Walden University. College of Health Sciences. This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by. Berneta D. Kent has been found to be complete and satisfactory ...
Walden University College of Health Sciences
This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by Berneta D. Kent has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. Mountasser Kadrie, Committee Chairperson, Public Health Faculty Dr. Ronald Craig, Committee Member, Public Health Faculty Dr. Scott McDoniel, University Reviewer, Public Health Faculty
Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D.
Walden University 2013
Abstract Food Insecurity as a Factor in Felonious or Misdemeanor Juvenile Crimes by Berneta D. Kent
MS, Armstrong Atlantic State University, 2003 BS, Savannah State University, 2000
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Public Health
Walden University December 2013
Abstract The sociology of food theory details how access to food may influence social skills and behaviors. As an increasing number of juveniles are incarcerated in public and private detaining centers, the question arises of whether the problem may stem from food insecure homes. Determining whether a food insecure household is a factor in juvenile delinquency may aid in the rehabilitation process for this population. In this study, a quantitative analysis was conducted to determine if a difference existed between food insecurity and the number of felony crimes (N = 290) committed versus the number of misdemeanor crimes (N = 294) committed by juvenile delinquents (N = 584) in 7 U.S. States. A comparison was made between the juveniles’ food security and the crime they committed. Food security was determined using the juveniles’ height and weight to calculate their body mass index (kg/m2). Statistical analysis included a z score to compare the crime types, and a 2-tailed t test to determine the significance of the population. There was no significant difference in the food security of those who committed a felony (M = 23.83, SD = 3.98) and those who committed a misdemeanor (M = 23.72, SD = 3.57, p = 0.73). Food secure juveniles who committed misdemeanors comprised 97.96% of the population, whereas food secure juveniles who committed felonies accounted for 97.58% of the population. In turn, food insecure juveniles who committed misdemeanors comprised 2.41%, whereas food insecure juveniles who committed felonies accounted for 2.04% of the population. These findings suggest that all crimes are being committed by juveniles. The issue of juvenile delinquency should remain in the forefront of those tasked to promote rehabilitation, such as detention center administrators, to ensure this negative behavior does not follow the juvenile into adulthood.
Food Insecurity as a Factor in Felonious or Misdemeanor Juvenile Crimes by Berneta D. Kent
MS, Armstrong Atlantic State University, 2003 BS, Savannah State University, 2000
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Public Health
Walden University December 2013
UMI Number: 3606001
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UMI 3606001 Published by ProQuest LLC (2013). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
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Dedication This research is dedicated to my parents, Dr. Bernard Kent, Jr., and Patricia A. Kent, MEd, EdS, who breathe education. It is also dedicated to the children who are hungry, incarcerated, or misunderstood.
Acknowledgments God found me worthy and I thank him. I would like to acknowledge my dissertation committee, Dr. Mountasser Kadrie, Dr. Ronald Craig, and Dr. Scott McDoniel, for their encouragement, guidance, and support.
Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1: .............................................................................................................................1 Introduction to the Study ...............................................................................................1 Background of the Study ...............................................................................................3 Problem Statement .........................................................................................................8 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................8 Nature of the Study ........................................................................................................9 Research Questions and Hypotheses .............................................................................9 Theoretical Base...........................................................................................................10 Definition of Terms......................................................................................................12 Assumptions .................................................................................................................13 Limitations ...................................................................................................................14 Delimitations ................................................................................................................15 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................15 Summary and Transition ..............................................................................................16 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................19 Introduction ..................................................................................................................19 Introduction to Food Insecurity ...................................................................................19 Food Insecurity and Physical State ..............................................................................25 Food Insecurity and Behavior ......................................................................................29 Introduction to Juvenile Crimes ...................................................................................34 i
Felony Juvenile Crimes................................................................................................38 Misdemeanor Juvenile Crimes .....................................................................................41 Juvenile Detention Centers ..........................................................................................43 Physical State at Detention Center Entry .....................................................................45 Summary ......................................................................................................................48 Chapter 3: Research Method..............................................................................................50 Introduction ..................................................................................................................50 Research Questions and Hypotheses ...........................................................................51 Research Design and Approach ...................................................................................51 Research Design Appropriateness ...............................................................................52 Setting and Sample ......................................................................................................53 Data Collection and Analysis.....................................................................................555 Instrumentation and Materials .....................................................................................56 Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................58 Protection of Human Participants ................................................................................58 Confidentiality .............................................................................................................59 Chapter 4: Results ..............................................................................................................60 Introduction ..................................................................................................................60 Research Question 1 ....................................................................................................65 Research Question 2 ....................................................................................................65 Research Question 3 ....................................................................................................66 Summary ......................................................................................................................67 ii
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations ............................................69 Introduction ..................................................................................................................69 Precursor to Food Insecurity ........................................................................................69 BMI Relative to Food Insecurity .................................................................................70 Juvenile Crimes............................................................................................................71 Interpretation of Findings ............................................................................................72 Implications for Social Change ....................................................................................73 Recommendations for Action ......................................................................................74 Recommendations for Further Study ...........................................................................75 References ..........................................................................................................................77 Appendix A: Sample BMI Growth Chart ..........................................................................85 Appendix B: Juvenile Demographics (N = 584) ................................................................86 Curriculum Vitae ...............................................................................................................87
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List of Tables Table 1. Common Crimes Committed by Juveniles ……………………………………37 Table 2. Distribution of Respondents …………………………………………………...62 Table 3. Independent Samples t Test ……………………………………………………63 Table 4. z - Score ………………………………………………………………………..64 Table 5. Question 1 Hypothesis Results ……………………………………………...…65 Table 6. Question 2 Hypothesis Results ………………………………………………...66 Table 7. Question 3 Hypothesis Results ………………………………………………...67
iv
1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study The operational definition of the term food insecurity refers to a period of time when a person is uncertain of the ability to obtain food. In cases of food insecurity, the person’s ability to eat when hungry is never guaranteed. In addition, the amount of food available to eat may be limited. The U.S. Household Food Security Scale defined food insecurity more specifically as “the lack of adequate financial resources to purchase enough food” (as cited in Cook et al., 2004, p. 1432). There are different levels of food insecurity. At the normal level, the amount of food at meals is reduced or one meal is missed. Food insecurity can reach severe levels. During this time of severe food insecurity, a person may not eat for several days (Cook et al., 2004). Children are often adversely affected by food insecurity. A study conducted by Cook et al. (2004), using 11,538 participants, showed that young children were at greater risk. The total number of children who were deemed food insecure comprised children age 1 year or younger (21.8%), age 1 to 2 years (20.6%), age 2 to 3 years (20.9%), and age 3 years and older (36.7%). In other words, 63.3% of children affected by food insecurity were under the age of 3 years. In addition, in 2001, 17.4% of households with children younger than age 6 years were food insecure (Cook et al., 2004, p. 1435). Children account for 40% of the total number of people living in poverty (Casey et al., 2001). Of the millions of people who accept welfare assistance, more than half are children (Casey et al., 2001). The prevalence of food insecurity in children is evident in
2 homes with low income. Casey et al. (2001) surveyed 3,837 low income households that included children and found that 3% of the total numbers of households were food insufficient and 7.5% of low income households reported food insufficiencies. The amount of time between meals was as long as five and a half days (Casey et al., 2001). Food insufficiencies have great implications for the health of children. A lack of an adequate amount of food leads to weight loss (Whitaker et al., 2006) and malnutrition, a phenomenon that affects more than half a million children in the United States (Casey et al., 2001). Food insufficiencies also cause significant problems in a child’s overall development. These children are at risk of poor health and negative behavior (Casey et al., 2001). They do not exhibit signs of self-control, ideal weight, and positive behavior, as children who reside in food secure homes (Cook et al., 2004); however, studies suggest that children who are not food insufficient are healthier overall (Alaimo et al., 2001). Children of food insecure households exhibit signs of low dietary quality, poor cognitive development, and emotional problems (Kaiser, 2005). They also perform lower academically than food secure children (Kaiser, 2005). Physically, food insecure children have more symptoms of cold/flu and suffer more frequently from ear infections, asthma, stomachaches, and headaches (Alaimo et al., 2001). Many behavioral functions are impaired in children who suffer from food insecurities. These impairments stem from the lack of required nutrients found in fruits, vegetables, and other staples. Food insecure children are also defined as nutrient deficient. The nutrients they are lacking include, but are not limited to, B vitamins (e.g.,
3 vitamin B12, thiamin, and niacin), zinc, and iron (Fanjiang & Kleinman, 2007). Malnutrition has been associated with attention deficits in children (Fanjiang & Kleinman, 2007). These attention deficits may be due to the child’s inability to concentrate due to hunger or due to the lack of nutrients obtainable in “brain food.” Brain foods are those that aid in a child’s creativity and intelligence. Unfortunately, lack of proper nutrients may have a long-term effect on children that could carry through adulthood (Fanjiang & Kleinman, 2007). Children with food insecurities often display the effects of their lack of food (Whitaker et al., 2006). Dysfunctional behavior is not an uncommon occurrence. Examples of this behavior include anxiety, depression, and hyperactivity. These children also tend to not have strong relationships with their peers, resulting in confrontations, arguments, and fights (Whitaker et al., 2006). The purpose of this study was to determine (a) if food insecurity exists for children entering a juvenile detention center and (b) the effects of food insecurity on childhood behavior, psychosocial dimensions, environmental biases, and preventative methods. However, based on the lack of supporting literature, there is a gap in determining the outcome of these variables when a child moves from a food insecure environment to one that is food secure. Background of the Study There have been many studies that detailed the attempts of organizations to target the hunger crisis. The organizations include large banking institutions, local grassroots operations, private conglomerates, and national groups. Each of these organizations
4 proposed that the use of coalitions would be the best method to battle hunger. They attempted this battle in different ways. Some provided money, others provided food, and still others offered program participants the knowledge to produce their own food. One example of such an organization is the World Bank, which created The World Bank and Health, Nutrition and Population Program. The purpose of the program was to determine the effects of monetary donations to poverty stricken countries (Heikens, 2009). Over the course of 5 years The World Bank donated 1 trillion dollars to hunger relief efforts in Africa (Heikens, 2009). This support through lending was unsuccessful and the poverty rate in Africa increased. The World Bank failed to include the community in their relief efforts and was unable to determine how to best assist the population (Heikens, 2009). The World Bank and Health, Nutrition and Population Program had its share of limitations. The only support provided by the World Bank to the population was monetary (Heikens, 2009). They failed to involve the community in decision making and planning (Heikens, 2009). Finally, no education was provided to the population that allowed them to continue their food secure state (Heikens, 2009). The USDA and Food Assistance and Nutrition Program focused on different methods to prevent food insecurity. In 2005, a food security survey was administered to 50,000 U.S. households (Nord et al., 2006). The purpose of the survey was to determine the number of people living in food insecure environments. Based on the results, it was determined that food insecure homes had 34% less food than homes of the same size (Nord et al., 2006). This research provided support for additional food assistance
5 programs. Limitations of this study included the large number associated with the lack of responses. Valera et al. (2009) used a method called Photovoice to document the access of food in New York City. The overseeing group was the New York Coalition Against Hunger. The authors detailed research of a population of low income women aged 20-45 years. They took photographs of their area and found that these women had less access to food than those who lived in higher income areas. These structural barriers compounded low income barriers. As with the Nord et al. (2006) study, Valera et al.’s (2009) Photovoice method was performed with a small number of participants. Algert et al. (2006) also provided an evidence base for The Partnership to End Childhood Hunger in the Nation’s Capital. They analyzed persons who utilized food banks to provide assistance with the food stamp and other food assistance programs. Information was gathered from 14,317 persons at two food banks. Their eligibility as a food stamp recipient was determined. Of the participants, 90% were low income; 75% spent three quarters of their income on housing, 59% were Hispanic, and 44% were homeless (Algert et al., 2006). The authors concluded that the less educated, those who were single parents, and the homeless qualified for assistance but did not receive it. This study provided a basis for Part 10 of the Partnership to End Childhood Hunger in the Nation’s Capital, which stated that “all eligible District of Columbia families will know about the food and nutrition programs available to them” (askmehowdc, 2006, para. 4). Coates et al. (2006) performed a study to determine if persons who are food insecure have certain like characteristics regarding their households. Survey data were
6 collected from 22 studies to determine commonalities. They found that inadequate amounts of food and a lack of sufficient food quality were common in all cultures. However the similarities surrounding inadequate food supplies were the result of cultural beliefs and actions. The qualitative data were not enough to support the theory that food insecurity was a common occurrence. Other organizations have promoted programs related to food security. In order to garner participation and ensure effectiveness, the organization must understand how to best relate the program to the population. In order to promote credit card usage and encourage new membership, American Express joined with Save Our Strength to adopt a 4-year marketing plan. This campaign used 30-second television advertisements on major U.S. networks and cable channels. This campaign was intended to educate consumers on hunger in order to increase awareness (Nelson et al., 2007). The limitations of this study included that the campaigns aired for only 30 days out of the calendar year and they were only shown during the holiday season. Better exposure could have ensured a wider audience was captured. Sanchez et al. (2008) explored the need for sub-Saharan Africa to become selfsufficient in food production. Several task forces collaborated to provide political support and village interventions. Ultimately, maize production increased annually with the help of government subsidy. Sanchez et al. found that the amount of available food can increase by introducing countries to modern agricultural techniques. Known as the green revolution, several varieties of high yield crops were introduced. Yet, increased
7 production was dependent on climate. In the event the weather did not cooperate, the results of this study would change drastically, rendering it a failure. The term food insecurity has meant different things to different people. It has both local and global meanings that relate to the supply of food available for consumption (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2009). Children are often adversely affected by food insecurity. As previously mentioned, Cook et al. (2004) determined that young children were at a greater risk of these adverse effects. In 2001, 20% of children in the United States lived in poverty (Alaimo et al., 2001). An additional 34% will experience at least one year of living in poverty by the time they reach their 17th birthday. One in three children younger than age 12 years is at risk of being food insufficient (Alaimo et al., 2001). This number equates to a total of 2.4 to 3.2 million. Children aged 12 years to 16 years represent 0.7 to 1.3 million living in food sufficient homes (Casey et al., 2001). African American children lead this percentage at 69%; in contrast, 26% of White children will spend at least one year in poverty (Alaimo et al., 2001). Food insufficiencies have a great implication to the health of children. A lack of adequate food leads to weight loss (Whitaker et al., 2006) and malnutrition, a phenomenon that affects more than half a million children in the United States (Casey et al., 2001). Unfortunately, lack of proper nutrients may have a long term effects such as a slower recovery from surgeries (Secker & Jeejeebhoy, 2007). Malnutrition is also responsible for over 5 million deaths in children annually worldwide (Phengxay et al., 2007).
8 Problem Statement There is a problem with the number of incarcerated juveniles in the United Sates. Despite rehabilitation efforts, repeat offenses are occurring. This problem has negatively impacted the justice system as well as society because in 2008, 86,814 juveniles were incarcerated (Sickmund, 2010). A possible cause of this high number of incarcerated juveniles is a lack of an adequate food supply, which leads to negative behavior (Whitaker et al., 2006). This behavior may be classified as a misdemeanor or felony. It is necessary to investigate this correlation to determine a possible link between food insecurity and incarceration. The research problem focused on the effects of food insecurity on the type of crime committed. The target population was incarcerated teenagers aged 14-18 years. An ideal quantitative analysis focused on food insecurity and its effects on children within the juvenile detention system or within an adult facility. This research investigated the physical state of children entering the detention center and their specific crime. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the research was to determine if there is a correlation between food insecurity and negative behavior as it relates to juveniles and the crimes they have committed. An assessment was made of the relationship of the juvenile’s food security and the crime. This research is significant as it has the potential to detail why juveniles commit a specific type of crime. If a high number of juveniles enter the detention center in poor physical health and have committed a felony crime, this relationship may be an indicator that food insecurity is the culprit.
9 Nature of the Study In this study, a quantitative analysis approach was used. Secondary data were collected to detail the state of health of the participants upon arrival at the adult or juvenile detention center. Additional secondary data were used to note the type of crime the participants committed. The use of secondary data is due to its ability to be replicated and confirmed. In addition, secondary data augmented the results of the final data collected. The data collected for research included demographics of the juveniles including sex, height, and weight. Data also detailed the state of health of the child upon entering the facility by calculating their body mass index (BMI). A more in-depth analysis is discussed in Chapter 3. Research Questions and Hypotheses The primary focus of the research determined if there is a relationship between a juvenile who stems from a food insecure household to a felony crime. Likewise, the research will seek to investigate if a child who does not stem from a food insecure household will commit a less malicious crime. The research questions included the following: 1. Is there a difference in food security with juveniles who commit misdemeanor crimes? 2. Is there a difference in food security with juveniles who commit felony crimes? 3. Is there a difference in food security with those who commit misdemeanor crimes versus felony crimes?
10 This researcher hypothesized those juveniles who committed a crime while living in a food insecure household may be more likely to commit felony crimes. As felony crimes are the more heinous of the two crimes, emphasis is put on the fact that negative behavior is increased due to inadequate and nutritional food (Whitaker et al., 2006). Theoretical Base Food insecurity has an adverse effect on behavior. Some issues of poor nutrition stem from the individual behavior of people. Though there is no food theory, socialists have connected theoretical concepts to form ideals. In 1983, Murcott theorized that people associate food with how they live. If people live in a food secure environment they tend to feel better about themselves and their surroundings. Murcott also stated there was a direct relationship with people’s morals based on certain food structures, also known as the sociology of food. This theory incorporates how food is divided and distributed among people, as well as a person’s ability to consume food. An improper diet and lack of nutrition accounts for many negative behavioral and social skills (Whitaker et al., 2006). Yet, according to Murcott, if a person has immediate and unhindered access to a food supply, he or she rarely, if ever, displays negative behavior or improper social skills. McIntosh (1996) expounded upon the theory of the sociology of food by arguing that food has the ability to make or break relationships on a social level. McIntosh (1996) proposed that social conditions relate to choices in diet and health, otherwise known as the sociology of food and nutrition. As with Murcott’s theory, access is the basis of this theory. The ability to access food without regard to time or place determines what social
11 group people align themselves with. The type of food also determines who is more likely to consume it. Children without access to coveted social groups may attempt to obtain acceptance by displaying negative behavior. This attempt is done in order to compensate for their lack of food or social status. Children who grow up in an environment with a high socioeconomic status tend to remain that way through adulthood. They also tend to maintain a good health status. By contrast, those children who do not grow up in such an environment portray negative attitudes and have poor health (Schneiderman et al., 2001). High socioeconomic status affords children to attend better schools. In doing so, they achieve higher in aptitude tests. Their overall self-esteem is heightened with better achievement (Sirin, 2005). Children of lower status do not feel quite as good about themselves and exhibit feelings of depression and lack of self-worth. Low socioeconomic status can result in unstable employment history as well long bouts of unemployment (Cohen et al., 2007). Without jobs and income, the unemployed are unable to purchase food or provide for their families. Jun et al. (2004) discussed the fact that parents with higher incomes tend to be better parents. Their skills are better developed and they exhibit better behavior, thus they are better role models for their children. Unemployment has a great impact on individuals psychologically. Those who are unemployed show a higher level of stress (Mantler et al., 2005). They are unable to cope with stress, find themselves unfocused, and have diminished problem-solving abilities. This stress in turn leads to poor health choices and increased mortality.
12 Cultural materialism is a theoretical ideal introduced by Harris (1979). Harris (1979) stated food is eaten based on “efficiency and functuality” (p. 123). For example, though insects may provide a source of protein for an individual, there are other forms of protein available that are just as easily accessible. One would not eat 300 bugs when the same nutritional value could be found in one fish. Harris also described the function of cows in some societies, thus their ability to be saved from the slaughter house. From people’s individual thoughts, Harris determined that people may cause their own food insecurity by their refusal to eat certain foods. Children are one of the most common groups who refuse to eat certain foods. They have a preference for foods high in fat or sugar (Nestle, 2006). They also tend to choose foods that are packaged or processed rather than natural or home grown. Vegetables are the food group children steer away from if given a choice on meals (Nestle, 2006). Definition of Terms Adolescent: A young person who has not reached the full maturity of an adult, between 13 and 18 years of age. (Siegel & Welsh, 2011) Body mass index (BMI): A measure of body fat based on height and weight. Felony: A crime or law offense serious enough to be punishable by death or a jail sentence in a state or federal court. (Siegel & Welsh, 2011) Food insecurity: A period of time when a person is uncertain of the ability to obtain food.
13 Juvenile delinquent: A person under the age of 18, found guilty of committing a crime in which he or she cannot be punished as an adult. (Siegel & Welsh, 2011) Juvenile detention center: A secured, residential facility for juvenile delinquents awaiting court hearings and/or placement in long-term care facilities and programs, due to their involvement in criminal activity. (Siegel & Welsh, 2011) Misdemeanor: A lesser crime tried in low courts punishable by fines or a county jail sentence. (Siegel & Welsh, 2011) Assumptions The basic assumptions of research can be accepted without having immediate proof. Persons of reasonable thinking will adopt these assumptions without question. Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias (2008) described these assumptions as “premises considered to be unproven and unprovable” (p. 5). This research focused on two assumptions: all natural phenomena have natural causes and nothing is self-evident. The notion that all natural phenomena have natural causes coincides with the theory that negative behavior is the result of food insecurity. In addition, it is assumed that this negative behavior leads to the commitment of crimes. The assumption that nothing is self-evident means that things that have happened historically may not always happen. There are errors in research. Thus, when researching food insecurity as a factor in felony or misdemeanor crimes a discovery may be made that food insecurity plays no part at all.
14 Limitations This quantitative health analysis targets a vulnerable population: children and juveniles. Based on laws and policies, it is difficult to gather information from juveniles as well as children without prior consent. Being able to validate this analysis may prove to be a challenge. This is mainly due to the fact that juveniles and prisoners are protected populations. The sample population included juveniles who entered the detention center for their first episode. As such, the crime that the juvenile was initially charged with may not be the crime they are adjudicated for. Based on the length of time it takes to complete the legal process from arrest to conviction, this researcher was unable to see the process through to the end. Data were obtained over a short period of time and only focused on juveniles housed in detention centers in seven states. This research did not represent a population on a national level. Additionally, the sample was not random and provided a generalization of the results. The data used to determine if a juvenile is food insecure was secondary data obtained from the public records of the juvenile and adult detention centers. Data relative to the overall health of the juvenile was not collected. In addition, the juveniles were not interviewed to determine how often they received a meal. The BMI was used to determine the state of food security of the population. The BMI had two limitations. The first limitation of the BMI was that body fat may be
15 overestimated in persons of athletic or muscular build. The second limitation of the BMI was that body fat may be underestimated in persons who have lost muscle. Delimitations Delimitations of this study may have occurred from the overall restrictive nature of the research. As participants were evaluated solely on their BMI, no other variables were researched. Inasmuch, mental status, peer pressure, a flawed justice system, or other issues may facilitate the criminal behavior of participants, yet did not play a role in the research results. This research did not include status offenders in the population sample. A status offense would not be considered a crime if it were committed by an adult. Examples include runaways and school truancy. Thus, the need to rehabilitate the offender for the future would not apply. Status offenses are nonviolent crimes and would not provide an accurate balance to the sample. Significance of the Study The implications of hunger on public health are great. As food insecurities cause behavioral, psychosocial, and environmental issues, it is necessary to attempt to prevent all occurrences. Ultimately, eradicating it would be an ideal situation. Though food insecurities are not eliminated, they do decrease. If participation in food assistance programs guarantees food security, participation may mandate policy in the hopes of ensuring the number of food insecure children declines; in turn, providing assurances within society that behavior may become better.
16 This quantitative analysis focuses on determining if food insecurity affects potential criminals. By gathering enough information on this occurrence there may be the opportunity to reduce the number of initial as well as repeat offenders (Lipsey & Cullen 2007). The population used for this study was incarcerated juveniles housed in either a juvenile or adult detention center within seven states in the United States. The states included were Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, New Jersey, and Oklahoma. Juveniles received sentences ranging from 3 months to life. The age range for those incarcerated was between 14 and 18 years. Between 50% and 60% percent of juveniles are incarcerated as repeat offenders (Siegel & Welsh, 2011). They are usually admitted to the same juvenile detention center. Because some of the detainees are repeat offenders, it is important to ensure that they are rehabilitated during their first incarceration. This rehabilitation will include them improving their behavior to acts that are positive within themselves and their communities. Summary and Transition The first chapter of this dissertation provides an introduction to the study. The purpose is to identify the social problem as well as a research problem. The main focus is on food insecurity and its negative effects on juveniles. Due to the large number of children living in food insecure environments, it is important to bring this issue to the forefront. The importance of background information is that it assists the reader in understanding the magnitude of the research problem. Juveniles will grow into adulthood,
17 thus if any negative behavior can be prevented, it should be done at the age prior to adulthood. Additional background information details prior studies that focused on food insecurity; this not only included small operations, but also global institutions. The problem statement identifies why this is a social problem. The purpose identifies why this issue is a research problem. Chapter 2 focuses on literature relevant to the research. The literature collected represents published data between 2006 and 2011. The literature first provides an introduction to food insecurity. It details how it occurs, where it may occur and who is affected. Next, how food insecurity results in poor physical health, malnourished states, and negative behavior is discussed. The literature review also goes on to detail juvenile crimes within society. Statistics on juvenile felonies committed and juvenile misdemeanors is also assessed. Finally, the literature review details the process of juveniles entering detention centers. The physical state of the juvenile is noted upon entry as well as the state and local nutritional requirements for housing detained juveniles. The methodology for this research is detailed in chapter 3. As this is a quantitative research study, the design and approach is presented. The population, sample size and characteristics of the population are mentioned. The steps taken in order to gain access to the population are also discussed. Finally, the process of data collection and the materials used are discussed. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the research. The answers to the research questions are presented. Chapter 5 further discusses the findings and interprets the results
18 of the research. Chapter 5 also provides data on how this research can bring about social change. Recommendations for future studies are also examined.
19 Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction This literature review presents previous studies that focused on the issues surrounding food insecurity and juvenile delinquents. In addition, the literature is assessed to note the state of juvenile detention centers. Literature comes from peerreviewed journal articles. These articles were obtained through Internet search engines, the Walden University online library database, and article citations. Databases included PubMed and Google Scholar. The terms “food insecurity”, “juvenile detention centers”, and “juvenile crimes” were used to search for literature. The literature provides in-depth knowledge of the topic. Prior studies support this researcher’s need to further study this topic. The literature is presented in a manner that includes a background on food insecurity, juvenile crimes, and juvenile detention centers. Malnutrition is one result of food insecurity. Its effect on society is described. It has also been determined that negative behavior is associated with food insecurity (Whitaker et al., 2006). Crimes committed by juveniles can be categorized as felonies or misdemeanors. The literature distinguishes between the two. Finally, information is provided on the state of juveniles as they enter the detention center as well as the local and state requirements of the center regarding nutrition. Introduction to Food Insecurity Prior to the 1980s food insecurity was brought on by the lack of availability of food (Coates et al., 2006). This lack of availability was ultimately verified by the national
20 or global food supply tallies. The use of this measure of food insecurity was not without misunderstandings. There was still the need to differentiate between access to food, food consumption, poverty and malnutrition. In the early 1990s food insecurity was defined by one of four “domains” (Coates et al., 2006, p. 1439S): uncertainty or worry over food, food is of inadequate quality, food is of inadequate quantity, or food was acquired through socially unacceptable means. The ambiguity of the definitions of food insecurity led to the need to construct a formal definition that could be applied to all cultures. The four domains were used by the Unites States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as a basis to develop a new definition. The result was the USDA Household Food Security Survey Module. Not only does this collection tool provide measurements that are continuous, it also provides different grades of food insecurity. Information from the survey is used to report how prevalent food insecurity is on a national level. In addition, the overall effects of programs geared toward food assistance can be evaluated. Overall the state of food insecurity leads to a variety of negative results (Bartfeld & Dunifon, 2006). Because of this, it is important to determine specific indicators of food insecurity. Additionally, issues such as prevalence and experiences should be addressed. Knowing these issues will provide a better understanding of the role food insecurity plays in households. Bartfeld and Dunifon (2006) also researched the need to specify indicators of food insecurity within households. Bartfeld and Dunifon’s primary focus was on those households with children. The researchers agreed that the use of the USDA Household
21 Food Security Survey Module was effective. In addition, the notion that hunger is a severe form of food insecurity was also agreed upon. Ultimately, they felt that the survey could be used to determine households that are food secure, food insecure without the state of hunger or food insecure combined with the state of hunger. Annually, as many as 9 million people suffer from hunger (Kushel et al., 2006). This number increases to 39 million when describing the number of people who are food insecure. Food insecurity is a greater form of hunger and may also be more widespread. This may occur for a short or long time span. An episode may last a few days or many months. As a part of the whole spectrum of hunger, the sequence begins with being food secure, moving to bouts of hunger and ends with a person living in a food insecure state. Kushel et al. (2006) sought to determine if there was an association between food insecurity and access to health care in those persons considered low-income Americans. Although the main focus of this article was on health care access, the authors provided an abundant amount of information regarding the significance of food insecurity. If there is a choice to be made between seeking health care and obtaining food, the choice may often result in a person obtaining food. This is due to the inherent need to satisfy the basic needs of eating food, having clothing, and having shelter. Kushel et al. described it as a need to prioritize. Kushel et al. (2006) provided parameters for persons to be deemed food insecure. In order to qualify, participants had to respond in the affirmative to any one of three questions. Those questions were taken from the 18-item scale provided by the USDA (p. 72).
22 1. In the past year did they or their family worry that their food would run out? 2. In the past year did they or their family have the food that they bought not last and not have the money to buy more? 3. In the past year did they or their family cut the size of meals or skipped meals because there was not enough money for food? Of those persons who responded to the questions asked of Kushel et al. (2006), 42.7% were found to be food insecure. Respondents who worried about running out of food comprised 38 %. An additional 32.5% stated their food did not last. Finally, 21.4% of the respondents skipped meals because they lacked the money necessary to purchase food. Isanaka et al. (2007) also defined the parameters of being food insecure. They used a sample of 4,000 that included children 5-12 years in age as well as their mothers. In this study food insecurity was measured using the USDA Household Food Security Survey Module. They also used the Community Childhood Hunger Identification Project. Both scales attest to the fact that behaviors associated with food insecurity are sequential and have levels that are distinct. The use of these scales was not without reason. Isanaka et al. (2007) wanted to prove that there was a pattern of response to the questions regarding food insecurity. If one question was answered in the affirmative, additional questions would likely be answered in the affirmative. These results allowed Isanaka et al. to state that affirmative responses can be characterized as food insecure.
23 Isanaka et al. (2007) asked participants a total of 16 questions. Households with 0-2 affirmative responses were characterized as food secure. Three to seven affirmative responses were characterized as the household worrying they would run out of food. Adjustments were also made in these households regarding the quality of food, yet the actual quantity was not reduced. There were some households in which the adult either skipped a meal or reduced the amount of food eaten in order to provide for the children in the household. These households provided 8-12 affirmative responses and were characterized as food insecure with moderate hunger. Those households with 13-16 affirmative responses were food insecure with severe hunger. Persons in this category included both adults and children lacked the resources to obtain adequate amounts of food, experienced hunger, and reduced their intake of food. Broughton et al. (2006) also researched the characteristics of food insecurity using the USDA’s Food Survey Module. The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship that exists between food insecurity and indicators of nutritional status. Performed in the city of Vancouver, the researchers conducted a survey in neighborhoods considered low-income. As with alternate studies, Broughton et al. (2006) noted that there was a spectrum of food insecurity. Their analysis of it was that the progression moved from a person feeling uncertain or anxious about their food supply to reducing the quality of food consumed, to finally reducing the quantity of food consumed. Broughton et al. (2006) included 142 households in their study. Each household included a child between 2 and 5 years of age. Compared to a sample study, the researchers found that all three stages of the continuum: anxiety, reduced food quality
24 and reduced food quantity, was five times higher. Although the greatest factor of food insecurity was the overall income of the household, Broughton et al. (2006) also discovered that there were potential barriers to food security, including a lack of access to a quality food supply. Coates et al. (2006) took a slightly different approach towards defining food insecurity. They wanted to move from what is known as “second generation” indicators (p. 1438S) which includes household income and the amount of food consumption. Instead, they wanted to research “third generational indicators” (p. 1438S). These indicators reported the actual experience of food insecurity. Coates et al. (2006) felt this approach would be an advancement in determining household food insecurity. Issues such as defining household access to food and actual quantities of food consumed are better understood. There have not been many research studies that focused on food insecurity measures specific to cultures. Once defined, the measures are assumed to be appropriate for all cultures. Coates et al. (2006) pointed out that there is also no defined application of food insecurity measures across cultural divides. As mentioned in prior studies, food security surveys are utilized for research. Yet, the results of these surveys are used without consideration of their validity in different countries. Regardless, of the severity of food insecurity and the location of the person effected, a more effective measure of food insecurity should focus on the experience of the household (Coates et al., 2006).
25 Food Insecurity and Physical State Food insecurity negatively affects both the health and physical well-being of individuals suffering from it (Cook et al., 2006). Persons who do not get enough food on a daily basis often times lack many required nutrients. In addition, they suffer from the following: “cognitive developmental deficits, behavioral and psychosocial dysfunction, and poor health” (Cook et al., 2006, p. 1073). Many of those suffering from these outcomes are children. If they continue with this lifestyle, these children risk the chance of suffering from severe clinical health. Cook et al. (2006) performed a study in which they sought to determine the effects of food insecurity on the health of children. Between August 1998 and June 2004 the researchers conducted surveys in six cities: Baltimore, Boston, Little Rock, Los Angeles, Minneapolis and Washington, DC. The purpose of the survey was to attempt to uncover certain characteristics of the participating households. These characteristics included, but were not limited to, food security status and the health status of a child living in the home. Cook et al. (2006) also used the U.S. Food Security Scale to determine the conditions of the households. Participants surveyed were asked three questions about their overall living conditions and experiences. Seven additional questions were asked about experiences, behaviors and living conditions of those adults living in the household. The final eight questions focused on the overall living conditions and experiences of the children living in the household. The researchers found that children associated with food insecurity within the household had a greater chance of displaying
26 poor health. On the other hand, those children living in a food secure home were less likely to display characteristics of poor health. Kirkpatrick et al. (2010) focused their research on the long-term effects of hunger. Based on prior studies they ascertained that poor health is a result of severe food insecurity in children. In addition, reports of an increase in hospitalizations were also noted for this population. Kirkpatrick et al. (2010) conducted a longitudinal survey using 5,809 children between 10 and 15 years of age as well as 3,333 teenagers between 16 and 21 years of age. The Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) was examined. Data taken over a 10 year span were used to determine if poor health resulted from food insecurity. Hunger was assessed using answers from the questionnaire. Poor health was determined if it was self-reported. Chronic health conditions were determined if a child was diagnosed with any of the following: a heart condition, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, kidney disease, asthma, bronchitis, or allergies (Kirkpatrick et al., 2010). Of the total participants, Kirkpatrick et al. (2010) found that 1 in 10 children experienced poor health. An average of 32.9% of those who were food insecure was also categorized as being in poor health. As a comparison, participants who were food secure and reported poor health averaged a total of 12.8% (Kirkpatrick et al., 2010). These findings supported the notion that food insecurity is a factor in poor health among children. The federal government of the United States measures the prevalence of food insecurity in order to assess current food programs and to implement new ones. These programs not only focus on food assistance but also nutrition. Some of these programs
27 include The Women’s, Infant’s and Children’s Program (WIC), The National School Lunch Program, and the Food Stamp Program. Each of these programs is designed to provide nutritious meals to children in an effort to eradicate food insecurity. Wilde (2007) performed a literature review that measured the effects of food assistance programs to determine the effectiveness of such programs. During the research, Wilde (2007) discovered that food insecurity was still present in households that participated in governmentally funded food assistance programs. Healthy People 2010 posted an objective of reducing food insecurity in all households by one half. The USDA’s Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) constructed a plan of action to measure the impact of participating in programs as well as their ability to provide quality diets. Wilde concluded that food assistance programs positively affect food insecure households. In addition, participation in these programs provides a greater benefit to the overall health of participants. This includes a positive and increased weight status. Weight change relative to food insecurity was also researched by Wilde and Peterman (2006). They sought to determine if there was an association between living in a food secure state and a change in weight. It was originally thought that a lack of access to food was associated with low or decreased weight; however some studies suggest obesity is a characteristic of populations who have a low income (Wilde & Peterman, 2006). These inconsistencies may be due to the access to the food, including the amount and type of food available.
28 Wilde and Peterman (2006) conducted a study that utilized the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). These surveys collected data on height and weight. Both were measured as well as self-reported. In 1999 NHANES included the collection of household food security. Data were collected over a 12-month period, beginning the same time each year. Participants of the study answered questions from the U.S. Food Security Survey Module. This questionnaire asked 18 questions relating to the amount of food within the household to determine food security. Some questions asked of the participants were, “In the last 12 months did you ever eat less than you thought you should because there wasn’t enough money to buy food?” and “I/we couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals’ (Wilde & Peterman, 2006, p. 1396). Persons answering in the affirmative were deemed food insecure. In order to determine the physical state of the participants, their change in weight was assessed. By using the criteria provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2013) the BMI was calculated for all participants. Persons with a BMI < 18.5 kg/m2 were categorized as being underweight, those ≥ 25 kg/m2 were categorized as being overweight and persons ≥ 30 kg/m2 were categorized as being obese. The results of the study found that persons who lived in a marginally food secure household showed not only a weight gain, but were more likely to be obese. The American Dietetic Association (ADA) has taken a firm position that something must be done to end food insecurity within the United States. Food insecurity has been associated with negative outcomes such as poor dietary intake, nutritional status
29 and overall poor health (ADA, 2006). Other negative effects are malnutrition, physical impairments, chronic disease, and psychological issues (ADA, 2006). Actions should include interventions that are long-standing, funding for nutrition programs, the use of already established food assistance programs, new and innovative programs, education of food programs, and economic self-sufficiency (ADA, 2006). In the 2006 report the ADA noted that there is a relationship between the nutritional intake for people and the lack of food (p. 449). Nutritional deficiencies pose a serious health threat for children. It is most often noted in children who have a low consumption of eggs, vegetables, fruits and milk. These children are also categorized as being food insecure. In addition, they reported having unhealthy diets with low nutritional value (ADA, 2006). A literature review was performed by the ADA (2006) to determine the association between food insecurity and weight. They found no evidence that food insecurity supports weight gain in children. On the contrary, when children are not able to access food on a regular basis they suffer from hunger and display a low body weight. In addition, their overall physical functions are impaired. Food Insecurity and Behavior Food insecurity is an issue on a national level with 11% of households being affected (Jyoti et al., 2005). Sixteen percent of these households have children (Jyoti, et al., 2005). Food insecure households remain an issue despite programs that provide food assistance to those affected.
30 Food insecurity has an adverse effect on children. Prior studies have determined that the lack of food poses a threat to the physical state of children and diminishes health. In addition, certain negative behaviors are displayed when a child has been deemed food insecure. Jyoti et al. (2005) noted that in children ages 6 to 12, there was an association between food insecurity and poor math scores, the need to repeat a grade, frequent absence from school, tardiness, anxiety, aggression, psychosocial function, and difficulty getting along with others (p. 2831). Children between ages 15 and 16 who were food insecure displayed depression and symptoms of suicide (Jyoti et al., 2005). Overall, food insecurity affects the academic performance and social skills of children. Jyoti et al. (2005) performed a study using longitudinal data to show how this relationship occurs over time. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal StudyKindergarten Cohort, 21,000 children were followed from kindergarten through third grade. Food insecurity was assessed by interviews from the parents and by the use of the child’s BMI. Academic performance was a direct assessment. The social skills of the children were reported by the teachers. The results of this study found that there was a significant association between food insecurity and social skills. Children who moved from a food insecure environment to one that was food secure displayed more positive social skills. Jyoti et al.’s (2005) findings were consistent with prior studies that associated food insecurity with impaired social skills in children (p. 2837). Behavioral issues stemming from food insecurity negatively effects all ages. Those within the age range of 13 to 17 are still considered children rather than adults, yet
31 this population is at risk for continuing their behavior into adulthood (Bolland et al., 2007). Bolland et al. (2007) discussed how food insecurity effects youths in inner-city neighborhoods. The use of illegal substances, violent behavior, and sexual intercourse at an early age are all risk factors of youth growing up in low-income neighborhoods (Bolland et al., 2007). These risky behaviors may intensify as the age of the child increases. Compiled with the environment of the inner-city, there is an added burden of suffering from food insecurity. Food insecurity may cause developmental issues, which implies a relationship between food insecurity and risky behavior (Bolland et al., 2007). Atkins et al. (2006) also discussed the behavior of children suffering from food insecurity. As with Bolland et al. (2007), the study focused on the population of children and youth living in inner-city, urban communities. Atkins et al. (2006) wanted to bring the need for mental health services to the forefront. Their study also focused on promoting positive change behavior within this population. Food insecurity is typically reserved to describe those persons living in urban communities (Atkins et al., 2006) rather than those who reside in rural areas. Much of these urban areas expose children to violence and crime. As many as 80% are affected (Atkins et al., 2006). In turn, these children display high rates of depression and behavior that is disruptive (Atkins et al., 2006). This behavior is prevalent in children who suffer from food insecurity almost three times as much as others (Atkins et al., 2006). As a result behaviors such as difficulty in school and juvenile delinquency are displayed (Atkins et al., 2006).
32 Atkins et al. (2006) noted that almost 80% of children who lived in low income environments and suffered from food insecurity did not receive services that addressed their mental health issues. The preferred method of treatment is counseling. Children who display negative and disruptive behavior do not always respond to counseling methods. In fact, prior studies suggest that counseling may exacerbate the problem of disruptive behavior (Atkins et al., 2006). Therefore, something should be done to address the problem of disruptive behavior using other methods. One of which could be focusing on the issue of food insecurity. Kearney (2008) performed a review of the data surrounding children who suffered from food insecurity and their behavior in school. The primary focus of the review was on frequent and prolonged absences from school. Kearney (2008) noted that absences from school can become a major issue for mental health professionals, physicians and educators. It leads to high risk behavioral factors including violence, substance abuse, and psychiatric disorders (Kearney, 2008). Psychiatric disorders include anxiety, depression, and disruptive behavior (Kearney, 2008). Absences from school have been linked to homelessness, poverty and food insecurity (Kearney, 2008). If they continue, children often voluntarily drop out of school, or they are forced out due to low grades or failing to meet the attendance requirements of the school. Children who drop out of school have a high risk for problems economically, mentally, and socially (Kearney, 2008). Frequent school absences may be the result of underlying issues. One of which is food insecurity due to homelessness and/or poverty (Kearney, 2008). Children who were
33 known to be chronic absentees were also found to have poor nutrition (Kearney, 2008). This has been linked to negative behaviors including drinking alcohol, driving under the influence of alcohol, sexual behavior and suicide attempts (Kearney, 2008). Kearney (2008) focused on a study that diagnosed youths using the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment. This assessment was applied in an attempt to determine the behavioral issues associated with school absences. The results found that leading issues included depression, separation anxiety, defiance, and poor conduct. In addition, children were absent from school without the knowledge of the parent or legal guardian, leading to acts of truancy. Food insecurity can negatively affect children indirectly through their parents. Prior research has shown that food insecurity results in stress on mothers (Whitaker et al., 2006). Uncertainty of when and where a food source will appear may lead to feelings of anxiousness (Whitaker et al., 2006). Whitaker et al. (2006) performed a study to determine the risks associated with food insecurity in mothers. They hypothesized that if a mother was deemed food insecure, their actions could lead to behavioral problems in the child. In order to test their hypothesis, Whitaker et al. (2006) conducted a survey of 2870 mothers of children aged 3. They used the US Household Food Security Survey Module to categorize the mothers as being fully food secure, marginally food secure, or food insecure. The behavior of the children was based on the Child Behavior Checklist. This checklist categorized the children as being aggressive, anxious/depressed, or inattentive/hyperactive.
34 Of the total number of mothers who participated in the study 71% were found to be fully food secure, 17% were marginally food secure and 12% were food insecure (Whitaker et al., 2006). An estimated 16.9% of the mothers who were fully food secure suffered from anxiety and depression (p. 865). Of the mothers who were marginally food secure, 21% suffered from anxiety and depression (p. 865). Of the mothers who were food insecure, 30.3% suffered from anxiety and depression (p. 865). The food insecurity status of the children who participated in the study was the same as the mothers; categorized as fully food secure, marginally food secure, and food insecure. The number of children living in a fully food secure environment who exhibited behavior problems was 22.7% (p. 865). The number of children living in a marginally food secure environment who exhibited behavior problems was 31.1% (p. 865). Those children who were food insecure accounted for 36.7% of children exhibiting behavior problems (p. 865). Whitaker et al. (2006) determined that as the food insecurity of the mothers increased, so did the exhibition of behavioral issues within the children. Introduction to Juvenile Crimes The adolescence stage of a person’s life is the period in which many psychological, social and biological factors are developing (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). This is also the period in which crimes and antisocial behavior are most often likely to occur (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). Adolescents do not always make good decisions regarding crimes. Their ability to control their actions and make sound and just decisions may be inhibited due to limitations in their development (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). Although
35 there is knowledge of right versus wrong, adolescents may be incapable of understanding the consequences of their actions (Siegel & Welsh, 2011). Adolescents not only think differently from adults, but also behave differently. When adolescents make incorrect judgments and show improper reasoning, it can be based on their psychosocial immaturity (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). For that reason, when they commit a crime, an adolescent is treated differently than an adult. When a crime is committed, the adolescent is charged as a juvenile delinquent, no matter their age or the offense (Siegel & Welsh, 2011). They are also treated differently than an adult as their records are kept confidential. This is in the hopes of not having the stigma of crime follow the adolescent into adulthood. There are a few likenesses between juveniles and adult criminals. Juveniles can be arrested, be tried for their crime, and incarcerated. Juveniles may also be represented by an attorney; either private or court appointed. The law also protects juveniles from illegal searches and seizures. Crimes committed by juveniles are an ever growing issue in the United States (Alltucker et al., 2006). Not only does it negatively affect the individual, but it also has a negative effect on families, communities and society as a whole. Juvenile delinquents present a menace both socially and economically. The costs surrounding a delinquent, including arrest, incarceration and treatment, may reach the millions of dollars (Alltucker et al., 2006). For this reason, it is important to determine potential delinquent behavior and intervene accordingly.
36 Juvenile delinquency also has a negative effect on victims. When a person’s rights are violated they may retaliate, causing more criminal behavior. Juvenile delinquents commit crimes that are less serious, such as loitering and those that are more serious, such as murder. State officials and law enforcement agencies must rehabilitate the juvenile as well as the victims (Siegel & Welsh, 2011). Alltucker et al. (2006) examined the reasons juveniles fell into a criminal lifestyle. Their primary focus was on juveniles who exhibited early delinquent behavior as opposed to those who exhibited late delinquent behavior. Alltucker et al., (2006) noted that adolescents who are arrested prior to 14 years of age are two to three more times likely to become an offender as an adult (p. 480). Some of the factors contributing to a criminal lifestyle were living in foster care, criminal behavior within the family, special education disabilities and low socioeconomic status. Some juveniles commit crimes young and continue through adulthood (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006). Others commit crimes only as juveniles (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). The process of becoming a criminal may occur over several years (Alltucker et al., 2006). Whether this behavior begins late in life or early on depends on outside variables. One such variable that negatively effects child development is child abuse or neglect (Alltucker et al., 2006). This neglect may include the lack of providing an adequate amount of food. Schwalbe et al. (2006) studied variables that may increase a child’s chances of becoming a juvenile offender. They also focused on risk assessments in an effort to
37 determine if a child will repeat the criminal behavior. They found that this occurs most when there are negative psychological, family, and peer issues. Crimes committed by juveniles may or may not be reported to police or law enforcement (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006). Thus, the actual number of juveniles committing crimes may not be accurate. In addition, juveniles who commit crimes may never be arrested or be made accountable for their actions. Crime indexes were created to distinguish between violent / serious crimes and less serious offenses. Violent crimes are referred to as felonies while less serious crimes are known as misdemeanors. Felony crimes include, but are not limited to, murder, manslaughter, rape, robbery and aggravated assault (Snyder and Sickmund, 2006). Misdemeanors include, but are not limited to, burglary, theft, shoplifting, disorderly conduct, loitering, and arson (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006). Table 1 lists and categorizes common crimes committed by juveniles. Table 1 Common Crimes Committed by Juveniles Misdemeanor
Traffic violations Trespass Petty theft Loitering Threats of assault
Felony
Murder Rape Arson Grand theft Kidnapping
38
Theorists attempted to discover why some juveniles are violent felons and others commit less violent crimes. Some juveniles will commit a crime once or twice in their childhood, while others commit several crimes, and still others progress from misdemeanor crimes to felonies (Siegel & Welsh, 2011, p. 125). Understanding this behavior can be done using pathways. The authority conflict pathway begins early in the life of a juvenile. Initially stubbornness is displayed which leads to defiance, then avoiding authority. The covert pathway begins with minor incidents such as lying and shoplifting. This pathway escalates to more serious crimes such as larceny, fencing, and auto theft. The overt pathway starts with aggression. This behavior leads to physical altercations and ultimately violence. Felony Juvenile Crimes Felony crimes tend to be the more violent of categorized crime offenses. Not only do they inflict the most harm but they cause the most monetary damage. In order to determine the reasons juveniles commit felony crimes, criminologists have focused on the correlation between the legal system and criminal activity (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). Juveniles may internalize rules during their thought process. This thinking, without the basis of clarity due to poor mind development, may increase violent behavior rather than restrain it (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). There is a theory known as the deterrence doctrine. This is based on the notion that if a juvenile knows that a felony crime is met with “swift, certain, and severe”
39 punishment then that crime would never be committed (Fagan & Piquero, 2007, p. 716). Contradictory to that theory is socioeconomic influences. Attitudes and beliefs regarding law enforcement and criminal activity may stem from socioeconomic influences (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). Some juveniles live with the understanding that criminal behavior is not unlawful and is a way of life. Felony crimes that are committed are necessary and should have no repercussions. Fagan and Piquero (2007) also noted that felony crimes may be caused by childhood experiences. Early association toward law enforcement and authority were found to later shape the views of juveniles (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). As negative feelings regarding law enforcement rises, the greater the threat of a violent crime being committed. Felony crimes may be committed by a juvenile in the hope that they are accepted socially (Fagan & Piquero, 2007). Taylor et al. (2008) studied personality traits as they related to juveniles who committed felony crimes. They associated violent behaviors on what is known as borderline personality disorder (BPD). Juveniles with this disorder displayed poor social relationships and were found to have lived in abusive environments. They also exhibited impulsive behaviors associated with felony crimes (Taylor et al., 2008). Trulson et al. (2011) performed a study in which they reviewed the relationship between misconduct within the institution and juvenile delinquents who were rearrested. Trulson et al. (2011) studied male delinquents who committed violent crimes. It is common for juvenile delinquents to commit crimes while still incarcerated (Trulson et al.,
40 2001). The notion is that if a juvenile commits crimes on the “inside”, they will continue this destructive behavior upon release. Steinberg et al. (2006) took a different approach to studying felony crimes committed by juvenile delinquents. A group of 1,355 juvenile delinquents were followed. The authors hypothesized that there was an association between the style of discipline the juvenile received and the likelihood they would commit a felony crime. Four parenting styles were studied: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful. The participants described their home situations which allowed the parents to be placed in a discipline category. Steinberg et al. (2006) found that children of authoritative parents are psychosocially mature, perform better academically, and have less distress. Children who described their parents as neglectful displayed characteristics of immaturity, incompetence, and troubled lifestyles. Children of neglectful parents also were found to commit felony crimes. Abrams and Hyun (2009) theorized that juveniles who commit violent, felony crimes due so because of learned actions. Juvenile delinquents are affected by their families, friends, communities, neighborhoods and schools. Juveniles who grew up in violent homes typically display the same violent behaviors (Abrams & Hyun, 2009). Abrams and Hyun (2009) noted a strong connection between violent events that have occurred in a juvenile’s life to them displaying violent, criminal activity. Not only do juveniles display negative behavior but they also show signs of having accomplished important goals by behaving adversely. Some juveniles see themselves as not only the
41 caretaker, but the leader of their family. A tough exterior and respect among other criminals is required for this title, yet leads to the delinquent lifestyle. Odgers et al. (2010) conducted a review of the literature to determine if there is a link between poor health and violent behavior. The authors review included the fields of psychology, criminology, and medicine. Odgers et al. (2010) discovered that juvenile delinquents who are in poor physical health engage in violent behavior. In addition, these juveniles are less likely to engage in healthy behavior (Odgers et al., 2010). If this behavior continues, the juvenile runs the risk of being in poor physical health as an adult (Odgers et al., 2010). Odgers et al. (2010) focused on juvenile delinquents who were in poor physical health. This was defined by the findings of medical examinations and assessments from clinical visits. Health issues included poor diet and the lack of regular doctor checkups. Misdemeanor Juvenile Crimes Misdemeanor crimes are defined as those that are nonviolent. These crimes may include but are not limited to theft, burglary, loitering, and trespassing. Misdemeanor crimes more often focus on property rather than harm to an individual (Richards, 2011). Misdemeanor crimes are also referred to as white collar crimes. This is due to the crime being deemed nonviolent. In 2005 a person who committed fraud was imprisoned for 23.6 months (Weissmann & Block, 2007). A murder conviction received a sentence of 228.4 months (Weissmann and Block, 2007). Weissmann and Block (2007) agreed that some crimes are worse than others. Yet, Weissmann and Block (2007) argued if persons who commit misdemeanor crimes should receive a punishment different from
42 those who commit felony crimes. It may be that those who commit misdemeanor crimes may be easier to rehabilitate (Weissmann and Block, 2007). Juveniles commit misdemeanor crimes more than felony crimes based on a number of reasons (Richards, 2011). The main reason is that a juvenile has less experience in criminal activity than that of an adult (Richards, 2011). Juveniles also tend to commit crimes while in a group (Richards, 2011). This draws attention to the criminal activity. Juveniles commit crimes while in areas that are public (Richards, 2011). Public areas are more likely to have witnesses to the juvenile’s crime. Lastly, juveniles often commit crimes near their homes or residences (Richards, 2011). Richards (2011) discussed the state of juveniles who committed misdemeanor crimes in the country of Australia. Richards (2011) noted that juveniles who committed crimes were treated as adults until early in the twentieth century. In fact, children received hard labor and corporal punishment the same as adults (Richards, 2011). Prisons were homes for children as young as six years of age (Richards, 2011). The practice of treating juvenile criminals the same as adult criminals became an unfair practice. Juvenile delinquents were doing long stents in jails of over two years, yet they accounted for most of the misdemeanor, nonviolent crimes committed (Richards, 2011). Offenses such as vandalism, shoplifting and property destruction are typically committed by juveniles (Richards, 2011). Crimes such as murder and sexual offenses are rarely committed by juveniles. Richards (2011) provided detailed facts that juveniles commit more nonviolent crimes as juveniles. Per every 100 crimes, around 65% are misdemeanors and are
43 committed by a juvenile between 12 and 18 years of age (Richards, 2011). This same age group accounts for 13% of felony crimes (Richards, 2011). Between 2007 and 2008 the Australian court system recorded the types of crimes committed by juveniles. Sixteen percent of the crimes were categorized as intent to harm (Richards, 2011). Another 14% of crimes were theft charges (Richards, 2011). Unlawful entry accounted for 12% (Richards, 2011). Traffic offenses were noted as 11% (Richards, 2011). All of the crimes committed were listed as misdemeanor crimes. These numbers totaled almost two-thirds of the juveniles appearing before the courts (Richards, 2011). Juvenile Detention Centers The goal of juvenile detention centers is to provide a balance between punishment and the rehabilitation process (Abrams and Hyun, 2009). In 2004, 140,000 juveniles were placed in institutions (Abrams and Hyun, 2009). This was a 35% increase from the mid 1980’s (Abrams and Hyun, 2009). On average, juveniles are incarcerated from 3 months to a year. During that time, the detention center provides the juvenile with different therapies and services to rehabilitate them. The overall goal is to shift the focus from crime to that of a law abiding citizen. Separate court systems for adults and juveniles were created at the beginning of the twentieth century. The attempt to try adults and juveniles within the same system was frowned upon by groups called “child savers” (Siegel & Welsh, 2011, p. 14). This group argued that certain rights of the juveniles were violated by punishing them as adults. This led to the theory of parens patriae.
44 Parens patriae states that juveniles are not responsible for their delinquent activity. In fact, it is the fault of the parents that adverse behavior is displayed. Parens patriae also states that criminal activity is the result of poor home care. As such, the state should intervene before more serious offenses occur. The juvenile court system is now its own entity. Not only are juveniles housed separately from adults, but they also receive different punishments. Police departments have a task force that work specifically with juveniles. Siegel and Welsh (2011) noted that “adults are tried in court; children are adjudicated. Adults can be punished; children are treated” (p. 15). Incarcerated juvenile delinquents reside in both public and private institutions. The actual number of juveniles housed in facilities is provided by the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement (CJRP). The CJRP is sponsored by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). The census provides information such as gender, date of birth, race, ethnicity, state of offense, type of offense, and date of admission. JRFC also sponsors the Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC). The JRFC focuses on facility ownership, operations, and services. It also accounts for deaths and injuries of juveniles in custody. Juvenile detention centers vary greatly. They can be secure or non-secure. Facilities may also be run by the state or owned by private companies. Holding of juveniles may be short term stemming from a few hours, or long term which may last up to a year. Juvenile detention centers are also known as juvenile halls, shelters, diagnostic
45 centers, group homes, youth development centers, residential treatment centers, reform schools and correctional institutions (Sickmund, 2010). Physical State at Detention Center Entry Juveniles that are sentenced to detention centers often exhibit poor health (Golzari et al., 2006). In addition, they portray risky behavior although they typically lack health care (Golzari et al., 2006). Because of this, juvenile delinquents show high rates of morbidity and mortality. Not only are juvenile delinquents removed from health care access due to their incarceration, the time spent in a detention center may be their only access to a health care provider. Once a juvenile is released, it is important to provide additional medical care (Golzari et al., 2008). The American Academy of Pediatrics introduced a concept that juveniles should have a “medical home” prior to their release (Golzari et al., 2008). A medical home is one in which health care is continuous and accessible for released juvenile delinquents. Juveniles who are sentenced to detention centers typically enter the facility in poor health (Golzari et al., 2008). By establishing this access to healthcare there may be a decrease in the poor health of juvenile delinquents. There have only been a few surveys that focused on the physical state of juvenile delinquents. The most comprehensive study occurred in the 1970s and lasted ten years (Golzari et al., 2006). Conducted in a detention center in New York City, the survey consisted of 47,288 juveniles. Based on an average stay of 14 days, 46% of the juveniles received a diagnosis of a medical problem (Golzari et al., 2006).
46 Another survey was conducted in the mid-1990s. This survey was conducted in a detention center located in Alabama and consisted of 819 juveniles (Golzari et al., 2006). Of this population 10.6% had a serious medical problem (Golzari et al., 2006). The problem was considered serious if it required a follow-up once the juvenile was admitted into the facility. The state of Washington also conducted a survey in the mid-1990s. This survey did not just focus on one detention center. Instead, the survey included 24 juvenile detention centers (Golzari et al., 2006). The purpose of this survey was to determine the most common reason for heath related referrals. This survey compared long-term and short-term facilities. Long-term facilities reported dental care as the chief reason. Shortterm facilities reported substance abuse as their chief reason for referral. A third survey was conducted in the mid-1990s at a juvenile detention center. This survey took place in Maryland. A total of 202 male juveniles were surveyed to determine the overall health of the participants. Sixty-nine percent of the juveniles were categorized as High Risk and Worst Health (Golzari et al., 2006). Odgers et al. (2010) discussed the state of health of juveniles within a detention center. The authors focused on girls. Odgers et al. (2010) believed that female juvenile delinquents and their state of health are an underserved population. This is an increasing issue as the population of girls sentenced to serve time within a detention center increased 52% between 1991 and 2003 (Odgers et al., 2010). The Department of Juvenile Justice is tasked with the proper care of juvenile delinquents. As Odgers et al. (2010) stated, “The Department of Juvenile Justice has a
47 moral and legal obligation to provide for the medical needs of adolescents in their care (p. 429).”It is unfortunate that not all detention centers abide by this notion. In 1999, a lawsuit was brought against the Cook County Detention Center in Chicago, IL. The center was accused of having a multitude of infractions; one of which was poor nutrition services. The lawsuit brought to light neglect within the juvenile justice system. Television has the ability to promote poor dietary habits (Wallace, 2005). It is especially detrimental to incarcerated juveniles (Wallace, 2005). Juvenile delinquents that stem from low income homes are less likely to know specific details on proper nutrition (Wallace, 2005). Incarceration may become a hindrance to good dietary habits. On average, juveniles watch three hours of television per day (Wallace, 2005). Within this time, many media messages promote poor eating habits (Wallace, 2005). When a juvenile watches more than 3 hours per day it is considered heavy viewing. There has been an association between heavy viewing and a lack of knowledge surrounding proper nutrition (Wallace, 2005). Television programs as well as commercials have been found to have an adverse effect on food choices (Wallace, 2005). Wallace (2005) conducted a 15-week intervention within a juvenile detention center. The purpose of the intervention was to teach the juvenile delinquents about proper nutrition. It was also designed to increase knowledge of foods that were healthier. Physical and nutritional needs of incarcerated juveniles are often not properly met (Committee on Adolescence, 2011). They are considered a high risk population and have health issues occurring at greater rates than their peers who are not detained (Committee
48 on Adolescence, 2011). Research has found that juvenile delinquents have health care that is inconsistent or they have no health care at all (Committee on Adolescence, 2011). Therefore, it is important to address these needs upon the juvenile’s incarceration. The National Commission on Correctional Health Care (NCCHC) is a juvenile detention center accreditation organization. They publish standards for the operation of public and private juvenile detention centers. NCCHC identifies two minimum standards for all juveniles entering a facility. The first standard is that all juveniles are screened at intake by a qualified health care professional (Committee on Adolescence, 2011). The second standard states that all juveniles must receive a comprehensive health assessment within 7 days of incarceration (Committee on Adolescence, 2011). The health assessment includes a physical examination that determines the juvenile’s state of health. The use of this assessment will identify juvenile delinquents who enter the detention center in a food insecure state. Summary This chapter presented a review of the literature that provided a basis for the proposed research. The background information for food insecurity, crimes and juvenile detention centers supplies an overview of the study. Evidence suggested that children who stem from food insecure homes are more likely to commit crimes than those children who live in food secure environments. Jyoti et al. (2005) noted a significant association between food insecurity and negative social skills in children. The Whitaker et al. (2006) study also presented data that showed negative behavior was associated with food insecurity. Golzari et al. (2006) presented that juveniles in poor health within detention
49 centers exhibit risky behavior. These studies are necessary to determine the physical state of juveniles when they enter detention centers so their needs may be addressed. In order to move forward in the research process, the theoretical framework and methodological structure must be established. The literature discussed in this chapter confirmed the relevance of the research. Chapter 3 will detail the methodology used for the research.
50 Chapter 3: Research Method Introduction This research study, examined the role food insecurity may have when a juvenile commits a felony or misdemeanor crime. Data used for this research were derived from secondary public data collected from juvenile and adult detention centers located in Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, New Jersey, and Oklahoma. This secondary data were routinely collected as a standard procedure of each facility. The basis of this research study stemmed from prior research conducted by Jyoti et al. (2005). Jyoti et al. found that children who were food insecure were aggressive and had poor social skills. Their study provided evidence that food insecurity has a negative effect on behavior. Jyoti et al. (2005) used longitudinal data to determine the relationship between food security and changes in school test scores, weight, BMI, and social skills in children. For the purpose of this current study, this investigator focused the data on the relationship between food insecurity and its role in a juvenile committing a crime. Likened to Wilde and Peterman’s (2006) use of the BMI score, BMI was used to categorize if the juvenile is food secure or food insecure. These data were used to address the research questions. This chapter details the Research Design and Approach. The justification for performing a quantitative study is provided. In the Setting and Sample section the research population is discussed. The Data Collection and Analysis explains the nature of each variable used. Instrumentation and Materials describe the data collection instrument used in this research.
51 Research Questions and Hypotheses The study was intended to answer three research questions. This researcher provided corresponding hypotheses based on a review of the literature. Question 1: Is there a difference in food security with juveniles who commit misdemeanor crimes? H1: A juvenile who commits a misdemeanor crime will be deemed food secure. Question 2: Is there a difference in food security with juveniles who commit felony crimes? H2: A juvenile who commits a felony crime will be deemed food insecure. Question 3: Is there a difference in food security with those who commit misdemeanor crimes versus felony crimes? H3: Juveniles who are food insecure will represent the greater number of juveniles who commit felony crimes. Research Design and Approach In order to gather information regarding the effects of food insecurity on juveniles, a quantitative research design was used. This method takes a groups and numbers approach. Temporal study variables are used for quantitative studies because there is a need to advance what has already been proven (Creswell, 2009, p. 133). In quantitative research literature is placed first. This placement allows the researcher to pose a question and use the literature as a basis for why it is being taken on (Creswell, 2009, p. 133). If placed in the end of the study, the literary review compares what was
52 done in the past with what was done more recently. Quantitative research introduces a hypothesis to determine what more could be done (Creswell, 2009, p. 133). The quantitative design method was used for this study because a quantitative approach to research is one that utilizes numerical calculations. Variables are introduced in a way that allows them to be measured. Creswell (2009, p. 145) describes two types of methods in a quantitative research study: survey and experimental. For the purpose of this study the researcher took a survey approach. Secondary data were used for this study. Therefore, direct access to participants did not occur. Data used were routinely collected by each detention site and were accessed by this researcher via electronic public records Research Design Appropriateness A quantitative, cohort study of incarcerated juveniles between 14 and 18 years of age was performed. Quantitative research was used to examine the relationship between variables. The research questions this study seeks to answer are as follows: 1. Is there a difference in food security with juveniles who commit misdemeanor crimes? 2.
Is there a difference in food security with juveniles who commit felony crimes?
3. Is there a difference in food security with those who commit misdemeanor crimes versus felony crimes? Numerical data were analyzed in order to provide the results for these questions. The data collected will either prove or refute the hypothesis.
53 A cohort design was used based on the distinctness of the target population. Issel (2009) stated that “if the target audience is distinct, clearly defined, and can be forward in time as a group, it is called a cohort” (p. 399). This design is fitting for the population of juvenile delinquents used for this study. A cohort design is also appropriate as the ability to collect pretest information does not exist and is not relevant to the outcome of the research. Setting and Sample The population used for this study was incarcerated juveniles housed in a youth or adult detention center within seven states in the U.S. The states included were Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, New Jersey, and Oklahoma. Juveniles received sentences ranging from 3 months to life. The age range for those incarcerated was between 14 and 18 years. The focus of the research was on juveniles who have been charged with committing either felonies or misdemeanors. In the event a juvenile was charged with both a felony and misdemeanor during the same episode, the most serious offense was considered. These facilities were chosen based on their ability to house juveniles who have committed both types of crimes and the reseracher’s access to public data. Data on the juveniles was collected from different states providing a variation of the sample. The intended data collected for research included demographics of the juveniles including sex, height and weight. Data also detailed the state of health of each juvenile upon entering the facility by calculating their BMI. All juveniles who were processed into the detention center were eligible for entry into the study; however, only those juveniles
54 who presented their first detention episode were included. In addition, each juvenile was counted once as a single individual. In order to provide assumptions and draw conclusions relative to a population, samples must be drawn in such a way that results in general data (Gerstman, 2008, p. 15). Gerstman (2008, p. 16) described this data as “an element of chance”. The most common way to achieve this is by using the simple random sample. By using this method each and every member of the population has the ability of being included into the quantitative study. This is an appropriate way to collect a broad range of participants. Determining the appropriate sample size for the juvenile detention center requires knowing the confidence interval as well as the confidence level for this population. The confidence interval determines the margin of error. On the other hand, the confidence level defines the rate of success. The confidence level details certainty. In the field of research the confidence level is usually set at 95% (Gerstman, 2008, p. 198). For the purpose of the juvenile population, the smallest confidence interval allowed was utilized. This was set at four. This means that the total number of juveniles used will be accurate plus or minus 4. The success rate was set at 95% so the confidence level achieved was at its maximum. Based on Jyoti et al.’s (2005) population of 21,000, the required sample size was N = 584 juveniles. Data collected began with juveniles arrested in 2013 and stemmed back each year until the appropriate sample size was achieved.
55 Data Collection and Analysis The primary focus of this research was to determine if food insecurity influences the type of crime committed. This was determined by focusing on two independent variables: 1. The juvenile is incarcerated for committing a felony crime. 2. The juvenile is incarcerated for committing a misdemeanor crime. This research also utilized two dependent variables. These variables were used to measure the following: 1. The juvenile enters the detention center in a food secure state. 2. The juvenile enters the detention center in a food insecure state. Determining the dependent variables utilized the research performed by Wilde and Peterman (2006). They calculated the BMI for participants to determine if they were healthy or underweight. In doing so, they found that underweight children were food insecure. This researcher also calculated the BMI of each juvenile selected by using the criteria provided by the CDC. The BMI percentile calculator is specific for children and teens under the age of 20 years. Juveniles with a BMI of
