Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment

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Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment Article in Water Environment Research · October 2015 DOI: 10.2175/106143015X14338845155426

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Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment Edith Martinez-Guerra1, Yi Jiang1, Gordon Lee1, Bahareh Kokabian1, Sara Fast1, Dennis D. Truax2, James L. Martin2, Benjamin S. Magbanua3, Veera Gnaneswar Gude4*

This paper provides a review of the

Constructed wetlands (CWs) have emerged as a

treatment technologies, which utilize natural processes or

reliable, low cost and sustainable technology for treatment

passive components in wastewater treatment. In particular,

of various types of wastewater via different treatment

this paper primarily focuses on wetland systems and their

processes including biological, chemical and physical

applications in wastewater treatment (as an advanced

processes. Zhang, Jinadasa et al. (2014) reviewed the

treatment unit or decentralized system), nutrient and

current application of various types of CWs and their

pollutant removal (single and multiple pollutants, and

contaminant removal ability from wastewater in developing

metals), and emerging pollutant removal (pharmaceuticals).

countries since 2000. According to this study, hybrid

A summary of studies involving the plant (vegetation)

systems which are a combination of various kinds of CWs

effects, wetland design and modeling, hybrid and

achieved highest treatment efficiencies in terms of COD,

innovative systems, storm water treatment and pathogen

TSS and TN compared to other treatment modules while

removal is also included.

vertical subsurface flow (VSSF) CWs had the best BOD

ABSTRACT:

KEYWORDS:

wetlands, natural treatment, vegetation,

removal. Gude et al. (2014) updated recent developments in

hydrology, pollution prevention, stormwater.

wetlands design, modeling and operation and vegetation for

doi: 10.2175/106143015X14338845155426

wastewater treatment and removal of a variety of pollutants including some onsite treatment processes.

1

Graduate Student

2

Professor

3

Associate Professor

In addition to municipal wastewater, various types of wastewater including agricultural, industrial and landfilled leachate have been treated by CWs. Recently,

4*

Corresponding Author, Assistant Professor

CWs have been used as a cost-effective and environmental-

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

friendly system for treatment of wastewater from tannery

Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762. Tel. 662-325-0345; Fax.662-325-7189;

industry. Horizontal subsurface flow CWs implemented in

e-mail: [email protected]

Portugal, showed effective performance in treatment of high organic loading tannery wastewater with wide range of hydraulic variations (Calheiros et al., 2014). Among

Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment

1095 Water Environment Research, Volume 87, Number 10—Copyright © 2015 Water Environment Federation

various types of plants species, Phragmites and Typha

Trihalomethanes were anaerobically degraded in SSF CWs

performed better in treatment of tannery wastewater and

while Trichloroacetonitrile was removed via hydrolysis.

Arundo donax showed higher flexibility to high salinity

Removal of pharmaceutical and personal care

wastewaters. Freedman et al. (2014) suggested the use of

products (PPCPs) by wetlands has also been studied

halophytes in horizontal subsurface flow CWs to polish

recently. According to Zhu and Chen (2014), CWs could

treated wastewater with excess salt to decrease its salinity.

efficiently remove two residual PPCPs including caffeine

Another application of CWs is in treatment of combined

and ibuprofen from tail water. However, due to the

sewer overflows (CSO) where they have been found as an

adsorption of the contaminants to sludge, proper solutions

effective solution for treatment of CSOs that can not only

should be applied for excess sludge disposal. Li, Zhu et al.

remove contaminants but also alleviate event-associated

(20014) reviewed the application of wetlands for the

flow regimes (Tao et al., 2014). However, the design of

removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from constructed

CWs requires pretreatment of the CSO, intensive

wastewater and concluded that although they hold a great

monitoring of water quality and flow rate and designation

promise to work as a secondary wastewater treatment

of the system’s capacity for highly variable flows. In a

system, they still require further investigations and

recent study by Turker et al. (2014), the performances of

improvements in the removal mechanisms and effect of

two types of vegetated CWs were evaluated for treatment

certain important parameters like configuration design,

of boron (B) reserves in Turkey. Their results showed that

hydraulic mode, temperature, pH and oxygen level.

the Typha latifolia vegetated CW could effectively remove

Constructed wetlands can be used as an

40.7%, while Phragmites australis could remove 27.2%,

alternative to conventional physical–chemical methods for

making the T. latifolia a practicable treatment method for B

treatment of electroplating wastewater as well. Since this

mine wastewater. It has been reported that a combination of

type of wastewater is rich in heavy metals and toxic

mixture of plants in wetlands for treatment of municipal

pollutants, direct application of conventional biological

wastewater, perform more effective than a single plant

treatment is not possible. Recently, Sochacki et al. (2014)

species (Mudassar et al., 2014). Disinfection byproducts

studied

(DBPs) formed during the chlorine disinfection process in

wastewater by a subsurface vertical flow CW and evaluated

wastewater treatment plants are among other types of

the effect of operating conditions including hydraulic

wastewaters that have been treated recently by Subsurface-

loading, vegetation, wastewater concentration and addition

flow CWs (Chen, Wen, Tang et al., 2014). This system

of carbon source. Most of the tested metals (except for Pb)

efficiently removed (> 90%) most of the DBPs used in this

and cyanide were efficiently removed by the constructed

study except for chloroform and 1,1-dichloropropanone.

wetland. Increase of the hydraulic loading rate improved

the

feasibility

of

polishing

electroplating

metals removal in the upflow columns. Their study showed


that vegetation had a less significant effect on metal

indicates the importance of improving the system’s

removal in wetlands. In another study by You et al. (2014),

performance or to adjust the effluent water quality

pilot scale constructed wetlands planted with Leersia

depending on its end use (Kipasika et al., 2014). A

hexandra were used to remove heavy metals like Cr, Cu

comparison of laboratory-scale horizontal subsurface flow

and Ni from electroplating wastewater. This system

constructed wetland (HSSFCW) and a stabilization pond

achieved 84.4%, 97.1% and 94.3% removal of Cr, Cu and

(SP) showed superior performance of SP in removal of

Ni from wastewater, respectively. However, high hydraulic

COD, total phosphorous and ammonia nitrogen making SP

loading rates reduced treatment efficiencies of these metals

a more proper option for treatment of swine wastewater

from electroplating wastewater. Macrophyte-vegetated

(Liu, Zheng et al., 2014).

constructed wetlands have been found to efficiently remove

CWs have various applications in combination

BOD, TSS, TN, heavy metals xenobiotics, pesticides and

with other technologies. Recently, CWs have been also

polyaromatic hydrocarbons from various wastewaters

proven to work as a microbial fuel cell for simultaneous

(Bhatia and Goyal, 2014). Metal removal in these CWs

treatment of wastewater and electricity

mostly occurs due to the bioaccumulation in plant parts,

Villaseñor et al. (2014) compared the performance of

phytoextraction and phytostabilization.

horizontal and vertical flow in the cathode part of a

generation.

Horizontal flow constructed wetlands (HFCW)

constructed wetland working as a MFC. Except for higher

can be used as a reliable secondary treatment due to their

oxidation reduction potential and dissolved oxygen in the

long residence time for efficient removal of organic matter.

VFCW, no significant differences were observed between

Abou-Elela eta al. (2014) investigated the performance of

the two modes. Combinations of constructed wetlands with

HFCW with different kinds of plants (Canna, Phragmites

other chemical and physical treatment technologies

Australis, Cyprus papyrus) and compared it with non-

improves the quality of the effluent to meet the surface

vegetated plants. Their results proved that COD, BOD and

water quality standards. A pilot-scale hybrid system

TSS were efficiently removed in both HFCWs while lower

comprised of electrochemical oxidation and a constructed

removals of pathogens and nutrients occurred in unplanted

wetland was used to treat unconventional surface water of

wetlands. Among all the tested plant types, Cyprus planted

the Wenyu River in China (Wang, Zhang et al., 2014). The

HFCW showed the highest percentage removal of

electrochemical oxidation unit improved the average value

microbiological parameters making the effluent of this

of BOD5/TN to be more suitable for biodegradation

wetland suitable for irrigation purposes. However, CWs are

treatment by CWs. Therefore, the combined system seemed

not effective in removal of all pathogens. An investigation

to be a feasible approach for treatment of unconventional

revealed that the effluent of a CW contained salmonella sp.

surface water. In another study, an integrated pond-

significantly higher than the acceptable limit which

wetlands system was applied to treat refractory pollutants


in petrochemical industrial wastewater (Liu, Wang et al.,

wetland. A detailed study on physical, hydrological and

2014). Several ponds consisting of anaerobic ponds (APs),

biogeochemical characteristics of a tundra wetland in

facultative ponds (FPs), and aerobic ponds were arranged

Canada’s far north was developed by Hayward et al. (2014)

and connected to a wetland. The results showed that the

to better understand the treatment mechanism. Their study

combined system improved the bioactivity and biological

demonstrated efficient removal of contaminants by tundra

diversity of refractory pollutants such as alkanes,

wetlands during all seasonal studied periods except spring

chloroalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, and olefins. Vertical

freshet due to its short HRTs. Moreover the seasonal

up-flow constructed wetlands were used as bio-filters to

increase in pH and DO caused by algae growth, increases

enhance the water quality of a secondary treated effluent

TSS and decrease E. coli and nitrogen species.

(Gargi et al., 2014). The aerobic conditions provided by the fibrous rooting system of canna species, used in this study,

Wetlands for Nutrient Removal

increased the removal efficiency of organic matter and

Constructed Wetlands are widely used as a

TKNs. In addition, the aesthetic appearance of this plant

tertiary treatment to remove nutrients in wastewaters by

makes it a suitable option for application of planted

physical, chemical and biological processes. Studies were

wetlands.

carried out to determine impact factors for nitrogen Seasonal variation and temperature alteration

removal in wetlands. Influent wastewater characteristics

have substantial effects on the performance of constructed

such as C/N ratio and mass loading were found to have

wetlands especially on nutrient removal. According to Yan

large effect on nitrogen removal rate (Zhao, Zhang et al.,

and Xu (2014), microbial activities, plant metabolic rate,

2014). They also found that influent C/N ratio could affect

chemical sedimentation and adsorption are highly related to

the performance of vertical subsurface flow constructed

seasonal changes and reduce at lower temperatures

wetlands with earthworm eco-filters and the best C/N was

resulting in lower overall performance of wetlands.

found to be 5:1 to achieve the highest nutrient removal

However, various operational strategies such as covering

rates and the lowest greenhouse emissions. Similarly, Zhu,

the surface of wetlands by thermal insulation, increasing

Yan et al. (2014) also found the best C/N ratio at 5:1 for

temperatures inside wetlands and optimization of system

TN and NO3--N removal in the slag-based subsurface flow

design will improve treatment efficiencies during winter.

constructed wetland planted with Phragmites australis and

Another type of wetlands, which is common in small size

Calamagrostis angustifolia. Hsueh et al. (2014) compared

arctic areas due to its low operational costs and minimal

the free-water surface constructed wetland performance in

maintenance, is tundra wetland. Discharge of wastewater

nitrogen removal for municipal wastewater between cool

into the tundra renders the hydrological parameters,

and warm weather. Mass loading was found to affect

nutrient and organic matters that are required to create a

nitrogen removal rate, and the concentration removal


efficiency for TN was 21% higher during warm season than

rhizosphere of plants had higher nitrification intensity and

that in cool season, while no significant seasonal difference

higher population of ammonia-oxidizing and nitrite-

was found for area removal rates of nitrogen species.

oxidizing

bacteria

than

the

non-rhizosphere.

The

nitrification intensity and number of bacterial population

Operational strategies and environmental factors

both decreased as temperature decreased.

also affect nitrification and denitrification processes essential to nitrogen removal. Wu et al., (2014) reviewed

To overcome the low TN removal efficiency

operation strategies, innovation design, and configurations

issues of constructed wetlands, Hu et al., (2014)

to improve nitrogen removal rate in constructed wetlands

investigated the modification of creating multiple tides

for treating wastewater. Recirculation strategies enhanced

rather than one in a single bed tidal flow constructed

the performance in vertical flow and integrated constructed

wetland. The average TN removal rate of the modified

wetlands, however, it might cause problems in horizontal-

system was 85% under a nitrogen loading of 28 g

flow CW. Artificial and tidal wetlands could overcome the

N/m2*day, and the main processes are adsorption to

oxygen transfer limitations at higher operation and

medium and regeneration via nitrification for NH3-N

maintenance costs, and the cold weather challenge could be

conversion, as well as simultaneous nitrification and

eased by specific design options like increasing the bed

denitrification in bed resting periods. Zurita and White

depth and natural or artificial thermal insulation. Qi et al.,

(2014) compared a two-stage system with a combination of

(2014) did mathematical modeling for nitrification and

horizontal flow, vertical flow constructed wetland and

denitrification processes and sensitivity analysis for

stabilization ponds. The results showed the system

parameters and operating conditions of the anoxic/oxic

containing vertical flow had better performance in nutrient

constructed wetlands system. The results showed the

removal (around 85% for NH4+) and over 99.9% pathogen

nitrogen removal efficiency could be improved with proper

reduction. Li, Lu, Zheng, and Zhang (2014) proposed and

loading rate, temperature, and recycling rate. Another

compared six configurations of three-stage horizontal

group studied the impact of cyclic aeration, vegetation and

subsurface flow CW by dividing the conventional HSSF

temperature for the subsurface flow constructed wetland in

into aerobic and anoxic zones. By promoting the

cold weather (Redmond et al., 2014). They also found that

nitrification and denitrification processes, the ammonia

aeration could largely promote nitrogen and phosphorus

nitrogen and total nitrogen removal rate increased from

removal, while the vegetation and temperature within the

18.4% and 24.6 % in conventional one-stage HSSF CW to

range of 0 to 20 °C had little impact on the system

99.7% and 51.3% in the three-stage system, respectively,

performance. Peng et al., (2014) studied the impact of plant

when aeration was put at the front end. Li, Lu, Zheng, Ngo

root

and

et al. (2014) did another study on the effect of dissolved

microbiology distribution in a vertical flow wetland. The

oxygen and step-feeding on the nitrogen removal

and

temperature

on

nitrogen

removal


performance of the multi-stage constructed wetland system.

utilization bacteria and carbon degrading bacteria was

The result showed 99.1% of ammonium nitrogen removal

identified, and the system could achieve 75% TN removal

and 88.1% of total nitrogen removal in the five-stage with

and 96% TP removal. Abe et al., (2014) examined the

step feeding system, concluding that sufficient DO would

performance of a free-water-surface constructed wetland

promote nitrification and that step-feeding would provide

for dormitory secondary effluent treatment. The results

enough carbon source for denitrification.

showed about 50% total N was removed mainly by

Phosphorus was more difficult to remove

denitrification and about 50% of total P was mainly

compared to nitrogen. Plants in wetlands help enhance P

adsorbed by soil with partly additional plant uptake.

removal. A study indicated floating treatment wetland

To get a better understanding of the removal

planted with Carex virgata could remove about 27% more

processes in the wetland system, many studies focused on

total phosphorous (TP) in stormwater compared to

investigating the mechanism and decay rates of nutrients.

conventional retention ponds without vegetation (Borne,

Perez et al., (2014) studied the kinetics of nutrient removal

2014). Among the total phosphorus, dissolved phosphorus

in vertical subsurface wetlands planted with Cyperus

was removed mainly

alternifolius. The data showed over 75% nutrient removal

by sorption, and particulate

phosphorus was entrapped in plant root and settlement.

rates for the domestic wastewater influent, and the data

Most wetland systems are able to achieve

fitted a first-order model with a kinetic constant of 3.64/d

nitrogen and phosphorus removal at the same time with

for nitrogen removal and a second-order model with a rate

proper design. Vymazal and Brezinova (2014) evaluated

of 0.96 (mg/Ld) for phosphorus removal. Zygas et al.

the long term efficiency of nutrient removal by four

(2014) developed a model for biomass production, nutrient

horizontal subsurface flow wetlands. The removal rate of

removal and cost analysis to better assess wetland systems.

NH4+-N increased over time to 53% while the TP removal

The cultivation of perennial grasses in constructed wetland

rate was stable at around 59% for the 18 years of

not only reduced the greenhouse gas emissions, but also

observations. Mitsch et al. (2014) monitored and compared

offered additional nitrate removal by denitrification with a

the water quality data for a pair of riverine wetlands in

cost of 3.28-4.86 $/kg of NO3-N removed.

central Ohio over 20 years. The two systems showed

Improving the nutrient removal efficiency is

effective and sustainable nutrient removal, while the

another topic of wetland research. One way to achieve a

planted wetland had higher TP reduction but lower total

higher removal rate is to use several wetlands in a chain to

nitrogen reduction than the natural colonizing wetland. Tu

combine benefits of different types of wetlands. Zheng et

et al., (2014) monitored the effluent water quality and the

al., (2014) examined the wastewater treatment performance

bacterial diversity in a wetland system consisting of five

of five large pilot constructed wetlands each consisting of

wetland basins in Taiwan. The dominant nitrogen

combined surface and subsurface flow cells with gravel and


Phragmites australis and Typha orientalis as plants. The

1.61 to 0.6 mg/l mainly by filter interception, plant

average TN and TP removal rates were around 53.9% to

adsorption by reeds, and microbial transformation in the

69.4%, respectively, especially higher in autumn when the

wetland system.

moderate temperature and well grown plants existed. Jia et

Other ways to improve the nutrients removal rate

al. (2014) studied a four-stage wetland with a rapid filter, a

were provided. Wang and Sample (2014) compared four

down-flow substrate constructed wetland, an up-flow

floating treatment wetlands including a control, floating

wetland, and a surface flow constructed wetland to enhance

mat, pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata L.), and softstem

nutrient removal efficiency for the influent from a heavily

bulrush (Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani). The floating

polluted river. Around 70% of TN and 60% of TP and

mat (planted or unplanted) could enhance the nutrient

NH4+-N could be removed using the four-stage system,

removal efficiency, of which the pickerelweed had the best

with 0.58 mg/l of NH4+-N, and 0.24 mg/l TP in the effluent.

TN and TP removal at a temperature greater than 25 °C.

Wetlands

used

after

secondary

biological

Despland et al. (2014) used a two-layer unplanted wetland

treatment seemed to have higher removal rates satisfying

for municipal wastewater treatment and achieved 95%

effluent water quality in many applications. Bilgin (2014)

phosphate removal and about 26% nitrogen removal. The

studied the treatment efficiency of an activated sludge

Bauxsol pellets media used in the upper layer was found to

system with vertical flow subsurface constructed wetland

be a suitable media for both phosphate removal and

system planted with Cyperus alternifolius. The NO3-N

biomass support.

removal rate was 97% at a loading of 245 mg/m2-d and the

Zhang, and Dong (2014) used an electrolysis method to

TN removal rate was between 35.28% and 59.84%. An

solve the low TN removal rate due to high oxygen content,

integrated treatment system using a sequencing batch

and limited PO4-P removal due to the low sorption of

biofilm reactor followed by vertical flow constructed

substrate in tidal flow constructed wetlands (TFCW).

wetland planted with Thalia dealbatas was tested for

Although the electrolysis-integrated constructed wetland

domestic wastewater treatment (Guo, et al., 2014). The

showed no significant advantage in ammonium removal

system could effectively remove NH4+-N by 98.5%, TN by

compared to non-electrolyzed CW, it improved the

91.5% and TP by 88.5%. In another study, an integrated

phosphorus removal rate to over 95% mainly by ferric iron

system combining an A2/O process and constructed

coagulation

wetland was developed for organic and nutrient removal

inhibited sulphide accumulation. With proper current

from rural domestic wastewater (Ladu et al., 2014).

intensity of electrolysis, the electrolyzed TFCW could be a

Nitrogen was reduced from an average of 30.32 to 13.2

promising method for nutrient removal.

In a pilot-scale experiment, Ju, Wu,

through

anode

electro-dissolution,

mg/l during the anaerobic, anoxic and waterfall aeration oxidation process, while phosphorus was reduced from

Wetlands for Pathogens Removal


and

Waterborne pathogens and viruses are often the

India on removing indigenous coliphages and enteric virus

cause of water related gastrointestinal illnesses (Gibson,

from highly polluted river water. The river bank filtration

2014). Pathogens and viruses contaminate freshwater

reduced indigenous somatic phages by a factor of more

(rivers, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater) as well as saline

than 104 at less than filtration distance and by a factor of

water sources (estuaries and coastal waters) (Pandey et al.,

more than 106 at 50 m.

2014). Often, waterborne pathogens and viruses are not

Another

contributor

to

waterborne

micro-

completely removed during the wastewater treatment

organisms is irrigation. Raudales et al. (2014), summarized

process and additional treatment is sometimes required to

the effective chemical dose for chemical water treatments

achieve the desired water quality. Different factors can ease

to control plant pathogens. However, they noticed that in

the introduction of infections into water bodies; floodwater

some cases the thresholds were above the allowed

for example, can increase the annual infection risk with

phytotoxicity thresholds and that for most crops and

higher frequency of urban flooding due to heavy rainfall

technologies the phytotoxicity thresholds remain unknown.

(de Man et al., 2014). This worldwide phenomenon is still a

A study (Ulbricht et al., 2014) revealed that the

major cause of diseases in developing countries; however,

concentration of bacterial viruses entering a wastewater

there are countries that are developing strategies to reduce

treatment plant during the winter season is about 1 log unit

this problem. For example, Bolivia has analyzed for enteric

lower than in summer. However, after completing a mass

virus removal, two wastewater treatment ponds systems

balance, the virus inactivations were about 85% and about

with similar overall hydraulic retention time with different

95% during the winter and summer seasons, respectively.

first stages of treatment (Symonds et al., 2014).

This allowed them to remove about 2.78 log units of

Unfortunately, the results were not favorable as the test

bacterial viruses during the summer and 1.95 log units in

ponds with an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)

winter.

still need more research to understand why virus removal is

Different processes and techniques are being

less efficient when using an UASB. On the other hand,

developed to remove pathogens and viruses from

Ghana has performed a study on the risk of gastroenteritis

wastewater and from drinking water. Ceramic, for example,

illness associated with the consumption of street food sales

has been modified to achieve bacterial and virus removal.

(Barker et al., 2014). This study is important because if the

Van der Laan et al., (2014) used ceramic pot filters with

incoming viruses into our systems are known, a more

different silver applications, and they concluded that the

specific approach should be followed to remove them.

main factor for E. coli reduction is the contact time with

Water in densely populated countries such as India is prone

silver. Fidalgo de Cortalezzi et al. (2014), on the other

to contamination by pathogens and viruses. Sprenger et al.

hand, used iron oxide ceramic membranes to remove virus

(2014) performed a study in the Yamuna River, Delhi,

from contaminated water. Supported and unsupported iron


oxide nano structured hematite was fabricated from

countries and resource-limited settings. Distinctively, Polo

ferroxane nano-particles, and they achieved an enhanced

et al. (2014) evaluated the depuration of hepatitis A virus

performance process. The use of nanomaterials and

with Mediterranean mussels resulting in a rapid reduction

membranes is also becoming popular in water pollutant

of viruses during the first 24-48 hours of depuration.

removal (Zhan et al., 2014).

The use of nanofibrous

composite membranes for water/wastewater treatment are very limited and a stand-alone system is recommended for

Wetlands for Emerging Pollutants Removal

removing all types of contaminants including pathogens

Du et al. (2014) completed a comparison of

and viruses (Amin et al., 2014). On the other hand,

concentrations of emerging pollutants in effluents from a

membrane bioreactors can be used to reduce chemical

decentralized advanced aerobic treatment system and a

disinfectant dosing requirements and associated economic

combination of a septic treatment system and a subsurface

and environmental benefits (Hai et al., 2014). Kauppinen et

flow constructed wetland to a centralized municipal

al. (2014) studied three different pilot-scale sand filters for

treatment plant. The highest removals were reported for

over a one-year period. Even though the results were

the decentralized advanced aerobic treatment system and

favorable, they determined that seasonal conditions greatly

the centralized municipal treatment plant, while the septic

affect the purification efficiency of the sand filter making it

treatment system produced the poorest results, which

more vulnerable during cold climates. Sand filtration was

improved slightly after integration with a subsurface flow

tested in the presence and absence of dissolved oxygen for

constructed wetland. The removal of 13 different emerging

virus removal to protect groundwater (Frohnert et al.,

contaminants through the use of a hybrid constructed

2014). Venieri et al. (2014) used solar light and metal-

wetland system composed of two vertical flow, one

doped TiO2 to eliminate water-transmitted bacterial

horizontal flow, and one free water surface wetland under

pathogens

Klebsiella

three varying hydraulic loading rates was examined by

pneumoniae in water. The dopants significantly enhanced

Avila, Matamoros et al. (2014). Approximately 87%

(by a factor of 2-3) the photocatalytic activity of TiO2

removal was achieved at all three hydraulic loading rates

under solar irradiation, in terms of both bacteria

for all pollutants, with the exception of antibiotics. Guerra

inactivation.

et al. (2014) studied the performance of five wastewater

by

inactivating

E.

coli

and

treatment processes (facultative and aerated lagoons,

Other uncommon methods to remove pathogens and viruses from water include use of plants and mussels.

chemically-enhanced

Boutilier et al. (2014) showed that plant xylem from

activated sludge, and advanced biological nutrient removal)

sapwood coniferous trees has the potential to address the

in

need for pathogen-free drinking water in developing

inflammatory, and antifungal products.

the

removal

primary

of

62

treatment,

antibiotic,

secondary

analgesic/antiAnalgesics/anti-


inflammatories were best removed by biological treatment,

occurred at 137.5 hours, indicating that degradation of

while the remaining contaminants sorbed to the sludge.

natural estrogens in wetlands increases with hydraulic

The removal of eight emerging pollutants by four different

retention time.

vertical flow constructed wetlands was investigated by

Carranza-Diaz et al. (2014) completed a study of

Avila, Nivala et al. (2014). It was discovered that a sand-

the removal of 11 emerging contaminants (1-100 μg/L) in

based wetland outperformed the gravel-based wetlands,

planted and unplanted pilot scale horizontal subsurface

while active aeration in a saturated vertical flow

flow constructed wetlands. The planted wetlands produced

constructed wetland improved removal efficiency.

higher removal efficiencies than the unplanted wetland,

Del Rosario et al. (2014) examined the presence

producing an average value of 30% removal for organic

of emerging contaminants in municipal wastewater and

micropollutants, while caffeine had the highest removal at

groundwater beneath onsite wastewater treatment systems

66%. A variety of constructed wetlands (free water surface,

in coastal plain aquifers.

Concentrations of caffeine,

horizontal subsurface flow, and vertical subsurface flow

ibuprofen, DEET, and homosalate, which are common in

with high or low water levels) were studied by Liu, Liu et

onsite wastewater treatment facilities, were found in

al. (2014) to determine their efficiency in removing

groundwater ranging from 0.12 μg/L to 12.04 μg/L.

sulfamethazine and tetracycline from swine wastewaters.

Sharif et al. (2014) investigated the effects of

Removals ranged from 11 to 95% for sulfamethazine and

both hydraulic loading rate and carbon loading rate on the

85 to 95% for tetracycline, with the vertical subsurface

efficiency of emerging contaminant removal by wetlands.

flow wetland with low water level producing the highest

At hydraulic loading rates greater than 5 cm/d, the carbon

efficiencies.

loading rate had a significant impact; higher values

El Sayed et al. (2014) used compound-specific

increased removal for estradiol and carbamazepine, but

isotope analysis to examine the biodegradation of common

produced poorer results for testosterone and atrazine.

pesticides (metolachlor, acetochlor, and alachor) in

Taylor dispersion, an application of the analytical study of

laboratory scale wetlands. It was determined that percent

contaminant transport, was applied to wetland flows (Shao

removals for acetochlor, alachor, and metolachlor were

et al., 2014). Examination of factors such as duration and

56%, 51%, and 23% respectively with greater degradation

critical length revealed that lead has the potential to cause

occurring under oxic conditions at the wetland inlet, and

more acute damage than COD. Chen, Yeh et al. (2014)

better performance was possible under anoxic conditions

analyzed the influence of varied hydraulic retention times

near the outlet. A study of direct and indirect photolysis

in constructed wetlands on estrone, 17β-estrdiol, and

using dissolved organic matter and natural organic matter

estriol. No degradation occurred at 27.5 hours, 0-46.2%

(Typha) from wetlands for the removal of PPCPs was

degradation occurred at 45.9 hours, and 40-84.3% removal

completed by Lee, Shon et al. (2014). The degradation of


carbamazepine and paraxathine was increased with the

efficiency gradually increased with the hydraulic retention

presence of wetland organic matter, indicating that the use

time for water quality parameters such as TSS.

of photolysis in wetlands can increase the removal of

The use of zeolite or different granular filter

emerging contaminants.

media is commonly used to remove stormwater pollutants.

Roberts et al. (2014) completed a study with the

Li, McCarthy et al. (2014) developed a stable anti-bacterial

goal of identifying the relationship between the fraction of

media by modifying ZCu through calcinations and in situ

organic carbon in soil and the equilibrium sorption

Cu(OH)2 to remove E. coli from stormwater. ZCu0.3 at 400

partioning coefficient of certain emerging pollutants, as

°C showed enhanced inactivation of E. coli during a short

well as methods to model these results. Ultimately, the

drying period. Kandra et al. (2014) researched the process

relationship between these two factors can be used to

of clogging in filter media with high filtration rates where

predict the sorption potential of emerging contaminants for

the granular filter media included: zeolite, scoria, rivers,

a variety of soils.

and glass beads; which were selected based on their physical characteristics. It was concluded that scoria is the most efficient filter media to treat larger volume of

Wetlands for Storm Water Treatment Retention ponds are commonly used to reduce

stormwater. Reddy et al (2014) proposed an in-ground

contaminants in stormwater. Sebastian et al. (2014) studied

permeable filter to treat contaminated urban stormwater by

the efficiency of an open retention/detention basin for

using different types of filters including: calcite, zeolite,

pollutant removal (in-situ stormwater treatment). The

sand, and iron filings to remove toxic heavy metals. The

results showed that pesticides (rather hydrophilic) are not

removal of heavy metal pollutants depends on the

trapped in the detention basin but are released contrarily to

concentration and the selection or combination of filter

α-hexachlorocyclohexane which was mostly in particulate

media. The effectiveness of different stormwater filtering methods was analyzed by Turk et al. (2014), who

phase. Boogaard et al. (2014) studied the performance of

constructed twelve rain gardens to analyze the effectiveness

settlement basins; they monitored stormwater pollution

of three different filter bed substrates (composed of sand-

levels at over 150 locations throughout the Netherlands. It

based substrate: washed sand, clay, silt, pine bark, loam

was found out that the required removal efficiencies were

soil, slate) to support plant growth and remove nutrients

not achieved by settlement basins. Perhaps, modification of

from urban stormwater runoff. Slate had the highest

the retention basins is required to remove stormwater

nitrogen removal (99%), and slate and sand showed high

pollutants such as the use of floating treatment wetlands

phosphorus removals (99% and 96%, respectively). A

(FTW) as indicated by Asmaliza et al. (2014). They studied

configuration with loamy sand and no submerged zone

FTW to identify its capability to remove stormwater

(LS-noSZ) and another configuration with sand and a

pollutants in a river. The results indicate that removal


submerged zone (S-SZ) were tested as stormwater biofilters

Nitrate processing varied significantly with plant species

by Zhang, Randelovic et al. (2014), concluding that LS-

and influent nitrogen concentration. The results raise

noSZ was the most efficient method.

important questions about nitrogen release upon plant has

senescence, seasonally and in the long term, which have

from

implications on the management and design of biofiltration

stormwater, especially the removal of nutrients, such as

systems. In order to achieve the desired results in pollutant

phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) as well as the removal of

removal, stormwater best management practices (BMP) are

heavy metals, bacteria (i.e. E. coli), and total suspended

recommended.

solids (TSS). Daly et al. (2014) investigated the addition of

recommendations for stormwater BMP implementation.

a random component into an exponential wash-off equation

For example: properly accounting for the full distribution

of total suspended solids (TSS) and total nitrogen (TN) to

of stormwater BMP performance in setting nutrient

model the variability of runoff pollutant concentrations.

reduction goals, and targeted long-term monitoring of

The results can be useful to determine the appropriate size

stormwater BMPs that include standardized measurements

of stormwater treatment systems with probabilistic

of environmental factors and nutrient loads.

The tremendously

development improved

of

new

pollutant

techniques removal

Koch

et

al.

(2014)

provided

considerations in the design of such systems. Takajudin et

The removal of pathogens, bacteria, and viruses

al. (2014) evaluated the efficiency of bioretention facilities

from stormwater is very important but difficult to achieve.

in removing nitrogen and phosphorus by varying the types

E. coli is a dangerous and common fecal bacteria found in

of mulch layers (wood chip, tea waste, and coconut husk)

stormwater, wastewater, and even drinking water. Ancion

through sand columns. Woodchips showed the highest

et al. (2014) investigated the efficiency of an advanced

removal of 60.3%, but the nitrogen concentration was not

stormwater treatment system by monitoring biofilm

decreased by much.

associated metals and biofilm bacterial community

Lucke et al. (2014) tested four different swales

composition at multiple locations. They demonstrated that

using standardized synthetic runoff simulation experiments

biofilm bacterial community composition is a sensitive

to evaluate their performance in removing TSS, TN, and

indicator of environmental changes within freshwater

TP from stormwater runoff. It was found out that the

ecosystems. Mohanty et al. (2014) evaluated the efficacy

swales are not able to remove TN, but the TP levels were

of biochar to remove fecal indicator bacteria, which

reduced by 20% - 23%, which can be taken as positive

commonly occur during natural infiltration of stormwater.

results since the removal of TP is very difficult and costly.

Three types of wood-chips biochar were used and two of

Payne et al. (2014) conducted two mesocosm experiments

them were produced in the laboratory via pyrolysis of wood

to investigate the biofilter nitrogen process using the stable

chips. It was concluded that the overall removal of E. coli

isotope tracer nitrate over the course of one inflow event.


was improved by using biochar due to strong attachment of

processes in the turbulent mixing zone of a sediment

E. coli to the biochar surface.

retention pond.

In order to reduce stormwater pollution, a number

Stormwater pretreatment is often recommended

of approaches for water quality analysis and modeling have

to dissipate the energy of incoming runoff. Maniquiz-

been developed. Lee, Ouarda et al. (2014) used a non-

Redillas

parametric

effectiveness

simulation

model

(k-nearest

neighbor

and

Geronimo of

(2014)

pretreatment

in

investigated

the

stormwater.

The

resampling, KNNR) for water quality analysis by

effectiveness of presettling basins as a component of

introducing a novel statistical notion called “depth

stormwater BMP was studied by monitoring storm events

functions” to improve the simulation performance of the

and sediment collection from 2009-2012. This study

KNNR for stormwater quality data. The results indicated

provides guidance on basin design, which considers that for

that the proposed model is more efficient than the existing

optimization, the storage volume ratio is a very important

KNNR model for TSS concentration data. McIntyre et al.

parameter that should be designed based on the desired

(2014) used a zebrafish experimental model to evaluate

runoff capture. Maniquiz-Redillas and Kim (2014) also

bioinfiltration as a cost-effective technology for treating

developed a stormwater system for the immobilization of

runoff from urban highways with dense motor vehicle

suspended solids and heavy metals constituents by utilizing

traffic. The results assured that zebrafish is a promising

sedimentation and filtration/infiltration. It was concluded

technique for removing contaminants from stormwater and

that fractioning of heavy metals played an important role in

reducing associated impacts on aquatic species.

stormwater treatment not only for the early period of a

Chen, Sheng et al. (2014) used the system for

storm, but also until the peak part of the hydrograph from a

urban stormwater treatment and analysis integration model

load basis. In addition to the previously described

(SUSTAIN) developed by USEPA on a Taiwanese

techniques to reduce stormwater pollutants, permeable

watershed. This model was usually applied to low impact

pavement is a new strategy to filter stormwater.

development (LID) practices. However, it was proven that

Lucke (2014) described a proof of concept study to

the model parameters can serve as references for similar

delay the effects of clogging in permeable interlocking

watershed cases. Lee and Moltz (2014) used a different

concrete pavements (PICP) by making more efficient use of

model, combining multi-dimensional discretized population

the bedding aggregate used in PICP systems. The results of

balance equations with a computational fluid dynamics

the study suggest that PICP systems with drainage slots

simulation

flocculant-aided

cast into their bases would take much longer to clog than

sediment retention ponds. The model was successfully

unmodified pavers. Similarly, Drake et al. (2014) compared

applied to generate steady state flow field data and

stormwater quality of permeable pavements (PP) effluent

numerically

from three partial infiltration PP systems and asphalt runoff

(CFD-DPBE

simulate

model)

flocculation

for

and

sedimentation


throughout

spring-summer-fall

seasons.

The

planted half by half in the constructed wetland (Gill et al.,

results

2014).

suggested that stormwater was influenced by inter-annual

Other plant species were also evaluated. Mateus

changes and the PP effluent was improved significantly

et al., (2014) proposed the use of sugarcane as vegetation in

during the warm season due to partial infiltration.

constructed wetlands since reasonable performance of nutrient removal was observed in the system as well as

Vegetation in Wetlands Vegetation in wetlands removes pollutants in

plant growth. Brezinova and Vymazal (2014) studied the

wastewater by plant uptake, harvest, and its enrichment to

growth pattern of Phalaris arundinace and found that

biomass due to radial oxygen loss as confirmed by many

separate aboveground harvests for inflow and outflow

studies. Vegetation in wetlands might be affected by

zones could improve the nitrogen and phosphorus removal

temperature and influent quality. Wang, Wang et al. (2014)

rates by 42% and 43% since time for peak biomass of the

showed sediment was a large threat to vegetation survival

two zones was different. In a study by Shehzadi et al.

in wetlands. Reduced sediment input to wetlands was

(2014), the bacterial inoculation improved plant growth and

essential to the survival and germination of the vegetation:

Typha domingensis with endophytic bacteria in constructed

C.angustifolia, Typha orientalis, Eleocharismamillata and

wetlands approach was promising according to the

Galium trifidum decreased significantly at different doses,

observation of about 80% of COD and BOD reduction in

and Polygonum hydropiper and Pycreus sanguinolentus

textile effluent. Typha latifolia as well as its litter was able

disappeared with the addition of sediment. Different plant

to enhance nitrogen removal by plant uptake (accounting

species might have different performance and degree of

for 7.5-14.3% of N removal) in subsurface constructed

tolerance to influent toxicity.

wetlands (Chen, Wen, Zhou, and Vymazal, 2014). Gao et

Phragmites australis (reeds) is a common

al. (2014) studied the nutrient uptake by Iris sibirica in

vegetation used in constructed wetlands. Klein and Werf

subsurface vertical flow constructed wetlands and found it

(2014) used Phragmites vegetation to study the greenhouse

to be an effective overwintering plant. The Iris sibirica

emission and carbon sink within the constructed wetland.

plants showed gradual growth and high nutrient uptake

Han and Tao (2014) investigated copper (Cu) removal

(19.86% to 50.19% of N removal, and 13.19% to 22.32%

mechanisms and efficiency in a wetland planted with

of P removal) in winter. Acorus calamus L. planted in

Phragmites australis. The plant uptake only accounted for

horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetlands would

4.4 % of total Cu removal with a preferred accumulation in

benefit the nitrogen removal and enrich anammox bacteria

below-ground biomass. In another study for heavy metal

due to the radial oxygen loss from root of calamus

removal, Phragmites australis was also found to replace

compared to unplanted wetlands (Wang and Li, 2014). The

almost all Typha latifolia even though the two species were

root of Juncus effuses was found capable of taking up


42.2% of arsenic with the influence of redox potential and

nutrient uptake efficiency by Iris pseudacorus, Typha

pH in the laboratory-scale study done by Rahman (2014).

angustifolia. in floating treatment wetlands each with ten

The performance of different plants species was

replications. The Iris was found to be better with an uptake

compared in wetland treatment systems which might give

of 74% of TN and 60% of TP while preventing algae

guidance for choosing plants in applications. Sharma et al.,

growth and eutrophication in surface water. Yang et al.,

(2014)

of

(2014) found that 18 different wetland plants species had

Phragmites australis and canna in vertical upflow

significant differences in root porosity and rate of radial

constructed wetlands, and found that canna had higher

oxygen loss which were positively related to Fe plaque, Zn

removal rates in ammonia-nitrogen, TKN and nitrate than

tolerance and uptake, and Fe and Mn concentrations in root

Phragmites australis attributing to its fibrous rooting

and rhizosphere. Zhao, Liu et al. (2014) found giant reed

system. Bissegger et al., (2014) compared four different

(Arundo donax) and green seed (Phragmites (sp.)) would

plant species in floating–plant treatment wetlands including

be a better choice for nutrient phyto-uptake than umbrella

Lim-nobium laevigatum, Salvinia molesta, Eichhornia

(Cperus alternifolius), canna (canna indica), and alligator

crassipes, and Pistia stratiotes. The system performance

flag (Thaliade albata) as wetlands plants since the results

suggested more plant species didn’t promote active

indicated they had higher N and P content in the

microbial and diverse catabolic capability, and the E.

aboveground tissues and higher calorific energy.

compared

the

purification

performance

crassipes could be a better option for increasing root mass for microbial attachment and COD removal. Mei et al.,

Wetlands Design

(2014) investigated performance of six wetland plant

A review was conducted on the use of constructed

species including Acorus calamus, Arundo donax var.

wetlands for industrial wastewater treatment (Vymazal,

versicolor, Cyperus flabelliformis, Canna indica, Iris

2014). Free water surface, horizontal sub-surface flow,

tectorum, and Scirpus validus in treating domestic

vertical sub-surface flow, and hybrid were identified as the

wastewater, among which C. flabelliformis and C. indica

major design types of constructed wetlands, and the

was found to have significantly higher radial oxygen loss,

characteristics of these designs were discussed with an

Fe plaque formation, and higher nutrient and COD

overview of various industrial wastewater characteristics

removal.

and constructed wetland designs.

Meng, Hu et al. (2014) compared three

macrophyte species namely Phragmites australis, Arundo

The spatial distributions of dissolved oxygen, pH,

donax L., and Typha latifolia L. for nutrient removal in

redox potential, total nitrogen, ammonia, and nitrate were

horizontal flow constructed wetlands. The three species

examined in horizontal subsurface flow constructed

showed no difference in P removal while A. donax had the

wetlands (HSSFCWs) (Ding et al., 2014). The upper layer

best removal for N. Keizer-Vlek et al., (2014) compared the

contained aerobic conditions suitable for nitrification and


the bottom layer was determined to be mostly anaerobic

efficiency and hydraulic properties of sand filters. A

suitable for denitrification. The longitudinal rear-end of the

significant influence of the physical soil parameters on

upper layer was revealed to be the primary zone for

removal efficiency and hydraulic efficiency was suggested,

ammonia degradation.

but the use of a pipe distribution system instead of a baffle

A quasi-2-dimensional flow constructed wetland was

distribution system was determined to increase the

set up for 81 configurations of a chloride tracer test and a

efficiency of VFCWs on an order of magnitude that negates

dye tracer test to determine the influences of filter size,

the effects of the soil properties. A vertical flow constructed wetland planted with

inflow rate, and inlet-outlet configuration on the hydraulic

for

fecal

sludge

leachate

performance of simulated CWs (Wang, Song, et al., 2014).

Echinochloa

Larger filter pore size and lower inflow rate were shown to

treatment in Cameroon was studied at 3 hydraulic loading

reduce short-circuiting and decrease the volume of dead

rates (Kengne, et al., 2014). Treatment efficiency was

zones. More significantly, a bottom inlet-top outlet

achieved at all loading rates, suggesting that it is not a

configuration exhibited a higher hydraulic efficiency. The

limiting design factor for this type of system. Rhizospheric

adsorption capacity of the substrate affects the ammonium

bacteria density and plant growth were shown to increase

removal capacity of a tidal flow constructed wetland

with hydraulic loading rate, suggesting that higher

(TFCW) (Liu, Wu et al., 2014). The ammonium adsorption

hydraulic loading rates may be favorable, but a second

capacities of zeolite, quartz sand, biological ceramsite, and

VFCW in series was recommended in the design.

pyramidalis

A 2-year study on a laboratory-scale vertical flow

volcanic rock were compared by testing laboratory-scale TFCWs for a period of 200 days. Zeolite outperformed the

subsurface

other materials both in fresh conditions and in long-term

evapotranspiration rate of the system is dependent upon

application while large specific surface area, large

hydraulic loading rate and organic content of the soil

micropore size, and high cation exchange rate were

(Bialowiec, et al., 2014). The removal efficiency of

determined

chemical oxygen demand was shown to increase as the

to

be

the

most

favorable

substrate

constructed

wetland

showed

that

the

evapotranspiration rate increased. Discrepancies between

characteristics for nitrogen transformations in TFCWs.

removal

Lava sands have achieved long-term use without

efficiencies

observed

from

experimental

clogging and have displayed superior hydraulic efficiency

measurements and those predicted by mass balances

to fluviatile sands when used in vertical flow constructed

suggest that not accounting for evapotranspiration leads to

wetlands (VFCWs) (Bruch et al., 2014). Five different lava

significant underestimations of the removal efficiencies. A

sand filters and one fluviatile sand filter were compared to

laboratory-scale tidal flow constructed wetland was studied

study how material porosity and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller

with synthetic wastewater of varying COD/ammonia-

specific inner surface area (BET) affect the removal

nitrogen (C/N) ratios to investigate treatment performance


and nitrogen removal mechanisms (Zhi and Ji, 2014). The

observed to have 70% less nitrate nitrogen mass while

system achieved 83-95% COD removal, 63-80% ammonia

saving 33% of running energy cost. Hydraulic efficiency

nitrogen removal, and 50-82% total nitrogen removal

was not significantly affected.

without

forced

aeration.

Simultaneous

nitrification,

anammox, and denitrification processes were confirmed in

Wetland Modeling Wetlands

the system, and the nitrogen transformation rates were

are

very

efficient

in

treating

determined to be correlated with two unique, rate-limiting

wastewater, especially in nutrients removal. Cardinal et al.

nitrogen functional genes.

(2014) simulated surface constructed wetlands to improve

A review was conducted to identify methods of

lagoon wastewater treatment for nutrient removal, selected

improving microbial degradation in constructed wetlands

pharmaceuticals, and antibiotics resistance genes using

(Meng, Pei et al., 2014). Availability of organic matter,

macrophytes. They tested seven genes determinants and

redox condition, temperature, pH, presence of plants, and

only two genes were found in sufficient quantity for

media characteristics were determined to be the most

monitoring, and no significant improvement in nutrients or

significant parameters. Eight horizontal subsurface flow

pharmaceuticals removal was noticed in mesocosms with

constructed wetlands treating urban wastewater were tested

extensive aquatic plant communities. Morvannou et al.

for microbial indicators to determine how bacterial removal

(2014) modeled nitrogen removal through a vertical flow

efficiencies are effected by various design parameters

constructed wetland using gravel to treat domestic

(Morató et al., 2014). Water depth and gravel granulometry

wastewater. The model demonstrated that ammonium was

were determined to be the two most significant design

significantly absorbed onto organic matter, and the

parameters. Bacterial removal efficiency was improved at

ammonium mass was nitrified during the rest of the period.

lower depths and finer granulometry with higher removal

In contrast, Samso and Garcia (2014) studied the function

efficiencies in the summer.

of horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands for

Sorption coefficients for plant roots in constructed

wastewater treatment. They applied some changes to the

wetlands were determined to be higher when using a newer

biokinetic model implemented in BIO_PORE (CWM1),

solid phase microextraction (SPME) method than when

and the simulation showed that failure of the wetland

using traditional methods (Poerschmann and Schultze-

occurs when the active bacteria zone is located as close to

Nobre, 2014).

the outlet section where its total biomass is not sufficient to

Two pilot-scale vertical subsurface flow constructed

degrade an acceptable proportion of the influent pollutants.

wetlands were loaded with domestic sewage to test the

Galanopoulos et al. (2014) developed a mathematical

effects of continuous aeration vs intermittent aeration

model to remove organic matter and nitrogen from

(Boog, et al., 2014). Intermittent aeration effluent was

wastewater in a free superficial flow wetland. The


predictive ability of the mathematical model was evaluated

hydrology under a steady-state hydro-climatic condition

on a full-scale facility for over one year, and it was proved

was used to evaluate data from multiple wetlands, and it

that the design is exceptionally useful on a full-scale

demonstrated

facility.

hydrological conditions of GIWs. Similarly, Golden et al.

the

potential

utility

for

describing

Hamaamin et al. (2014) used an adaptive neuro-

(2014) published a review article of select modeling

fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) model for the modeling

methods on hydrologic connectivity between GIWs and

of E. coli removal in constructed wetlands under pulse

surface water systems. They classified the modeling

loading. Their goal was to develop an efficient model for

approaches into three, which include watershed models,

estimating pathogen removal in surface flow wetlands;

groundwater models, and coupled surface-subsurface flow

therefore, they compared the ANFIS models results with a

models. They suggest that the surface-subsurface flow

mechanistic fecal coliform removal model. The results

models (i.e. GSFLOW and couple MIKE-SHE) that focus

showed that the mechanistic model resulted in a lower

on surface water interaction are the most promising for

coefficient of determination and a higher root mean squared

characterizing GIW connectivity across most situations.

error when compared to the ANFIS models, which

Petru et al. (2014) investigated hydrologic performance of

determine that ANFIS significantly improved the ability to

wetlands. The study used a water balance model

describe the dynamics of E. coli removal under pulse

(DRAINMOD) to compute water budgets of a mitigation

loading. Different types of waterborne protozoal pathogens

wetland without drainage. They concluded that further

can also be reduced by wetlands as suggested by Daniels et

improvements to DRAINMOD are needed to more

al. (2014). Before developing a protozoal transport model

accurately predict surface outputs from a management pipe

for

observational

located above the wetland bench within a surface berm.

experiments at three primary scales: settling columns,

Martinez-Martinez et al. (2014) used the Soil and Water

recirculating wetland mesocosm tanks, and an experimental

Assessment Tool (SWAT), to study the hydrological

research wetland. The results revealed that the fecal

significance of wetland restoration. Different wetland

protozoal loads can be reduced by increasing the area of a

restoration scenarios were tested based on the combination

vegetated wetland with water moving through vegetation.

of wetland area and depth. The results showed that a

surface

water,

they

conducted

Wetlands are very efficient in performing

greater impact can be achieved if the area is increased;

hydrological functions, however, it is necessary to control

however, the best area/depth combination depends on the

its hydrologic variability. Park et al. (2014) modeled the

goal of restoration plan. A

hydrologic variability of geographically isolated wetlands

two-dimensional

depth-averaged

(GIWs), and derived analytical expressions for probability

hydrodynamic and advection dispersion model was used to

density functions. A probabilistic expression for wetland

derive the hydraulic residence time distribution (RTD) in a


conceptual wetland (Musner et al., 2014). Although further

model building (GMB) and system dynamics (SD) to

research is needed, the use of a conventional advection

simulate the dynamic wetland environment obtaining

dispersion model for each transport domain was determined

favorable results. Wetland water quality can be modeled by

to be sufficient to adequately reproduce the observed

using the CV-GLUE uncertainty estimation tool (Huang et

bimodality, with a reasonable accuracy for the tail behavior

al., 2014). The results suggested that CV-GLUE is useful

of the RTDs. Mozumder and Tripathi (2014) used an

not only for designing constructed wetlands but also for

artificial neural network (ANN) based model to predict

other aspects of environmental management. Another

future impacts of urban and agricultural expansions in

important wetland model is the Geographic Information

India, and the results may be helpful on planning and

System GIS model. The GIS model was used by Duke and

reviewing of land use allocation to secure ecological

King (2014) for predicting wetland habitat in the Great

sustainability of wetlands. The Heat Source Wetlands

Basin where they simulated the drainage of fifty-two

(HSW) model is a mechanistic model that is able to predict

pluvial lakes and the extent of associated wetlands was

water temperature within surface flow wetlands providing

quantified. The results were favorable for several

small errors of 0.87-1.69 °C (Smesrud et al., 2014).

archeological cases, however, further research is needed to

HYDRUS-CWM1 (Constructed Wetland Model No.1)

clarify the nature and timing of wetland habitat loss.

model is a biokinetic model that can be used for different

The three dimensional lead contamination mapping and

purposes. Palfy and Langergraber (2014) performed a study

modeling in the wetland sediments from sport shooting

to verify the implementation of CWM1 in the HYDRUS

activities was conducted (Perroy et al., 2014). They

Wetland

HYDRUS

concluded that this study can be used to predict and

implementation of CWM1 worked properly and provided

evaluate the 3D distribution of shot and contaminate

an overall good fit that followed the contaminant dynamics

sediment at other shooting ranges and contaminates areas

of the measured concentrations in the batch-operated

worldwide. Evapotranspiration (ET) can affect treatment

columns. In addition, Rizzo et al. (2014) used the

performance on constructed wetlands, thereof, Beebe et al.

HYDRUS-CWM1 to model the response of laboratory

(2014) studied the net effects of water loss attributed to ET

horizontal flow constructed wetlands (HFCWs) to unsteady

by using a first-order, one-dimensional, steady state-model.

organic loads obtaining positive results from HYDRUS-

The model predicted that the removal efficiency of the

CWM1 to simulate the response of HFCWs under time-

conservative constituents decreases with increasing ET,

variable loads.

while

Module,

and

proved

that

the

removal

efficiency

of

the

readily

treatable

constituents increases with increasing ET.

In order to facilitate stakeholders of the yacht industry to achieve consensus on the wetland resources management, Chen, Chang et al. (2014) applied group

Innovative & Hybrid Wetlands


A full-scale horizontal subsurface wetland in Spain

spite of seasonal variability (Gorra et al., 2014). The study

has demonstrated operational reliability with no observed

showed that the system performed well and avoided self-

clogging in secondary treatment of wastewater for two

clogging year-round, producing effluent acceptable for

years (Pozo-Morales, et al., 2014). The innovative design

agriculture use, however, nitrogen removal efficiencies

utilizes a natural forced ventilation system underlain by a

were significantly lower during seasons of lower organic

channel bed of angular stones arranged in a longitudinal

loading. Enhancement of the denitrification processes is

diagonal gradient of decreasing granularity to maintain a

recommended to improve seasonal consistency of nutrient

uniform hydraulic conductivity. The resulting plug-flow

removal in the system.

system functions as an aerated reactor in the upper zone

A full-scale two-stage vertical flow constructed

and an anaerobic digester in the lower zone, and it has

wetland

treated a cross-sectional influent load four-times that of

Bärenkogelhausat, the top of a mountain in Austria

traditional systems while exhibiting high resilience to

(Langergraber et al., 2014). The ammonia-nitrogen effluent

overloads and isolated halts.

concentration remained below 1 mg/L even at water

system

was

implemented

for

the

temperatures below 3 oC, and the system was shown to be

The first full-scale wetland that synergistically treats both sewage and mine water was evaluated based on

robust with respect to high-loading events.

routine water quality sampling and testing with the two

Four field tests were conducted on a wetland reservoir

streams mixing before treatment in the wetland (Younger

sub irrigation system (WRSIS), an innovative agricultural

and Henderson, 2014). A full 66% of iron and 61% of

wastewater recycling system that utilizes a constructed

suspended solids from the mine water were removed, while

wetland as a primary component, in Ohio to evaluate NH4-

23% of BOD5, 40% of NH4-N, 17% of total P, and 81% of

N, TN, and NO3-N removal efficiencies (Allred et al.,

suspended solids from the sewage effluent were removed.

2014). The results from tests varying water inflow volume,

The effects of mutual dilution of the two wastewaters were

effective retention time, nitrogen fertilizer load, and time of

subtracted so that the percentages reported reflect the

year suggest that a higher retention time may be more

masses actually removed by the wetland.

effective for nitrogen removal and that cooler temperatures

An irregularly shaped subsurface flow constructed

may decrease nitrogen removal efficiency. A hybrid system

wetland (with 5 different materials such as metamorphosed

consisting of a horizontal flow constructed wetland

limestone gravel, ground ceramic wastes, magnetite

followed by a stabilization pond, one consisting of a

extraction byproducts, zeolite, and Dystrict Endoskeletic

horizontal flow constructed wetland followed by a vertical

(Siltic) Cambisol) for the treatment of wastewater from a

flow constructed wetland, and one consisting of a vertical

dairy factory was built in 2000 to fit the natural landscape

flow constructed wetland followed by a horizontal flow

of the mountainous region and perform satisfactorily in

constructed wetland were compared (Zurita and Carrón-


Álvarez, 2014). The HF-VF CW and VF-HF CW hybrid

anode. The Rhizosphere-anode configuration produced

systems were both more effective at removing E. coli

more power under low organic loading, while the

throughout both years of the study period, and they both

Rhizosphere-cathode configuration produced more power

met the World Health Organization guidelines for pathogen

under high organic loading. Stainless steel mesh (SSM),

reduction in wastewater.

carbon cloth (CC), and granular activated carbon (GAC)

A bioelectrochemical system (BES) was used to treat

were evaluated as bio-cathode materials, and a wicking

the effluent of a highly loaded horizontal subsurface flow

GAC-SSM bio-cathode was shown to be optimal.

constructed wetland at the laboratory scale (Arends et al.,

To study the effects of aeration on constructed

2014). The BES was able to produce hydrogen peroxide in

wetlands, three horizontal flow constructed wetlands were

the effluent, effectively disinfecting it without separate

studied over a high and a low organic loading rate period

chemical treatment.

(Zapater-Pereyra et al., 2014). One of the CWs was aerated,

A laboratory-scale tidal flow constructed wetland was

one was a hybrid system consisting of an aerated CW

constructed with an upper section filled with zeolite and a

followed by a non-aerated CW, and the other was a non-

bottom section that was filled with bio-ceramics that

aerated CW used as a control. The aerated CW performed

incorporated electroplates (Ju, Wu, Huang et al., 2014).

best for COD removal, while the non-aerated and hybrid

Automatic lamps were used to generate light/dark cycles,

systems performed better for nitrogen removal. Biofilm

and tidal function was supplied by a peristaltic pump and

activity and protozoa abundance were found to be higher in

an automatic drain valve. A DC power source operating on

the aerated systems. The study concluded that aeration

a timer was used to generate electrolysis. The addition of

increases microbial activity and can allow the CW area to

electrolysis to the TFCW was shown to achieve PO4-P

be reduced.

removal efficiency greater than 95% due to the in situ

Nitrogen removal pathways were assessed for a multi-

formation of ferrous iron coagulant, and it also reduced

celled integrated constructed wetlands (ICW) used for

odor by inhibiting sulfide accumulation.

domestic wastewater treatment in Glaslough, Ireland

of

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects

(Dzakpasu, 2014). Total nitrogen removal of 95% was

plant

achieved

location,

light/dark

cycles,

and

substrate

with

some

seasonal

variation.

Microbial

concentration on a constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell

transformation accounted for most of the total nitrogen

(CW-MFC) and to investigate the effectiveness of several

removal. Assimilation by plants was determined to account

different bio-cathode materials (Liu, Song et al., 2014).

for 23% total nitrogen removal, and sediment/soil storage

Periodic voltage fluctuation was observed correlating to

was determined to account for 20% total nitrogen removal.

light/dark cycles. Plant roots increased cell voltages

The study concluded that ICW performance can be greatly

regardless of whether they were placed in the cathode or


enhanced by the addition of plants with high biomass

Combining Wetland Treatment with Bioelectrochemical

production.

H2O2 Production. Bioresour. Technol., 155, 352-358. Asmaliza, M. N.; Lariyah, M. S.; Kok, K. H.; Humaira, H. S.;

A laboratory experiment determined that a resting

Hidayah, B. (2014) Floating treatment wetland as an

period could be used as an effective way to alleviate

alternative for water quality improvement: A preliminary

clogging in constructed wetlands (Hua et al., 2014).

study. Appl. Mech. Mater., 564, 68-73.

Laboratory-scale vertical flow wetlands were fed with

Ávila, C.; Nivala, J.; Olsson, L.; Kassa, K.; Headley, T.; Mueller,

prepared wastewater at a high hydraulic loading rate until

R. A.; Bayona, J. M.; García, J. (2014) Emerging Organic

they were clogged. The wetlands then underwent a resting

Contaminants in Vertical Subsurface Flow Constructed

period and were tested after 3, 7, and 10 days. Results

Wetlands: Influence of Media Size, Loading Frequency and

showed that hydraulic conductivity was significantly

Use of Active Aeration. Sci. Total Environ.., 494, 211-217. Ávila, C.; Matamoros, V.; Reyes-Contreras, C.; Piña, B.; Casado,

increased by the resting period.

M.; Mita, L.; ... Bayona, J. M. (2014) Attenuation of Emerging Organic Contaminants in a Hybrid Constructed

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