawsthorn, A. (2008). Designing the Inevitable. New York Times Style Magazine, pp. 124133. Ruopp, R., Travers, J., Glantz, F., and Cohen. C. (1979). Children at the Center: Final Results

of the National Day Care Study. Cambridge, MA: Abt Books. Schonfeld, H. (2006). Síolta, The National Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education. In Touch. [Accessed at http://www.cecde.ie/english/pdf/Articles/Siolta, %20INTO.pdf, 19th November, 2007]. Smith, M. (2007). Rosa Bonheur. [Accessed at http://www.albrightknox.org/ ArtStart/Bonheur_s.html, 19th November, 2007]. Sutterby, J. and Thornton, C. (2005). Essential Contributions from Playgrounds. Young

Children, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 26-33. Swim, T. (2004). Basic Premises of Classroom Design: The Teacher's Perspective.

Earlychildhood NEWS, November/December 2004, pp. 34-42. Torelli, L. and Durrett, C. (1996). Landscape for Learning: The Impact of Classroom Design on Infants and Toddlers. Earlychildhood NEWS, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 12-17 Wien, C., Coates, A., Keating, B., and Bigelow, B. (2005). Designing the Environment to Build Connection to Place. Young Children, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 16-24.

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Language and Literacy in Early Childhood Care and Education Marlene McCormack Introduction Being a confident and literate communicator supports participation in community life and civic society. Language and literacy are necessary skills, which support children to move effectively between worlds, interacting in a range of communities of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991). In modern day Irish society, while primary school children living in areas of disadvantage are struggling with literacy (Eivers, Shiel and Shortt, 2005), the role of home and early childhood education within the learning process is well recognised by practitioners, researchers and policy makers (Eivers et al., 2005). Building on thirty-seven years of experience in working with childcare practitioners, IPPA, the Early Childhood Organisation, has linked with the Penn Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, in the development of specific training to enhance language and literacy across and through the early childhood curriculum. This paper considers the implementation of the programme and the experiences of the practitioners as they reflect on the process and on language and literacy within their services. Purpose The purpose of this study was to maximise children's language and literacy opportunities while in pre-school, through the implementation of specific strategies within a reflective practice approach by early childhood practitioners. Through work with its members, IPPA was aware of the variance in confidence and capability of staff within childcare services to maximise literacy opportunities. The research question therefore emerged 'how can practitioners with differing levels of qualifications and experience support the acquisition of language and literacy for young children in pre-school?' Stonehouse (2000) argues that the skills, knowledge and attitudes of staff in early childhood settings are the most important influence on the quality of the programme and on the implementation of early literacy learning. This piece of action research therefore aimed to support a group of practitioners implement and evaluate a range of strategies across the early childhood curriculum to enhance language and literacy opportunities for young children.

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Many young children are failing to thrive in our educational system, with between 27% and 30% of pupils in first, third and sixth class in designated disadvantaged schools having "serious reading difficulties" (Eivers, et al., 2005: 7). This inhibits children's learning across the curriculum (McGough, 2002) and places them at risk of failure or drop out at second level. The disparity of achievement among children from different socioeconomic groups is widely recognised by early childhood practitioners. All children should have equal access to literacy, which enables them to contribute to and participate in their communities and the wider society. In seeking to explore means of equalising outcomes for young children, this small-scale study sought to focus on the pre-school setting, as a key early learning institution outside of the home environment. Context IPPA has a long history of supporting pre-school practitioners through the provision of services, training and quality improvement programmes. Work in the sector with both private and community pre-school services suggested to the organisation that literacy opportunities were often limited to the book corner and that the challenge for practitioners was to broaden their understanding of what counted as literacy. The project partner, Penn Literacy Network (PLN), has been working with elementary and high school teachers in Philadelphia, since 1981, engaging the interest and improving the academic standards of students in areas of disadvantage (Botel, 2003). Drawing on the experience and expertise of both organisations, a short training programme has been developed, which is practical in nature and has its theoretical roots in social constructivism (Vygotsky, 2003). An initial group of twelve pre-school practitioners working in West Dublin was recruited for the pilot phase of the programme (three practitioners from the baby room, four from the toddler room and five from the pre-school rooms). The childcare service is located in an area where over one third of all households are headed up by a lone parent and where unemployment is running at double the national average (Childhood Development Initiative and Dartington Social Research Unit, 2004). The group of practitioners work in a single integrated service, which caters for sessional, full day care and after school care. Participants self-selected onto the language and literacy training programme which was delivered on-site over a series of four sessions. Times and dates were agreed in advance with the group which resulted in a mix of evening and daytime sessions, delivered over a two month time frame. An IPPA staff member liaised with the childcare co-ordinator in the centre, gathering a profile of the practitioners and tailoring the session or teaching plans and resources to best meet the needs of the group.

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Language and Literacy The IPPA/PLN programme is underpinned by understandings of language and literacy as socio-cultural processes. IPPA's work is theoretically underpinned by the belief that children become literate through participation in family and community life and that literacy practices are valued differently in different contexts. Language and communication does not emerge on a child's first birthday and literacy does not commence upon entry into primary school. In fact, Fox (2000) suggests that the first day of school is almost too late to begin the process of learning to read, as the foundations of language and literacy are laid and developed from birth. Literacy is understood as reading, writing, non-verbal communication, listening and talking. It also includes areas such as visual literacy and techno-literacy (Makin and Whitehead, 2004). In its broadest sense being literate enables the individual to function independently and flexibly in a society (Whitehead, 1999) and is required for economic, social and political participation. Bordieu also argues that literacy is a form of cultural capital, which is defined as "knowledge and competence that can be converted into status, wealth, and

mobility" (Luke, 2000: 7). Thus the capacity to communicate and be literate provides life chances and empowers young children to move comfortably between family and the wider community. Methodology This small scale study adopted an action research approach, which is normally associated with "hands-on projects" (Denscombe, 2004: 73), is practical in nature and is a cyclical process. Action research is about "researching with people to create and study change in

and through the research process" (Mac Naughton, 2001: 208). This method facilitated inquiry with the participants, promoted reflection on practice and supported alternative perspectives on working with young children. The action research cycle comprised of a self-reflective spiral, the implementation of language and literacy strategies within the childcare setting and then "re-planning,

further implementation, observing and reflecting" (Kemmis and McTaggart, 2002: 22). To maintain the integrity of the research, data was collected (audio taped) through focus groups and an individual interview. The use of focus groups allowed the views of the participants "rather than the researcher's agenda" (Cohen, et al., 2002: 288) to emerge. An individual interview was undertaken with the centre supervisor as it permitted the exploration of more complex issues and allowed the researcher follow up on unanticipated issues. The study is limited by both the sample size and the duration of the research.

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Programme Design The programme was underpinned by a socio-cultural view and understanding of literacy which influenced its design. The ten-hour practitioner programme was developed with a commitment to: Using adult education methodologies with an emphasis on experiential learning to accommodate a range of learning styles Incorporating time for questions, group discussion and processing of learning to allow a range of voices to be heard Ensuring the programme content is accessible, that the depth and breadth has a starting point with which the practitioners can identify Adapting and contextualising the PLN strategies and associated language for a cultural goodness-of-fit Building the habit of personal and group reflection, so that practice becomes praxis, thereby using theory to guide action and using action to build theory (Freire, 2003). The format of the programme sought to provoke questioning and urged the interrogation of practitioners' own values and practices throughout the sessions. The aim was to prompt practitioners "to go beyond their first thoughts and taken for granted ideas" (Haigh, 2002: 95). Strategies explored during the training focused on props and storytelling techniques, book reading and extending thinking, narrative and identity, documenting children's stories, mark- and book-making. Approaches within the programme sought to make literacy visible and possible across the curriculum for infants, toddlers and pre-school children. Research Outcomes/Findings This small-scale research considers the implementation of theory to practice from the perspective of the practitioners. Focusing directly on improved outcomes for children is beyond the scope of this study. If, as Stonehouse (2000) and others suggest, the trained adult is central to learning and development, then practitioner's attitudes, confidence and skills in promoting literacy practices within the pre-school have implications for the children in their care. The focus group interview with staff yielded insights into perceptions on literacy and reflections on strategies implemented. At the commencement of the training, staff in the pre-school room indicated that they had an environment and a curriculum conducive to language and literacy acquisition e.g. "we do all of that already" (Pre-School [PS]-Staff 3.a). Staff in the baby and toddler rooms respectively felt more distanced from the issue of literacy e.g. "there's only so much you can do with the toddlers" (Toddler Room [TR]Staff 2.a). During each training session a new strategy to support the acquisition of language and literacy was explored, which was subsequently implemented by staff and reflected upon in the large participant group.

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Prior to this programme, practitioners had a particular range of literacy practices and incorporated story telling and book reading as circle time activities. Initially there was a sense in the pre-school room that "reading is for when they are in school" (PS-2.a) and those working with the youngest of children believed that "well, we're with the babies

so, you can't really do anything" (Baby Room [BR]-Staff 1.a). Staff working with the toddlers explained that "we try and read them stories but they don't really listen" (TRStaff 4.a). Story time in the pre-school room was something that the children had to engage with at set times and they were sent to "read books for time out when they get

too rowdy" (PS-Staff 1.a). Children and staff together identified and made changes over the course of the programme. In some cases, staff became more confident in reading or telling stories from a book ("I know what I'm doing now" [PS-Staff 1.b]). This confidence resulted in a more purposeful approach in one instance ("our circle time for stories wasn't working out, so

we got cushions and animal props in bags and it kept the children interested" [PS-4.a]). Staff members also started to allow time for books and reading which previously they had not seen as an activity to be pencilled in to a particular time slot in the day. After the training however, they sat and engaged with the children before, during and after the story. One staff member shared that "I let them tell the story back to me, sometimes it

does sound like the story and sometimes it's their own little story. But it's really good to hear them saying it" (TR-Staff 1.a). Mark- and book-making became a feature and extension of reading and stories, although staff acknowledged that it "takes a lot of time

to get them started and interested" (PS-Staff 5.a). Overall, the findings suggest that at the end of the training and reflection, the pre-school practitioners/team understood literacy in a broader context and began to re-configure both the environment (greater selection of books and mark-making materials) and their own practice. The training and reflection offered the staff an opportunity to "stand back

and look at what we do" (PS-Staff 3.b). An in-depth interview with the centre supervisor offered yet another perspective on changes in staff practices. Overall the centre supervisor saw a greater enthusiasm and team working among staff as they implemented the various strategies. She believed that the staff had "definitely started talking about ideas" (Centre Supervisor [CS]-1.a), which indicated a greater team awareness of literacy in the setting. The strength of modelling was evident to her in the toddler room where now, instead of the adult, "the child stands

up with the book and starts the story" (CS-1.b). This, the children's enthusiasm, has had a reciprocal effect on the staff members who are ”delighted'”and “are seeing the benefits

of doing it” (implementing the strategies) (CS-1.c). The staff group appeared to engage with the training, increasing the use of books and storytelling as part of the daily routine.

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As a centre they have become more aware of the type of books they buy and are looking out for accompanying props. Thinking ahead, and arising out of the group discussion, one practitioner wondered how children would feel and manage if, in spite of the efforts of all in the service, the benefits of and emphasis on language and literacy was lost once they leave the creche (PS-Staff 4.b). In reflecting on the brief language and literacy journey, the supervisor was concerned about the high number of children with challenging behaviour and how this might impact on staff efforts to focus on their new learning. She is actively considering smaller group size, which she feels might be more beneficial for all children. The greatest challenge ahead will be "keeping it all alive" (CS-2.a). There was ninety per cent attendance of staff at each training session and feedback both by session and within the focus group indicated an increased awareness of language and literacy opportunities within the setting. Practitioners working with both babies and toddlers placed higher levels of emphasis on talking with and listening to the children. While less energies were afforded to mark-making by these staff, there was a greater willingness to engage in story reading and story telling with the toddlers. Feedback from the group participants on the training experience and strategies implemented within the respective rooms in the childcare centre was positive. Whether this experience was due to the nature and delivery methodology of the programme and/or the opportunity to reflect on practice within a non-accredited training context is unclear. There are limitations to this study. Time and resources mitigated against on-site visits to provide ongoing support in the implementation of and reflection on strategies. To what extent changes in practice will be integrated into the culture of the service remains unknown. Will practitioners retain their newfound confidence and will they continue to take and make opportunities to thread language and literacy through the curriculum? Conclusions It is evident that from birth, caring individuals play a central role in supporting the development of language and literacy in young children, but caring alone is insufficient. To support learning, practitioners must have a repertoire of strategies, which stretch across the curriculum to promote authentic literacy experiences for children. This study demonstrated that experiential training in one curricular aspect impacted on professional practice in one suburban integrated service. If, as research suggests, children from disadvantaged situations have literacy problems and are failing within the educational system, attention should be focused on family

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support and the first tier of education, the pre-school environment, to give our youngest citizens the cultural tools to participate in society. Equally, those working directly with young children require ongoing pedagogical support to ensure a language and literacy rich environment and curriculum. Reflection in and on practice becomes the means and tool for staff to develop professionally. Only when staff members are confident in their own literacy can children benefit and thrive as readers and writers. References Botel, M. (2003). The Plainer Truths of Teaching/Learning/Assessing Literacy.

Philadelphia: Penn Literacy Network. Childhood Development Initiative and Dartington Social Research Unit (2004). How Are

Our Kids? Children and Families in Tallaght West, Co. Dublin. Dublin: The Childhood Development Initiative. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2002). Research Methods in Education (5th

Edition). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Denscombe, M. (2004). The Good Research Guide (2nd Edition). Berkshire: Open University Press. Eivers, E., Shiel, G. and Shortt, F. (2005). Literacy in Disadvantaged Primary Schools.

Problems and Solutions. Dublin: Educational Research Centre. Eivers, E., Shiel, G., Perkins, R. and Cosgrove, J. (2005). Succeeding in Reading? Reading

Standards in Irish Primary Schools. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Fox, M. (2000). Zoo Looking. (in) Barratt-Pugh, C. and Rohl, M. Literacy Learning in the

Early Years. Buckingham: Open University Press. Freire, P. (2003). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. (in)

MacNaughton, G. Shaping Early

Childhood: Learners, Curriculum and Contexts. Berkshire: Open University Press. Haigh, N. (2002). Teaching Teacher About Reflection and Ways of Reflecting (in) McDrury, J. and Alterio, M. Learning through Storytelling in Higher Education. London: Kogan Page, pp. 87-98. Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (Eds.) (2002). The Action Research Planner. (in) Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. Research Methods in Education (5th Edition). London: RoutledgeFalmer.

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Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: University Press. Luke, A. (2000). The Social Construction of Literacy in the Primary School - Literacy, Learning and Teaching: Language as a Social Practice in the Primary School. (in) BarrattPugh, C. and Rohl, M. Literacy Learning in the Early Years. Buckingham: Open University Press. Makin, L. and Whitehead, M. (2004). How to Develop Children's Early Literacy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. McGough, A (2002). Addressing Disadvantage: The Role of Teaching (in) Educational Disadvantage Centre. Primary Education: Ending Disadvantage. Proceedings and Action

Plan of National Forum, July 1-5, 2000. Dublin: St. Patrick's College, pp. 73-85. Mac Naughton, G. (2001). Action Research (in) Mac Naughton, G., Rolfe, S. A. and SirajBlatchford, I. Doing Early Childhood Research: International Perspectives on Theory and

Practice. Buckingham: Open University Press, pp. 208-223. Stonehouse, A. (2000). Opening the Doors. (in) Barratt-Pugh, C. and Rohl, M. Literacy

Learning in the Early Years. Buckingham: Open University Press. Vygotsky, L. (2003). The Problem of the Cultural Development of the Child. (in) MacNaughton, G. Shaping Early Childhood: Learners, Curriculum and Contexts. Berkshire: Open University Press. Whitehead, M. (1999). Supporting Language and Literacy Development in the Early

Years. Berkshire: Open University Press.

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Risky Play Among Four and Five Year-o old Children in Preschool Ellen Beate Hansen Sandseter Risky play can generally be defined as thrilling and exciting forms of play that involve a risk of physical injury. A previous study has divided risky play into six categories (Sandseter, 2007). The present study aims to explore these categories further by trying to confirm them. Introduction Children seek and engage in risky forms of play (Ball, 2002; Readdick and Park, 1998; Smith, 1998; Stephenson, 2003; Stine, 1997). During an observational study, Sandseter (2007) revealed six categories of risky play: a) Play with great heights and danger of injury from falling, b) Play with high or uncontrolled speed and pace that can lead to collision with something or someone, c) Play with dangerous tools that can lead to injuries, d) Play near dangerous elements where children can fall into or from something, e) Rough-and-tumble play where the children can harm each other, f) Play where the children can disappear or get lost (for instance, when the children are without supervision and where there are no fences). However, this was a minor study and the author calls for further research to validate and explore these categories. Few studies to identify risky play have been conducted, but in addition to Sandseter's (2007) research there are some studies that at least partly deal with risky play as a theme. These studies will be referred to throughout the discussion of the results in the present paper. Method The study was carried out at two Norwegian preschools from February to June 2006. The two preschools in this study were chosen because children at both spend a great deal of time outdoors. This selective choice of participants makes the sampling procedure in this study purposive sampling (Berg, 2007; Merriam, 2002; Patton, 1990). However, all Norwegian preschools are regulated by governmental pedagogical laws, and more than 80% of children from one to five years of age attend preschool in Norway. Thus, the sample in the present study should be representative for preschools and preschool-aged children in Norway. All of the four and five year-old children (N=29) in the two preschools were observed and videotaped while playing. Informed consent to observe the children was obtained by proxy from parents (Greig and Taylor, 1999).

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A total of nine days was spent in each of the preschools, observing all their outdoor activity. The setting of the observations was naturalistic (Greig and Taylor, 1999; Patton, 1990), meaning that the children played in their usual preschool setting. The researcher took a somewhat reactive approach (Corsaro, 1985), having a visible presence in the environment (Flick, 2006). However, the children quickly became used to the researcher, and took minimum notice of being observed. The video observations in this study were based on previously developed categories (Sandseter, 2007), meaning that selective observations on predefined categories were intended to purposively grasp central aspects (Flick, 2006; Pellegrini et al., 2004), to create a focused study, and to limit the amount of data gathered to what was readily analyzable (Silverman, 2005). A total of six hours of video observations was reviewed and transcribed electronically into a word-file (forty-three pages, single spaced). The transcribed data and field notes were first read thoroughly with the research questions in mind (Vedeler, 2000), then analyzed using thematic coding (Richards, 2005). The identified categories of risky play (Sandseter, 2007) were used as main headings for this level of analysis; and, several subcategories emerged. Next, analytical coding was conducted, creating conceptual categories and gathering the data needed to explore them. (Langdridge and Tvedt, 2006; Richards, 2005). Finally, these categories were explored and tested against current theory and research, (Langdridge and Tvedt, 2006; Miles and Huberman, 1994). Results and Discussion The analysis confirmed the six categories of risky play (Sandseter, 2007). However, there were differences in the occurrence of the different categories, and several subcategories were identified. Great Heights The videos showed climbing to great heights to be the most popular activity. This is in accordance with Sandseter's (2007) original findings. Several studies such as Heft (1988), Readdick and Park (1998), Smith (1998), Kaarby (2004) and Davidsson (2006) have also concluded that climbing is a very popular activity among children, and Davidsson (2006) revealed through interviews with the children that they thought climbing was exciting and challenging. In the present study the amount of climbing activity was extensive, occurring repeatedly on all of the days of observation. Children climbed trees, towers, big rocks, rocky walls, fences, small roofs etc. Jumping down from high places involved jumping down from both still and flexible surfaces. Still surfaces were big rocks, cliff edges, climbing towers, solid tree branches,

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play hut roofs, etc., while flexible surfaces were moving swings (jumping off swings in motion was very popular), thinner and less solid tree branches, etc. Several other studies similarly found a lot of children jumping down from a height (Davidsson, 2006; Kaarby, 2004; Smith, 1998). Kaarby (2004) reported children climbing up and jumping down from big rocks or small cliffs whilst in nature areas; Davidsson (2006) discovered a strong interest for jumping off swings in motion; and Smith (1998) describes children jumping down from various pieces of playground equipment. Sandseter (2007) found that this popular activity evoked both excitement and fear among the children. Balancing on high objects such as fences, brick walls, playground equipment, fallen branches, cliff edges and big rocks was observed somewhat less frequently than climbing and jumping down, but it was still a very common play activity. Often it was done in combination with climbing up, as in balancing on the climbable feature (Heft, 1988; Kyttä, 2002; 2004). This is also in accordance with Sandseter's (2007) categorization study and Kaarby's (2004) study where balancing on stones and fallen trees was a popular and common form of play. Another kind of play that involved great heights was hanging, swinging and dangling at great heights. This was often observed, as when children climbed up in a tree and hung by their arms from a branch, or when they swung with such a high speed on swing equipment that they achieved a great height in the pendulum (Smith, 1998). Similar to the above subcategories of play with great heights, this kind of play was also found in Sandseter's (2007) study. High Speed Within the category of play with high speed and in accordance with Sandseter's (2007) earlier findings, swinging was observed as a very popular activity. The children used both standardised swinging equipment in the preschool playground and self-made swings, with ropes tied to tree branches, etc. When the children were swinging they constantly sought to increase the speed of the pendulum to make the activity more exciting. Additionally, they often tried out new and more risky and challenging ways to swing, for example, as several children joining together on one swing, standing upright on the swing, twisting the swing to make it oscillate in unnatural directions, and making two swings bump into each other with extensive power. This was similar to the observations of both Davidson (2006) and Smith (1998). The children enjoyed repeatedly sliding at high speed down steep hillsides and rocky slopes on an extensive number of occasions. In accordance with Sandseter's (2007) study, the children often explored different ways of doing this: sliding head first, on their stomachs, backwards, several children together in a row, etc. This was also a common

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activity in both Kaarby's (2004) and Smith's (1998) study. In addition to the sliding activity described above, this study also revealed that sledging on snow at high speed was a particularly frequent and popular activity during the winter season. This was observed on all of the observation days in the winter when the ground was covered with snow. Similar to sliding, this was also performed in different ways (head first, etc.). Sometimes the children even stood upright (alone or several together) on snow-sliding-mattresses. Other forms of play with great speed in the present study were bicycling, running uncontrollably down steep hills and skating and skiing at high speed in the winter. Sandseter (2007) observed bicycling and running down steep hills in her study, but her study was not carried out during the winter season, so the current findings of skating and skiing are an addition to this category. Play with Dangerous Tools In this study, play with dangerous tools was not as common as in the study of Sandseter (2007). The use of knives in play was only observed on a couple of occasions, while none of the present videos showed the use of axes, hammers and nails (Sandseter, 2007) or bows and arrows (Kaarby, 2004). The use of such tools could vary a lot from preschool to preschool, however, and the findings in Kaarby's and Sandseter's studies show that in particular, the use of whittling knives (but also sometimes bows and arrows, hammers and nails, and saws and axes) is quite common in Norwegian preschools. As Sandseter (2007) argues, this is possibly uncommon in non-Scandinavian countries. Another possibly dangerous tool that children involved in their play in the present study was ropes. This was observed on some occasions, but not frequently. Play Near Dangerous Elements The findings of play near dangerous elements in the present study were very similar to Sandseter's (2007) study, showing that this included play near the edge of steep hillsides, rock walls or cliffs; play near deep water or the sea; and play near a fire pit. In addition, the present study also contained observations of play near icy waters in the winter. Both studies showed that the children were often completely preoccupied with their activity, such as role play, play chasing etc., and unaware of the fact that they performed this near a dangerous element and the potential hazard this represented. However, in some of the present observations the children consciously walked on cliff tops, climbed trees hanging out over cliffs, ran and chased each other near water, tumbled and threw twigs into the water, clearly expressing that the dangerous element was an important and exciting factor in their play.

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Rough-aand-ttumble Play Similar to Sandseter's (2007) former study, the findings in this category of play included wrestling on the ground (especially on snow in the winter), play fighting by hitting and throwing things at other children, and fencing with sticks or other available artifacts. This kind of play was always done with a threatening atmosphere, and the children would make threatening noises and angry or scary faces at each other. This is in accordance with Blurton Jones' (1976) and several other researchers' (Humphreys and Smith, 1984; Smith, 2005) descriptions of children's rough-and-tumble play. Similar to these former studies, this kind of play gives the observer the impression of a fine balance between play and real fighting. In the present study, several rough-and-tumble play situations went beyond the play atmosphere and became real fights and threats that brought about real fear and anxiety in the threatened child. These situations often resulted in a flight by one of the children, and the play dissolved. Kaarby (2004) described similar situations in her study where children were fighting, sometimes in the trees, and as soon as the intruder was a real danger, they surrendered, climbed down, or negotiated a solution. Similar to former research (Blurton Jones, 1976; DiPietro, 1981; Epstein et al., 2001 Humphreys and Smith, 1984), only boys engaged in rough-and-tumble-play in the present study. Often (but not always) it occurred as part of role play where the children pretended to be characters such as Spiderman, King Kong, pirates, characters from Star Wars, etc., often inspired by films or TV programs the children had seen (Humphreys and Smith, 1984; Kaarby, 2004; Smith and Conolly, 1980). They played out these roles and recreated wrestling, fencing and fighting combat. Play Where the Children Can Disappear/Get Lost One of the preschools in this study did not have any fences around the preschool playground. At this preschool there were a lot of play situations where children could disappear or get lost. These are "occasions where the children were given the opportunity

to 'cruise' on their own, exploring unknown areas where the danger of getting lost was present" (Sandseter, 2007: 247). This is called 'going exploring' (Kaarby, 2004; Sandseter, 2007). In the outdoor preschool in this study, this happened often because the children had an extensive mobility license (Kyttä, 2004), meaning the degree of independent mobility with which the staff trusted the children. They were allowed to move around freely in their surroundings, close to woods, steep hills and cliffs, and a small lake. This kind of situation was also observed in the ordinary preschool, but only when the group of children went on hikes in nature areas outside the preschool playground. However, the staff in this preschool were far more restrictive about giving the children the license to move around freely, and carefully supervised the children. Kaarby's (2004) research was conducted in an outdoor preschool, and similar to the present study she observed that the children 'went exploring' and made expeditions that set out to discover something on

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their own when hiking in nature areas. In Davidson's (2006) study the feeling of freedom and the opportunity to play 'away from the eyes of adults' was important for the children, and similar to the studies above, the results showed that this was associated with playing in the woods. Conclusion Sandseter's (2007) categories were confirmed in the present study. In addition to these, several subcategories were identified. Table 1: Categories and subcategories of risky play Categories Great heights

Sub-ccategories Climbing Jumping from still or flexible surfaces Balancing on high objects Hanging/swinging at great heights

High speed

Swinging at high speed Sliding and sledging at high speed Running uncontrollably at high speed Bicycling at high speed Skating and skiing at high speed

Dangerous tools

Cutting tools: knives, saws, axes

Dangerous elements

Cliffs

Strangling tools: Ropes, etc.

Deep or icy water Fire pits Rough-and-tumble

Wrestling Fencing with sticks, etc. Play fighting

Disappear/get lost

‘Going exploring’

The children clearly expressed a strong interest in risky play, and this study supports previous research suggesting that children have an urge to seek and engage in risky forms of play (Ball, 2002; Readdick and Park, 1998; Smith, 1998; Stephenson, 2003; Stine, 1997). The present study is therefore a contribution to the rather unexplored field of children's risk-taking in play, and its results would greatly contribute to the discussion on

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the risks (for injury) and benefits (to development) of risky play. However, further research with a broad range of perspectives is required to obtain more knowledge on this theme. References Ball, D. J. (2002). Playgrounds - Risks, Benefits and Choices. London: Health and Safety Executive, Middlesex University. Berg, B. L. (2007). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Blurton Jones, N. (1976). Rough-and-Tumble Play Among Nursery School Children. (in) Bruner, J. S., Jolly, A. and Sylva, K. (Eds.) Play: Its Role in Development and Evolution. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Corsaro, W. A. (1985). Friendship and Peer Culture in the Early Years. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Davidsson, B. (2006). The Schoolyard As A Place Of Meaning - Children's Perspectives (in) Brodin, J. and Lindstrand, P. (Eds.), Interaction in Outdoor Play Environments - Gender,

Culture and Learning Research Report no. 47. Stockholm: Stockholm Institute of Education, pp. 61-79. DiPietro, J. A. (1981). Rough-and-Tumble Play: A Function of Gender. Developmental

Psychology, No. 17, pp. 50-58. Epstein, D., Kehily, M., Mac-an-Ghaill, M., and Redman, P. (2001). Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: Making Masculinities And Femininities in School. Men and Masculinities, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 158-172. Flick, U. (2006). An Introduction To Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). London: Sage. Greig, A., and Taylor, J. (1999). Doing Research with Children. London: Sage. Heft, H. (1988). Affordances of Children's Environments: A Functional Approach To Environmental Description. Children's Environments Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 29-37. Humphreys, A. P., and Smith, P. K. (1984). Rough-and-Tumble in Preschool and Playground (in) Smith, P. K. (Ed.), Play in Animals and Humans. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 241-266.

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Kaarby, K. M. E. (2004). Children Playing in Nature. Paper presented at the 1st CECDE international conference: Questions of Quality, Dublin Castle, Ireland, 23rd-25th September 2004. Kyttä, M. (2002). Affordances of Children's Environments in the Context of Cities, Small Towns, Suburbs and Rural Villages in Finland and Belarus. Journal of Environmental

Psychology , Vol. 22, No. 1-2, pp. 109-123. Kyttä, M. (2004). The Extent of Children's Independent Mobility and the Number of Actualized Affordances as Criteria for Child-friendly Environments. Journal of

Environmental Psychology, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 179-198. Langdridge, D., and Tvedt, S. D. (2006). Psykologisk Forskningsmetode : En Innforing i

Kvalitative og Kvantitative Tilnoominger. Trondheim: Tapir. Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and

Analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M. B., and Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. USA: SAGE Publications. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage. Pellegrini, A. D., Hoch, J., and Symons, F. J. (2004). Observing Children in their Natural

Worlds: A Methodological Primer (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Readdick, C. A., and Park, J. J. (1998). Achieving Great Heights: The Climbing Child. Young

Children, Vol. 53, No. 6, pp. 14-19. Richards, L. (2005). Handling Qualitative Data: A Practical Guide. London: Sage. Sandseter, E. B. H. (2007). Categorizing Risky Play - How Can We Identify Risk-taking in Children's Play? European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 237-252. Silverman, D. (2005). Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook (2nd ed.). London: Sage.

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Smith, P. K. (2005). Play. Types and Functions in Human Development (in) Ellis, B. J. and Bjorklund, D. F. (Eds.), Origins of The Social Mind. Evolutionary Psychology and Child

Development. New York: Guilford, pp. 271-291. Smith, P. K. and Conolly, K. J. (1980). The Ecology of Preschool Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, S. J. (1998). Risk and Our Pedagogical Relation to Children: on Playground and

Beyond. New York: State University of New York Press. Stephenson, A. (2003). Physical Risk-taking: Dangerous or Endangered? Early Years, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 35-43. Stine, S. (1997). Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and

Youth. New York: Wiley. Vedeler, L. (2000). Observasjonsforskning i Pedagogiske Fag : En Innforing i Bruk av

Metoder. Oslo: Gyldendal akademisk.

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“It takes a village...” - Partnership, Parents and Communities

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Networks of Care and $7/Day Childcare in Small-TTown Quebec: Preliminary Findings in a Pilot Study* Patrizia Albanese Informal Networks and Economic Change in Canada's 'New Economy' Informal networks have been used by women to challenge various forms of marginalization. Researchers remind us that in the face of economic pressures and other inequalities, individuals form formal and informal networks or collectives (Skocpol and Oser, 2004), particularly in light of increased state reliance on the provision of informal care (McDaniel, 2002; Pfau-Effinger, 2005). Taking a slightly different tack, I seek to understand what informal networks are established when universal, affordable childcare is available, but the economic environment creates its own unique challenges. Canadians find themselves in "an information economy…a global-economy" (Statistics Canada, 2004), marked by a decline in manufacturing and shift towards the service sector. There is a bifurcation within the service sector, with a polarization of jobs and earnings, such that while some of the new jobs are high-skilled and knowledge-based, many are low-paid and part-time. By 1996, of the ten broad occupational categories in Canada, sales and services was the largest, with a labour force of 3.6 million - twenty-six percent of total employment (Statistics Canada, 1998). Family earnings instability and inequality grew throughout the 1990s (Morissette and Ostrovsky, 2005), and there continues to be widespread worker displacement and alienation. My research attempts to show that affordable child care acts as a buffer to some of the most hard-hitting changes and challenges brought on by Canada's new economy. But even this is not without its own challenges. The Primary Sector and Changes in Small-TTown Quebec Quebec has the largest number of workers in the wood product industry (Human Resources and Skills Development Canada [HRSDC], 2005), with entire communities relying primarily on wood. Statistics Canada reported that the "processing of forest

resources in Quebec anchors the economies of more than 250 municipalities, providing 100% of the manufacturing jobs in 135 towns and villages" (Dufour, 2002: 2). However, between 1987 and 1999, the growth rate for the wood industry was lower than all manufacturing industries (HRSDC, 2005). In Quebec, production declined over ten percent in one year alone (Statistics Canada, 2002). The industry was hard hit by an ongoing softwood lumber dispute with the United States, rising energy costs, the high Canadian dollar, and environmental restrictions imposed by the government in Quebec. The impact was felt in the community which is the focus of this study, as it experienced its second mill closure in as many years. Families increasingly depended on income from ‘women's work’.

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The first wave of interviews I conducted revealed that of fifteen mothers interviewed who had partners, nine, or sixty percent, had partners or husbands who, at that time, worked in the lumber industry. Of the sixteen childcare providers who were married or cohabiting, eleven, or sixty-nine percent had partners in the lumber industry. Interviews with ten fathers revealed that two were working at a nearby paper mill, two were recently laid off from a mill, two left mill work for other jobs and one was on disability insurance after an injury acquired at a mill. In contrast, all the women I interviewed worked in the service sector. There was clearly a bifurcation in women's jobs, with about half holding jobs in somewhat better-paid, female-dominated service industries, including nursing/health, adult care, and administration or civil service/government jobs. These jobs required commuting. The other half worked in lower-paid, local retail sales, food service, child care, hair/beauty and secretarial jobs. Among the fastest growing employers in the region are call centres, that draw upon a relatively cheap, bilingual, female labour force, who all depend upon affordable childcare to be able to work. Childcare in Canada Canadians have heard promises of a national childcare strategy, with few concrete results, for decades. Things appeared to be changing in the late 1990s, with the development of the National Children's Agenda (NCA) (Union Sociale, 1997), followed by the Federal/Provincial/Territorial Early Childhood Development (ECD) Agreement (Federal Provincial Territorial Governments, 2000), and the Multilateral Framework on Early Learning and Child Care (Union Sociale, 2003). The NCA confirmed that children's wellbeing was a national priority and the ECD and the Multilateral Framework outlined commitments to enriching provincial early learning and care programs. Quebec chose not to participate in the NCA's development, seeking instead to assume full responsibility over its own family programs. In early 2006, the newly elected Conservative government replaced funding commitments to the provinces with their 'Universal Childcare Benefit'. This 'universal benefit' gives families a taxable $100 monthly payment for each child under six, and professes to provide parents with "more choice in child care" (Government of Canada, 2006). Given the cost and limited availability of spaces, the promise of a national

childcare plan remains unfulfilled. What remains is the growing need for affordable care, and only Quebec seems to be responding. In 1976, the labour force participation rate of women ages twenty-five to forty-four in Quebec was well below the Canadian average. It reached the Canadian average in 1999, and since 2000 surpassed it by 4.2 percent (seventy-six versus seventy-two percent) (Roy,

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2006). A reason for this has been the 1997 introduction of Quebec's childcare program (Roy, 2006). In 1997, Quebec introduced $5 per day childcare for all four-year-olds using childcare at least three days a week, regardless of a family's household income and employment status (Government of Quebec, 2003; Tougas, 2002). By 2000, all children regardless of financial need had access to the program. The cost increased to $7 per day in 2004. By 2004, the province had 321,732 day care spaces amounting to fifty-two percent of the province's children, compared to between fifteen and thirty percent in the rest of the country (Bushnik, 2006), and triple the 1992 level (Roy, 2006). Between 2001 and 2004, close to sixty percent of all spaces created in Canada were in Quebec, amounting to fortythree percent of all children registered in day care (Roy, 2006). The Pilot Study The goal of this research was to assess of the impact of $5 per day childcare using interviews with mothers and childcare providers, and a year later, fathers, living in a community located on the Quebec/Ontario border. The community was made up of two adjoining towns. In 2001, the larger town had 2,007 inhabitants and the smaller had a population of 1,661. The community was the francophone centre of an otherwise largely anglophone county of Western Quebec. Interviews were one hour long, in the subject's home or workplace (childcare centre) and tape-recorded. A non-probability, snowball sample was used. I also obtained a list of all daycare centres in town and contacted each one. I interviewed at the large centre (a supervisor, an administrator, four educators and two assistants), and six of eleven homes (six owner-operators and three assistants). I interviewed sixteen mothers and seventeen childcare providers. I conducted follow-up interviews, a year later, with ten mothers and ten fathers of children in the program. The Formal Care Arrangements The community had twelve child care centres in 2004 - eleven were home/family childcare centres, and one was a large, newly built 'installation' or childcare facility. The centres were regulated by one of two agencies in place to enforce regulations, provide information, training and support to paid caregivers, and respond to parental concerns. The home/family childcare centres were typically in a woman's basement, and run as independent small businesses. Basements were remodeled to include cubbies for each child, play areas or 'corners', washrooms, tables for crafts and activities, and a kitchen/dining area where snacks (two per day) and lunches (one per day) were served. Each home/family centre had a self-employed centre operator, who cared for up to six children. Some had assistants, and so cared for up to nine (Albanese, 2006).

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Centres had to remain open a minimum of ten hours a day, and working alone meant having virtually no breaks. On top of caring for children, the caregivers planned activities and menus, cooked, cleaned, shopped, did laundry, kept the books, provided updates to parents, etc. Most in-home caregivers did not have college training in early childhood education, but were required to take courses in nutrition, child development, first aid, etc. The large centre was built in 2004 and employed eleven women, in mostly full-time care positions. Almost all educators here had college-level training. Findings showed the program to be advantageous for the employability and general wellbeing of women. It improved family stability somewhat, and was effective in the community's economic development (Albanese, 2006). On the other hand, families had a difficult time juggling commutes and shift work, characteristic of low-paying peripheral labour markets, and childcare centre hours of operation. They reported that commutes and shift work made drop-off/pick-up of children complicated, often requiring the support of friends, family and sitters. Informal Networks of Care I asked mothers how they selected their day care and if they had a preference for home/family versus larger centre care. Often, a centre's hours of operation was the main factor for selecting one over another. While all centres had to stay open for ten hours, they could choose when to open and close. Centres' hours of operation were a concern for most mothers, as all mothers interviewed had to contend with their own and their partner's shift work and commuting. Not surprisingly, it was often mothers, not fathers, who organized the juggling of people and schedules to make their childcare work. While interviewing, I received an unexpected call and request from a neighbour. Could I pick-up her son at daycare, as her husband was forced to work overtime? Her own shift finished one hour after the daycare closed, and her parents, whom she usually relied on in 'emergency' situations, were not available. I soon learned that most of the mothers I interviewed relied on informal networks of care on a regular basis. For example, Solange and Paul were parents of two children, ages seven and two (one in day care). Solange worked in a town a half hour away. She worked rotating day and night shifts as a personal care provider. Paul worked shifts in a local mill, also about a half-hour away. Solange and Paul depended upon two sets of grandparents and a series of sitters to juggle work and child care on a regular basis. In 'emergencies' they called upon friends and neighbours. When she worked nights and he arrived home from his dayshift at 7:00pm, and a grandfather's own work schedule allowed it, the grandfather would pick up the children at school and daycare, otherwise a babysitter was hired for after school and evenings. Other arrangements were used as schedules shifted weekly.

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Stephanie and Peter had four children, with one in day care. Stephanie worked in a hospital (a half-hour away), and Peter worked in a mill, also a half-hour away. Both worked a combination of day and night shifts. He often worked overtime hours, taking every opportunity to earn extra money. They too depended on two sets of grandparents and a series of babysitters. A problem for this couple was the early morning, when sitters were often not available. A grandparent would arrive at their home around 4:30am (while the children were sleeping). Stephanie then left for work at 5:00am. The grandparent filled the two hour gap until Paul arrived at 7:00am, from a twelve-hour night-shift, to wake the children and get them ready for school and daycare. The grandparent then went off to work. Many found themselves in similar situations. The new economy, with commutes, shift work, comparatively low wages, job insecurity, part-time hours, with people holding multiple jobs and working overtime, was not easy to navigate. Having universal, affordable childcare certainly made working under these conditions more manageable. However, even this was clearly not without its share of new challenges. A patchwork and network of family, friends and sitters were necessary, on top of affordable childcare, to make day-to-day work possible. Conclusions and Recommendations My preliminary work shows that even with affordable child care, family, neighbours and friends are essential in assisting families when balancing the demands of Canada's changing economy. Informal networks of care were superimposed upon a formal network to meet and manage the challenges of juggling shift work and commutes - a hallmark of Canada's new economy. A universal, affordable (high quality) childcare system is essential for young families to prosper, but there is clearly a need for some flexibility (that is not overly taxing to the already overburdened and under-valued childcare workers) and different types of supports built into the existing system. The financial cost will be great, and requires a new way of thinking about child care, but the social benefits may be greater. The Quebec model has already seen benefits to young families in the form of higher employment rates for women (Roy, 2006), more satisfied wives and mothers (Albanese, 2006) and children who are seemingly more school-ready (Statistics Canada, 2003). But perhaps even this system can be improved. Endnote: * Funding for this project was made available by the Ryerson New Faculty SRC Development Fund (2004-2006), the SSHRC Standard Institutional Grant (Ryerson University, 2005-2005).

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Networks of Care and $7/Day Childcare in Small-Town Quebec: Preliminary Findings in a Pilot Study

References Albanese, P. (2006). Small Town, Big Benefits: The Ripple Effect of $7/day Child Care.

Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 125-140. Bushnik, T. (2006). Child Care in Canada. Children and Youth Research Paper Series (Cat. No. 89-599-MIE-No.003). Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Dufour, D. (2002). The Lumber Industry: Crucial Contribution to Canada's Prosperity.

Manufacturing Overview Research Papers. (Cat. No31F0027XIE-No.01). Statistics Canada. Federal Provincial Territorial Governments (2000). Federal/Provincial/Territorial

Communiqué on Early Childhood Development. [Accessed at http://www.ecdelcc.ca/en/ecd/ecd_home.shtml, 6th April, 2007]. Government

of

Canada

(2006).

Universal

Child

Care

Plan.

[Accessed

at

http://www.universalchildcare.ca/en/faqs_benefit.shtml, 22nd November, 2006]. Government of Quebec (2003). Development and Funding Scenarios to Ensure the

Permanence, Accessibility and Quality of Childcare Services: Consultations 2003. Québec: Minist re de L'Emploi, de a Solidarité Sociale et de al Famille. Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (2005). Wood Products Industry.

Government of Canada. [Accessed at www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/hip/hrp/sp/industry_ profiles/woods.shtml, 22nd November, 2006]. McDaniel, S. (2002). Women's Changing Relations to the State and Citizenship. Canadian

Review of Sociology and Anthropology, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 125-149. Morissette, R. and Ostrovsky, Y. (2005). The Instability of Family Earnings and Family

Income in Canada, 1986 to 1991 and 1996 to 2001 (11F0019MIE - No. 265). Analytical Studies Branch Research Paper Series, Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Pfau-Effinger, B. (2005). Welfare State Policies and the Developments of Care Arrangements. European Studies, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 321-347. Roy, F. (2006). From She to She: Changing Patterns of Women in the Canadian Labour Force. Canadian Economic Observer. (Statistics Canada). Catalogues No. 11-010, pp. 3.13.10.

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Skocpol, T. and Oser, J. L. (2004). Organization Despite Adversity. Social Science History, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 367-437. Statistics Canada (1998). 1996 Census: Labour Force Activity, Occupation and Industry, Place of Work, Mode of Transportation to Work, Unpaid Work. The Daily of March 17th, 2006. Statistics Canada (2002). Sawmills and Planning Mills, The Daily of March 5th, 2006. Statistics Canada (2003). Parental Work, Child-care use and Young Children's Cognitive Outcomes. The Daily of October 23rd, 2006. Statistics Canada (2004). Update on Economic Analysis. Cat. 11-623.XIE [Accessed at www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/11-623-XIE/2003001/trdescrip.htm, 6th April, 2007]. Tougas, J. (2002). Quebec's Family Policy and Strategy on Early Childhood Development and Childcare. Education Canada, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 20-22. Union Sociale (1997). Background Information on the National Children's Agenda

Announced in the Speech from the Throne September 23, 1997. [Accessed at http://www.unionsociale.gc.ca/nca/nca1_e.html, 6th April, 2007]. Union Sociale (2003). Multilateral Framework on Early Learning and Child Care. [Accessed at http://www.unionsociale.gc.ca/ecd-framework_e.htm, 6th April, 2007].

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Equality and Dialogue in the Involvement of Traveller Parents in the Preschool Education of Their Children

Equality and Dialogue in the Involvement of Traveller Parents in the Preschool Education of Their Children Anne Boyle Introduction Children of the Traveller community do not receive the same benefits from education as their non-Traveller peers (Department of Education and Science [DES], 2006: 37). This paper reports on exploratory focus groups with Traveller mothers in which they discuss education, and in particular their own children's experience of school and preschool. These focus groups are part of a wider project looking at the involvement of Traveller parents in their children's preschool education. Parental involvement is promoted by recent policy documents (DES, 2003; 2005a; b; 2006). Parents are not a homogeneous group, and as noted by Vincent and Martin (2005: 114), parent is a "raced, classed and gendered" term. In this paper, the policy and theoretical background to Traveller education is briefly outlined and major findings of the exploratory focus groups are presented. It is argued that structures for parental involvement must address the issue of equality, and must involve a dialogue rooted in respect for difference. Background The Survey of Traveller Education Provision (DES, 2005b) reports that most Traveller parents have high expectations for their children in the education system. Parents expressed concern about the attainment levels of their children (DES, 2005b). Many had missed out on education themselves and "this had created barriers to their own

advancement and to their ability to play a full role in society" (DES, 2005b: 64). They were anxious that their children should benefit from a good education, and they expressed the desire to gain more information on ways to support their children in achieving their potential (DES, 2005b). Official attitudes and policies concerning Travellers have evolved over the years since the

Commission on Itinerancy reported in 1963 (Government of Ireland, 1963). Major markers in this evolution were the reports of the Travelling People Review Body (Government of Ireland, 1983) and of the Task Force on the Travelling Community (Government of Ireland, 1995). Official thinking in the 1960s regarded Travellers as "deviant, destitute dropouts

from Irish society" (Lodge and Lynch, 2004: 93). More recent documents have been informed by a recognition that difference does not imply deficit and this has been matched with a shift from a policy of assimilation in early documents towards policies based on equality and partnership.

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Parental involvement in education can be justified on the basis of effectiveness or of parental rights. The effectiveness of parental involvement has been well established in educational research (e.g. meta-analyses by Jeynes 2004; 2005) and there is widespread agreement that parental involvement is a key element in addressing educational difficulties faced by Travellers (DES, 2003; 2005a; 2005b). In relation to Traveller education, the Chief Inspector has said, "the role of parents as partners in education must

be developed" (DES, 2005b: V) and all schools contacted for the Survey of Traveller Education Provision "appreciated the importance of fostering involvement by parents" (DES, 2005b: 73). An evaluation by the DES of the Traveller preschools (DES, 2003), recommends that each preschool develop and implement policy to encourage parental involvement and that this should be developed in consultation with the parents. Apart from its effectiveness in improving educational outcomes, parental involvement can also be seen as a right. Bunreacht na hÉireann (Government of Ireland, 1937) acknowledges the family as the prime and natural educator of the child, and it is inherent in democracy that people should be involved in decisions which affect them. According to Vincent and Martin (2005: 124), because schools are made up of children from diverse cultural and social backgrounds, and in order to "maintain a legitimate and democratic

authority, the schools must engage in dialogue and negotiation with families." Policies and structures for parental involvement need to take account of equality and culture. Different parents experience involvement differently. Hanafin and Lynch (2002: 45) show how working class parents often feel "uninvolved, unrepresented and

powerless". Similar issues arise with respect to ethnicity (Vincent and Martin, 2005). Equality is not just about equal participation and outcomes, but also about showing respect for difference; according to Fraser and Honneth (2003), it is about recognition as well as redistribution. Methodology Two exploratory focus groups were held with Traveller mothers. A focus group allows for the interaction of the people involved and can help to "flesh out" views and information (Punch, 2005: 172). It puts the researcher in a more peripheral role; the important information comes from the group's interaction with each other (Cohen et al. 2003: 288). The focus group is used in this research as a qualitative method which can, according to Smith (2005: 103), "create space for dialogue across difference." One of the two focus groups participating in this particular study, was contacted through a Traveller preschool and consisted of six mothers whose children were attending preschool at the time. The second group was contacted through a Traveller organisation and consisted of three mothers whose children were in first and second level schooling and who did not at that time have children in preschool. Questions to both groups covered the same broad themes: the mothers' expectations and hopes for their children's education, their

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perceptions of their children's experience of school/preschool, and their relationships and involvement with teachers and with school/preschool. In all cases, open questions were put to the groups and the participants were encouraged to discuss the questions amongst themselves. Findings The mothers made it clear that they wanted their children to finish school, to gain qualifications and generally to achieve to the same level as their settled peers. They were aware that their children were not, for the most part, doing as well as settled children. They believed that Traveller children were generally already behind their peers in primary school, before they ever entered second level. There was a sense of dismay at the continuing difficulties experienced by Traveller children over many years. One mother told of how her own parents were convinced of the value of education and so travelled only during the Summer and not during the school year. She says, "my parents were adamant because they weren't able to read and write

themselves and they wanted to make sure that we did." However, of seven children in her family, only two had left school being able to read and write. Some of the mothers felt that Traveller children are not being "pushed", and that teachers set harder work for the settled children. One mother said, "I think Traveller children don't

do well in school because there isn't proper teaching for them". Another said, "I have a young one, she's gone 12, she can't read or write." One mother related how she had been led to believe that her children were doing very well in primary school, yet when they went on to second level she found that they needed support to get them to the standard of the other children. These mothers believed that Traveller children are capable of achieving to the same extent as their settled peers. The mothers were strong in support of education. According to one, "even if [Traveller children] are not achieving, you still end up sending them to school to make sure they

pick up something", while another put it more strongly: "Education is key to power - if one generation of Travellers gets off the ground in terms of education, we'll never look back after that. We'll get our [children] into positions where they'll be guards, solicitors, and that's when real change is going to happen for Travellers." The mothers acknowledged the positive work of many teachers. However, they also reported a range of difficulties that they had experienced with particular teachers. They felt that some teachers had no interest in Travellers and others were strongly opposed to them and did not want them in school. Some of the mothers claimed that their children

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had been on the receiving end of negative remarks and attitudes by certain teachers. One mother, whose son was the only Traveller in his class, claimed that his teacher had told the other pupils not to mix with him because as a Traveller he would be a bad influence on them. This mother spoke of advising her son to "go in and do your best." She claimed that he replied, "how can you do your best when she is on your back every minute of the

day?" This mother added, "If you have a teacher that doesn't like Travellers it can affect how she speaks to the child and how she acts with the child … the [other] children then pick up on how the teacher is approaching this child." Perhaps due to such experiences, the mothers were somewhat sceptical about what they could achieve through contact with the school. Although they said that they generally feel welcome when they visit school, this differs considerably depending on the school and the teacher - "some teachers are different to others." One mother said that schools show "no respect for Traveller parents." Another said, in reference to her dealings with a particular school principal, "you are coming against this person who doesn't have any

time for Travellers." Most of the mothers claimed that their children had been subjected to racist comments from other pupils. They said that name calling in school was the same as when they themselves were in school, with regular use of pejorative terms. They said it was worse for children as they got older, as they became more aware of it. It was suggested by some that the way the schools deal with racial name calling is different for Travellers than it is for other minority groups: "when it comes to Travellers, you're supposed to sit back and

not take notice". However, in response to this another mother cautioned that one way "to keep discrimination going is to pit [members of minority groups] against each other". One mother suggested that teachers should receive anti-racism training in order to be able to provide "Traveller-friendly education" and to deal with racism in the classroom. The mothers perceived a gulf between home and school, with one saying, "when they

get [to school] there's a big barrier." They felt that Traveller identity was not recognised or respected in the schools. One mother said, "the schools were designed for a settled

person's approach. They were never designed for Travellers". Another, who claimed that her children were receiving a good education in their school, nonetheless said that their Traveller identity was not acknowledged. She added, "if Traveller culture was included in

the school curriculum … it would make all the difference … it would break down barriers for settled and Traveller." The mothers discussed their children's experience of preschool. They said that attendance at preschool benefited the children because when they moved on to primary "they knew

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more and had learned more". Some mothers whose children attended a Traveller preschool said that they chose it, not to keep their children away from settled children but that "they were used to it and felt comfortable with the teacher and the preschool." They talked to their children about what they had done in preschool and related examples of what the children had told them about their day. They believed that it was very important that their children got attention from the staff and that the small numbers and informal nature of the preschools facilitated this compared with the larger classes in primary school. Yet the parents stated that they did not feel involved with the preschool. One mother said, "I don't think we are involved very much with it" and she added that she would like to be more involved. This was echoed by the other parents. In relation to involvement in their children's primary and second level education, the mothers said that they visit the schools when they have a concern about a child's education. The mothers also talked about how they try to help their children with homework: "there's a lot we'd be able to help with but then there's a lot of new stuff." Some reported difficulty in helping children because of their own literacy problems. One mother explained how a particular teacher had shown her how to help her son with his English reading. Conclusion This paper reports on the findings of exploratory focus groups with Traveller mothers. These mothers see themselves as advocates for their children's education and work hard to try to help them. The mothers expressed concern that their children were not succeeding to the same extent as their settled peers. Some reported negative school experiences for their children, which in many ways, mirrored their own experiences of school. Acknowledging positive support from individual teachers, they also spoke of the low expectations that many teachers appeared to have for their children. They perceived that a lack of recognition of Traveller identity within the classroom led to a gulf between home and school for the children. The poor educational outcomes for Traveller children and the barriers to communication between Traveller families and schools need to be addressed. Structures for parental involvement need to be put in place which acknowledge Traveller identity and culture and which facilitate dialogue between families and schools. Traveller preschools are an ideal site to initiate such a process, due to the positive relationships which already exist. The mothers were strongly in support of education, but perceived resistance from the schools in many cases and also reported incidents of discrimination within the schools. They were more positive about their children in preschool, due to the small numbers, the relationship with staff and the informal setting.

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These mothers involve themselves in their children's education and advocate on their behalf. However, while they visit the schools for many reasons, it is never as partners. A model of parental involvement is required which acknowledges the parents' Traveller identity and which facilitates a dialogue rooted in respect for difference. References Cohen, L., Manna, L. and Morrison, K. (2003). Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge-Falmer. Department of Education and Science (2003). Preschools for Travellers: National

Evaluation Report. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Department of Education and Science (2005a). Moving Beyond Educational Disadvantage:

Report of the Educational Disadvantage Committee. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Department of Education and Science (2005b). Survey of Traveller Education Provision in

Irish Schools. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Department of Education and Science (2006). Recommendations for a Traveller Education

Strategy 2006-2010. Joint Working Group on Traveller Education. Dublin: Department of Education and Science. Fraser, N. and Honneth, A. (2003). Redistribution or Recognition? A Political-Philosophical

Exchange. London and New York: Verso. Government of Ireland (1937). Bunreacht na hÉireann. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Government of Ireland (1963). Report of the Commission on Itinerancy. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Government of Ireland (1983). Report of the Travelling People Review Body. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Government of Ireland (1995). Report of the Task Force on the Travelling Community. Dublin: The Stationery Office. Hanafin, J. and Lynch, A. (2002). Peripheral Voices: Parental Involvement, Social Class and Educational Disadvantage. British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2002.

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Jeynes, W. (2004/2005). Parental Involvement and Secondary School Student Educational Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. The Evaluation Exchange, Volume X, No. 4, Winter, 2004/2005. Jeynes, W. (2005). A Meta-Analysis of the Relation of Parental Involvement to Urban Elementary School Student Academic Achievement. Urban Education, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 237-269. Lodge, A. and Lynch, K. (Eds.) (2004). Diversity in Education. Dublin: The Equality Authority. Punch, K. F. (2005). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches. London: Sage Publications. Smith, L. T. (2005). On Tricky Ground: Researching the Native in the Age of Uncertainty (in) Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications. Vincent, C. and Martin, J. (2005). Parents as Citizens: Making the Case (in) Crozier, G. and Reay, D. (Eds.) Activating Participation: Parents and Teachers Working Towards

Partnership. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.

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The Role of Community Teachers in the Development of Quality Early Childhood Care and Education Jan Forde

The first community teachers were appointed in Sheffield in 1999, as part of the city's strategic plan to raise the quality and standards of its early childcare and education services across public, private and voluntary sectors. Within these newly integrating services, settings were expected to support and train parents to become effectively involved in their children's learning. This was a time of great change and increased funding opportunities. New government initiatives were coming on stream such as Centres of Excellence programmes (Labour Party, 1997), and Sure Start (Department for Education and Employment [DfEE], 1999a) programmes. Sheffield was successful in bidding for funding for both initiatives. The Centres of Excellence programme demonstrates and disseminates good practice on the integration of care and education and the running of training and family support services. Sure Start aims to support families with children aged birth to four years, particularly those who are disadvantaged "to make sure they are ready to thrive when

they get to school" (Glass, 1999: 258). In this process, a diverse new workforce with a wide range of experiences and qualifications was created. New funding opportunities also appeared in the shape of the government's nursery grant which offered 'free' part-time nursery places, initially to children aged four. Receipt of the grant was dependent upon providers becoming 'eligible providers' through planning "activities and experiences that help children aged three to five years make progress in

their development and learning" using the new Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage of Learning (DfEE/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2000: 8). This was later accompanied by new Sessional and Day Care Standards which were introduced by the government's inspectorate service (Office for Standards in Education [Ofsted], 2001) for all day care providers. This led to settings regularly undergoing more rigorous Daycare and Education inspections. Providers suddenly had to be accountable on many different levels and were often entering unchartered territory, especially in terms of planning and assessment and education inspection procedures. To help support them in this process, and to raise quality, the community teaching team was established.

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The Aims of Community Teaching The aim was to provide flexible, outreach training and cross provider support in the following key areas: planning and providing for children's learning promoting partnerships with parents developing links between providers working with other agencies The project and team were set up and co-ordinated by a Sheffield Young Children's Service manager with Qualified Teacher Status (QTS), who was also a highly experienced Early Years practitioner. Rigour was built into the model through regular community teacher meetings, weekly timetables, medium and long term planning overviews, case notes and evaluations. Evaluations were collected from all staff and parent training workshops which provided a useful insight into future needs. Other, informal evaluations, appeared within Ofsted reports and references to the community teachers' work were published in local authority, Early Excellence and Sure Start quarterly and annual reports. Community Teachers' own in-service training, came through conferences and special training events at local and national level, and through regular Local Education Authority (LEA) early years education co-ordinator meetings. Joint training opportunities were also provided, for example, by the LEA Advisory Service, its Educational Psychology Service and local family/lifelong learning initiatives. Getting Started Initially, the team comprised two highly experienced early years teachers, each with a cluster caseload of about fourteen early years providers in two of the most disadvantaged areas in the city. They were based in two children's centres, one of which housed Sheffield's 'trailblazer' Sure Start/National Children's Home (NCH) project. One post was jointly funded by Sure Start, the NCH and the Sheffield Young Children's Service. The other post was funded from Early Excellence money. Each cluster patch covered one of the city council's twelve designated planning areas. The main focus of support was on those settings in the private and voluntary sectors receiving nursery grants or those in the process of becoming eligible providers, however, some support was also given to under three's workers to resource and plan rich opportunities for children to play and learn. Support in schools mainly consisted of setting up and running parent workshops and tandem working with teachers to set up and run specific Sure Start/NCH and Early Excellence projects such as speech and language development programmes. As there was no blueprint for the role of community teaching, there was enormous potential for innovative practice and vision about how best individual providers' needs

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could be met. By 2001 the team comprised five more highly qualified and experienced early years teachers. The Strengths of Community Teaching The strength of this outreach model was that providers could be supported to develop their own practice from within. It would value diversity and offer: rapid response tailor made support/training active learning role modelling It would also promote: parental involvement reflective practices community links collaborative/multi agency working The Community Teachers' intimate knowledge of both settings and staff ensured support could be pitched at a realistic level given the usual restraints of time, money and training. Once a good rapport was established, staff became more confident about developing their practice. The Framework for Community Teacher Support Key Objectives and Principles Young children learn best through play and first hand experiences in an environment which is rich and stimulating both indoors and outdoors and when the following is in place: Good organisation and management Well trained and supported staff High quality resources Carefully planned, purposeful play experiences A relevant curriculum Effective partnerships with parents This work was underpinned by the community teachers' in-depth knowledge of how children learn and develop. The pattern of support varied enormously from setting to setting and ranged from on-going support, training and development, to intensive periods of support. The amount of time spent in each setting also varied according to need. Settings required a lot of support during pre-and post-Ofsted or Day Care Standards inspections as did settings requiring additional support for a child with special needs or where staff had specific in-situ training requirements.

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Community Teachers sensitively role modelled good practice and supported settings to review their organisation and management, establish current and future training needs, audit resources, identify resourcing needs and to write new policies and plans in accordance with their eligible provider status. Planning for outdoor play was often difficult for settings with little or no access to outside space or a lack of funding to develop it (Ouvry, 2000). Providers were also supported to apply knowledge acquired through outside training to their own settings - something they often found difficult to do. Community teacher funding enabled sets of high quality resources or toolkits to be loaned by providers on a short term basis along with training videos and 'good practice' books. Information from Early Years conferences and other training opportunities undertaken by Community Teachers was regularly disseminated back to settings. Community teachers also played an active or advisory role in setting up new nurseries, toddler/baby groups and creches and often played a key role in the purchasing of new resources and planning the curriculum and environment in collaboration with parents and other key development workers. Planning and Providing for Children's Learning Also Requires: a balance between child/adult initiated activities appropriate adult intervention differentiation observation assessment A lot of providers were on a very sharp learning curve implementing all that was required at this time and Community Teachers occasionally provided some welcome 'breathing space' by covering staff during transition periods or by enabling them to visit other settings to observe good practice. Staff were also supported to make long and short observations of children, to plan differentiated activities (Athey, 1990) and to devise manageable record keeping systems. Within this strand, community teachers also provided support for children with special needs. Planning and Providing for Children with Special Education Needs Staff in the private and voluntary sectors often required a great deal of support in planning and providing for children, for example, with disabilities and challenging behaviour. Community Teachers all too frequently encountered children who were being permanently excluded or disadvantaged in some way.

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Key Action Points Early identification Partnership with Parents Intervention Strategies Signposting With support from the LEA Early Years SEN support staff, Community Teachers shared these key action points with providers which helped them to know what to look for, to value parental information sharing about a child, to know where to go for help and to acquire some strategies for tackling problems. Promoting Parent Partnerships Whenever possible, Community Teachers supported staff to develop parent partnerships in all settings including those with a high proportion of working parents and tight daily schedules to keep by: Creating a welcoming, informative environment Involving parents in their children's learning Running parent workshops Developing transition links/home visiting Trying to involve 'hard to reach' parents Supporting staff to write "Learning through Play" booklets for parents Setting up book loans, emotional literacy packs and toy libraries Community Teachers regularly ran workshops for parents introducing them to the Foundation Stage of Learning Curriculum and highlighting their vital role in helping with their children's learning. Some workshops inspired parents to learn news skills, gain accreditation and to take the first step in training to be early years workers themselves. In the Sure Start/NCH setting, parents groups made over ninety story sacks, which later went on loan to all settings in the cluster. Some of these parents also wrote and created a booklet for others on setting up a story sack project. Promoting Links between Providers Joint training Sharing good practice Sharing resources Transition Staff exchanges Quality in provision group Historically, staff in maintained, private and voluntary settings had operated very separately, so Community Teachers encouraged providers to find ways of working

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together in a culture of professional development. A 'patch' quality-in-provision group was set up through which settings began to recognise each setting's unique role and strengths in the community. This umbrella group provided a forum for the dissemination/sharing of information and discussions around best practice, local issues, staff exchanges, transition and the sharing of resources. Working with Other Agencies Developing working links with other agencies, the schools' advisory service and a range of other development workers, was fundamental to the success of the community teaching model. Community Teachers regularly worked closely with other workers to support settings to develop their practice and often drew on the expertise of other agencies or took part in their discreet training opportunities. Care was also taken not to duplicate each other's work or to give mixed messages. Community Teachers also offered city wide Foundation Stage training opportunities, for example, to childminders, playgroup workers and librarians. Outcomes The key strengths of the Community Teaching model - flexibility and innovation - led to the role becoming extremely diverse and complex. It is so inextricably joined up with other workers it would be almost impossible to measure its impact alone. However, the team's expansion stands as testimony to the success of the model. By 2001, the team comprised five teachers. Today, there are thirteen community teachers working in Sheffield. In the next few years this will rise to thirty one and eventually to thirty-eight. The DfES recognises the need for outreach support of this kind in voluntary and private settings (DfES, 2003) and, in its plans to create a comprehensive system of children's centres, community teachers will continue their work. Although there is little research available about the actual role of community teachers, Marsh and Forde (2005) cite an example of the effectiveness of advisory teaching:

"Christine Stevens (2002) evaluated the work of advisory teachers , entitled Early Years Development Officers (EYDO's) in one county in England. She suggested that, from the data collected from 138 early years settings, the EYDO's work had been invaluable in relation to three key areas: planning, record keeping and assessment, and the writing of policies and procedures." (Marsh and Forde, 2005: 141) Marsh and Forde were quick to point out that community teaching is much broader than advisory teaching and that the work of the community teacher "continues to be highly

successful and of central importance in raising quality across settings" (Marsh and Forde, 2005: 152).

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They also add that "there is a clear role for someone with qualified teacher status because

of that person's training and in-depth expertise in the field of children's learning" (Marsh and Forde, 2005: 152). Conclusion It is evident that the strengths of community teaching continue to shape its service while retaining the freedom for innovation and change. The commitment to making quality a reality in the lives of young children constantly underpins the work and although not all settings are equally good, more settings are having consistently successful Ofsted inspections. Planning and assessment continues to require high levels of support, along with strategies for supporting children with special needs. Direct work with parents still varies widely according to settings and work with hard to reach families still presents difficulties, though it is worth pursuing. Time is always a constraint, especially where collaborative working is involved, but the benefits far outweigh the disadvantages. Having a designated community cluster of settings to support is central to community teaching with its joined up thinking, shared resources and collaborative way of working. Long term, it may prove the best and most cost effective way of raising standards in all settings. The diversity, flexibility and inter-disciplinary nature of Community Teaching has particular relevance during this time of unprecedented expansion in early years provision in the UK, especially in the private and voluntary sectors. It offers robust, outreach intervention which successfully combines theory and practice. It promotes a collegiate atmosphere of support, development and ownership in which the foundation stones of high quality early learning and care can be laid and successfully built upon. It also gives providers an all important friendly face. References Athey, C. (1990). Extending Thought in Young Children. London: Paul Chapman. Barber, M. (1996). The Learning Game. London: Victor Gollancz. Department for Education and Employment (1999a). Sure Start: A Guide for Trailblazers. London: Department for Education and Employment. Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2000). Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage of Learning. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Department for Education and Skills (2003). Every Child Matters. London: The Stationery Office.

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Glass, N. (1999). Sure Start: The Development of an Early Intervention Programme for Young Children in the United Kingdom. Children and Society, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 257-264. Griffiths, N. (2001). Once Upon a Time. Literacy Today, No. 26, pp. 9. Labour Party (1997). Early Excellence - A Head Start for Every Child. London: Labour Party. Marsh, J. and Forde, J. (2005). Community Teaching in a Sure Start Context (in) Weinberger, J., Pickstone, C. and Hannon, P. (Eds.) Learning from Sure Start. Berkshire: Open University Press/McGraw-Hill Education, pp. 141-153. Office for Standards and Education (2001). Sessional Day Care: Guidance to the National

Standards. Manchester: Office for Standards and Education. Ouvry, M. (2000). Exercising Muscles and Minds. London: The National Early Years Network. Stevens, C. (2002). What Impact Has the Involvement of Qualified Teachers (Early Years

Development Officers) Had On The Practice of Voluntary Pre-school Playgroups in One County in England. Sheffield: University of Sheffield (unpublished Master dissertation). Sure Start Unit (2000). Improving the Ability to Learn. Annexe B, PSA Targets for 2001 - 2 or earlier. London: Sure Start Unit. Whalley, M. (2001). Involving Parents in Their Children's Learning. London: Paul Chapman.

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The Community Mothers Programme: Care in the Community Brenda Molloy Introduction Many early childhood programmes use home visiting as a strategy (Bull et al., 2004). In the Community Mothers Programme (CMP) it is the core strategy. This programme has evolved since 1980, first using public health nurses (PHN's) as visitors to families with newborn babies, and then training experienced mothers from the community to visit families. The programme has continually evaluated its methods and adapted them in accordance with the findings, as well as to changing circumstances in society (Molloy, 2002). This paper examines the evaluation of the CMP carried out by Johnson et al. in 1990 (Johnson et al., 1993). It argues that the programme has a beneficial effect on parenting skills and maternal self esteem. Supporting Parents Today's pressures with changing family and employment patterns, poverty, the problem of violence and greater accessibility of drugs mean that all parents, and particularly those who live in areas of social stress and disadvantage, need support. If parents are to promote the health and development of their children, their families and the next generation as a whole, more support may be needed at critical times, such as after the birth of a first child (Titterton et al., 2002). Evidence suggests that experiences during the very early period lay the foundations for individual health, well-being, cognitive development and emotional security, improving the likelihood of success at school and later in life (Home Office, 2005). In addition to professional services, families need support networks to promote a sense of belonging and connection with the community. These networks form part of the social capital of individuals and families and together with financial, physical and human resources, they contribute to health and well-being (Putnam, 2000). Programmes like the CMP, which stimulate and build on the support networks that exist in the community, can provide a further source of support to the family and help in building social networks. Background The CMP is a support programme for first-time parents of children from birth to twentyfour months who live in mainly disadvantaged areas. The CMP evolved from a UK-based child development programme (Barker, 1984) in which health visitors in England and public health nurses in Ireland were involved in delivering a specially designed child development programme. In Ireland, however, lack of resources meant that the programme could not continue. It was therefore decided to recruit non-professionals in

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the form of successful mothers known as community mothers to deliver the programme. Following pilot phases the CMP was formally launched in the former Eastern Health Board, Republic of Ireland in 1988. Today it is delivered to nearly 1,200 parents each year in the Greater Dublin Area and it is managed by the Health Service Executive. Community mothers are recruited by family development nurses. These nurses are trained PHN's who have applied to work with the CMP and have special training for this role. A key element of the recruitment policy is that the community mothers reflect the ethos of the community they intend to visit. Each full-time family development nurse works with a team of eighteen community mothers and supports 120 families at any one time. The family development nurse's role in the programme is based on concepts of partnership and empowerment, promoting participation of clients as well as individual and community self-reliance. It is a move away from working for people to working with people (MacDonald, 1992). The programme director guides the work of the family development nurses and offers specialist support, education and management in the implementation, maintenance and development of the programme. Mother to Mother The community mothers make structured visits once a month lasting one hour to parents in their own homes. They provide empathy and information in a non-directive way to foster parenting skills and parental self-esteem and adapt each visit to the needs of the family. They use a clear and flexible set of strategies and focus on healthcare, nutrition and overall child development. The parent is acknowledged as the expert with their own child and the programme works to support the parent in achieving their own goals for bringing up their child. The parents are empowered to believe in their own capabilities and parenting skills without becoming dependent on professionals (McGuire-Schwartz, 2007). Additional supports in the form of breastfeeding support groups and parent and toddler groups have evolved over the years. They are facilitated by community mothers and they support an additional 600 parents each year (CMP, 2006). Evaluation of the Community Mothers Programme An evaluation of the Community Mothers Programme was carried out in 1990 (Johnson et

al., 1993). The objective was to see whether non-professional volunteer community mothers could deliver a child development programme to first-time mothers in disadvantaged areas for children aged up to one year (the programme has since been extended to cover the first twenty-four months of a child's life).

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Subjects and Methods The method used was that of a randomised controlled trial in which a number of first-time mothers who were eligible for the programme were randomly assigned either to an intervention group that received the programme or to a control group that did not. Both groups were assessed at the child's first birthday. The study involved 232 first-time mothers resident in four working-class areas of Dublin. All the mothers received the standard support from the public health nurses. They also all received invitations for primary immunisations and developmental assessments of their babies. The 127 'intervention' mothers also received the support of a community mother. There were thus 105 mothers in the 'control' group. Baseline statistics were collected at the first visit and a simple evaluation questionnaire was developed and completed on the child's first birthday. All information was collected by the family development nurses. The questionnaire included questions on demography and environmental factors; mother's self-esteem; medical items, including immunisations and hospitalisation; nutrition of both mother and child and developmental stimulation factors. Three areas of the CMP were implemented with the aid of specially designed illustrated materials. These were educational development, including early reading to the child; language development, with nursery rhymes being seen as part of the stimulus for developing early language; and cognitive development, including the use of games. Mothers were then questioned twelve months later. Mothers were asked how often they read to their child, what type of games they played with them, and the extent to which they used songs or nursery rhymes. The question on games invited parents to state which particular games they used with their children, and each game they mentioned was recorded. The games were then divided into 'cognitive games', which included hide-andseek, singing games and number games, and 'motor games', which included floor games or games using a ball. The games in each section were then totalled. Finally, in an attempt to measure general morale and well-being, mothers were asked about their feelings during the year since their child was born. Replies were recorded as being either positive or negative. An example of a reply that would be counted as positive is, “I enjoyed every day, and watching the baby come along was a great experience”. An example of a reply that would be counted as negative is, “Terrible, I found it hard to

cope”. Results Of the 127 mothers in the intervention group, eighty-two (sixty-five percent) received at least ten monthly visits from their community mother, thirty-four (twenty-seven percent)

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received between five and nine visits, and eleven (eight percent) received fewer than five visits. The intervention group scored significantly better than the control group in the following areas: Immunisation of the child; Diet of both mother and child; Length of time child fed formula; Time of introduction of cow's milk; Reading to child; Language, educational and cognitive development of the child; Maternal self-esteem. On immunisation, seventy-six percent of all the children had received all three shots of their primary immunisations by their first birthday. The intervention group performed significantly better than the control group (p