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Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini

What is What in the Nanoworld A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

What is What in the Nanoworld. A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini Copyright © 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3527-40493-7

Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini

What is What in the Nanoworld A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA

Authors Viktor E. Borisenko Belarusian State University Minsk, Belarus e-mail: [email protected]

This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors and publisher do not warrant the information contained therein to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind thar statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Stefano Ossicini University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Reggio Emilia, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at .

© 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – nor transmitted or translated into machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany Printed on acid-free paper Printing Strauss GmbH, Mörlenbach Bookbinding Litges & Dopf Buchbinderei GmbH, Heppenheim ISBN 3-527-40493-7

Contents

Preface Sources of Information Fundamental Constants Used in Formulas

VII IX XII

Key Words A: From Abbe’s principle to Azbel’–Kaner Cyclotron Resonance

1

B: From B92 Protocol to Burstein–Moss Shift

21

C: From Caldeira–Leggett Model to Cyclotron Resonance

40

D: From D’Alambert Equation to Dynamics

58

E: From (e,2e) Reaction to Eyring Equation

78

F: From Fabry–Pérot Resonator to FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum)

97

G: From Galvanoluminescence to Gyromagnetic Frequency

113

H: From Habit Plane to Hyperelastic Scattering

124

I: From Image Force to Isotropy (of Matter)

140

J: From Jahn–Teller Effect to Joule’s Law of Electric Heating

145

K: From Kane Model to Kuhn–Thomas–Reiche Sum Rule

147

L: From Lagrange Equation of Motion to Lyman Series

157

M: From Macroscopic Long-range Quantum Interference to Multiquantum Well

175

N: From NAA (Neutron Activation Analysis) to Nyquist–Shannon Sampling Theorem

196

What is What in the Nanoworld: A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini Copyright © 2004 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-40493-7

VI

Contents

O: From Octet Rule to Oxide

204

P: From Paraffins to Pyrolysis

208

Q: From Q-control to Qubit

230

R: From Rabi Flopping to Rydberg Gas

245

S: From Saha Equation to Symmetry Group

257

T: From Talbot’s Law to Type II Superconductors

295

U: From Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) to Urbach Rule

307

V: From Vacancy to von Neumann Machine

310

W: From Waidner–Burgess Standard to Wyckoff Notation

315

X: From XPS (X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy) to XRD (X-ray Diffraction)

323

Y: From Young’s Modulus to Yukawa Potential

325

Z: From Zeeman Effect to Zone Law of Weiss

326

Appendix A Main Properties of Intrinsic (or Lightly Doped) Semiconductors

327

Preface

There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom Richard P. Feynman 1959 There’s even more Room at the Top Jean-Marie Lehn 1995

Nanotechnology and nanoscience are concerned with material science and its application at, or around, the nanometer scale (1 nm = 10−9 m, 1 billionth of a meter). The nanoscale can be reached either from the top down, by machining to smaller and smaller dimensions, or from the bottom up, by exploiting the ability of molecules and biological systems to selfassemble into tiny structures. Individual inorganic and organic nanostructures involve clusters, nanoparticles, nanocrystals, quantum dots, nanowires, and nanotubes, while collections of nanostructures involve arrays, assemblies, and superlattices of individual nanostructures. Rather than a new specific area of science, nanoscience is a new way of thinking. Its revolutionary potential lies in its intrinsic multidisciplinarity. Its development and successes depend strongly on efforts from, and fruitful interactions among, physics, chemistry, mathematics, life sciences, and engineering. This handbook intends to contribute to a broad comprehension of what are nanoscience and nanotechnology. It is an introductory, reference handbook that summarizes terms and definitions, most important phenomena, regulations, experimental and theoretical tools discovered in physics, chemistry, technology and the application of nanostructures. We present a representative collection of fundamental terms and most important supporting definitions taken from general physics and quantum mechanics, material science and technology, mathematics and information theory, organic and inorganic chemistry, solid state physics and biology. As a result, fast progressing nanoelectronics and optoelectronics, molecular electronics and spintronics, nanofabrication and -manufacturing, bioengineering and quantum processing of information, an area of fundamental importance for the information society of the 21st century, are covered. More than 1300 entries, from a few sentences to a page in length, are given, for beginners to professionals. The book is organized as follows: Terms and definitions are arranged in alphabetical order. Those printed in bold within an article have extended details in their alphabetical place. Each What is What in the Nanoworld: A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini Copyright © 2004 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-40493-7

VIII

Preface

section in the book interprets the term or definition under consideration and briefly presents the main features of the phenomena behind it. The great majority of the terms have additional information in the form of notes such as “First described in: . . . ”, “Recognition: . . . ”, “More details in: . . . ”, thus giving a historical perspective of the subject with reference to further sources of extended information, which can be articles, books, review articles or websites. This makes it easier for the willing reader to reach a deeper insight. Bold characters in formulas symbolize vectors and matrices while normal characters are scalar quantities. Symbols and constants of a general nature are handled consistently throughout the book (see Fundamental Constants Used in Formulas). They are used according to the IUPAP convention. The book will help undergraduate and Ph. D students, teachers, researchers and scientific managers to understand properly the language used in modern nanoscience and nanotechnology. It will also appeal to readers from outside the nanoworld community, in particular to scientific journalists. Comments and proposals related to the book will be appreciated and can be sent to [email protected] and/or to [email protected]. It is a pleasure for us to acknowledge our colleagues who have supported this work. Their contribution ranges from writing and correction of some particular articles to critical comments and useful advice. In particular, we wish to thank (in alphabetical order) F. Arnaud d’Avitaya, L. J. Balk, C. M. Bertoni, V. P. Bondarenko, E. Degoli, J. Derrien, R. Di Felice, P. Facci, H. Fuchs, N. V. Gaponenko, S. V. Gaponenko, L. I. Ivanenko, G. F. Karpinchik, S. Y. Kilin, S. K. Lazarouk, E. Luppi, F. Manghi, R. Magri, M. Michailov, D. B. Migas, V. V. Nelaev, L. Pavesi, N. A. Poklonski, S. L. Prischepa, V. L. Shaposhnikov, G. Treglia, G. P. Yablonskii, A. Zaslavsky.

Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini Minsk and Modena-Reggio Emilia April 2004

Sources of Information

Besides personal knowledge and experience and the scientific journals and books cited in the text, the authors also used the following sources of information:

Encyclopedias and Dictionaries [1] Encyclopedic Dictionary of Physics, edited by J. Thewlis, R. G. Glass, D. J. Hughes, A. R. Meetham (Pergamon Press, Oxford 1961). [2] Dictionary of Physics and Mathematics, edited by D. N. Lapedes (McGraw Hill Book Company, New York 1978). [3] Landolt-Bornstein. Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, Vol. 17, edited by O. Madelung, M. Schultz, H. Weiss (Springer, Berlin 1982). [4] Encyclopedia of Electronics and Computers, edited by C. Hammer (McGraw Hill Book Company, New York 1984). [5] Encyclopedia of Semiconductor Technology, edited by M. Grayson (John Wiley & Sons, New York 1984). [6] Encyclopedia of Physics, edited by R. G. Lerner, G. L. Trigg (VCH Publishers, New York 1991). [7] Physics Encyclopedia, edited by A. M. Prokhorov, Vols. 1–5 (Bolshaya Rossijskaya Encyklopediya, Moscow 1998) - in Russian. [8] Encyclopedia of Applied Physics, Vols. 1–25, edited by G. L. Trigg (Wiley VCH, Weinheim 1992–2000). [9] Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Vols. 1–18, edited by R. A. Meyers (Academic Press, San Diego 2002). [10] Handbook of Nanotechnology, edited by B. Bhushan (Springer, Berlin 2004).

Books [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

L. Landau, E. Lifshitz, Quantum Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, 1958). C. Kittel, Elementary Solid State Physics (John Wiley & Sons, New York 1962). C. Kittel, Quantum Theory of Solids (John Wiley & Sons, New York 1963). J. Pankove, Optical Processes in Semiconductors (Dover, New York 1971). F. Bassani, G. Pastori Parravicini, Electronic and Optical Properties of Solids (Pergamon Press, London 1975). [6] W.A. Harrison, Electronic Structure and the Properties of Solids (W.H. Freeman & Company, San Francisco 1980).

What is What in the Nanoworld: A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini Copyright © 2004 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-40493-7

X

Sources of Information

[7] J. D. Watson, M. Gilman, J. Witkowski, M. Zoller, Recombinant DNA (Scientific American Books, New York 1992). [8] N. Peyghambarian, S. W. Koch, A. Mysyrowicz, Introduction to Semiconductor Optics (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 1993). [9] H. Haug, S. W. Koch, Quantum Theory of the Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconductors (World Scientific, Singapore 1994). [10] G. B. Arfken, H. J. Weber, Mathematical Methods for Physicists (Academic Press, San Diego 1995). [11] W. Borchardt-Ott, Crystallography, Second edition (Springer, Berlin 1995). [12] J. H. Davies The Physics of Low-Dimensional Semiconductors (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995). [13] DNA based Computers edited by R. Lipton, E. Baum (American Mathematical Society, Providence 1995). [14] S. Hüfner, Photoelectron Spectroscopy (Springer, Berlin 1995). [15] L. E. Ivchenko, G. Pikus, Superlattices and Other Heterostructures: Symmetry and other Optical Phenomena (Springer, Berlin 1995). [16] M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, P. Eklund, Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes (Academic Press, San Diego 1996). [17] C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, Seventh edition (John Wiley & Sons, New York 1996). [18] P. Y. Yu, M. Cardona, Fundamentals of Semiconductors (Springer, Berlin 1996). [19] D. K. Ferry, S. M. Goodnick, Transport in Nanostructures (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1997). [20] S. V. Gaponenko, Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanocrystals (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998). [21] G. Mahler, V. A. Weberrus, Quantum Networks: Dynamics of Open Nanostructures (Springer, New York 1998). [22] Molecular Electronics: Science and Technology edited by A. Aviram, M. Ratner (Academy of Sciences, New York 1998). [23] S. Sugano, H. Koizumi, Microcluster Physics (Springer, Berlin 1998). [24] D. Bimberg, M. Grundman, N. N. Ledentsov, Quantum Dot Heterostructures (John Wiley and Sons, London 1999). [25] R. C. O’Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York 1999). [26] E. Rietman, Molecular Engineering of Nanosystems (Springer, New York 2000). [27] G. Alber, T. Beth, M. Horodecki, P. Horodecki, R. Horodecki, M. Rötteler, H. Weinfurter, R. Werner, A. Zeilinger, Quantum Information (Springer, Berlin 2001). [28] P. W. Atkins, J. De Paula, Physical Chemistry (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001). [29] K. Sakoda, Optical Properties of Photonic Crystals (Springer, Berlin 2001). [30] Y. Imri, Introduction to Mesoscopic Physics (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002). [31] Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology, edited by H. S. Nalwa (Academic Press, London 2002).

Sources of Information

XI

[32] V. Balzani, M. Venturi, A. Credi, Molecular Devices and Machines: A Journey into the Nanoworld (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2003) [33] Nanoelectronics and Information Technology, edited by R. Waser (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2003). [34] C. P. Poole, F. J. Owens, Introduction to Nanotechnology (Wiley VCH, Weinheim 2003) [35] P. N. Prasad Nanophotonics (Wiley VCH, Weinheim 2004)

Websites http://www.britannica.com http://www.Google.com http://www.wikipedia.com/ http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/

http://www.photonics.com/dictionary/ http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/index.html http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/ http://www.chem.yorku.ca/NAMED/ http://www.hyperdictionary.com/ http://www.wordreference.com/index.htm

http://web.mit.edu/redingtn/www/netadv/

Encyclopedia Britannica Scientific Search Engine Encyclopedia Science world. World of physics and mathematics. Eric Weisstein’s World of Physics Photonics Directory The Nobel Prize Laureates Mathematics Archive Named Things in Chemistry and Physics Hyperdictionary WordReference.com. French, German, Italian and Spanish Dictionary with Collins Dictionaries The Net Advance of Physics. Review Articles and Tutorials in an Encyclopedic Format

XII

Fundamental Constants Used in Formulas

Fundamental Constants Used in Formulas aB c e

=

5.29177×10−11 m

=

2.99792458 × 10 m s

=

Bohr radius

8

−1

light speed in vacuum

−19

C

charge of an electron

−34

Js

Planck constant

1.602177 × 10

h

=

6.626076 × 10



=

i

=

h/2π = 1.054573 × 10−34 J s √ −1

kB

=

−23

1.380658 × 10

−31

JK

−1

reduced Planck constant imaginary unit −5

(8.617385×10

eV K

−1

)

Boltzmann constant

=

9.10939 × 10

nA

=

6.0221367 × 10

R0

=

8.314510 J K−1 mol−1

universal gas constant

re

=

radius of an electron

α

=

ε0

=

2.817938 m e2 = 7.297353 × 10−3 4πε0 c 8.854187817 × 10−12 F m−1

=

4π × 10 H m

µB

=

9.27402 × 10

π

=

3.14159

σ

=

5.6697 × 10−5 erg cm−2 s−1 K−1

m0

µ0

kg

23

electron rest mass −1

mol

−1

7

24

Avogadro constant

fine-structure constant permittivity of vacuum permeability of vacuum

2

Am

What is What in the Nanoworld: A Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. Victor E. Borisenko and Stefano Ossicini Copyright © 2004 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-40493-7

Bohr magneton Stefan–Boltzmann constant