What works in the workplace? USING EVIDENCE TO TACKLE GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN EMPLOYMENT
Amy O’Donnell Paul Biddle Professor Lynn Dobbs Rosie Cunningham Craig Moore
1
The Centre for Public Policy (CPP) at Northumbria University, was the first research facility in the North East to specifically focus on public policy and governance issues. Based within the School of Arts and Social Sciences, CPP provides research, evaluation and training in relation to the management and organisation of public services. It has been specifically designed to provide a valuable resource for regional bodies, public sector agencies, partnerships and voluntary organisations in the North East region and elsewhere. It seeks to help policy-makers and managers to plan, develop and evaluate their response to the new ideas, initiatives and legislation that are creating fundamental changes to the way in which they operate. Overall, CPP aims to contribute to the process of public and voluntary sector renewal by promoting discussion, debate and dissemination of best practice, regionally, nationally and internationally.
Centre for Public Policy School of Arts and Social Sciences Northumbria University Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST Tel: +44 (0) 191 243 7433 Fax: +44 (0) 191 243 7434 Email:
[email protected] Website: www.northumbria.ac.uk/cpp © Centre for Public Policy, Northumbria University 2006
2
Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... 5 Executive Summary ..................................................................................... 6 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Project Aims ...................................................................................................................................6 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................6 Research Findings .........................................................................................................................7 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 11 Regional Strategies ..................................................................................................................... 11
1. Overview of the Research ...................................................................... 12 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 12 Need for the research ................................................................................................................. 12 Aims and objectives of the research ........................................................................................... 14 Research Programme ................................................................................................................. 15 Project Governance .................................................................................................................... 15 Structure of the report ................................................................................................................. 16
2 . Research Method .................................................................................. 18 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 18 Literature review .......................................................................................................................... 18 Mapping exercise ........................................................................................................................ 18 Interviews with national policy makers ........................................................................................ 19 Regional case studies ................................................................................................................. 19 Findings and recommendations .................................................................................................. 20 Good Practice Guide ................................................................................................................... 21
3 . Approaches to Tackling Gender Discrimination in Employment ............ 22 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 22 The European Context ................................................................................................................ 22 The UK legal framework .............................................................................................................. 23 Central Government policy initiatives .......................................................................................... 25 Regional Initiatives ...................................................................................................................... 26 Organisational Initiatives ............................................................................................................. 27 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 27
4 . The Evidence-Based Policy Movement ................................................. 29 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 29 Evolution of the relationship between policy and research ......................................................... 29 Impact on policy making.............................................................................................................. 30 Assessing types of evidence ....................................................................................................... 31 Evidence base to support gender equality in employment ......................................................... 32 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 35
5 . Women in the Case Study Regions ....................................................... 37 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 37 Regional contexts and related policy strategies.......................................................................... 37 Comparisons of women in the regional labour markets .............................................................. 40 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 44
6 . Mapping the Evidence Base .................................................................. 46 6.1 6.2 6.3
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 46 Current sources of evidence ....................................................................................................... 46 The evidence base for key policy themes ................................................................................... 50
3
6.4
Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 63
7 . The National Policy Dimension.............................................................. 65 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 65 Findings from the interviews ....................................................................................................... 66 Sharing policy and practice ......................................................................................................... 70 Looking to the future ................................................................................................................... 71 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 73
8 . The Regional Experience ...................................................................... 74 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 74 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 74 North East interview findings....................................................................................................... 76 East of England interview findings .............................................................................................. 81 South East of England interview findings .................................................................................... 86 Workshops with regional networks ............................................................................................. 91 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 94
9 . Findings and Recommendations ........................................................... 95 9.1 9.2 9.3
Main Findings .............................................................................................................................. 95 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 96 Regional Strategies ..................................................................................................................... 98
4
Acknowledgements We would like to thank all of the people who contributed to this report by sharing their time and their experiences with the research team. We are particularly grateful to the members of the Advisory Group for their advice and support throughout the project, and to the policy makers, employers and practitioners that took part in the interviews and regional workshops, and considered the implications of the research findings for the development of future policy and employment practice around equality and diversity. Finally, this research would not have been possible without funding from the European Social Fund.
Professor Lynn Dobbs Director Centre for Public Policy Northumbria University
5
Executive Summary The Use of Evidence to Tackle Gender Discrimination in Employment research project began in January 2004 and was completed at the end of December 2005. The project was funded by the European Social Fund (ESF) under Policy Field 5, Measure 2 and was supported by a wide range of partners from across the selected regions.
1.1 Project Aims The aims of the research were to:
Identify the extent to which regional policy-makers, employers, managers and training providers currently seek out evidence to help inform best practice.
Work with regional policy-makers, employers, managers and training providers to identify mechanisms for accessing evidence that are sound, user-friendly, reliable and easily accessible for employers and managers to develop working practices capable of progressing gender equality in the workplace.
Work with Governmental and non-Governmental organisations to explore future directions for the way in which evidence could be developed and disseminated to meet the needs of employers and managers.
Disseminate this information to a wide range of organisations seeking to develop and implement equality initiatives.
Contribute to the creation of measures to promote social and economic inclusion that may not otherwise happen.
1.2 Methodology The research was undertaken in five inter-linked components:
A literature review to allow the team to collect contextual information and explore national policy reports and documents around the issue of gender discrimination in the UK labour market.
A mapping exercise, in order to identify and analyse the wealth of evidence which is on offer to policy-makers and practitioners.
Consultation national policy makers via a series of in-depth semi-structured interviews in order to identify particular gaps in the evidence base or concerns around the use of evidence in policy and practice in this field.
A series of regional case studies were conducted, focusing on the North East, South East and East of England regions, via a series of semi-structured interviews with policy-makers and practitioners in Governmental and non-Governmental organisations to explore specific local issues relating to the development of the evidence base to tackle gender discrimination, and workshops with key regional policy and practitioner networks to facilitate collective discussion around key issues and to explore the way forward for future practice.
6
Follow-up interviews with key policy makers and practitioners to discuss research findings and develop recommendations for future policy and practice and the production of the What Works? Using Evidence to Tackle Gender Discrimination in Employment Good Practice Guide for regional policy-makers, employers, managers and equality trainers.
1.3 Research Findings 1.3.1 Approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment
Approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment take place at a variety of levels within the UK at present. Influences on policy and practice range from European and national Government legislation to voluntary initiatives at the local and organisational level.
At the European level, the UK is a signatory to European Community Treaties and Conventions and is under an obligation to ensure that national law is consistent with European Community Law and Directives. In relation to UK policy and legislation, the introduction of a number of key pieces of legislation have helped to remove the more obvious discriminatory barriers to women’s participation in employment.
This legal framework is currently supported by the three equality Commissions, although there are plans to form a single Commission for Equality and Human Rights (CEHR) in the near future. In addition to this legislative framework, there are a number of central Government initiatives and policy campaigns aimed at tackling discrimination in employment. In this respect, the work of the Women and Equality Unit and the Women and Work Commission is central.
At a regional level, there appears to be significant variation in relation to the emphasis and extent of strategies and initiatives to tackle gender discrimination in the labour market. Whilst it does appear there is a broad awareness of the positive contribution that a more equal and diverse workforce can make to overall economic success, in relation to gender at least, this does not always appear to translate into specific policy.
Finally, at the level of employment practice, whilst all employers have a statutory duty to prevent discrimination in the workplace in relation to gender (alongside race and disability), the development of voluntary complementary policies and initiatives remains inconsistent within organisations.
1.3.2 The Evidence-based Policy Movement
In the last five years there has been a renewed interest in defining and strengthening the relationship between research evidence in policy making, driven in particular by the current Government’s Modernisation programme. This has enhanced key areas of policy-making, most notably health, education and welfare.
In relation to gender and employment, however, there continues to be a markedly less clear use of evidence in the development of policy and practice. Furthermore, despite the potential wealth of evidence available in a variety of formats, there has been little attempt to provide a systematic review of such evidence or to provide clear directions as to how such evidence might be gathered and utilised. 7
These issues are further compounded by the fact that efforts to link evidence to gender equality policy and practice in employment face similar problems encountered in other fields of policy-making. In particular, there remain a number of unresolved debates around issues relating to a potential ‘hierarchy’ of evidence, the reliability of various types and sources of evidence, and concerns in relation to effective access, dissemination and take-up of the available evidence base.
Finally, gender and employment is also subject to evidence related problems particular to that field of policy. In particular, uneven approaches to collecting and monitoring information on women in the labour market and concerns around the lack of active participation of a number of particularly disadvantaged groups of women in the evidence process.
1.3.3 Women in the Case Study Regions
In April 2004 there were 761,000 women of working age in the North East region, 1,612,000 in the East of England and 2,412,000 in the South East region. 67.3% of North East women were economically active, rising to 76.1% in the East of England and 77.0% in the South East. Unemployment rates amongst women were highest in the North East (5.2%) and broadly similar in the East of England (3.6%) and the South East (3.8%).
Across the UK much of the employment undertaken by women is part-time (44.4% compared to 10.6% in the case of men). They are also more likely to have a second job (4.8% of women compared to 3.1% of men), and to be working in a temporary capacity (6.7% of women compared to 5.6% of men).
Of the case study areas, women in the East of England were more likely to work parttime, but North East women were more likely to be in temporary employment and have flexible working patterns. Women are less likely to work shifts than men (16.2% of women compared to 22.2% of men). However 55% of all weekend shifts and 53% of all evening or twilight shifts are undertaken by women, and women are more likely than men to undertake split shifts (0.8% compared to 0.7%).
A comparison between men and women in the three regions based on full-time earnings shows that women’s wages have risen at a faster rate than men’s in the period from April 2002 - April 2003. However, it also shows that in April 2003 women’s average gross weekly earnings stood at £382.10 compared to £511.30 for men. Women in the North East on average earn 86.9% of female earnings across the UK. This compares to 104.3% for women in the South East region. 54.9% of women earn under £300.00 per week compared to 28.2% of men.
The economic restructuring within the UK has seen the replacement of a highly skilled predominantly manual labour market with more diverse and multi-segmented labour markets in which less skilled, non manual groups and women are more heavily represented. Women in all three regions are over represented in the service industries and in other industries.
There is also extensive evidence of vertical segregation as women in England and Wales account for only 21.9% of management at higher and professional levels compared to 30.7% of men. Women are also more likely to be concentrated in lower skilled and lower paid employment, in administrative and secretarial work, personal 8
service occupations and elementary occupations. This suggests that although there have been improvements and more women are reaching positions of seniority there is still evidence that the glass ceiling remains in the upper echelons.
Finally, increasing numbers of women take maternity leave in order to return to employment after the birth of their children, and many others take career breaks to allow them to care for small children or elderly relatives. 66.0% of women return to exactly the same job after maternity leave yet only 20.0% return to the same job after a career break. Interestingly, women often return to a job with fewer hours (25.0% of those taking maternity leave and 46.0% after a career break), and less money (12.0% of those taking maternity leave and 27.0% after a career break).
1.3.4 Mapping the Evidence Base
Current literature refers to the importance of information to tackle organisational processes, attitudes and behaviours in order to address discrimination in the workplace
At present, key sources and providers of evidence include Governmental and nonGovernmental sources, business and community sources of information, workplace sources, academic and practitioner research and informal knowledge and experience.
To varying degrees, it appears that evidence is available to support the main policy priorities around gender discrimination in the workplace. In particular, there is an extensive body of research in relation to the causes and impacts of the gender pay gap, the issues around balancing work and life for women and (in statistical terms at least) the degree of horizontal and vertical segregation currently present in the UK labour market.
However research evidencing the so-called “business case” for equality and diversity appears at present to be less convincing, and a particular area of weakness is around studies to quantify the benefits in financial terms.
Furthermore, despite the wealth of information available, the ability of employers, managers and equality trainers to access evidence to inform and validate the development of sound policies for gender equality in the workplace is currently limited by both the fragmented nature of the information available and the lack of focus on where the wealth of additional evidence may be gathered and utilised in the form of academic research and evaluation studies.
In addition, the role that existing evidence plays in shaping and influencing policy remains unclear and therefore there may be issues around whether it is constructed on the basis of assumptions about the needs of women that does not reflect reality.
1.3.5 The National Policy Dimension
The interviews with national policy makers and practitioners demonstrated that an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination in employment is being practiced at this level, both within and outside of Government.
Policy makers and practitioners recognise the benefits of using this approach and are keen to develop it further. This approach is facilitated by good links between Government, practitioners and employers and central Government appears to play an
9
important role in driving forward the development of evidenced based practice in other organisations.
Furthermore, the impact of policy and practice is monitored in a range of organisations at the national level and the evidence this monitoring generates, appears to inform future policy development.
There is positive evidence of formal and informal networking to facilitate the discussion and dissemination of evidenced based practice in Government and these play an important part in contributing to the development of policy and practice around equality and diversity.
At the same time, on occasion these networks can be ad hoc and links to the business sector in particular appear to be less robust, although the Government is keen to work with employers. Furthermore, it appears that over-use is made of existing networks and this may serve to limit practice sharing and wider development of an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination. In particular, stronger links between policy makers, practitioners and businesses are important to promote evidenced based practice more widely.
Finally, it is felt that there are significant gaps in the current evidence base and that there are additional issues around accessibility that act as a major barrier to the successful use of evidence in developing policy and practice. Necessary improvements highlighted included easier access to evidence, the development of a stronger business case for equality and diversity and the need for gender disaggregated statistics.
1.3.6 The Regional Experience
To varying degrees, evidenced-based practice is being used to address gender discrimination in each of the three case study regions.
Across the regions, there are common drivers behind the adoption of this approach. Policy and legislative requirements of central Government (especially in relation to the public sector); the right organisational culture; the business case for equality and diversity; and the demands of wider performance management frameworks are all factors that seem to drive forward evidenced-based policy and employment practice in organisations.
Furthermore, whilst discussion, dissemination and networking at the regional level are vital in helping to promote the development of an evidenced-based approach, in all three case study regions, there appears to be scope for the development of new networks to help bridge the existing public sector-private sector gap in particular.
At the organisational level, it appears that evidenced-based practice is only likely to be adopted successfully if there is a recognition of the importance of equality and diversity within an organisation.
An appropriate organisational structure is also critical in facilitating effective evidencebased practice. In particular, the role of an internal body (such as a diversity working group) with a specific equality and diversity remit appears crucial in addition to the provision of adequate opportunities for staff to give their views on equality and diversity strategies. 10
As evidenced-based practice is in its infancy in many organisations, there is scope for monitoring to be more comprehensive across both the public and private sectors.
Furthermore, organisations that focus on promoting and disseminating good practice are not often in a position to monitor the impact of their work since such initiatives are usually implemented by others. In addition, it is not always clear to what extent monitoring activity feeds into the ongoing development of policy and practice.
Finally, reflecting the national interview findings, policy makers and practitioners at the regional level see the quality and availability of current evidence as the major barrier to developing effective evidence-based practice. In particular, there is a need to make the current evidence base less fragmented, more easily accessible and to improve the quality of statistical information and evidence supporting the business case for equality and diversity.
1.4 Recommendations
Create a more supportive statutory framework
Increase the number of Equal Pay Audits conducted
Ensure the public sector takes a leading role in promoting evidence-based practice
Take steps to improve regional networking and information sharing
Need for more research to develop the business case for equality and diversity
Make evidence user-friendly and accessible, particularly for SMEs
Improve the statistical evidence base
Engage hard to reach groups of women
1.5 Regional Strategies At the regional level, workshops held in the case study regions also identified a variety of strategies that could support the development of evidence-based employment practice. These included:
The need for a regional information strategy to co-ordinate and develop the evidence base, in particular in relation to the improved provision of statistical data, to help capture the experiences of a wider range of women, and to promote and facilitate enhanced networking and dissemination activities.
The important role that the local Government’s Equality Standard could play in supporting evidence-based practice in the public sector, and the need to resolve related resource, accessibility and competitiveness issues in order to make this more effective.
The need to develop a regional employment performance monitoring framework to drive forward and deliver progress around equality and diversity, by providing a supportive environment which encourages change, promotes best practice and publicises the business case for equality.
11
1. Overview of the Research 1.6 Introduction This report presents the findings from a two year research project undertaken in a number of English regions to explore the use of evidence to tackle gender discrimination in employment. The research was funded by the European Social Fund (ESF) under Policy Field 5, Measure 2 and was supported by a wide range of partners from across the selected regions. The research sought to explore the links between evidence and the development of equality and diversity practice to tackle gender discrimination in the UK. It aimed to identify the sources of evidence that are available to regional policy-makers, employers and managers across the UK and how these map onto differing conceptions of and approaches to the policy-making process. In doing so, it explored the impact of the current evidence base on policy and practice along with factors that help or hinder policy-makers and employers' use of evidence. Ultimately, the research was designed to assist and inform the development of strategies to promote evidence based policy development and delivery in order to tackle gender discrimination in employment and thus assist in building a dynamic inclusive economy.
1.7 Need for the research 1.7.1 Policy Context In recent years there has been a renewed interest in defining and strengthening the relationship between research evidence and policy-making. This development has been accredited to a number of factors; in particular the growth of an increasingly welleducated and well-informed public; the explosion in the availability of data of all types; the growth in size and capabilities of the research community; and an increasing emphasis on scrutiny and accountability within Government (Davies, Nutley et al. 2000). As a result, evidence is now seen as central to effective policy making. "Good quality policy making depends on high quality information, derived from a number of sources – expert knowledge; existing domestic and international research; existing statistics; stakeholder consultation; evaluation of previous policies; new research, if appropriate; or secondary resources, including the internet". (Strategic Policy Making Team (SPMT) 1999) However despite the increasing use of evidence to support policy making in a number of key areas, most notably health and education, its application in relation to gender and employment practice has to date, been limited.
1.7.2 Women’s position in the UK labour market Women continue to play a very different role in the UK labour market in comparison to their male counterparts, both in terms of employment participation, hours of work, as well as the type of employment and the wage they receive. Despite the closing of the “employment gap” between male and female workers over the past three decades, women remain less well integrated into the UK labour market than men, and there is strong evidence of vertical and horizontal segregation and pay inequality (Harkness 2002). Only 70% of working age women are in employment, compared to 79% of men. Furthermore, women are much more likely to work part-time (43% at present work less 12
than 30 hours per week). Two thirds of women are employed in health, education, public administration and hotels and catering, only 8% of women are found in higher managerial and professional posts, (compared to 18% of men), and 32% of women work in lower managerial and professional posts compared with 25% of men (LFS 2003). Women currently earn 82% of hourly male earnings, widening to 75% if calculated on a weekly basis (EOC 2003). Whilst male and female entry wages are close to equality upon labour market entry (with no experience), this is followed by a steady decline in the relative female position, even taking accumulated experience into account (Myck and Paul 2001). Part-time work and lower pay for women also impacts on pension entitlement with twice as many older women reliant on income support as men (DfWP 2001). In addition, the impact of childcare on employment prospects is significantly more noticeable with women. Those without children are far more likely to work than those with children and those with more children are less likely to be employed than those with fewer children. Currently, just 48% of women with a child aged under two are in employment, compared with 90% of men (Women and Equality Unit 2003).
1.7.3 Initiatives to tackle gender inequality Since the 1970s, successive Governments have sought to tackle gender discrimination in the workplace through a number of key pieces of legislation and policy initiatives, most notably the Sex Discrimination Act (1975) and Equal Pay Acts (1970 & 1983). Whilst these went some way towards moving the most obvious barriers to gender equality in the workplace, the wave of Governmental and non-Government initiatives introduced in the 1990s, such as Opportunity 2000 (subsequently renamed Opportunity Now), reflected a general disappointment concerning the failure of women to breach the ‘glass ceiling’ in organisations or close the pay gap. While equality legislation has undoubtedly influenced the increased representation of women in the labour market over the past three decades, it is increasingly clear that legal measures form only a part of the strategy required to combat discrimination in the workplace. In this respect, the role of the employing organisation itself is vital (Blakemore 1997). Progress and developments in employment practice to date, however, have been uneven. Research into the UK legislation on sex and race discrimination indicates that while it has frequently encouraged organisations to develop formal policies aimed at ensuring equality of treatment, these policies have in practice often yielded disappointing results (Ross and Schneider 1992; Barnard, Deakin et al. 2002). Whilst it appears that most company directors support promoting equal opportunities, there remains a real gap between the rhetoric and reality of responsible company behaviour (Joseph 2002).
1.7.4 Developing an evidence base The ability of policy-makers, employers, human resources managers and equality trainers to access evidence to inform and validate the development of sound policies for gender equality in the workplace is currently limited in three ways. First, by the disparate and fragmented nature of the evidence relating to gender relations in employment; second, by the lack of focus as to where and how practitioners can gather evidence and third by a general lack of direction as to ways in which evidence can be used to inform practice in the workplace. This lack of sound, easily accessible and user-friendly evidence makes it difficult to support or explore a causal relationship between workplace policies designed to address gender discrimination and the benefits these policies bring to business. In this sense, the link between evidence about ‘what works’ and equality practice has become more of an act of faith than an informed and carefully managed 13
process as, to date there has been no research on the balance between the kinds of evidence used in relation to gender equality or the impact of such evidence on equality practice. Furthermore, there is scant research on the information and evidence needs of policy-makers, employers and equality managers and trainers, or on the way in which evidence can be developed and disseminated to change individual and organisational practice. At the same time, current literature on gender equality in the workplace refers to the importance of information in the process of tackling organisational processes, attitudes and behaviours (Parekh 2000). There is a wealth of evidence to help employing organisations tackle gender discrimination and develop family friendly working practices provided by both Governmental and non-Governmental organisations, as well as academic studies (Dex and Scheibl 1999) (Gray 2002) (Paul and Brewer 2003). Within Government these organisations include the Women and Equality Unit, the Department of Trade and Industry, the Cabinet Office and the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC). Those outside Government include the Trades Union Congress, the Fawcett Society and Opportunity Now. The evidence provided by all of these organisations takes the form of guidelines, codes of practice, case studies and the findings of research projects. In addition to this, there is a wealth of information to be gleaned from academic and practitioner research disseminated in national and international journals. At present, the types of evidence used by practitioners to inform gender equality policy and practice can be categorised as informal knowledge and experience, evidence gathered in the workplace, Government or Government sponsored sources, evidence produced by business and community organisations and academic and practitioner research findings. The priority given to each of these sources of evidence or the relationship between evidence and the development of gender equality practice, however, is far from clear.
1.8 Aims and objectives of the research The aims of the research were to:
Identify the extent to which regional policy-makers, employers, managers and training providers currently seek out evidence to help inform best practice.
Work with regional policy-makers, employers, managers and training providers to identify mechanisms for accessing evidence that are sound, user-friendly, reliable and easily accessible for employers and managers to develop working practices capable of progressing gender equality in the workplace.
Work with Governmental and non-Governmental organisations to explore future directions for the way in which evidence could be developed and disseminated to meet the needs of employers and managers.
Disseminate this information to a wide range of organisations seeking to develop and implement equality initiatives.
Contribute to the creation of measures to promote social and economic inclusion that may not otherwise happen.
The objectives of the research were to:
14
Map the evidence base for improving equality and diversity practice which currently exists in the UK.
Consider whether there are issues relating to the access and dissemination of evidence, examining in particular the public / private sector experience and the needs of SMEs.
Investigate the need for a strategic approach to facilitate a more effective flow of evidence between policy-makers, practitioners and the research community, in order to improve the take-up of evidence available.
1.9 Research Programme The research programme consisted of a number of components:
In component one, a literature review took place, to allow the team to collect contextual information and explore national policy reports and documents around the issue of gender discrimination in the UK labour market.
In component two, the researchers conducted a mapping exercise, in order to identify and analyse the wealth of evidence which is on offer to policy-makers and practitioners.
In component three, the team consulted with national policy makers via a series of indepth semi-structured interviews in order to identify particular gaps in the evidence base or concerns around the use of evidence in policy and practice in this field.
In component four, a series of regional case studies were conducted, focusing on the North East, South East and East of England regions, via a series of semi-structured interviews with policy-makers and practitioners in Governmental and nonGovernmental organisations to explore specific local issues relating to the development of the evidence base to tackle gender discrimination. Subsequently, workshops with key regional policy and practitioner networks were held in each of the three case study regions to facilitate collective discussion around key issues and to explore the way forward for future practice.
In component six, follow-up interviews with key policy makers and practitioners at both the national and regional level took place, in order to discuss research findings and develop recommendations for future policy and practice. This phase also saw the production of the What Works? Using Evidence to Tackle Gender Discrimination in Employment Good Practice Guide for regional policy-makers, employers, managers and equality trainers.
1.10 Project Governance An Advisory Group was established at the start of the study in order to guide the project and to monitor progress. It included members drawn from national and regional policymaking organisations, representatives of the evidence based research community and a number of key regional employers. The group met four times during the course of the research and provided valuable feedback and advice in relation to method, analysis and dissemination of findings.
15
1.10.1
Membership
Name
Organisation
Ruth Ashton
European Secretariat, Government Office for North East
Liz Bavidge
Fair Play Partnership
Paul Biddle
Centre for Public Policy
Gena Birchall
Middlesborough Council
Carol Blythe
One NorthEast
Mark Deas
East of England Regional Development Agency
Lynn Dobbs
Centre for Public Policy
Simone Doyle
North East Ambulance Service Trust
Brenda Joyce
North East Assembly
Julia Lyford
One NorthEast
Amy O’Donnell
Centre for Public Policy
Fay Sullivan
ESRC UK Centre for Policy Based Evidence & Practice
Lynne Thornton
Cleveland Police
Pam Walton
East of England Regional Assembly
Tess Woodcraft
Centre for Strategy and Communication
1.11 Structure of the report Chapter 2
Describes the research methods used in the study
Chapter 3
Considers the policy background
Chapter 4
Examines current approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment
Chapter 5
Summarises the position of women in the North East, South East and East of England labour markets
Chapter 6
Reviews the current evidence base available to policy makers and summarises available academic and practitioner research findings in relation to a series of gender and employment policy themes.
Chapter 7
Explores the national policy maker perspective on the use of evidence to tackle gender discrimination in employment
Chapter 8
Outlines the findings of the three regional case studies conducted in the North East, South East and East of England 16
Chapter 9
Draws conclusions and makes recommendations for future policy development and organisational good practice
17
2. Research Method 2.1 Introduction The research was undertaken between January 2004 and December 2005 and was managed and delivered by staff at the Centre for Public Policy at Northumbria University. It used a range of predominantly qualitative research methods and these were undertaken in five interlinked phases. The first phase involved a literature search to allow the team to gather contextual information and explore national policy reports and documents. The second phase focused on mapping and analysing the wealth of evidence currently on offer to policy-makers and practitioners in relation to gender and employment. The third phase built on this work by consulting with national policy makers via a series of in-depth semi-structured interviews in order to identify particular gaps in the evidence base or concerns around the use of evidence in policy and practice in this field. The fourth phase involved the undertaking of three regional case studies focusing on the North East, South East and East of England. This involved semi-structured interviews with policy-makers, practitioners and employers to explore specific local issues relating to the development of the evidence base to tackle gender discrimination. In order to facilitate collective discussion around key issues, a series of workshops with key regional policy and practitioner networks were also conducted. In the final phase, researchers worked with policy-makers and practitioners at both the national and regional level in order to explore the findings and to develop recommendations for future policy and practice.
2.2 Literature review The first stage of the project involved desk based research in order to collect contextual information and explore national policy reports and documents. The literature reviewed fell into two broad topic areas. First, a review of the main approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment was conducted. This included a review of current UK and European legislation alongside a summary of key initiatives including those at national and local Government and organisational levels. The second element of the literature search involved a detailed examination of the evidence-based policy movement. This covered the evolution of the relationship between policy and research, from the nineteenth century to the current Labour Government’s Modernisation agenda; the impact of evidence on key areas of policy making, notably health and education; and finally, issues around assessing and using types of evidence, both generally and in relation to gender discrimination in the workplace. The final stage of the literature review entailed an analysis of the main sources of labour market statistics in order to demonstrate the position of women in the each of case study regions alongside current related policy initiatives in the North East, East and South East of England.
2.3 Mapping exercise Subsequently, a comprehensive, web-based mapping exercise was conducted in order to identify and analyse the wealth of evidence currently on offer to policy-makers and practitioners. During this phase, the research team reviewed a wide range of literature drawn from academic, policy and practitioner sources. This evidence was then reviewed and analysed along the following six broad gender and employment policy themes:
The “Business Case”
Gender pay gap
Work-Life balance
Impact of caring responsibilities 18
Occupational Segregation
The glass ceiling
2.4 Interviews with national policy makers The third phase involved a total of twelve semi-structured telephone interviews with policy-makers in Governmental and non-Governmental organisations at a national level in order to explore: interviewees understanding of and commitment to evidence-based policy within their own organisation; gain a range of insights into and experiences of the current evidence base in relation to gender and employment; and to identify particular gaps in the evidence base or concerns around the use of evidence in policy and practice in this field. Interview subjects included representatives of the following organisations:
Business in the Community
Fawcett Society
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
Gender Statistics User Group
Trades Union Congress
Confederation of British Industry
Daycare Trust
Women and Equality Unit, Department of Trade and Industry
Equal Opportunities Commission
Fair Play Limited
Work Life Balance Team, Department of Trade and Industry
2.5 Regional case studies 2.5.1 Interviews with regional policy makers and practitioners During this component, the researchers set out to explore the issues around the use of evidence to tackle gender discrimination in employment at a regional level. This employed a case study approach, focusing on the North East, East of England and South East regions. Through a series of interviews, in-depth investigations and workshops, the research team aimed to identify the extent to which regional policymakers, employers, managers and training providers currently seek out evidence to help inform best practice and in turn, work with regional policy-makers, employers, managers and training providers to identify mechanisms for accessing evidence that are sound, user-friendly, and easily accessible. Over eighty potential participants were contacted covering public, private and policy making sectors in each of the selected case study regions. As a result, a total of twenty-nine interviews were conducted including representatives of the following types of employing organisations: South East National supplier of energy and related services
Business Consultancy
Employers’ Organisation
A number of local authorities
Airport Management Business
Development Agency
University
East of England Regional Assembly
People Management Consultancy
Local Authority
Development Agency
A number of businesses in the automotive sector
19
North East Financial Institution
A number of local authorities
Freelance Diversity Practitioner
Emergency Services
Equality Organisation
Disability Skills Organisation
Major Retailer
Government Office
A number of NHS Trusts
Regional Assembly
2.5.2 Organisational Case Studies In conjunction with the initial round of regional interviews, researchers also sought to explore the experiences of employing an evidence-based approach at the organisational level in greater depth. In order to achieve this, follow-up semi-structured interviews were held with the following employing organisations from across the case study regions:
Local authority in the South East
NHS Trust in the North East
Engineering company in the East of England
Car rental group in the South East
University in the South East
2.5.3 Workshops with regional networks This final stage of the regional research phase involved a series of workshops with established policy maker and practitioner networks in order to discuss the interim findings and develop possible solutions for improving evidence-based practice in the case study regions. These workshops were held in partnership with the following regional equality networks:
Major Employers Human Resources Forum (South East)
Performance Through Inclusion Network (South East)
Equalities and Diversities Network (East of England)
Equality Practitioners Forum (North East)
2.6 Findings and recommendations In the final stage of the research, all the findings from the national and regional interviews and workshops were brought together in order to draw key conclusions about the current experience of using evidence to tackle gender discrimination in employment and to develop recommendations for possible strategies to improve policy and practice. In order to discuss findings and policy recommendations in greater depth, follow up indepth, face-to-face interviews were then held with representatives from:
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
Race for Opportunity
Women and Equality Unit
Equal Opportunities Commission
South East base energy supplier
Fawcett Society
North East based financial institution 20
2.7 Good Practice Guide Finally, a good practice guide was produced, drawing in particular on the advice and recommendations of policy makers and practitioners at the regional level. This guide aims to support human resource practitioners, equality and diversity practitioners and employing organisations in general to address more effectively gender discrimination in the workplace using an evidenced based approach. The content of the guide is informed by both the current literature identified during the course of the research and by the experiences of the policy makers, practitioners and organisations who took part in the research project itself The guide provides:
Information about the benefits of using an evidenced-based approach to promote equality and diversity within employing organisations, including a summary of relevant UK and European legislation.
Initial guidelines and organisational issues that should be considered in order to successfully implement evidence-based practice.
A “toolkit” of potential information gathering methods that an employer or HR practitioner might consider using in order to generate their own organisationally specific evidence base.
Information on where you can access further evidence to support policy and practice development around key employment practice issues.
Details of further information and advice sources in the field of equality and employment practice.
The guide was disseminated widely to participants in the research project, unions, employer’s organisations and equality groups in the selected case study regions. Limited additional copies are available from the Centre for Public Policy on request.
21
3. Approaches to Tackling Gender Discrimination in Employment 3.1 Introduction Approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment take place at a variety of levels within the UK at present. Influences on policy and practice range from European and national Government legislation to voluntary initiatives at the local and organisational level. This chapter provides an overview of the key legislation at European and central UK Government level in addition to an introduction to the types of approaches evident at the regional and individual organisational level, looking in particular at the experience in the North East, East and South East of England.
3.2 The European Context The UK is a signatory to European Community Treaties and Conventions and is under an obligation to ensure that national law is consistent with European Community Law and Directives. There are a number of pieces of European equality legislation that impact on the UK. Principally, the 1976 Equal Treatment Directive (76/207) established the EC principle of equal treatment for men and women with regard to access to employment, vocational training, promotion and working conditions. This Directive has now been amended by Directive 2002/73, which installs European Court of Justice case law and strengthens the principle of equal treatment and its practical implementation. Published on 5 October 2002, this Directive must be implemented by Member States by 5 October 2005. The Government is also committed to implementing the European Union Article 13 Race and Employment Directives, which require EU member states to introduce legislation to outlaw unfair discrimination on the grounds of race, sexual orientation, religion or belief, disability and age in the fields of employment and training. The Employment Directive outlaws discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, religion or belief, disability and age in employment and vocational training. New legislation, the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003 and the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, came into force in December 2003. Amendments to the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 came into force in October 2004 and new legislation outlawing discrimination on grounds of age will be introduced by the end of 2006. The Race Directive outlaws discrimination on grounds of racial or ethnic origin in the areas of employment, vocational training, goods and services, social protection, education and housing and came into force in July 2003. The full remit of key European equality legislation is detailed to follow: Article 141 (ex119) Treaty of Rome 1957 This provides that men and women should receive equal pay for equal work or work of equal value. Equal Pay Directive (75/117) 1975 This provides that all discrimination on the ground of sex in respect of all aspects of pay should be eliminated. Equal Treatment Directive (76/207) amended by Directive (2002/73) 1976 & 2002 This provides that there shall be no discrimination on grounds of sex in access to employment including promotion, vocational training and working conditions.
22
Social Security Directive (79/7) 1979 This requires equal treatment of men and women workers in statutory schemes providing protection against sickness, invalidity, old age, accidents at work and occupational diseases and unemployment. Pregnant Workers Directive (92/85) 1992 This requires minimum measures to improve the health and safety at work of pregnant women and women who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding, including a right to maternity leave. Burden of Proof Directive (97/80) 1997 This required any necessary changes in Member States’ judicial systems to ensure more effective implementation of the principle of equal treatment. The Race and Employment Directives 2000 These Directives were adopted under Article 13 of the EC Treaty by the UK and other European Member States in 2000. Together, they provide a common framework of protection against discrimination and harassment. Race Directive (2000/43) 2000 The purpose of this Directive is to lay down a framework for combating discrimination on the grounds of racial or ethnic origin, with a view to putting into effect in Member States the principle of equal treatment. Employment Directive (2000/78) 2000 Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation, religion or belief, disability and age. It covers conditions for access to employment, self-employment and occupation, working conditions, including dismissals and pay; and vocational guidance and training.
3.3 The UK legal framework It has been argued that, in recent years at least, the increased representation of women in the labour market has been influenced significantly by legislative intervention (Walby 1997). It is certainly the case that since the 1970s, a number of the more obvious discriminatory barriers to women’s participation in employment, have been removed, strongly underpinned by a legal framework. This UK legal framework (up to September 2004) includes the Equal Pay Act (1970) and Equal Pay (Amendment) Act (1983) and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975), with subsequent amendments in 1987 and 1999. The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (SDA) in particular was viewed as a milestone in its day towards creating a just and equal society, making it unlawful to discriminate directly or indirectly in employment on grounds of sex or marital status. All aspects of employment are covered by the SDA including recruitment and selection, promotion, pay, redundancy and dismissal, and all three Acts provide individuals with the opportunity to seek redress for discrimination or harassment through an employment tribunal. In relation to the Equal Pay Act, organisations are now being encouraged to undertake Equal Pay Audits. Although organisations do not have a statutory duty to undertake such audits, the Government is currently looking at new measures to address inequalities in pay in order to address the persistent gender gap in pay. Other employment legislation enacted in the past decade also has implications for equal opportunities in relation to pensions, wages, maternity and paternity rights and family friendly working. The full remit of these various pieces of legislation is detailed to follow. Equal Pay Act (as amended) 1970 Gives an individual a right to the same contractual pay and benefits as a person of the opposite sex in the same employment, where the man and the woman are doing like work; or work rated as equivalent under an analytical job evaluation study; or work that is proved to be of equal value. Sex Discrimination Act (as amended) 1975 The SDA (which applies to women and men of any age, including children) prohibits sex discrimination against individuals in the areas of employment, education, and the provision of goods, facilities and services and in the disposal or management of premises. Pensions Act 1995 Provides for equal treatment in occupational pension schemes. It does so by incorporating an equal treatment rule into every occupational pension scheme.
23
Employment Rights Act 1996 The ERA covers, among other matters, the rights not to be unfairly dismissed; to maternity leave and paid time off for antenatal care; to parental leave; and to unpaid time off for dependents. Employment Tribunals (Interest on Awards in Discrimination Cases) Regulations 1996 These provide for tribunals to award interest on back-pay in Equal Pay Act cases and compensation awards made under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995. National Minimum Wage Act 1998 This provides that workers shall not be paid less than a designated minimum rate per hour. Working Time Regulations 1998 These contain provisions regulating working time including: a limit of average 48 hours work per week (though individual workers can agree to waive this); daily and weekly rest entitlements and rest breaks; special provisions relating to night work. Employment Relations Act 1999 The Act established a new statutory procedure for the recognition of independent trade unions in organisations employing 21 or more workers if that is the wish of the majority of the workforce. The Act also introduced the right to be accompanied at disciplinary or grievance hearings by a trade union official or fellow worker, strengthened employees’ protection against discrimination on grounds of trade union membership, simplified the law on industrial action, extended protections for employees taking lawfully organised industrial action and gave new powers to the Certification Officer to determine complaints from trade union members about alleged breaches of trade union statute and rules. Maternity and Parental Leave Regulations (as amended) 1999 These contain the detail of the rights to maternity and parental leave contained in the Employment Rights Act 1996 (ERA). They also prescribe the circumstances in which a dismissal will be automatically unfair for the purposes of the ERA, if the dismissal is for a reason related to pregnancy, childbirth, maternity leave, or parental leave. Part-Time (Prevention of Less Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2000 The regulations give part-time workers the right not to be treated less favourably than full-time workers unless any difference in treatment can be objectively justified. They do not give a right to work part-time. Employment Act 2002 A wide ranging package, covering dispute resolution in the workplace, improvements to employment tribunal procedures, including the introduction of an equal pay questionnaire, provisions to implement the Fixed Term Work Directive, a new right to time off for union learning representatives, work focused interviews for partners of people receiving working-age benefits and some data sharing provisions. The Act also gives parents of children under six, or disabled children under 18, the right to request flexible working, with a statutory duty on employers to seriously consider their requests. It also introduced rights for fathers and adoptive parents to paid time off for the first time, and improved existing maternity rights. Fixed-Term Employees (Prevention of Less Favourable Treatment) Regulations 2002 Fixed-term employees should get at least the same pay and conditions as similar permanent employees working for the same employer. Less favourable pay and conditions are only allowed if there are objective reasons for this. The regulations also limit the use of successive fixed-term contracts.
This legislation is currently supported by the three equality Commissions: the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC); the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE); and the Disability Rights Commission (DRC). Currently, each Commission acts as an independent statutory body with a remit to provide codes of practice for organisations, promote equality of opportunity, keep under review the Act under which they were set up and, where appropriate, provide legal advice and assistance to individuals who feel that they have been a victim of discrimination. In 2004, the Government published a White Paper, Fairness for All, proposing the formation of a single Commission for Equality and Human Rights (CEHR). The release of Fairness for All was followed by an extensive three month consultation period, to which the Government published its formal response in November 2004. It was confirmed in the Queen's speech on 23 November 2004 that the Government will establish the CEHR, although to date, there is no formal timetable for its introduction.
24
3.4 Central Government policy initiatives 3.4.1 Women and Equality Unit The Women and Equality Unit (WEU), which operates within the Department of Trade and Industry, has particular responsibility for promoting and realising the benefits of diversity in the economy and more widely. This includes taking forward proposals on civil partnerships and the future of equality bodies. It also develops policies relating to gender equality and helps to ensure that work on equality across Government as a whole is co-ordinated. In addition to the legislative framework already outlined, there are a number of central Government initiatives aimed at tackling discrimination in employment. For example, their campaign to reduce the pay gap is argued to have made it easier for women and men to take up equal pay claims through the promotion of a number of means: simplifying and speeding up existing tribunal procedures; introducing an equal pay questionnaire procedure in April 2003; and combining the Castle Awards with the 100 Best Companies to Work For. In addition, the Government has been working with the EOC to promote equal pay reviews and has provided trade unions with funding to train workplace representatives. It also aims to streamline the complex rules of procedure relating to equal value cases with new regulations to be introduced in October 2004. In terms of policy formulation more generally, the WEU works to support the UK Governments plans for gender mainstreaming, which is central to their efforts to improve public services and encourage greater representation of women in public life. Along with the Equality Impact Team, the WEU have developed an easy-to-use gendermainstreaming tool, "Gender Impact Assessment", which aims to put people at the heart of policy-making, and lead to better Government by making diversity issues visible in the mainstream of society. It provides a methodology for policy makers to assess whether their policies will deliver equality of opportunity across the board, and helps to challenge policy makers to question the assumption that policies and services affect everyone in the same way.
3.4.2 Delivery Targets The Department of Trade and Industry’s Public Service Agreement objective states that "By 2006, working with all departments, bring about measurable improvements in gender equality across a range of indicators, as part of the Government’s objectives on equality and social inclusion." In relation to women and employment, the priorities for the Women and Equality Unit to support that objective fall into the following target areas:
Promoting the economic participation and advancement of women through increased childcare provision and flexible working opportunities.
Working with businesses and trade unions towards ensuring that 35 per cent of large companies have carried out equal pay audits by 2006.
Measures to encourage women into sectors where they are currently underrepresented and helping women to succeed once in those sectors
Promoting the representation of women in public life in relation to political institutions, public appointments and the judiciary.
As a public sector employer, strive to operate as an exemplar of good practice, including in relation to the representation of women at senior levels. 25
3.4.3 Women and Work Commission More recently, the Government have announced the creation of a Women and Work Commission to examine the problem of the gender pay gap and other issues affecting women's employment. The Women and Work Commission will look at a number of areas including: how men's and women's education and skills affect which jobs they can get; promotion and career progression; women's experiences in the job market before and after having children; and the different experiences of women working full-time and parttime. The Commission published its interim statement in March 2005 and following consultation and a visit programme with key stakeholders to gather evidence, is due to report fully by the end of this year.
3.5 Regional Initiatives There appears to be significant variation in relation to the emphasis and extent of strategies and initiatives to tackle gender discrimination in the labour market at the regional level. In relation to Regional Skills Strategies, for example, Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) are currently drawing up regional skills action plans, including their strategies to address local skills shortages. However the EOC found that only four out of eight RDAs appear to have specific plans to address skills deficits by targeting women (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2004). Furthermore, there is limited evidence that regional economic strategies include specific targets aimed at encouraging and supporting the participation of women in the labour market. At the same time, regional policy does reflect a broad awareness of the positive contribution that a more equal and diverse workforce can make to overall economic success. In the North East, for example, equality goals in general seem central to the region’s overriding economic objectives. The Regional Skills Strategy (RSS) states that disadvantaged individuals within the region must be actively brought into and sustained within the labour market. In order to improve competitiveness, it is acknowledged as more important than ever to recruit, retain and develop the best available people in the labour market. Under priority seven of the RSS, measures to tackle low skill levels are linked to the role employers can play in ‘achieving social inclusion’. Furthermore, it is acknowledged that developing good practice in equality and diversity in order to widen opportunities for recruitment and selection, and in training and skills development, will help employers to fulfil this role. In addition the updated Regional Economic Strategy (RES), Realising our Potential (ONE North East, 2002) named “a diverse and welcoming North East (D3)” as one of five key elements for achieving a sustainable region. The RES also recognises the need to promote the business case for valuing diversity to employers and service providers. This recognition of diversity is currently being built upon as a part of a review of the strategy to develop a greater focus. The consultation process conducted as part of this review has already identified the need for equality and diversity to form a key theme of the revised RES. Indeed, the need to raise skill levels amongst the regional workforce appears to be the primary concern in order to both support economic development and impact on social inclusion. In the East of England, for example, the recently revised Regional Economic Strategy (East of England Development Agency 2005), Integrated Regional Strategy for the East of England (SQW Limited and Land Use Consultants 2004) and Framework for Regional Employment Skills Action (East of England Development Agency 2003) have all highlighted workforce skill and training levels alongside the need to utilise underexploited sources of labour amongst a number of crucial regional issues impacting on future prosperity. The revised RES in particular makes explicit reference to promoting 26
equality and diversity in relation to long term economic development goals. The Strategy aims to deliver an increase in employment rates, amongst disadvantaged groups, including women, by 2008. The value of increasing enterprise levels in those groups traditionally associated with low business start-up rates is another recurring policy theme at regional level. For example, in addition to skills issues, the South East region places particular emphasis on the importance of encouraging women’s entrepreneurship. The Regional Framework for Employment and Skills Action aims to establish a Women’s Enterprise Centre, although no provisional target dates have been set (South East England Regional Development Agency 2002).
3.6 Organisational Initiatives At the level of employment practice, the framework of equality legislation places a statutory duty on employers to prevent discrimination in the workplace in relation to gender (alongside race and disability). However alongside such basic legislative requirements, complementary policies and initiatives to tackle gender discrimination in employment at the organisational level have been introduced in many companies over the past three decades. These have ranged from so-called ‘first generation’ equal opportunities policies, to ‘second generation’ positive action to the current emphasis on managing diversity (Blakemore 1997). There are a number of interpretations as to the impetus behind these developments. On the one hand, it is argued that companies are simply keen to avoid charges of discrimination arising from their employees. At the same time, there is an argument that organisations are responding to modern management theory supporting the business case for actively managing equality and diversity issues (Walby 1997). Within this area of employment practice, two distinct approaches to promoting equal opportunities in employment have emerged (Jewson and Mason 1986). The liberal approach seeks to convince employers with its business case for promoting equal opportunities, whilst the radical approach advocates positive discrimination and affirmative action as more dramatic tools for change. More recently, a third so-called transformational approach has also been identified, which aims to integrate equal opportunities into the mainstream of decision making in organisations. However there appears to be little evidence of the take-up of this approach by employers to date (Ozbilgin 2000). Indeed, the extent of activity and commitment to equality and diversity practice in business remains debatable. Research carried out by the Women and Equality unit (WEU 2003) found that best practice employers used the following methods to identify the barriers facing women: reviews of their current policies and procedures; staff surveys; focus groups; statistical analyses of the gender balance across jobs within the organisation; task groups; and conferences. However, whilst there are some notable “islands of good practice”, principally among large private or public sector organisations, it remains the case that they are “surrounded by a sea of token adherence” to equal opportunities policy and practice (Blakemore 1997).
3.7 Summary Approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment take place at a variety of levels within the UK at present. Influences on policy and practice range from European and national Government legislation to voluntary initiatives at the local and organisational level.
27
At the European level, the UK is a signatory to European Community Treaties and Conventions and is under an obligation to ensure that national law is consistent with European Community Law and Directives. In relation to UK policy and legislation, the introduction of a number of key pieces of legislation have helped to remove the more obvious discriminatory barriers to women’s participation in employment. This legal framework is currently supported by the three equality Commissions, although there are plans to form a single Commission for Equality and Human Rights (CEHR) in the near future. In addition to this legislative framework, there are a number of central Government initiatives and policy campaigns aimed at tackling discrimination in employment. In this respect, the work of the Women and Equality Unit and the Women and Work Commission is central. At a regional level, there appears to be significant variation in relation to the emphasis and extent of strategies and initiatives to tackle gender discrimination in the labour market at the regional level. Whilst it does appear there is a broad awareness of the positive contribution that a more equal and diverse workforce can make to overall economic success, in relation to gender at least, this does not always appear to translate into specific policy. Finally, at the level of employment practice, whilst all employers have a statutory duty to prevent discrimination in the workplace in relation to gender (alongside race and disability), the development of voluntary complementary policies and initiatives remains inconsistent within organisations.
28
4. The Evidence-Based Policy Movement 4.1 Introduction There is no universally accepted definition of evidence based policy-making (EBPM), although most views encompass a basic assumption that all policy ought to be formulated, implemented and maintained on the basis of strong supporting evidence that they will be (or are) effective. However despite this assumption, the relationship between evidence and policy-making has never been a straightforward one. Although Governments have traditionally drawn on a wide range of evidence and information to help inform policy-making, the choices made about where to find evidence or which evidence to use are shaped by a number of factors including institutional arrangements, political and individual values or assumptions, links with research communities and personal contacts. The availability of resources to facilitate the collection and evaluation of evidence, including time constraints, also plays a key part. In the last five years, however, there has been a renewed interest in defining and strengthening the relationship between research evidence and policy-making. In this respect, the emergence of the concept of evidence-based policy-making (EPBM) in Britain, Europe and the US in particular, reflects a concern within Governments to improve the effectiveness of policy-making, both in terms of implementation and outcome.
4.2 Evolution research
of
the relationship
between policy and
The origins of the evidence based policy movement can be traced from the early nineteenth century onwards. One of the earliest links between research and social policy began with social investigations concerned with determining the nature and extent of poverty in England in the 1830s. The first important milestone was the Report of the Royal Commission on the 1834 Poor Law, which gathered information on the effectiveness of Poor Relief in 3000 parishes. Social reformers and senior public servants from the middle of the 19th century onwards established organisations to support social investigations such as the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (NAPSS) (1857) and the Royal Statistical Society (1887). Research using systematic social scientific methods of investigation began to emerge towards the end of the 19th century, with Charles Booth’s statistical survey of the incidence of poverty in London (1889 – 1903) and Seebohm Rowntree’s empirical research of poverty in York (1901). Booth’s work became influential in that it introduced the concept of a poverty line, whereas Rowntree’s work identified the concept of a poverty cycle. The work of Beatrice and Sydney Webb in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries did much to advance the relationship between research and policy, by promoting the principle that social research should have a direct influence on social policy and administration. The establishment of the London School of Economics in 1895 also ensured the institutionalisation of social scientific research within the university system. A series of Government reports from the early part of the twentieth century onwards also reinforced the need for expanding social research and linking the findings to the needs of public policy-makers, such as the Haldane Report (1917), the Chapman Report (1946) and the Rothchild Reports (1971;1982) (Bulmer 1986).
29
The steady growth of applied social scientific studies within universities in the 1950s and 1960s were often linked to perceptions of social change. Leading practitioners, for example, included Richard Titmuss and Peter Townsend, both writing and researching within the discipline of social policy. Following the recommendations of the Heyworth Committee on Social Science, the Social Science Research Centre (SSRC) was established in 1965. The significance of the SSRC was the Government funding that supported its activities. Further recommendations provided by the 1982 Rothchild Report resulted in the SSRC evolving into the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) with an even stronger focus on empirical research relating to public concerns. Over the past decade, the British Labour Government’s Modernisation programme has advanced the relationship between research and policy through the concept of evidence based policy making (EBPM), an approach to policy-making based on a ‘what works’ philosophy. The Modernising Government White Paper (Cabinet Office 1999) signalled a firm commitment to an evidence based strategy to improve policy making, particularly in the delivery of public services. As part of this initiative, new research centres have been established to take forward the emphasis on evidence based practice. For example, the UK Government is currently sponsoring six ESRC funded university research centres to form the Network for Evidence Based Policy and Practice. Members of the Network work closely together in order to improve the use of social science research findings in policy and practice and identify examples of ‘what works’ for policy-making (www.evidencenetwork.org).
4.3 Impact on policy making In some respects Modernisation has created a cottage industry in the number of units working within British central Government to bridge the gap between evidence from research and evaluation findings and the policy-making process, including the Social Exclusion Unit, the Performance and Innovation Unit and the Centre for Management and Policy Studies. This development has helped to enhance key areas of policymaking, most notably in health, education and welfare, where the relationship between evidence and the development of policy and practice has evolved over time to become relatively well established. In health for example, a substantial and significant international network for sharing information and evidence in all areas of health care has been developed through the Cochrane Collaboration, which was originally established in Oxford in 1993. This organisation provides an important international forum for the facilitation of systematic up-to-date reviews of randomised controlled trials across all areas of health care research. Since the initiation of the Cochrane Collaboration, the concept of evidence-based policy and practice has become well established in health care, both nationally and internationally. As a result of this development there has been a new focus on evidence-based practice within other policy disciplines. Indeed, policy learning across disciplines has led to a new emphasis on the benefits of prioritising research that is methodologically rigorous, ensures the development of a culture that accepts research evidence as central to both policy and practice, and leads to strategies that ensure the effective collection and dissemination of research findings. Learning across policy areas is likely to be extended considerably as further research findings emerge from the various collaborations and initiatives taking place in the UK and elsewhere. For example, based on the success of the Cochrane Collaboration, the Campbell Collaboration was set up in 1999 at the University of Pennsylvania’s Graduate School of Education in order to provide high quality information on ‘what works’ in the areas of education, social welfare and action on 30
crime. In order to improve the validity and relevance of empirical research for policymaking in health and social policy, there is a close liaison between both organisations.
4.4 Assessing types of evidence There is a long-standing debate in a number of policy-making fields as to what information can legitimately be considered as ‘evidence’ and whether agreement can be achieved as to how this might be ranked or prioritised in relation to informing policy and practice. The kind of research and evaluation that is generally undertaken for this purpose is often considered in terms of the traditional dichotomy between formative and summative approaches (Scriven 1967). Formative research and evaluation has a heavy focus on improving policy and practice by identifying the strengths and weaknesses of existing initiatives or policy interventions during the early stages of development. This is to inform practitioners and ensure that practice can be adjusted accordingly. In summative research and evaluation, there is an emphasis on conclusion-orientated activity. Here, the primary concern is to determine the outcome and effectiveness of different kinds of intervention, often to aid decision-making in relation to the future of a particular project or initiative. The dichotomy between formative and summative research and evaluation seems unable to take account of the wide range of types of research and evaluation currently in use. With this in mind the literature identifies a number of alternative classifications. These tend to reject the idea of a dichotomy between different approaches or to regard types of research and evaluation activity as mutually exclusive. They include:
Needs assessment or front-end analysis which may be designed to determine the extent to which human need exists or to diagnose the nature and extent of a particular problem prior to the search for solutions. This is likely to take place prior to the design and implementation of a policy or programme, or to support developments during the lifetime of a project.
Evaluability and feasibility studies to investigate the practical aspects of implementation prior to the launch of a new policy or programme.
Programme monitoring in order to determine the extent to which a policy or programme is reaching the population it was designed to benefit. This activity normally involves the identification of measurable indicators or key performance indicators to assess procedures, processes and performance often on an annual basis. Indeed this type of evidence-based policy making has been a defining theme of the current Government who are particularly concerned with the reform and delivery of public services. Such evaluation will often utilise qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, social surveys and participant-observation methods.
Cost effectiveness studies and cost benefit analysis to calculate the costs incurred in achieving policy and programme goals and compare these with the costs associated with similar interventions strategies or the costs of not having the intervention at all.
Audit and inspection is often introduced in order to ensure that codes of practice are adhered to and minimum standards achieved. This is a top-down approach which usually represents a form of external evaluation as those carrying out the procedure are usually from outside the institution. 31
Outcomes-based studies which are designed to ascertain the extent to which a planned intervention or programme actually works.
Meta evaluation or systematic review (such as those carried out as part of the Cochrane Collaboration) which acknowledges the large body of existing research which might already exist in relation a particular research question and seeks to synthesise the findings from all relevant studies. They also use explicit methods to identify what can be reliably said on the basis of these studies.
4.5 Evidence base to support gender equality in employment In comparison with other policy strands, there is a markedly less clear use of evidence in the field of gender and employment policy and practice, although pockets of excellence can be identified in a handful of organisations that have been willing to invest considerable resources in improving gender relations in the workplace. At the same time, there is a wealth of evidence available in the form of research findings, statistical information and benchmarking data, for example, from a wide range of sources. There has been little attempt to date, however, to provide a systematic review of the disparate and fragmented nature of such evidence, to present an overview in a user-friendly form or to provide clear directions as to how such evidence might be gathered and utilised. At present, therefore, it remains relatively marginalised from mainstream practice.
4.5.1 Problems with evidence relating to gender equality Linking evidence to policy and practice for gender equality in employment faces similar problems to those encountered in other fields of policy-making; notably that the approach to accumulating reliable evidence for public policy-making still tends to be ad hoc rather than systematic. Commentators agree that the current body of knowledge in relation to research evidence in all fields is often insufficient to adequately inform policy-making or provide support for practitioners in a reliable or systematic way. This is due first, to ineffective access to, and dissemination of evidence in that research findings tend to stay where the research was originally carried out in academia or research centres. Here, debate has centred on problems surrounding the dissemination of evidence and the information media used to disseminate findings and best practice. Second, an inadequate uptake of evidence for policy-making and practice as a result of too few strategies to ensure or facilitate an effective flow of evidence between researchers and policy-makers. Encouraging policy-makers and practitioners to pay attention to research evidence is dependent on a change in behaviour, institutional practice and organisational culture in both academia and employment. Third, ineffective approaches to gathering evidence through consultation and involvement with key stakeholders, including women employees. Nutley and Davies (Nutley, Davies et al. 2003) argue that the way in which knowledge is generated, validated, disseminated and adopted is central to the issue of developing evidence based practice. In this respect they draw attention to two distinct models. The traditional model of evidence based practice advances the idea of a linear process which starts with knowledge creation and ends with adoption. The process takes place between two communities; research experts (usually based in universities) and practitioners (usually based in the field). In this model knowledge is centralised, and it flows from experts to users. There is also a limited amount of interaction between these two groups. This traditional model has been criticised on grounds of being too descriptive and normative, presenting a linear process which is unlikely to operate in practice, and
32
reinforcing the notion that university researchers and practitioners operate in distinct and separate domains. An alternative applied partnership model has been developed in which there is a continuous interaction between knowledge creation, validation, dissemination and adoption. In this model knowledge is decentralised. Indeed, it is held locally as well as centrally and it flows in many directions via local, national and international networks. There is no linear set of stages, and knowledge is created through partnerships between experts and practitioners working together to generate and utilise knowledge. Nevertheless, the social and professional networks of practitioners can be a negative force in terms of advancing the link between evidence, policy and practice. Resistance can stem from habit or reasons of convenience, from an unwillingness to change or a fear of change. Significantly, practitioners have the opportunity to draw not only on explicit knowledge but also on tacit knowledge and understandings (Schon 1991). Explicit knowledge in the form of facts, propositions and events can be codified and transmitted because it is capable of being articulated in a formal language. Tacit knowledge on the other hand, includes the models, beliefs, perspectives and ‘know how’ that is central to being a professional and which is shared between individuals through inter-personal social processes, shared experience and practical action. The shared meanings created through such tacit experiences create the basis for organisational culture and cannot be easily articulated or influenced. Tacit knowledge is important because it is deeply embedded in the mindsets of practitioners. In this sense, individuals cannot adopt an instrumental approach to problem solving, because their practice is a dynamic embedded process for which they cannot always identify or articulate the rules and procedures. Aside from these issues there is an ongoing debate in relation to evidence based policy and practice as to ‘what counts’ as evidence, both in terms of the scope of evidence required and the priority given to different kinds of evidence. As indicated above, the evidence base available to both policy makers and practitioners currently ranges from informal knowledge through to findings from rigorously conducted academic research. In 1999, the Cabinet Office Strategic Policy Making Team described evidence as “Expert knowledge; published research; existing statistics; stakeholder consultations; previous policy evaluations; the Internet; outcomes from consultations; costings of policy options; output from economic and statistical modelling”.(Strategic Policy Making Team (SPMT) 1999) However
such broad definitions provide little guidance in terms of the selection and prioritisation of types of evidence. As such, there is uncertainty in many policy-making arenas as to ‘what counts’ as legitimate evidence and this is no less the case in gender equality in employment, particularly when the business case itself is frequently portrayed as evidence in its own right.
4.5.2 Concerns around the evidence base 4.5.2.1 Hierarchies of evidence
In some areas of policy such as health care, policy-making for public health and clinical decision-making has clearly been shaped by a concern to use the best available evidence based on the most reliable research findings. Hence, a ‘hierarchy of evidence’ has emerged for policy-makers and practitioners in terms of ranking research in relation to its perceived legitimacy. As a result, the perceived ‘gold standard’ of research refers to studies in which the methodology is based on the randomised controlled trial. Alternatively, systematic reviews of such trials are also regarded as forming a legitimate 33
approach to evidence based policy and practice in health. This form of hierarchy is also beginning to emerge in education research. 4.5.2.2 Reliability of evidence
As yet, the approach to accumulating reliable evidence for the bulk of policy-making, including gender equality in employment, remains ad hoc rather than systematic. Commentators agree that the current body of knowledge in relation to research evidence is insufficient to adequately inform policy-making or provide support for practitioners in a reliable or systematic way. There is arguably a need for a more strategic approach to the use of evidence in policy-making which in turn depends on more widespread agreement on standards for how, why and when research is commissioned, undertaken or utilised in order to meet or influence key policy strands. 4.5.2.3 Access to and dissemination of evidence
As noted earlier, information and knowledge tends to stay where it is originally generated so that debate has centred on problems surrounding dissemination and the information media used to disseminate findings and best practice. This is particularly applicable to the use of the vast body of existing and ongoing research. It is vital that research findings are communicated to those who need to know about them. Social researchers need to make research findings accessible to the policy making community and sometimes ‘translate’ social science evidence into a language that is useful to the users of evidence (Davies 2004). It is equally the case that end users themselves need to be encouraged to be active participants in and contributors to the evidence process (Nutley, Davies et al. 2003). 4.5.2.4 Increasing the evidence uptake
Following on from gaps in the creation and collection of evidence, there are few strategies to ensure or facilitate an effective flow of evidence between researchers and policy-makers. Making evidence accessible and available does not necessarily lead to automatic take-up among policy-makers and practitioners, particularly when there is little incentive to do so or few examples to emulate. Improving the take-up of evidence remains one of the major challenges for the future. Evidence to tackle discrimination in the workplace can be identified from a number of different sources. However, the lack of recognition for the need for evidence is marked in relation to employers, human resources managers and trainers, particularly in a context in which the paradigm of ‘informal practitioner knowledge’ is rarely challenged. 4.5.2.5 The regional dimension
The advancement of evidenced based practice also has regional dimension and this dimension is exemplified by the Allsop Review. This review included a focus on the information requirements that need to be met to inform regional economic policy and the extent to which official statistics have been able to keep pace with the changing structure of the UK economy. The review identified a scope for improvements to be made to collection of economic data at regional level in order to better inform regional policy making and implementation and to aid comparison and benchmarking between regions. The review identified a “significant mismatch” between supply and demand. The result of this is that the systems in place do not provide the data required to support regional economic policy – especially a context where regional policy making is growing (Allsopp 2003; Allsopp 2004).
34
4.5.3 Problems with the way in which evidence is being used A recent report from the Equality and Diversity Forum (O'Cinneide 2003) cited a number of evidence related factors, which limit the effectiveness of the existing legislative response. These included: Approach of isolated deterrence, which often fails to identify underlying patterns of discrimination. Encouragement of a culture of “passive compliance” where employing organisations are required to merely take the minimum steps to avoid liability rather than a proactive approach to tackling equality and diversity. This approach is well recognised in the UK academic literature. Lack of active participation by disadvantaged groups and individuals in decisionmaking. Despite the significant progress made in both public and private sector organisations in terms of culture change and new forms of management, equality management within organisations continues to adopt a top down framework of implementation which is often at odds with other, more inclusive management structures. These findings were echoed in a report by the Audit Commission (Audit Commission 2002) in their framework for improving equality and diversity in organisations in the UK. Amongst other issues, the report mentioned the need for : Involving users. Consulting the actual and potential users of services about their needs and requirements Mainstreaming equality and diversity. Integrating equality and diversity into day-today work, and translating policy into practice Monitoring performance data. Ensuring that data gathering and analysis on equality and diversity is part of core performance monitoring systems Sustainability. Continuously keeping up the momentum to counter discrimination and promote diversity, reviewing performance and setting new targets
4.6 Summary In the last five years there has been a renewed interest in defining and strengthening the relationship between research evidence in policy making, driven in particular by the current Government’s Modernisation programme. This has enhanced key areas of policy-making, most notably health, education and welfare. In relation to gender and employment, however, there continues to be a markedly less clear use of evidence in the development of policy and practice. Furthermore, despite the potential wealth of evidence available in a variety of formats, there has been little attempt to provide a systematic review of such evidence or to provide clear directions as to how such evidence might be gathered and utilised. These issues are further compounded by the fact that efforts to link evidence to gender equality policy and practice in employment face similar problems encountered in other fields of policy-making. In particular, there remain a number of unresolved debates around issues relating to a potential ‘hierarchy’ of evidence, the reliability of various 35
types and sources of evidence, and concerns in relation to effective access, dissemination and take-up of the available evidence base. Finally, gender and employment is also subject to evidence related problems particular to that field of policy. In particular, uneven approaches to collecting and monitoring information on women in the labour market and concerns around the lack of active participation of a number of particularly disadvantaged groups of women in the evidence process.
36
5. Women in the Case Study Regions 5.1 Introduction National statistics clearly demonstrate that the UK labour market continues to exhibit marked gender inequality on a range of levels. However whilst there are undoubtedly common factors evident across most regions, experiences of inequality and approaches to tackle discrimination remain distinctive. In order to demonstrate the value of strengthening the policy making process in relation to women and employment, this paper examines the gendered nature of the labour market in the three case study regions: the North East, East of England and South East regions. Analysis of the workforce is based in the main on key national data sets, in particular, the Labour Force Survey, regional labour market statistics and 2001 Census figures, and key policy documents have also been consulted in order to identify current initiatives and policy strategies impacting on gender and employment issues in each of the three regions.
5.2 Regional contexts and related policy strategies 5.2.1 North East 5.2.1.1 Regional Profile
Women’s position within the North East labour market has changed fundamentally over the last five decades. Traditionally, the region’s heavy industrial economy relied on a male dominated workforce, and women, acting as “homemakers” and “housewives”, played a relatively marginal role in the paid economy. The gendered division of labour has been challenged over time as women in the region, as elsewhere, have gained paid work as a result of economic, social and educational change. Indeed, since the 1960s women have increasingly entered the workforce, challenging the idea that women “shouldn’t work”, and playing an increasingly key role in the North East labour market. However despite the fact that between 1991 and 2002, the region saw just under 10 per cent job growth, this is almost half of the national average and the bulk of growth appears to have been in part-time positions, particularly for men (Buckner, Tang et al. 2004). Furthermore, although 67.1% of women are economically active, women in the region still carry most of the burden of family care. It is also clear that women are not integrated into the North East labour market as well as men. In this sense, many women are confined to part-time, low paid work, which often involves shift work and is of a temporary nature, and many of them are disadvantaged in the labour market when they return after taking maternity leave or career breaks. 5.2.1.2 Strategies for developing equality and diversity
The Regional Skills Strategy (ONE North East 2003) (RSS) clearly states that disadvantaged individuals within the region must be actively brought into and sustained in the labour market. To improve competitiveness it is acknowledged as more important than ever to recruit, retain and develop the best available people in the labour market. Under priority seven of the RSS low skill levels are linked to the role employers can play in ‘achieving social inclusion’. Developing good practice in equality and diversity in widening opportunities for recruitment and selection, and in training and skills development, will help employers to fulfil this role. The Regional Economic Strategy (RES) (ONE North East 2002) named “a diverse and welcoming North East (D3)” as one of five key elements for achieving a sustainable region. The RES also recognises the need to promote the business case for valuing diversity to employers and service providers. Whilst highlighting the continuing paucity of available equal opportunities 37
data, particularly relating to ethnicity and disability, the strategy states research in this field as a priority for the next three years. Research priorities include the need for an equality and diversity baseline study for the Equality and Diversity Forum. It is well documented that regularly updated regional data is essential for monitoring progress in equality of opportunity. This ongoing work, in the region, is being further developed as a part of the current review of the regional economic strategy (see Chapter 3). Addressing equality and diversity will be a key objective of the revised strategy. Within the North East region the research has also identified a range of provision designed to overcome gender discrimination by enabling women to develop skills that enable them to have a less marginalised experience in the labour market. There are ongoing initiatives to support women into business. Work is also being undertaken to map the provision of organisations offering employment and business related support to women and assess the extent to which this provision is able to meet the needs of women accessing this support. The overall aim of this work is to support the development of women’s entrepreneurship.
5.2.2 East of England 5.2.2.1 Regional Profile
Despite progress over the past three decades, there remain significant differences in the labour market performance of men and women in the East of England. Although economic activity rates are above the national rate for both genders, the gap between male and female economic activity rates is actually wider in the region than in the country as a whole (11.5% in comparison with the national rate of 11.2%). Indeed, women constitute the single largest economically inactive group in that region (around 392,000 in total) (Step Ahead Research Ltd 2004). For the economically inactive, women are far more likely to accredit their status to family or caring responsibilities (49.1%) whereas the primary reason provided by males was long-term sickness / disability (36.1%). There appears to be evidence of horizontal segregation by gender, both in real terms and in relation to individual perceptions. For example, over half of all unemployed women in the region are looking for work in just three occupational areas: clerical occupations, other sales occupations and personal service occupations. Currently, the most common sector in which women work in the East of England is public administration and education, which accounts for more than 30% of total female employment in each county. Furthermore research shows that, compared to men, women in the east of England are less likely to start a business, develop a business they have established and are less likely to receive training. Women are also more likely than men to have basic skill related needs, be economically inactive due to rural isolation/and or being a lone parent, are more likely to rely on low incomes and to miss opportunities because of their caring responsibilities (Exemplas Ltd 2004a; Exemplas Ltd 2004b; Exemplas Ltd 2004c) 5.2.2.2 Strategies for developing equality and diversity
The East of England Equality Advisory Group (EAG) has been set up to advise the Structural Funds Strategy Group (SFSG) on the development, implementation and delivery of Equality of Opportunity through Structural Funds operating in the East of England. The primary focus of the EAG has continued to be on gender equality mainstreaming policy within the region in accordance with the principles set out in the Treaty of Amsterdam and to develop and promote equal opportunities mainstreaming strategies. The EAG has developed a programme strategy and action plan to achieve gender mainstreaming across all of the region's European programmes. The recently revised Regional Economic Strategy (East of England Development Agency 2005), 38
Integrated Regional Strategy for the East of England (SQW Limited and Land Use Consultants 2004) and Framework for Regional Employment Skills Action (East of England Development Agency 2003) have all highlighted workforce skill and training levels alongside the need to utilise underexploited sources of labour amongst a number of crucial regional issues impacting on future prosperity. The revised RES in particular makes explicit reference to promoting equality and diversity in relation to long term economic development goals. The Strategy aims to deliver an increase in employment rates, amongst disadvantaged groups, including women, by 2008. However lack of available, affordable childcare is identified as a barrier to accessing both employment and training opportunities for parents, for lone parents and mothers in particular. 52% of economically inactive parents in one particular study identified this as the key issue preventing them from working (Step Ahead Research Ltd 2004). A further key initiative in the East of England to progress gender equality in the region is the Women’s Enterprise Strategy (East of England Development Agency 2005). This Strategy has been specifically designed to tackle the existing barriers that prevent women from setting up in business, enable women to work at a more senior level in organisations, challenge the gender pay gap, gain higher qualifications, promote the economic activity of women in areas that have traditionally been male dominated and be better able to combine their economic and paid work roles.
5.2.3 South East 5.2.3.1 Regional Profile
In comparison with the North East and East of England regions, the South East has seen the greatest convergence of equality in terms of women’s position in the labour market. However, there remain many gaps in equality in this region and the South East remains characterised by substantial variations in economic performance and considerable concentrations of deprivation and economic and social exclusion, in particular for those parts of the region furthest from the prosperous outer London belt (Arup, MSC et al. 2003). Gender segregation also persists across and within industries, and the glass ceiling still appears to persist at the upper echelons of employing organisations. There is evidence to suggest that women’s unequal position in the labour market is impacting negatively on individual women and on family standards of living. Research also suggests that these inequalities in the labour market are increasing staff turnover and resulting in key skills shortages (it is estimated that over one million adults of working age in the region or around one in five, lack basic skills (South East England Regional Assembly 2002; South East England Regional Development Agency 2002)). At the same time, there is evidence that a significant proportion of women (around 12%) in the South East may be working in jobs which under utilise their skills (Fair Play Southeast 2002). Ultimately, these factors are impacting negatively on firms and enterprises and restricting overall growth in the South East region. 5.2.3.2 Strategies for developing equality and diversity
In terms of the key regional agencies, gender appears to have relatively low priority as an area of policy activity in the South East region. The South East of England Development Agency commits itself to developing a regional strategy to celebrate difference (so as to comply with statutory requirements and to promote diversity) and develop the South East Race Equality Network. However it does not appear to have a parallel body representing gender issues. The Regional Framework for Employment and Skills Action highlights, amongst other issues, the importance of increasing the rate of small business start-ups and growth in the South East. Within this overall aim, one of the Framework’s actions is to establish a Women’s Enterprise Centre and the Small 39
Business Service is the lead partner on that initiative, although no provisional target dates have been set (South East England Regional Development Agency 2002). Women per se are not highlighted as a group disadvantaged in the labour market, although the need for improved childcare provision is acknowledged as key to equalising job opportunities for all in the South East. At a European level, the South East England European Social Fund Objective 3 Development Plan highlights skills development in particular, and promoting effective use of ICT to a lesser degree as areas which would impact positively on women’s participation in the regional labour market (Government Office for the South East Updated 2004).
5.3 Comparisons of women in the regional labour markets 5.3.1 Economic activity In the three case study areas an average of 30.1% of the population are women of working age. This is slightly lower than the national average. Economic activity rates of women vary across the case study areas, ranging from 73.0% in the North East region, to 82.5% in the South East region. These differences are mirrored in economic inactivity rates. Although trends highlight some convergence there are still significant differences in economic activity and inactivity across the three regions. Table 1: Economic activity trends of women by region Economic activity trends for women (2003) Region North East East of England South East UK North East East of England South East UK North East East of England South East UK North East East of England South East UK North East East of England South East UK
People aged 16 – 59
Total economically active
Total in employment
Total unemployed
Total economically inactive
Population of women (000)
(%)
Trend (Jan 03Jan 04)
761 30.3% N/A 1612 29.9% N/A 2412 30.1% N/A 17892 30.4% N/A 541 67.3 -1.5 1280 76.1 +1.5 1929 77.0 -0.5 13525 73.0 +0.1 513 66.3 +1.2 1234 73.2 +0.2 1856 73.5 -0.6 12943 69.7 +0.1 28 5.2 -0.3 46 3.6 +0.1 73 3.8 +0.1 582 4.3 -0.3 223 30.0 -1.1 368 23.1 -0.8 581 24.4 1.5 3924 21.4 -0.4 Source: Regional Trends 38 (ONS 2003b)
5.3.2 Care responsibilities Although more and more women are undertaking paid work, women still carry most of the burden of family care. This has huge consequences for women’s labour market position and their subsequent life experiences, and it is particularly important for single parents and for those looking after elderly relatives. Although national figures are unavailable, based on other comparative evidence, it is arguable that the position of women in the North East region is not dissimilar to other regions. Table 2: Share of family responsibilities performed by workers in the North East Share of family responsibilities
Share of family responsibilities performed by workers in the North East 2001
40
Full-time workers
0%-20% 21%-40% 41%-60% 61%-80% 81%-100%
Part-time workers
Men (%) Women (%) Men (%) Women (%) 7.0 8.0. 29.0 1.0 11.0 7.0 12.0 5.0 42.0 25.0 29.0 16.0 15.0 21.0 8.0 25.0 19.0 32.0 17.0 48.0 Source: Women at Work: Gender Inequality in the North East Labour Market (TUC 2002)
5.3.3 Full-time, part-time and temporary work In the UK much of the employment undertaken by women is part-time (44.3% compared to 10.5% in the case of men). They are also more likely to have a second job (4.8% of women compared to 3.1% of men), and to be working in a temporary capacity (6.7% of women compared to 5.6% of men). Across the three case study regions, the North East has the highest percentage of temporary employees and flexible working patterns, women in the South East have the highest percentage of second jobs and full-time employment. Table 3: Full-time, part-time and temporary work by gender Full-time, part-time and temporary work undertaken (Feb - Apr 2004) Employment category
Full-time Part-time Worker with second job Flexible working patterns Temporary employees
North East Men Women 90.4 56.1 9.6 43.9 2.2 4.1 18.1 29.8 6.6 6.6
East of England South East UK Men Women Men Women Men Women 90.3 53.2 89.1 53.3 89.4 55.6 9.7 46.8 10.9 46.7 10.6 44.4 3.4 4.9 3.1 5.5 3.1 4.8 16.2 25.9 19.0 27.4 18.3 27.6 3.6 5.9 3.9 5.9 5.6 6.7 Source: Labour Market Statistics June 2004 (ONS 2003b)
5.3.4 Shift work Although no regional breakdown is available, national information shows that women are less likely to work shifts than men (16.2% of women compared to 22.2% of men). However 55% of all weekend shifts and 53% of all evening or twilight shifts are undertaken by women, and women are more likely than men to undertake split shifts (0.8% compared to 0.7%). Table 4: Shift work by gender across the UK Shift work undertaken by gender (2001) Employment category Men (%)
Continental shifts Sometimes nights/days Three shift working Night shifts Other types of shift work Morning shifts Two shift system Split shifts Evening or twilight shifts Weekend shifts All Shift types
1.1 3.1 3.1 2.2 4.5 0.6 5.8 0.7 0.9 0.2 22.2
Women as a percentage of women + men (%) 0.2 12.0 1.5 31.0 2.0 37.0 1.4 37.0 3.5 41.0 0.4 41.0 5.1 45.0 0.8 51.0 1.1 53.0 0.2 55.0 16.2 40.0 Source: Labour Force Survey Spring 2002 (ONS 2002) Women (%)
41
5.3.5 Horizontal segregation The economic restructuring which has taken place across the UK has seen the replacement of a highly skilled, predominantly manual labour market, with more diverse and multi-segmented labour markets in which less skilled, non manual groups and women are more heavily represented (Cumbers 1996). However, gender segregation persists across and within industries, despite anti-discrimination laws. Table 5: Industrial composition of employee jobs by region Industrial composition of women employee jobs (June 2003) Industrial composition North East 0.6 9.7 40.8 7.2 36.1 5.6
Agriculture, Mining, Energy & Water industries Manufacturing and Construction Retail and Service industries Public administration Education, Health and Social Work Other
East of South East Great Britain England 1.4 1.3 1.0 9.7 7.5 9.2 50.6 52.8 48.9 4.1 4.2 5.2 29.2 28.6 35.5 5.0 5.6 5.5 Source: Regional Trends 38 (ONS 2003b)
5.3.6 Vertical segregation There is also extensive evidence of vertical segregation as women in the UK account for only 21.9% of management at higher and professional levels compared to 30.7% of men. At the associate professional and technical level women are more equally represented at 10.0% compared to 12.2% of men. However, women are also more likely to be concentrated in lower skilled and lower paid employment, in administrative and secretarial work (22.7%), personal service occupations (12.7%) and elementary occupations (11.9%). This suggests that although there have been improvements and more women are reaching positions of seniority there is still evidence that the glass ceiling remains in the upper echelons. Within the case study areas, women in the South East are significantly more likely to undertake higher and professional occupations (25.9%) than in the East of England (20.3%) and the North East (17.6%). Women in the North East are more likely to be concentrated in lower skilled and lower paid employment than in the other two regions. Table 6: Occupational structure by gender and region Occupational structure by gender and region Occupational structure
Managers and senior officials Professional occupations Associate professional & technical occupations Administrative and secretarial occupations Skilled trades occupations Personal service occupations Sales and customer service occupations
North East Men Women 13.8 8.9
East of England Men Women 12.9 8.5
South East Men Women 15.1 10.3
England and Wales Men Women 18.5 11.9
10.4 12.6
8.7 12.4
13.7 12.8
11.8 14.2
21.0 13.1
15.6 18.9
12.2 13.5
10.0 14.2
5.2
21.3
5.7
16.6
5.9
19.5
5.4
22.7
21.4 2.4
2.1 13.4
18.4 2.3
2.3 11.3
14.3 2.8
2.1 10.7
19.5 2.0
2.4 12.7
4.4
15.3
5.8
14.9
4.2
8.9
4.1
11.9
42
Process, plant and machine operatives Elementary occupations
16.9
3.6
13.0
3.2
12.9
14.3
15.3
17.3
10.6
2.3
13.1
3.1
13.0 11.8 11.9 11.9 Source: Census 2001 (ONS 2001a)
5.3.7 Pay and income A comparison between men and women in the three regions based on full-time earnings shows that women’s wages have risen at a faster rate than men’s in the period from April 2002 to April 2003. However, it also shows that in April 2003 women’s average gross weekly earnings stood at £382.10 compared to £511.30 for men. Women in the North East on average earn 86.9% of female earnings across the UK. This compares to 104.3% for women in the South East region. National research also suggests that there are important differences in the way that men and women are compensated for working in the evening and at night, particularly in relation to the way in which women do not generally receive a wage premium for working these hours (Harkness 2002). In addition, although data does not currently exist to consider the wages of women working part-time it is likely that the gender gap would be considerably wider than the 74.7% of the male weekly wage earned by women in full-time employment. Indeed, looking once again at national research there is evidence to suggest that women experience a large pay penalty for working part-time (Harkness 2002). Table 7: Earnings for full-time workers by gender by region Earning for full-time workers by gender North East
Average gross weekly earnings (£) Weekly earnings as % of UK average earnings % earning under £200 % earning under £300 % earning under £400 % earning under £500 % who receive o/time pay Average weekly hours (including overtime) Increase in average total weekly pay Apr 02-03
East of England
South East
UK
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
439.1
332.1
506.3
375.1
555.3
398.6
511.3
382.1
85.9
86.9
99.0
98.2
108.6
104.3
100.0
100.0
6.2 30.5 54.0 72.8 34.5
15.7 55.2 74.8 86.5 17.1
3.4 22.3 44.2 62.7 31.4
10.5 43.7 68.6 81.3 17.5
2.7 18.2 39.3 57.5 27.3
8.1 37.9 63.0 78.2 16.6
4.2 24.0 46.4 64.3 30.1
11.5 43.4 65.7 79.4 16.2
40.9
37.3
41.4
37.7
41.0
37.9
40.9
37.4
1.4
4.6
5.0
2.7
0.4
4.2
2.2
3.3
Source: New Earnings Survey 2003 (ONS 2003c)
5.3.8 Trade union membership The divergent position of women within the labour market is also characterised by differences in trade union membership between regions and between public and private sector employees. Across the UK, 57.2% of women working in the public sector are members of trade unions, compared to 13.6% in the private sector. Women’s membership of trade unions is significantly higher in the North East region than in the East of England and the South East. Table 8: Female trade union membership by sector by region
Region
North East East of England
Female Trade Union Membership (%) Private sector 16.1 10.3
Public Sector 67.2 49.0
43
10.6 13.6
South East UK
47.3 57.2
5.3.9 Maternity leave and career breaks Increasing numbers of women take maternity leave in order to return to employment after the birth of their children, and many others take career breaks to allow them to care for small children or elderly relatives. Although detailed information is available for the North East only, this shows that 66.0% of women return to exactly the same job after maternity leave yet only 20.0% return to the same job after a career break. Interestingly, women often return to a job with fewer hours (25.0% of those taking maternity leave and 46.0% after a career break), and less money (12.0% of those taking maternity leave and 27.0% after a career break). Table 9: Women’s experience of returning to work in the North East Women’s experience of returning to work in the North East 2001 After maternity leave (%)
After a career break (%)
66.0 20.0 25.0 46.0 3.0 10.0 7.0 21.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 27.0 5.0 13.0 Source: Women at Work: Gender Inequality in the North East Labour Market (TUC 2002)
Exactly the same job A job with less hours A job with more hours A job with less responsibility A job with more responsibility A job with less money A job with more money
5.4 Summary In April 2004 there were 761,000 women of working age in the North East region, 1,612,000 in the East of England and 2,412,000 in the South East region. Of these, 67.3% of North East women were economically active, rising to 76.1% in the East of England and 77.0% in the South East. Unemployment rates amongst women were highest in the North East (5.2%) and broadly similar in the East of England (3.6%) and the South East (3.8%). Across the UK much of the employment undertaken by women is part-time (44.4% compared to 10.6% in the case of men). They are also more likely to have a second job (4.8% of women compared to 3.1% of men), and to be working in a temporary capacity (6.7% of women compared to 5.6% of men). Of the case study areas, women in the East of England were more likely to work part-time, but North East women were more likely to be in temporary employment and have flexible working patterns. In terms of earnings, a comparison between men and women in the three regions based on full-time earnings shows that women’s wages have risen at a faster rate than men’s in the period from April 2002 to April 2003. However, it also shows that in April 2003 women’s average gross weekly earnings stood at £382.10 compared to £511.30 for men. Furthermore, women in the North East on average earn 86.9% of female earnings across the UK in comparison to 104.3% for women in the South East region, and 54.9% of women earn under £300.00 per week compared to 28.2% of men. The economic restructuring within the UK has seen the replacement of a highly skilled predominantly manual labour market with more diverse and multi-segmented labour markets in which less skilled, non manual groups and women are more heavily represented. Women in all three regions are over represented in the service industries 44
and in other industries. There is also extensive evidence of vertical segregation as women in England and Wales account for only 21.9% of management at higher and professional levels compared to 30.7% of men. Women are also more likely to be concentrated in lower skilled and lower paid employment, in administrative and secretarial work, personal service occupations and elementary occupations. This suggests that although there have been improvements and more women are reaching positions of seniority, there is still evidence that the glass ceiling remains in the upper echelons. Finally, increasing numbers of women take maternity leave in order to return to employment after the birth of their children, and many others take career breaks to allow them to care for small children or elderly relatives. 66.0% of women return to exactly the same job after maternity leave yet only 20.0% return to the same job after a career break. Interestingly, women often return to a job with fewer hours (25.0% of those taking maternity leave and 46.0% after a career break), and less money (12.0% of those taking maternity leave and 27.0% after a career break).
45
6. Mapping the Evidence Base 6.1 Introduction Current literature refers to the importance of information to tackle organisational processes, attitudes and behaviours in order to address discrimination in the workplace (Parekh 2000). Potentially, there is a wealth of evidence available to help employing organisations tackle gender discrimination and develop family friendly working practices provided by both Governmental and non-Governmental organisations. However the ability of employers, managers and equality trainers to access evidence to inform and validate the development of sound policies for gender equality in the workplace is currently limited by both the fragmented nature of the information available and the lack of focus on where the wealth of additional evidence may be gathered and utilised in the form of academic research and evaluation studies. Policy is, therefore, too often constructed on the basis of assumptions about the needs of disadvantaged groups, that does not reflect reality (O'Cinneide 2003). This chapter reviews some of the main sources of evidence currently available and attempts to compile and categorise the evidence base for employers and policy makers into broad policy themes.
6.2 Current sources of evidence 6.2.1 Governmental and non-Governmental sources of evidence 6.2.1.1 Statistical sources
Policy makers, practitioners and employers can currently access a number of external statistical sources for information about the UK labour market. The main sources of workforce statistical data for comparative purposes include:
2001 National Census (www.statistics.gov.uk/ census2001)
Labour Force Survey, which focuses on participation in the labour market and includes detailed breakdowns of industry, type of work, earnings, and employment and unemployment rates for different ethnic and other groups (www.statistics.gov.uk)
Public sector benchmarking service (www.benchmarking.gov.uk). This service aims to promote effective benchmarking and share good practice across the public sector by supporting public sector organisations in undertaking benchmarking exercises. It maintains a good practice database that members can access.
Neighbourhood statistics are available in relation to individual wards at local authority level. These data sets include details such as the percentage of economically active individuals within a population. (www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk)
6.2.1.2 Qualitative evidence
In addition to these statistical indicators, there are a number of Governmental or quasiGovernmental bodies in Britain providing good quality evidence in relation to gender equality. Examples of these providers include the following. Women and Equality Unit (www.womenandequalityunit.gov.uk)
The Women and Equality Unit (WEU) is based in the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and supports the Ministers for Women in their work to promote and realise the benefits of diversity in the economy and more widely (Women and Equality Unit 2001; 46
Women and Equality Unit 2003; Women and Equality Unit 2003; Women and Equality Unit 2003). This includes taking forward proposals on civil partnerships and the future of UK equality bodies, such as the Equal Opportunities Commission. The Unit develops policies relating to gender equality and ensures that work on equality across Government as a whole is co-ordinated. In relation to gender and employment, the unit has a current focus on reducing the gender pay gap, increasing the number of women in executive and non-executive roles and campaigning for an improved work-life balance. Equal Opportunities Commission (www.eoc.org.uk)
The Equal Opportunities Commission is the leading agency working to eliminate sex discrimination in Britain. The EOC can provide research and statistics about women and men in Great Britain today, investigate organisations or areas of life where sex discrimination is persistent or happens frequently, and take landmark legal cases under the Sex Discrimination Act and the Equal Pay Act. The EOC website has a wide range of expert advice, with up-to-the-minute practical guidance and legal information, including examples of cases. It’s specialist law site, www.eoc-law.org.uk, offers detailed legal arguments and further information for legal advisers. It can also provide practical information and tools for employers, including an Equal Pay Kit and guides on preventing discrimination in job evaluation and performance-related pay. Their Equality Exchange network helps employers – large and small – to keep up-to-date and share best practice, with an email newsletter and special events. The Equality Standard (www.lg-employers.gov.uk)
A national Equality Standard has been developed for local Government in order to ensure that all local authorities develop a common approach to dealing with equality. The standard allows for a systematic assessment of the extent to which equality practice is effective across the whole of local Government, with the potential for authorities to benchmark the progress made in relation to combating discrimination. More recently, in response to demand from officers working on the Equality Standard and equality issues generally, the Employers’ Organisation for Local Government have developed a 'community of practice', a separate part of their website containing a bulletin board and information bank for local Government. Diversity Dialogue will include a wide range of best practice information and advice, although the site will be accessible to gov.uk web addresses only. The Vital Connection (www.dh.gov.uk)
The Vital Connection is an NHS equal opportunities framework that requires all Government funded health bodies to collect a range of equality indicators. The framework is available online and gives information on the background to the framework, how it relates to Government policy along with a strategy for putting the equality aims into action. In addition, numerous case studies show models of good practice and illustrate the practical implementation of principles and useful publications are also listed. Civil Service Diversity (www.civilservice.gov.uk/diversity)
Civil Service equal opportunities policy provides that all eligible people must have equality of opportunity for employment and advancement based on their suitability for the work. There must be no unfair discrimination on the basis of age, disability, gender, marital status, sexual orientation, religion or belief, race, colour, nationality, ethnic or national origin, or (in Northern Ireland) community background, working pattern, employment status, gender identity (transgender), caring responsibility, trade union membership. The responsibilities of the Diversity team include identifying key policy 47
issues for the Service as a whole and for sharing best practice across departments; supporting departments in developing and implementing their diversity policies; and working closely with the Civil Service Unions. The related website contains information on all aspects of Civil Service diversity plus their legal requirements as employers and employees, good practice examples and useful contacts. Regional Observatories (www.regionalobservatories.org.uk)
At the regional level, Regional Observatories and Regional Intelligence Groups have been established in the English regions by partnerships involving Regional Development Agencies, Government Offices, Regional Assemblies, and other bodies. Regional Observatories enable access to key regional data and intelligence and are used directly by those working in research, policy, forecasting, planning, and strategy, in the public and private sectors. Working on a range of economic, social, and environmental issues, the Regional Observatories aim to enable evidence-based policy and improved decision making by providing analysis of data and research; helping to disseminate and widen access to intelligence; and conducting research to fill data gaps.
6.2.2 Business, trade union and community sources of information In addition to these essentially Government sources of essentially qualitative evidence, a number of business led or trade union organisations also provide a range of resources in relation to promoting gender equality in the workplace. Key examples include: Equality Direct (www.equalitydirect.org.uk)
The Equality Direct service is run by ACAS (Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service); an independent public body that works with both employers and workers. The Equality Direct website is designed to give business managers easy access to authoritative and joined-up advice on a wide range of equality issues. The helpline is available across Britain for the cost of a local call and advisers provide practical, downto-earth advice on specific questions to help employers make decisions which are right for their company. Trade Union Congress (www.tuc.org.uk)
The TUC provides information on a wide range of equal opportunities issues including sex equality, equal pay, rights and part-timer's rights. Their website can also provide material on women in the labour market in the employment research area alongside information about rights at work and how discrimination law might help, via the TUCs rights area. Opportunity Now (www.bitc.org.uk)
Opportunity Now is a business-led campaign that works with employers to realise the economic potential and business benefits that women at all levels contribute to the workforce. Employers pay a fee to join and in turn the organisation can provide assistance in setting goals and auditing performance through a self-assessment benchmarking tool. Members can also enjoy access to shared research and comparative indicators to help tackle gender discrimination at work. Opportunity Now also recognises outstanding examples of best practice in an annual award scheme. This campaign places a significant emphasis on the business case approach to gender equality although membership is small and only 300 or so employers take advantage of the opportunity to benchmark their practice against others. The Diversity Directory (www.diversityuk.co.uk)
48
The Diversity Directory connects employers with equality consultancies and has been used by employers in the public, private and voluntary sectors for more than a decade. It provides employers with up-to-date information about consultancies working in equality and diversity and subscribers to The Diversity Directory also have access to an on-line forum which links colleagues in the diversity world, including the hundred plus equality and diversity consultancies that it profiles. Users can post information, share concerns, and give and receive help with day-to-day problems.
6.2.3 Workplace sources of evidence In some equality areas there is a legislative requirement for employing organisations to monitor for equality and diversity. In 2000, for example, the UK Government introduced a positive duty on public sector bodies to promote race equality in the aftermath of the Stephen Lawrence enquiry. However the scope and consistency of the information collected, stored and monitored by organisations varies considerably (Audit Commission 2002). In private sector companies, where there is no statutory requirement to publish monitoring data, a recent survey conducted by the Confederation of British Industry found that the majority of companies (83 percent) reported having written equal opportunities policies but only 40 per cent reported carrying out regular monitoring, and even fewer (30 per cent) trained line managers in implementing the policy itself (CBI and Pertemps 2003). In any individual employing organisation, some or all of the following types of evidence may currently be collected.
Data on current employees including length of employment, qualification level, information relating to pay, promotion and progression of staff.
Monitoring of the ethnicity, sex, disability, religion or belief, sexual orientation and age of employees who have been disciplined, brought a grievance, been harassed or informally complained of discrimination on any grounds.
Monitoring of relevant policies, practices and procedures relating to equal opportunities.
Employing Organisations may also set internal and external benchmarks to assess the composition of the workforce across categories and grades of staff, applicant and appointment rate across job roles or promotion within and between different categories of staff. Furthermore, in organisations where equality practice is well developed, there are a number of ways in which quantitative and qualitative data might be collected, including conducting attitudinal staff surveys, employee focus groups and exit interviews, alongside networking with sector or cross sector groups to share and promote best practice.
6.2.4 Academic and practitioner research The body of knowledge within academic research on gender equality in the workplace also provides a wealth of evidence in relation to gender and discrimination in the workplace. Publications in this field include:
Studies of sources of discrimination in employment from different perspectives (Hoque and Noon 2002)
Theoretical explanations of the barriers to gender equality at work (Walby 1997), (Newman 2002) 49
Theoretical models for removing organisational barriers (Ozbilgin 2000)
Case studies (Jewson 1995)
Findings from evaluation and audit of individual organisations or employment sectors (Cunningham, Lord et al. 1999)
Approaches to improving policies at work (Yeandle, Crompton et al. 2002)
Studies of women’s experiences of discrimination, including pay (Cockburn 1989), (Bruegal 1995)
There has been little attempt to date, however, to provide a systematic review of the disparate and fragmented nature of such evidence, to present an overview in a userfriendly form or to provide clear directions as to how such evidence might be gathered and utilised. At present, therefore, it remains relatively marginalised from mainstream employment practice. This is due in large part to the ascendance of the business case approach to equality in the workplace in which only one particular dimension of practice is regarded as legitimate.
6.2.5 Informal knowledge and experience Policy-makers, managers and trainers in the field of gender equality also bring into play their own informal pockets of knowledge and experience in terms of policy and practice. This includes knowledge of the kinds of systems and processes traditionally used to implement legislation or promote initiatives, including the work-based practices that hinder or divert progress in these areas. In recent years, new equality legislation ushered in by European Union directives has reinforced what might be called a ‘legal-behavioural’ approach to equality in order to ensure compliance with new statutory requirements. Networking between policy-makers and practitioners has focused predominantly on sharing informal knowledge and experience as a pragmatic way of implementing new legal requirements rather than on seeking a wider, evidence based approach to developing policy and practice. Even in organisations that have moved beyond mere compliance towards a more pro-active and enabling culture, the paradigm of informal practitioner knowledge still shapes and directs the key approaches to tackling discrimination. There is, therefore, little critical appraisal of the way informal knowledge (rather than evidence) has created an assumed causal relationship between workplace policies designed to address gender discrimination and the benefits these policies bring to business.
6.3 The evidence base for key policy themes As covered in Chapter 3, approaches to tackling gender discrimination in employment take place at a variety of levels within the UK at present. Less evident, however, is the extent to which current priorities reflect the general drive toward defining and strengthening the relationship between academic research and practitioner-based evidence and the policy-making process. Questions remain therefore, as to the existence and availability of evidence to support policy and practice in the field. In response, this section attempts to compile and categorise the evidence base for employers and policy makers into six broad policy themes.
The “Business Case”
Work-Life balance 50
Gender pay gap
Occupational Segregation
Impact of caring responsibilities
The glass ceiling
6.3.1 The “Business Case” An increasingly popular argument used to support current policy drives toward greater equality in employment is the “business case” for an equal and diverse workforce. The business case argues that in order to remain competitive and profitable, it is in the employers’ best interest to take appropriate steps to ensure that their organisation reflects the modern business environment. In relation to gender for example, women now make up nearly half the workforce in the UK, double the numbers of 25 years ago. Furthermore, projections show that in less than ten years’ time there will be two million more jobs in the economy, eighty per cent of which will be filled by women (Women and Equality Unit 2003). The business case argument also reflects the changing way in which businesses are valued today. For example, companies like Microsoft have 90 per cent of their market value represented by non-tangible assets such as intellectual capital, talent, reputation, leadership and the ability of management to execute strategy in a complex and changing business environment (Opportunity Now 2001). Whilst there is no direct policy campaign in relation to the business case for equality in employment, it is a philosophy that appears to underlie many policy strands. For example, the DTIs Flexible Working: The Business Case (Department of Trade and Industry 2003), uses a case study approach to promote the merits of flexible working practices. Tangible benefits reported include improvements to customer service, staff stress and absenteeism and recruitment costs. In doing so, this helps to reinforce the Governments overall economic ambition of ‘prosperity for all’. Other leading campaigns in this area include the work of Opportunity Now, a business-led movement that works with employers to realise the economic potential and business benefits that women at all levels contribute to the workforce. Current evidence relating to the business case for equality and diversity falls into a number of broad themes. 6.3.1.1 Meeting the needs of customers
First, it is argued that a truly customer driven business must acknowledge the diverse nature of the UK as every single person is a potential business customer. In essence, this is based on demographic statistical evidence that demonstrates the rapid pace of change of today’s business environment. The 2001 census showed, for example, that the minority ethnic population now accounts for nearly 8% of the UK population, and that by 2014, there will be more people over 65 in the UK than under 16. The Women and Equality Unit argue it therefore stands to reason that businesses with a diverse workforce are likely to attract a wider customer base, have the ability to recognise new potential markets and to provide a better, more tailored service to meet individual needs. The WEU also emphasise the fact that the development of new technologies and the need to provide services seven days a week have put additional demands on business. As a result, organisations that embrace diverse working patterns will be able to provide the greater flexibility demanded by customers. 6.3.1.2 Recruitment and retention benefits
Second, research has focused on the beneficial impact that promoting equality in business has on recruitment and retention rates. From a recruitment point of view, for example, in just seven years only a third of the workforce will be male and under 45 (Office of National Statistics 1998). Furthermore the National Employers Skills Survey 51
2003 (Institute for Employment Research and IFF Research Limited 2004) found that almost one in ten of all establishments found it hard to fill vacancies. It is therefore argued that there are clear competitive benefits to be gained by employers who take every step to ensure they recruit from the widest possible talent pool. For example, in terms of the working practices offered by modern businesses, it is increasingly the case that employees want (and need) to be able to balance their work and home lives. There are tangible cost implications attached to this issue. A recent survey found that over a fifth of senior women in UK organisations said they would change jobs for more flexible working arrangements (Opportunity Now 2000). Furthermore, recruitment costs of replacing an individual have been estimated at £4,000 and Lloyds TSB, for example, estimates that it costs in the region of £50,000 to replace a senior woman manager (Department of Trade and Industry 2003). To a certain extent, studies appear to validate this argument. A report from the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Olgiati E and Shapiro G 2002)provides a clear picture of actual outcomes of equality actions. All of the 21 indepth case studies carried out in public and private sector organisations cross-nationally had achieved positive outcomes for women through implementing equality action. Evidence collected by the researchers demonstrated increases in applications from women, most notably in the IT sector. In addition, it has been reported that British Telecom’s flexible working policy has resulted in a 96% return rate for women taking maternity leave (Rutherford and Ollerearnshaw 2002). Furthermore family-friendly initiatives, introduced by HSBC, were followed by a substantial increase (over 50%) in the number of women returning to work after maternity leave and this in turn generated savings in recruitment and training costs (Opportunity Now 2001). Policies that can enable women to engage in employment have also been found to bring business benefits. However businesses benefit in other ways from taking action on diversity and equality. According to Government research, in addition to the benefits related to better recruitment and retention, it also helps to promote improved staff morale and performance. That, in turn, can reduce absenteeism and labour turnover by enhancing employees’ attachment to the organisation and as such, can have a positive effect on productivity (Rutherford and Ollerearnshaw 2002). 6.3.1.3 Aid to business competitiveness
Third, some research studies have shown that organisations with high quality human resources or personnel systems deliver better products and services and ultimately better shareholder value. A diverse team will also bring different talents to the workplace as they enhance the ability of a business to innovate and thus maintain a competitive edge. A recent survey of financial analysts by (Opportunity Now 2001) showed that innovation was rated one of the top ten (non-financial) variables crucial to the success of a business. American research has also found a link between diversity and investment performance. Companies with women executives have been found to have better short term performance, three year stock value and growth in earnings per share than companies with all male management after an Initial Public Offering (Opportunity Now 2001). However, in quantitative terms, linking diversity performance with overall business performance can be fraught with difficulty. This is because, to be meaningful and comprehensive issues such as people management, increased creativity and the more 52
effective use of human capital need to be measured in addition to more easily quantifiable benefits such as reduced staff turnover, absence and costs (Rutherford and Ollerearnshaw 2002). Furthermore a host of other factors, in addition to strategies implemented to promote a diverse and equal workforce, may contribute to a particular outcome. As a result it may not be possible to attribute improved business performance to the implementation of equality and diversity initiatives. To meet this challenge a range of “Diversity Metrics” (tools for measuring the impact of addressing equality and diversity issues) are emerging. These include the collection and analysis of workforce data, attitudinal surveys, diversity scorecards and measures of individual behaviours related to diversity and equality (Rutherford and Ollerearnshaw 2002).
6.3.2 Work-Life Balance There appears to be growing recognition of the need for employers to better support the “work-life balance” of UK employees. This is a particular employment issue for women in the labour market as research carried out by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development showed that they are three times more likely than men to change their working patterns. The main reason cited for reducing the numbers of hours worked or requesting more flexible working for women is parental responsibilities (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2003). Employers that fail to offer flexible working practices are therefore in effect restricting their potential workforce from large numbers of females in the labour market (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2003). Statistical evidence shows clearly that the proportion of UK employees working long hours has increased over the last decade, primarily due to the increased use of overtime both paid and unpaid. Eleven per cent of employees in the UK currently work long hours (classified as over 48 hours a week), with men being significantly more likely to work long hours than women. In addition to the various pieces of legislation which govern current policies in this area, the Government has related campaigns aimed at setting the framework which will allow employers, on a mainly voluntary basis, to introduce the organisational settings which aim to improve their employees’ work-life balance while maintaining their business goals (Arthur 2002). The Work-Life Balance campaign is part of the Government's nonlegislative agenda for employment relations policy. Introduced in 2000, the campaign focuses on researching and disseminating best practice to industry and business. It aims to help staff become better motivated and more productive because they are able to balance their work with other aspects of their lives. As stated by the Women and Equality Unit, “An effective work-life balance not only benefits individuals, but employers who take action on work-life balance report improvements in retention, morale and productivity”. Research around work-life balance has been carried out by a variety of organisations with differing agendas, and therefore the evidence base remains understandably mixed. The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions has conducted a number of key pieces of research into this area that include data for the UK alongside other European countries. The First and Second Work-Life Balance Employee Surveys provide a substantial body of evidence in relation to monitoring developments in employment practice in the field of work-life balance, and in the case of the second 2003 survey, provide a baseline against which the effectiveness of new employment legislation in this area at national Government level can be measured. It is thought that a third survey will be published in around two years time. Apart from the Government’s WorkLife Balance Campaign, a number of studies have demonstrated the benefits to be gained from implementing best practice in family friendly and flexible working (Bevan, 53
Dench et al. 1999), (Scheibl 1999); (Bond 2002);(Yeandle, Crompton et al. 2002), (Yeandle, Crompton et al. 2002), (Gray 2002). These include:
Improved recruitment and retention
Improved customer relations
Better productivity
Better motivated staff
A more flexible and adaptable workforce
Better staff relations
Improved local or national reputation
6.3.2.1 Better for staff
The main advantages cited by employers of flexible working practices included a 'happier staff/workforce’, plus benefits more closely associated with the productivity of the workforce such as ‘greater staff retention’ and ‘greater staff motivation’. Indeed, a recent DTI study found that almost all employers (94 per cent) agreed that 'people work best when they can balance their work and other aspects of their lives' (Woodland, Simmonds et al. 2003). However actual references to productivity were rare, as were benefits accruing from lower absenteeism (two per cent), which is often cited as a key area where performance gains can be achieved from assisting in work-life balance. While most employers were able to cite some benefits from providing practices that aided employee work-life balance, nevertheless, around a fifth (21 per cent) saw no benefits (Woodland, Simmonds et al. 2003). Interestingly when an Industrial Society survey asked the same question of human resources and personnel specialists the results were very different – 44 per cent said flexible work practices reduced absenteeism and only one per cent said there were no advantages (The Industrial Society 2001). A particular example of direct benefits to an organisation is demonstrated by the experience at King’s College Hospital. King’s introduced flexible working arrangements as a response to issues around retention which led to staff shortages. It reported that the flexible working scheme had assisted with the retention of staff, and in particular, female staff (Miller and Neathey 2004). 6.3.2.2 Better for business
Further confirmation that the provision of flexible working and leave arrangements was associated with higher workplace performance was found when comparing estimates of financial performance and labour turnover. In terms of financial performance, almost two-fifths (39 per cent) of workplaces that had four or more flexible practices and leave arrangements perceived that it was at least better than that of other similar workplaces in the same industry. Workplaces with two or three or fewer practices were significantly less likely to perceive financial performance to be above average relative to their competitors (35 per cent and 30 per cent respectively). One reason why the provision of work-life balance practices was not more widespread than it might otherwise have been, was that these practices were perceived as costly to implement. There is a perception that introducing flexible working practices represents an unduly costly commitment for employers. Contrary to popular belief, however, research appears to show how even small businesses can benefit from working arrangements that enable employees to balance their work and home lives. A report by The Institute for Employment Studies showed that some small businesses save up to £250,000 on their budget, simply by using family-friendly work policies. One company 54
claimed profitability was up by 37% and another estimated savings of nearly £250,000 by reducing staff turnover (Institute for Employment Studies 2000). This finding is echoed by the DTI’s research which found that where a new flexible working practice or practices had been introduced, a large majority of employers (76 per cent) reported that there had been no set-up costs and perhaps even more surprisingly, just under three-quarters of employers (71 per cent) said there were no ongoing costs associated with flexible working. 6.3.2.3 Long hours and women workers
A recent Government report examining the issues behind the long hours working culture, showed little robust statistical evidence in relation to the link between length of hours worked and productivity, work performance, motivation, absence and turnover (Kodz, Davis et al. 2003). However, self-reporting and organisational case studies suggest that long working hours has a negative effect on motivation, absence and turnover. However in relation to gender, this study found more concrete evidence that in organisations characterised by systemic long hours working, women’s careers may be restricted. Overall, the findings suggest that long hours working puts women under greater amounts of pressure and has a greater negative impact on their health, well-being and satisfaction with life than it does for men. 6.3.2.4 Issues around flexible working practices
At the same time, it must be stressed that the evidence around the impact on businesses of implementing work-life balance initiatives is not all positive. According to the DTIs Second Work-Life Balance Survey ((Woodland, Simmonds et al. 2003), the most commonly cited problem with flexible working practices was that sections get left shortstaffed (22 per cent). Otherwise, a myriad of problems was mentioned, most of which were specific to the workplace rather than applicable to all or many workplaces. Only around a quarter (28 per cent) of employers reported that they had 'no problems' arising from providing flexible working and leave arrangements (Woodland, Simmonds et al. 2003). Equally there are documented gaps in the current evidence base around the case for flexible working practices. In particular, there is little known about the impact of the managerial role on employment practice or in general, around managers’ attitudes to supporting work-life balance schemes. A further area of weakness is the lack of research qualifying the impact on disabled people or other minority groups (Arthur 2002).
6.3.3 Gender Pay Gap Despite considerable progress over the past few decades, it remains the case that women today still earn around 81% of the average full-time earnings of men, widening to 75% if calculated on a weekly basis (EOC 2003). Looking at lifetime earnings, recent research calculates that this gap may be far greater (Bernstein 2004). As stated on the Women and Equality Unit website, “this ‘pay gap’ isn't just bad news for women. It means that women's abilities and skills are not being fully utilised in businesses and in the economy”. There is a vast body of statistical evidence available to policy makers and practitioners, that illustrates the extent of the current gender pay gap in relation to different employment sectors and types of work. There has also been an extensive body of research carried our into the key causes of the pay gap, most notably by the Women and Equality Unit and the Equal Opportunities Commission (Equal Pay Task Force 2001; Women and Equality Unit 2001). Some of the key statistics available are summarised to follow. Data in this section is taken from The Gender Pay Gap (Women and Equality Unit 2001).
55
6.3.3.1 Full and part-time workers
Statistics show that there is significant variation between full and part-time earnings, with the pay gap particularly pronounced in relation to part-time female workers. Women working part-time have lower average hourly earnings than women who work full-time and when male earnings are taken into consideration, there is a particularly large difference between the average hourly earnings of women who work part-time and men who work full-time, resulting in a gender pay gap of 41 per cent. In 2001, amongst fulltime employees, more than twice the proportion of women (27 per cent) than men (12 per cent) earned under £250 per week. In contrast, 16 per cent of men, compared with 6 per cent of women, earn £700 or more per week. Moreover, the Office for National Statistics has estimated that in Spring 2002, over twice as many women as men were employed in jobs that paid below the National Minimum Wage (230 thousand women, compared with only 110 thousand men). Progress in this area appears slow. The gender pay gap in hourly earnings for full-time employees narrowed from 28 per cent in 1982 to 20 percent in the mid 1990s, but has hardly changed at all since then. Moreover, the difference in hourly earnings between women who work part-time and men who work fulltime has hardly changed since 1975 and is as wide now as it was in the late 1970s. 6.3.3.2 Sectors and industries
Average weekly earnings are higher for men in the private sector than the public sector, although the opposite is the case for women. Consequently, the gender pay gap is much wider in the private sector (29 per cent) than in the public sector (16 per cent). A major factor behind this wider gender pay gap in the private sector appears to to be the differing representation of women in the three highest paid occupational groups (managers and administrators, professional occupations and associate professional and technical occupations) in the two sectors. In the public sector, in Spring 2000, women comprised 53 per cent of full-time employees in these groups combined. The equivalent figure for the private sector was only 27 per cent. In relation to variation within individual industries, average hourly earnings are highest for men working full-time in banking, insurance and pension provision and for women in this industry and in education. They are lowest for both women and men in hotels and restaurants and in agriculture, hunting and forestry. The gender pay gaps for hourly and weekly earnings are widest in banking, insurance and pension provision (both 46 per cent). 6.3.3.3 Occupations
The gender pay gap in hourly earnings is wider for both manual occupations (24 per cent) and non-manual occupations (30 per cent) than overall. This is because a higher proportion of female than male full-time employees are employed in non-manual occupations where average earnings are generally higher. In Spring 2000, 79 per cent of women working full-time, but only 54 per cent of men who did so, were employed in nonmanual occupations. The female part-time/male full-time pay gap was also particularly wide in non-manual occupations (49 per cent); this compared with only 32 per cent in manual occupations. Amongst the nine major occupational groups, average hourly earnings of full-time employees were highest for men working as managers and administrators and for women in professional occupations. They were lowest for both sexes in other (manual) occupations. Men had higher average hourly earnings than women in all nine groups, but the extent of the gender pay gap varied considerably. It was particularly wide for managers and administrators (30 per cent) and in sales occupations (28 per cent) and narrowest in clerical and secretarial occupations (2 per cent). Men made up the majority of employees in the five highest paid occupations, but women predominated in four of the five lowest paid. Average hourly earnings of women 56
and men working part-time in these low paid occupations were often particularly low (under £5 per hour in catering occupations). 6.3.3.4 Ethnicity and disability
According to the Women and Equality Unit, hourly earnings of full-time employees in the UK varied by ethnic group in 2001-02. Minority ethnic women and men earned £9.50 and £10.45 per hour on average, although the WEU urge that the small sample sizes mean that these figures should be treated with caution. This compared with £8.82 and £10.71 respectively for white women and men. The higher full-time earnings of minority ethnic women meant that the gender pay gap was smaller in this group. In relation to disability, in 2002, women and men working full-time who were defined as work-limiting disabled had lower average earnings than those who were defined as Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) disabled only or not disabled; moreover, women had lower average earnings than men in all three groups. 6.3.3.5 Marital and parental status
In 2001, women who were single had lower average hourly earnings than those who were either married / cohabiting or separated, divorced or widowed; the pattern for men was the same. However, the gender gap for all employees was widest in the married/cohabiting group (27 per cent). The gap was wider than for full-time employees because a high proportion of married/cohabiting women work part-time and they have lower earnings on average. The gender pay gap for all employees was higher for those with dependent children (31 per cent) than without (18 per cent). Amongst those with dependent children, the pay gap went from 22 per cent for parents of 0-2 year olds up to 35 per cent for parents of dependent children aged 11 or over. 6.3.3.6 Qualification levels
Average hourly earnings increase steadily for both women and men as highest qualifications rise. Amongst full-time employees, there were similar gender pay gaps for each qualification level; for example, the gender pay gap for full-time employed graduates (i.e. those with a degree or equivalent) was 19 per cent, while the gap for those with no qualifications was 18 per cent. Women with a degree or equivalent qualification had double the average hourly earnings of those with no qualifications; the pattern was the same for men. There is a considerable difference between the average annual earnings of female and male graduates in the youngest age group (those aged 20-24); recent EOC research has shown that in 1999-2000, earnings of men in this age group were 15 per cent higher than those of women. 6.3.3.7 Key Causes of the Pay Gap
Research identifies the key drivers behind the gender pay gap. It finds that the reasons for the pay gap are complex and interconnected (Equal Pay Task Force 2001; Women and Equality Unit 2001). Key factors include:
Human capital differences: Historical differences in the levels of qualifications held by men and women have contributed to the pay gap. However, women are still more likely than men to have breaks from paid work to care for children and other dependants. These breaks impact on women's level of work experience, which in turn impacts on their pay rates.
Part-time working: The pay gap between men and women's part time hourly earnings and men's full time hourly earnings is particularly large and, because so 57
many women work part-time, this is a major contributor to the gender pay gap. Some of this gap is due to part-time workers having lower levels of qualifications and less work experience. However, it is also due to part-time work being concentrated in less well-paid occupations.
Travel patterns: On average, women spend less time commuting than men. This may be because of time constraints due to balancing work and caring responsibilities. This can impact on women's pay in two ways: a smaller pool of jobs to choose from and /or lots of women wanting work in the same location (i.e. near to where they live) which leads to lower wages for those jobs.
Occupational segregation: Women's employment is highly concentrated in certain occupations (60 per cent of working women work in just 10 occupations). And those occupations, which are female-dominated, are often the lowest paid. In addition, women are still under-represented in the higher paid jobs within occupations - the "glass ceiling" effect.
Workplace segregation: At the level of individual workplaces, high concentrations of female employees are associated with relatively low rates of pay. And higher levels of part-time working are associated with lower rates of pay, even after other factors have been taken into account. Other factors that affect the gender pay gap include: job grading practices, appraisal systems, reward systems and retention measures, wagesetting practices and discrimination.
6.3.4 Impact of Caring Responsibilities Caring responsibilities continue to have a far more profound impact on women’s employment opportunities when compared with male workers. Such responsibilities have been identified as a major factor disadvantaging women’s ability to compete in the workplace (Moss, van Ewijk et al. 2002). Current research highlights issues around the provision of childcare, attitudes of employers and the particular ways in which caring responsibilities impact on women’s perceptions of employment. 6.3.4.1 Current provision of childcare
There has been a wide body of research examining the impact of childcare on women’s ability to take advantage of paid employment and indeed the availability and quality of childcare have become increasingly important policy issues. However studies have criticised the failure of policy makers to pay enough attention to women’s preferences in organising their home and work roles (Hakim 2001) (Riley and Glass 2002) point out that although much attention has been focused on the issue of whether a ‘shortage’ of adequate childcare exists, few studies have addressed this issue in terms of the disjuncture between mother’s preferred modes of care and the types of care available. Certainly in relation to formal provision of childcare, research shows that there are extremely large disparities in the availability of places across local authorities in England and that this is generally related to differences in mothers’ employment rates (Paul and Brewer 2003). For example, families with a working mother in London and the south spend much larger weekly amounts on childcare than those in other areas of the country, although the gap in terms of the proportion of family income spent on childcare is smaller. (Wheelock and Jones 2002) explore the contribution that informal childcare (relatives, friends or neighbours looking after children, usually on an unpaid basis) makes in allowing women to work. Other studies reinforce the important role that such informal 58
childcare networks play in supporting paid employment. For example, one survey showed that the majority of workers continue to rely on family members to take the main responsibility for childcare during normal working hours but that in general, employees are able to have childcare arrangements that fit well with their working hours. However the same study did acknowledge that school holidays are more problematic for parents, with a significant proportion feeling that it is difficult to arrange childcare during these periods (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2002). 6.3.4.2 Employers and childcare
At the same time, research shows widespread dissatisfaction with the level of support employers currently provide to working parents. According to one study, almost three quarters of parents do not feel that either the Government or employers are doing enough to help and support working parents. Indeed, employees continue to have mixed experiences of employer attitudes toward parental responsibilities. Those working in the manufacturing or production industries (where women are currently under-represented) are more likely to rate their employer poorly in this respect (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2002). At present, employer–provided childcare is rare, with only 0.4 per cent of pre-school children of working mothers using these at the moment (Department for Work and Pensions 2000-2001). Research conducted in the North East of England showed that even in organisations that have introduced family-friendly working policies, significant differences remain in relation to attitudes. The major barrier identified here was the level of understanding concerning the relationship between business needs and family-friendly working (Cunningham, Dobbs et al. 2004). This is despite the fact that current research suggests that the benefits to business of taking a more proactive approach to assisting employees with childcare arrangements is clear. Employers who provide childcare referral services for their employees save an estimated £2 for every £1 they spend on the service and reduce costs, possibly by as much as £50 million in the course of a year, as a result of reduced sickness absences (Dex and Scheibl 1999). 6.3.4.3 Key impacts
Available evidence suggests that in the majority of cases, the impact of care responsibilities falls heavily upon women and that in particular, there are negative financial implications for working mothers. For example, in addition to the gender earnings gap, women who have children experience a ‘mother gap’ which represents the difference between equivalently educated women with and without children (Rake 2000) Parents, particularly women, are more likely to work at night and during the evenings than people without children or other caring responsibilities and it has therefore been suggested (Harkness 2002) that these caring responsibilities place a constraint on women’s choices of working hours. Although many women say they prefer to work parttime, this is often the only viable option open to them. Studies suggest that few mothers of young children are able to or willing to consider a journey to work lasting more than thirty minutes (McGivney 1999) therefore as a result, their employment choices are restricted to whatever short-term or part-time jobs are available in the immediate locality. This problem is exacerbated for women living in rural areas and smaller towns and villages. Furthermore, research has shown that when making decisions about childcare, parents calculate the costs of childcare against the potential earnings of the mother, rather than against the total joint income or the father’s wage. A study by Himmelweit and Sigala showed that the work has to be seen to ‘pay’: that is, parents have to see that potentially 59
there would be a reasonable amount remaining from the mother’s earnings after paying the costs of childcare, for them to decide that the purchasing of childminding services was worthwhile (Himmelweit and Sigala 2002). In addition, research carried out by the CIPD showed that women were far more likely than men to feel that having children had a negative impact on their career. Their survey found that 81% of men as opposed to 28% of women believed their career was “still on track” after having children. Whereas conversely, 28% of women but only 9% of men felt they had downgraded their career ambitions as a result of becoming a parent (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2002). This finding is echoed by the North East study which found that a major implication for the region lay in the limited career aspirations of women with care responsibilities in terms of skills loss in the regional labour market (Cunningham, Dobbs et al. 2004).
6.3.5 Occupational Segregation Despite the introduction of a range of legislation and other policy initiatives over the past three decades to tackle gender inequality in education, training and employment, it remains the case that a number of occupational sectors in the UK labour market remain strongly gender segregated. A significant proportion of jobs are still done mainly by women or mainly by men, with three-quarters of working women still found in just five occupational groups. According to EOC research, construction, ICT, engineering, plumbing and childcare are among the most strongly gender segregated sectors of the workforce in Britain (Equal Opportunities Commission 2004). For example:
Women make up just one per cent of employment in construction occupations
Women account for only eight per cent of employment in engineering occupations
Almost all nursery nurses and childminders are female.
Research confirms that the impacts of horizontal segregation are far reaching. For women, it plays a significant part in the perpetuation of the gender pay gap (Equal Pay Task Force 2001) (Forth 2002). In relation to the wider economy, it contributes to critical skills deficits in a number of occupational sectors (Equal Opportunities Commission 2004), which is a continuing concern for the UK Government. Some of the research exploring the key factors contributing to this segregation are outlined to follow. 6.3.5.1 Choices in education
Gender segregation in educational subject choice is a key factor contributing to occupational segregation, which in turn contributes to the gender pay gap and income poverty for women. Current UK data indicates that there remain deep gender divisions regarding the subject choice made by males and females at age 16. For example, three times as many males as females opt for Physics and Computer studies at higher level, with significantly fewer males taking traditionally ‘female’ subjects such as Biological Sciences, English and French (Thewlis, Miller et al. 2004). In addition, whilst overall more females apply to and are accepted for places on university courses (Equal Opportunities Commission 2004), technological and science subjects remain strongly male-dominated. Research also confirms that inequalities persist in subject choice in the vocational arena. Again, although a greater number of female candidates are currently awarded NVQs at level 3 and above, they continue to be found in a limited number of fields: ‘providing business services’; ‘providing goods and services’; and ‘providing health, social and protective services’ (Department for Education and Skills 2001).
60
In this context, the role of careers advice in actively promoting choice is significant. Research commissioned by the Equal Opportunities Commission showed that some women feel that teachers and careers advisers either actively discouraged or were unsupportive when they had showed an interest in non-traditional occupations whilst in education. Furthermore, women felt that they had not been given appropriate advice and guidance in subject choices for non-traditional routes (Dale, Jackson et al. 2005). Additionally, despite the establishment by the Government of the 14-19 Pathfinders initiative, aimed at encouraging choice and flexibility for young people in education, only around a third of providers reported actively undertaking interventions around gender (Hayes, Wragg et al. 2005). 6.3.5.2 Vocational training
There have been a variety of studies conducted recently into the issues around gender segregation in vocational training provision, most notably by the Equal Opportunities Commission (Payne 1991; DfEE and LGNTO 1998; Equal Opportunities Commission 2004; Dale, Jackson et al. 2005); (Cassels 2001) (Quality Performance and Improvement Division 1999). Key barriers to women’s participation in training identified have included:
Lack of support from teachers, careers advisors and in some cases, husbands or partners.
Women not being given appropriate advice in relation to training provision.
Women finding it much harder than their male counterparts to secure work experience placements with employers in order to complete their NVQ qualifications.
In mainstream training, a sense of isolation, often being the ‘only one’ on courses and facing inflexible hours and little support.
In the case of older women, non-eligibility for Modern Apprenticeships.
Overt and covert discrimination by employers.
6.3.5.3 Gender equality in non-traditional sectors
In addition, research indicates that key areas of employment practice in non-traditional employment sectors for women remain less well developed in relation to gender equality. For example, construction, manufacturing and transport, storage and communication continue to stand out as industries where provision of work-life balance practices is very low (Woodland, Simmonds et al. 2003). Smaller companies in particular, appear to be less likely to have appropriate policies addressing equality, in part reflecting the limitations and pressures on them as SMEs, but in some cases also a basic lack of awareness of their importance (Williams and Arshad-Mather 1999). In the construction sector, a further negative impact on the ability of national and occupational sector equality initiatives to take effect on individual employers, is the disparate and fragmented nature of the industry (Rooke, Slater et al. unpublished). Recruitment practices within these employment sectors also appear to be underdeveloped in relation to encouraging applicants from non-traditional backgrounds. EOC research found that in plumbing and construction, the prevalence of small, often family owned businesses was a major factor in perpetuating conservative 'father to son' recruitment patterns. (Fuller, Beck et al. 2005). It also showed that under half of large and only 17 per cent of small employers recruiting for Modern Apprenticeships monitored their application and recruitment processes in terms of gender. Of greater concern, a further study found that some companies in the engineering and construction sectors 61
continued to ask questions at interview stage relating to personal circumstances, which are illegal under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (Williams and Arshad-Mather 1999). Furthermore, there appears to be some reluctance amongst employers in non-traditional sectors to make more concerted efforts to tackle women’s under representation. For example, over 70% of plumbing, construction and engineering employers agreed that it was easier to train the traditional sex and small employers in particular saw the cost of installing facilities to meet the needs of the non-traditional sex as an underlying concern. In addition, the majority of employers appeared to be against the setting of gender targets and would not be persuaded by extra funding to take on non-traditional recruits (Fuller, Beck et al. 2005). 6.3.5.4 Impact on pay
Jobs which are classified as women's work command lower wages than men's work, even when they require similar qualification levels, leading to inequalities in pay and income. The European Commission has reported that the higher the employment rates of women in any sector, the lower the hourly earnings of both men and women within that sector (European Commission 2003). Across Europe, women have on average, 16% lower hourly earnings than men, ranging from below 10% in Portugal and Italy to 20% or more in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK. It is particularly high among older workers (25%), the high-skilled (22%) and those employed with supervisory job status (17%) as well as in financial services (29%), manufacturing (27%) and among craft workers (32%) (European Commission 2003). There is also a clear link between the educational choices made by women and their future earning potential. Entry to typically male subject areas like IT and the sciences is the key to entering the more lucrative section of the jobs market. Qualification subject is therefore a large contributory factor to women’s earning ability, because of the limitations it puts on potential choice of occupation available to the individual (Anderson, Forth et al. 2001). Indeed, the EOC’s Just Pay report (Equal Pay Task Force 2001) identified occupational segregation as one of the three key causes of the gender pay gap, which currently stands at eighteen per cent. Winter 2001 6.3.5.5 UK skills shortages
At the same time as training and labour markets are characterised by occupational segregation, industry is experiencing major skills shortages. Studies indicate that it is significant that those sectors which have the lowest numbers of women are also the sectors which are experiencing severe skills shortages. For example, skills shortages have recently been reported in four of these sectors, with construction having the second highest proportion of skill-shortage related vacancies out of twenty-eight industries (38.2% against an average of 19.9%) (LSC 2003). Research conducted by the EOC has also shown that the gender-segregated nature of this work contributes to the growing skills shortages brought about, partly by demographic change and also by the greater number of young people choosing to stay in education (Equal Opportunities Commission 2004). Finally, the skills gap is causing concern for Government and business because it is damaging the UK’s productivity and economy as a whole. For example, the recent Treasury assessment of the five economic tests for UK membership of the European single currency noted that a highly educated workforce with a culture of lifelong learning is more likely to adapt to economic change (HM Treasury 2003). Furthermore, the majority of employers feel that recruiting young people of the non-traditional sex into their sectors would help both solve skills shortages and in turn, would be good for business (Fuller, Beck et al. 2005). 62
6.3.6 The glass ceiling Since the mid 1990s, women’s representation amongst executives has doubled and amongst company directors it has tripled. At the same time there has been an overall increase in women working in management jobs. However, women still comprise less than a quarter of executives and only one in ten company directors. The .glass ceiling., the situation where women can see but not reach higher level jobs and so are prevented from progressing in their careers, appears still to exist in many organisations. EOC research cites a number of key contributing factors that account for the continuing low representation of women in management (Equal Opportunities Commision 2002)
Firstly, like most other occupations, there is a tendency for some types of management jobs to be associated with either women or men. For example, whilst women are comparatively well represented in personnel and the public sector, men still predominate in production management and in ICT.
Secondly, opportunities to work part-time are limited, with only six per cent of managers and senior officials employed part-time. Although it may be difficult to carry out some management functions on a part-time basis, there are still far too few opportunities for flexible working at senior levels in organisations.
Thirdly, the EOC highlights the part played by the long hours culture, which pervades many organisations and means that time spent at work can be valued more highly than what is actually achieved. Those whose family responsibilities restrict the number of hours they can spend in the office are at a particular disadvantage. In fact women in management positions are less likely than men, and women in most other jobs, to have dependent children.
6.3.6.1 Impact on Pay
Even where women have broken through the glass ceiling into management positions, their pay is often lower than that of men. The gender pay gap for managers and senior officials overall is wider than average and is even wider in some managerial sub-groups. Data from the National Management Salary Survey in 2001 revealed that the average female manager earned £34,789, while the average male manager earned £40,289. Women managers therefore earned around 86% of the average annual managerial salary of men. 6.3.6.2 Women in the Boardroom
In all UK listed companies, less than 1% of chairs are women. 4% of executive director posts (including Chief Executive Officer) are held by women. 6% of non-executive director posts (employed largely to offer strategic, specific and objective advice at board meetings) are held by women. Overall, 4% of directorships are held by women. In FTSE 100 Companies, just over one in ten non executive posts and one in 40 executive posts are held by women. Only one company had a female Chief Executive Officer, in 2002. Only 7.2% of directorships are held by women and 39 firms have no female directors. 16 of the top 20 FTSE companies had women directors, but only eight of the bottom 20 firms.
6.4 Summary Current literature refers to the importance of information to tackle organisational processes, attitudes and behaviours in order to address gender discrimination in the 63
workplace. At present, key sources and providers of evidence include Governmental and non-Governmental sources, business and community sources of information, workplace sources, academic and practitioner research and informal knowledge and experience. To varying degrees, it appears that evidence is available to support the main policy priorities around gender discrimination in the workplace. In particular, there is an extensive body of research in relation to the causes and impacts of the gender pay gap, the issues around balancing work and life for women and (in statistical terms at least) the degree of horizontal and vertical segregation currently present in the UK labour market. However research evidencing the so-called “business case” for equality and diversity appears at present to be less convincing, and a particular area of weakness is around studies to quantify the benefits in financial terms. Furthermore, despite the wealth of information available, the ability of employers, managers and equality trainers to access evidence to inform and validate the development of sound policies for gender equality in the workplace is currently limited by both the fragmented nature of the information available and the lack of focus on where the wealth of additional evidence may be gathered and utilised in the form of academic research and evaluation studies. In addition, the role that existing evidence plays in shaping and influencing policy remains unclear and therefore there may be issues around whether it is constructed on the basis of assumptions about the needs of women that does not reflect reality.
64
7. The National Policy Dimension 7.1 Introduction During this component, the researchers set out to explore the issues around the use of evidence to tackle gender discrimination in employment from a national policy maker perspective. In recognition of the geographical spread of the research, semi structured qualitative telephone interviews were undertaken between September and November 2004, with a selection of policy makers in relevant organisations. Whilst a standard set of issue based questions were asked in all cases in order that broad comparisons could be made between subjects, the semi-structured, interview guide approach allowed interviewers to probe for greater detail where necessary and to ensure that participants were interpreting the questions as intended. The aims of the interviews were to:
Explore interviewees understanding of and commitment to evidence based policy approaches within their own organisation
Gain a range of insights into and experiences of the current evidence base in relation to gender and employment.
Identify particular gaps in the evidence base or concerns around the use of evidence in policy and practice in this field.
7.1.1 Interview subjects A cross section of organisations were selected for interview, including those involved in policy making within central Government, key influential bodies with a gender and employment remit and those representing employers and employees more directly. Participants in the interviews were drawn from a variety of backgrounds ranging from senior policy advisors and officers to director level representatives of campaigning organisations. During the course of this component of the research process semi-structured telephone interviews took place with representatives of the following organisations:
Confederation of British Industry
Gender Statistics User Group
Chartered Institute of Personnel Development
Race for Opportunity
Trades Union Congress
Daycare Trust
Equal Opportunities Commission
Women and Equality Unit, Department of Trade and Industry
Fawcett Society
Fairplay Limited
Work-Life Balance Team, Department of Trade and Industry
65
7.2 Findings from the interviews 7.2.1 Use of evidence to support the development of policy At national level, there appears to be shared support for (and organisational commitment to) policies aimed at tackling a number of overlapping gender employment issues. In general, policies fell under three broad areas:
Improving overall working conditions for women: For example by reducing the pay gap, improving the pensions system in relation to women, providing better conditions for part-time workers, addressing pregnancy discrimination issues and through improvements to the minimum wage and working time directive
Tackling the causes of horizontal and vertical segregation: In particular, by increasing the representation of women in the boardroom and through improvements to training and skills initiatives for women.
Improving work life balance: This is an issue for both men and women, with an emphasis on promoting and encouraging family responsibilities through measures to tackle the cost and availability of childcare, improvements in relation to parental rights and addressing the needs of carers more widely.
Within this framework it is clear that policy and practice are informed by the two approaches of statutory policy, supported by its legal enforcement and by activities around the promotion of good practice to address gender discrimination. “Policy making is pretty well evidence-based…this is a particular concern of the current Government.” Women and Equality Unit
Within Government there is a sense that policy-making is essentially evidence-based, in part reflecting the fact that this is a particular concern of the current Government. Academics are frequently consulted and play an influential role in relation to modern policy making. For example, research carried out by the Equal Opportunities Commission on the issues surrounding occupational segregation very much influenced the Government’s current policy drive in this area. Evidence to inform policy is also gained through liaison and consultation. For example liaison between Government and employers was important in shaping the package of flexible working laws that came into effect in 2003. Furthermore the impetus behind the establishment of the new Women and Work Commission directly arose from the frustration felt at the lack of progress in a number of key gender policy areas, such as the pay gap and the position of minority ethnic women, by national policy makers. Outside Government, there is shared concern to support policy initiatives through a wide variety of evidence sources, both quantitative and qualitative. An organisation, whose remit is to enable under-represented groups to participate more fully in the labour market uses information (such as labour market trends and ward level socio-economic data) to inform the development of projects designed to support these under represented groups. “Every project we do is backed up by as much evidence as possible.” Fair Play
More generally a number of organisations reported that they had an emphasis on policy being investigation led. Interview subjects reported that sources commonly utilised included: 66
Individual organisational research that is often campaign led or designed to inform organisation strategies. The Department of Trade & Industry’s Work-Life balance survey, the work of the Gender User Statistics Group looking at the gender breakdown of councilors on behalf of the Local Government Association and the research conducted by/or on behalf of the CIPD represent examples of this kind of research.
Government research (in particular statistical evidence from the Office of National Statistics)
Academic research (used by the TUC, the Women & Equality Unit and the Fawcett Society)
Trade Union information (including member surveys)
Formal and informal networks, in particular via the Womens Budget Group.
Links with specialist lobby organisations (for example the Fawcett Society liaise with specialist lobby organisations such as the Daycare Trust and the Maternity Alliance).
Internal project steering groups within organisations
Equal Pay Reviews and other employer surveys
7.2.2 Measuring the impact of policies Within Government, the requirements of the Public Spending Assessment process mean that Departments and their sub-units are all required to actively scrutinise their progress toward top-level Government aims and objectives. For example, within the Women and Equality Unit, whilst they share the Department for Trade & Industry’s overriding objectives, the Unit is also required to set out annual tasks, broken down into objectives and milestones, which are reviewed every three to six months. An example of such monitoring is the Work Life Balance Survey administered by the Department of Trade and Industry, first run in 2000 with a follow up carried out in 2002 / 2003 and a further survey planned for two to three years time. This survey seeks the views of both employers and employees on the impact of flexible working legislation. As such it enables the impact of policy and practice to be monitored. “In addition to large scale surveys, we talk to key interested parties in order to get a feel for how things are really working in practice.” Work-Life Balance Team, DTI
Outside Government there appear to be a number of factors driving monitoring activities. A number of organisations monitor performance as a result of requirements set out by their funding body. In these cases, their activities are subject to intense scrutiny, with financial performance, direct outcomes, monitored and audited by the external funding agency. Such a framework is regarded as useful because collating information of this type enables evidence of any success to be quantified and for any strategies which are not working effectively to be identified. In turn this provides an opportunity to undertake reflective practice and use the evidence gained, through this process, to inform the future development of policy and practice. Another driver is that most organisations appear to have a concern that activities should be target-led as this enables them to develop models of what works effectively and supports the strategic application of their resources. “We monitor as much as possible….but attitudinal progress is less easy to measure.” TUC
67
The majority of those interviewed reported that their organisations use several strategies in order to monitor their own performance and their impact as opinion formers through press coverage, via internal strategic review processes and via feedback from Government. However some interviewees commented that it is often difficult to measure the real impact of their work on policy development. This is especially so for organisations which do not directly implement initiatives but are organisations that are more focused around lobbying, campaigning, promoting good practice and informing and leading debates around gender and equality. Quantifying the impact of this kind of work was regarded as more challenging than evaluating the impact of a specific initiative in a specific workplace by an employer. However, some larger organisations demonstrated an active concern to monitor trends in terms of changes in attitudes and the impact of their work in this area. Organisations did this by talking directly to young people, employers and so forth. This helped ensure that their policy recommendations are anchored in reality and that, as a result, such policy was evidenced based. “Monitoring is a key activity…it allows for the strategic application of our resources. Business in the Community also has a strong emphasis on learning.” Race for Opportunity
Within employers’ organisations, benchmarking proved a favoured method of measuring progress on equality and diversity practice. For example Business in the Community carries out an annual benchmarking exercise around equality issues. This process relies to some extent on self-assessment by the employers themselves; however employers’ organisations feel that companies’ findings are generally evidence based and that they carry out validation activities to ensure that benchmarking results reflect reality. However, whilst approaches to monitoring the performance of individual organisations varied, all interview subjects actively monitored tangible outputs of gender equality in employment. For example organisations monitor information relating to the pay gap situation using evidence related to their organisation and also use information from external sources such as specialist lobby organisations or academic institutions. In this respect, the Equal Opportunities Commission appears to be a favoured source of information on general trends and statistics. 7.2.3 Discussing and disseminating the results “We have an overriding concern to reach the widest possible audience. Dissemination is central to our work and we need to make material as accessible as possible.” Equal Opportunities Commission
Some organisations, particularly at Government level, have formal procedures and structures in place to ensure that information and findings are disseminated effectively on an internal and external basis as appropriate. Internally the Women and Equality Unit links into the wider Department for Trade & Industry and other Government departments to discuss policy submissions to be made to the relevant Minister before a policy position is adopted. Externally the Women and Equality Unit works closely with the Equal Opportunities Commission on an ongoing basis and the Gender Research Forum which helps to link the Forum into the policy making process. The Women and Equality Unit also has links into Regional Development Agencies and the Small Business Service to facilitate the discussion and dissemination of good practice. It is envisaged that Regional Development Agencies will have a significant input into the work of the Women and Equality Unit as their feedback will inform the Government’s strategic vision around equality and diversity practice. The Equal Opportunities Commission has links with employers and trades unions that enable discussion and the dissemination of
68
information. There is a marked use of email and the internet to spread information to both existing contacts and networks and to the community at large. There is evidence that organisations which focus on promoting effective human resource management also have strong links with other organisations and agencies to enable the discussion and dissemination of practice around equality. Such organisations liaise with the Department for Work & Pensions, the Home Office, the Department of Trade & Industry and academic institutions for example. A number of campaigning bodies emphasised that dissemination was a central role for the organisation and their aim was to reach the widest possible audience. As a result, such organisations reported a concern to make their material and advice accessible and practical. It also meant that events and activities to raise issues at the higher policymaking level were a crucial part of their work. Other popular means of dissemination included:
Seminars, meetings and events with stakeholders and other policy makers
Various types of publications, targeted material, key trends reports, newsletters, case studies
Using press and the media to publicise issues
Through membership of networks (such as Business in the Community)
Focused campaign work to support their activities, in order to target awareness of specific issues with individuals
7.2.4 Informing future policy “Our work on domestic violence….the findings of our a survey and the publication of a best practice guide.. have played a direct role in informing our policy response.” TUC
The interviews revealed an ongoing concern to inform policy direction through the information gained from monitoring activities and in the case of some organisations, large-scale consultation processes. Results of such activities might result in new objectives for the organisation or a revised direction in policy. A number of examples were cited where this had actually taken place, both within Government and in external organisations. For example, when finalising the details of the package of flexible working legislation, the DTI were able to solve a particular problem relating to the monitoring of employee applications for flexible working using ideas voiced at task groups of interested parties. The examples of discussion and dissemination mentioned are also examples of possible opportunities to inform future policy and practice designed to address gender discrimination. Respondents working on a more direct basis with businesses placed a strong emphasis on being part of a “learning” organisation. There was a sense that benchmarking and other investigative activities enable organisations to showcase best practice and highlight issues where policy and practitioner workshops might be appropriate in order to tackle problems.
69
7.3
Sharing policy and practice
7.3.1 Working with other policy makers All respondents reported an active concern to share research findings both with Government and other stakeholder groups, at both national and grass root level. Most interview subjects reported strong links to the Equal Opportunities Commission and where relevant, regularly used their website as a means of sharing information. As already highlighted, there was evidence that dissemination was central to the work of most organisations and they achieved these aims through a variety of mediums: attending external events and holding their own events; utilising public speaking opportunities; via their membership of various networks; and through publications and newsletters. Links were possibly less strong between policy makers, women’s organisations and those representing the business sector. However, respondents reported that this situation was changing rapidly and they were working on feeding such networks more effectively in the future (see below for evidence of this). “Links with policy makers are not particularly strong at present but this situation is changing rapidly. Business in the Community is now working on feeing into various policy making networks more effectively.” Race for Opportunity
7.3.2 Working with research centres There appear to be well-established links between Government and the research community, supported in particular by the Gender Research Forum and Women’s Budget Group. Most respondents reported that they rely to some extent on commissioning research from external agencies. With smaller organisations, links appeared to operate on a more ad hoc basis, liaising with academics on specific issues as necessary. One subject commented that harnessing the relevant information in this area was challenging. 7.3.3 Working with employers Within Government, there appears to be a well-established practice of working with both employer organisations and employers. In recent years, the WEU has made a concerted effort to work with employers, in order to share best practice in particular. Its relationship with the Small Business Service is an example of this approach. The majority of other organisations interviewed, reported that they work with trades unions, employer organisations and relevant regional networks where possible, as opposed to individual employers. “Traditionally this has not been an area of much activity for the us but is likely to become more of a priority in the future.” Fawcett Society
For some, working with employers on a direct basis has traditionally not been an area of much activity and there appears to be a reliance on links through other organisations, for example the EOC. In general only the employer organisations reported that the main focus of their activities was working with employers themselves. However a number of interview subjects felt that this area of activity is likely to become more of a priority in the future. Indeed there is some evidence that links are developing. For example the Gender User Statistics Group have been approached by a small business wishing to access gender networks in their area. Generally the links between policy makers, academic institutions and employers are important as they create an opportunity for the
70
development of policy and practice to address gender discrimination that is informed by an evidenced based approach. 7.3.4 Main medium used to inform policy development There appears to be a reliance on existing networks and contacts in order to inform policy. Whilst specifically respondents did not raise this issue, it is a potential concern that such a networking approach is limited within their own particular sectors and so may fail to facilitate evidence and policy development between the various forums (Government, academia, public and private sector). Organisations also used internal and external publications, their own website and the internet in general and the media. 7.4
Looking to the future
7.4.1 The current evidence base To varying degrees, the majority of interview subjects agreed that the current evidence base is unsatisfactory and that, as such, it can act as a barrier to the development and use of an evidenced based approach. Views varied as to whether this was due to gaps in the evidence base or problems with using information already in existence. A number were of the opinion that the evidence needed to support gender and employment policy development is in essence already there but is often difficult to find. As a result it is felt that some issues are difficult to monitor or measure. Particular frustrations were voiced about the quality of statistical information that is currently available and the need for statistical evidence to be disaggregated. At the other end of the spectrum, there was a sense that the evidence relating to some areas of concern was easily accessible and widely acknowledged. “The causes of the gender pay gap are widely understood and the extent of the gap is widely known but there is little being done to close it. There are only so many times the pay gap can be measured!” TUC “We are more concerned that Government emphasis should be on policy action rather than conducting more reviews etc in order to get more evidence”. Fawcett Society
7.4.2 What needs to be done Looking at the current approach to gathering and utilising evidence in the area of gender and employment, a number of key issues were highlighted. It was felt by policy makers and practitioners that a number of issues need to be addressed to create an evidence base that meets the needs of various stakeholders and that can be easily accessed. In turn this will enable an evidenced based approach to address gender discrimination to be developed. 7.4.2.1 Strategic approach to evidence
“The key question should be – what evidence do we actually need?” Equal Opportunities Commission
“There is obviously a great deal of research being carried out but the material is all over the place.” Race for Opportunity
A number of interview subjects feel that whilst potentially, there is a significant body of research available, in reality the material is widely dispersed and fragmented. There is a concern that when examining a particular policy area, Government does not spend enough time integrating and evaluating new and existing research before commissioning 71
new work. Subjects commented that unless this is done more successfully, there will always be a presumption that Government knows which research questions need to be asked in order to solve policy issues when this may not actually be the case. 7.4.2.2 Improve links between policy makers, academics and employers “We need better communication between policy makers and the research community.” Women and Equality Unit
A number of respondents commented that improved links between policy makers and the research community would help to address some of the concerns about the current evidence base. The need for improvements to the information routinely provided by employers was also raised. One subject commented that the focus and indeed success of equality policies at the employer level is often down to a particular individual within an organisation. As a result, if such issues are not a particular concern for that individual, far less information is available. In relation to specific gaps in the evidence base, interview subjects highlighted the following key areas for improvement: 7.4.2.3 Better regional information “Availability of information at the regional level is a particularly problematic area.” DTI, WEU
The need for an improved evidence base at the regional and local level was a recurring theme. A number of interviewees commented that as a result of the sheer quantity of regional agencies at present, there is a lack of clarity as to their individual responsibilities in relation to the evidence base. 7.4.2.4 Evidence to support the business case
In terms of specific policy initiatives, some interview subjects commented that building the business case for equality and diversity is made extremely difficult by the lack of sound, supportive evidence. Particular concerns were expressed that the argument to support a business case for gender equality in the workplace is not currently backed up in a quantifiable way. 7.4.2.5 Improved statistical data
An area highlighted for dramatic improvement was the need for greater disaggregation of existing and future statistical information. In this area, a number of subjects were of the opinion that whilst there are a number of data sets in existence that are potentially of interest, these are not currently being broken down in ways that would make them useful. This was a concern not just in relation to information broken down by gender, but also in respect of disaggregation along race and socio-demographic lines. Suggested improvements include regional and local statistics disaggregated by gender and income and statistics that enable the impact of policy on women to be seen (as compared to its impact on men). Additional concern voiced was that statistics are inadequately referenced in publications and sometimes used out of context or when out of date. “Often it is difficult to trace the origin of a particular statistic in order to check it’s validity.” Daycare Trust
72
7.4.2.6 Tackling excluded groups of women
“My personal perception is that one of the key challenges for the UK is to integrate the race and gender diversity agendas and engage more alienated and hard to reach gender groups.” Race for Opportunity Additional gaps in the evidence base highlighted by the majority of those interviewed, relate to the need for more information about the views and position of low paid women and those outside employment; women with low levels of educational attainment; and black and ethnic minority women. One respondent felt that the debate to date has concentrated on childcare issues as having the major impact on women in the labour market. However in relation to well-educated, professional women this is now not the key equality issue. Of greater concern is determining the barriers to employment that exist for excluded groups of work and the polarisation that exists between such groups. 7.5
Summary
The interviews with national policy makers and practitioners demonstrated that an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination in employment is being practiced at this level, both within and outside of Government. Policy makers and practitioners recognise the benefits of using this approach and are keen to develop it further. This approach is facilitated by good links between Government, practitioners and employers and central Government appears to play an important role in driving forward the development of evidenced based practice in other organisations. Furthermore, the impact of policy and practice is monitored in a range of organisations at the national level and the evidence this monitoring generates, appears to inform future policy development. There is positive evidence of formal and informal networking to facilitate the discussion and dissemination of evidenced based practice in Government and these play an important part in contributing to the development of policy and practice around equality and diversity. At the same time, on occasion these networks can be ad hoc and the links to business sector in particular appear to be less robust, although the Government is keen to work with employers. Furthermore, it appears that over-use is made of existing networks and this may serve to limit practice sharing and wider development of an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination. In particular, stronger links between policy makers, practitioners and businesses are important to promote evidenced based practice more widely. Finally, it is felt that there are significant gaps in the current evidence base and that there are additional issues around accessibility that act as a major barrier to the successful use of evidence in developing policy and practice. Necessary improvements highlighted included easier access to evidence, the development of a stronger business case for equality and diversity and the need for gender disaggregated statistics.
73
8. The Regional Experience 8.1 Introduction During this component, the researchers set out to explore the issues around the use of evidence to tackle gender discrimination in employment at a regional level. This employed a case study approach, focusing on the North East, East of England and South East regions. Through a series of interviews, in-depth investigations and workshops, the research team aimed to identify the extent to which regional policymakers, employers, managers and training providers currently seek out evidence to help inform best practice and in turn, work with regional policy-makers, employers, managers and training providers to identify mechanisms for accessing evidence that are sound, user-friendly, and easily accessible.
8.2 Methodology 8.2.1 Interviews with policy makers, practitioners and employers A series of semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted in order to allow the research team to gather views about organisational and individual practitioner experiences of evidence based practice along with information about related policy and practice development within the three selected regions. Initially, over sixty organisations across the three regions were contacted, drawn from the public, private and voluntary sector. In response to our request to take part in a telephone interview twenty-nine individuals did so. Feedback from those unable to participate in the interviews indicated that this was in the main either due to excessive work pressures or because the organisations concerned felt that their work around addressing gender discrimination was at such an early stage that they could not meaningfully contribute to the research at this point in time. Between October 2004 and February 2005, a total of twenty nine telephone interviews were conducted across the selected case study regions with representatives of a wide range of organisations, including those with a regional policy making remit, human resource practitioners, organisations with an equality and diversity remit and employers from a variety of sectors. In response to the wishes of the majority of interviewees, the findings have been anonymised. Participants in the interviews are therefore identified only in relation to their broad employment sector background. 8.2.1.1 Employing organisations that took part in the regional interviews
North East: Financial Institution
A number of local authorities
Freelance Diversity Practitioner
Emergency Services
Equality Organisation
Disability Skills Organisation
Major Retailer
Government Office
A number of NHS Trusts
Road haulage business
Regional Assembly
East of England: 74
Regional Assembly
People Management Consultancy
A number of businesses in the automotive sector
Local Authority
Development Agency
South East: National supplier of energy and related services
Business Consultancy
Employers’ Organisation
A number of local authorities
Airport Management Business
Development Agency
University The specific aim of the interviews was to explore the extent to which evidence is currently used to inform the development of employment policy and practice across the selected regions, with a particular focus on the public versus private sector experience. In doing so, the researchers sought to:
Identify the factors that impact on the adoption or otherwise of an evidence-based approach.
Investigate the level of monitoring of the effectiveness of employment policy and practice to tackle gender discrimination currently undertaken.
Explore the extent to which evidence is shared and disseminated within the region.
Gain a range of insights into the quality and availability of the existing evidence base.
In conjunction with the initial round of regional interviews, researchers also sought to explore the experiences of employing an evidence-based approach at the organisational level in greater depth. In order to achieve this, follow-up semi-structured interviews were held with the following employing organisations from across the case study regions:
NHS Trust in the North East
Engineering company in the East of England
Local authority in the South East
Car rental group in the South East
University in the South East
75
8.2.2 Workshops with Practitioner Networks The final stage of the regional fieldwork involved a series of workshops to discuss the interim findings and develop recommendations with employers and human resource practitioners in the case study regions. In total, the research team contacted eight networks and forums across the three case study regions. Out of these, four groups agreed to take part in the research:
Equality & Diversity Forum (North East)
Equality & Diversity Network (East of England)
Major Employers Human Resources Function (South East)
Performance Through Inclusion (South East)
8.3 North East interview findings 8.3.1 Use of evidence to support the development of employment policy and practice “An evidence based approach is not embedded at the moment but it will be.” Local Authority
Interviews showed that to a varying degree, the work of policy makers, employers and equality practitioners in the North East is informed by an evidenced-based approach. Overall, it appears that organisations in the public sector tend to have more comprehensively developed strategies that form part of a wider performance management framework. In the private sector the picture appears to be more mixed. Within the public sector, strategies designed to address gender equality in the workplace often form part of wider initiatives to modernise public services and address all forms of discrimination, rather than as stand alone equality and diversity policies. For example, a number of NHS Care Trusts that took part in the regional interviews, discussed their use of evidence to tackle gender discrimination through their implementation of the “Positively Diverse Initiative” (NHS Employers 2005) “Positively Diverse” is a national organisational development programme that aims to change the culture of NHS organisations by enabling them to develop a strategic approach to addressing equality and diversity issues. In the North East, Trusts are gathering evidence to inform the future development of equality and diversity practice through both an audit process and organisational staff surveys. Any issues emerging from this process will then be examined by a specially appointed steering group and will in turn form the basis of future strategy development. In addition, interviews with local authority representatives emphasised the role that the Best Value Framework can play in encouraging authorities to adopt an evidence-based approach. This Framework aims to combat institutional processes that may lead to discrimination and is designed to support local Government set up a system to monitor progress in relation to equality and diversity issues on a regular basis. An example of how this works in practice is exemplified by one authority that has recently carried out a survey of the organisation to see how it may need to change its practice to promote diversity and equality, in conjunction with the establishment of a Women’s Network, which operates as both a support group and as a vehicle for promoting the experiences of women in the development of policy and practice.
76
Within the North East private sector, a number of organisations are using an evidencebased approach to addressing gender discrimination in the workplace, but the picture is more mixed. Examples from the interviews include businesses gathering evidence of gender discrimination by undertaking job evaluation schemes and equal pay audits, and the delivery of training around equality and diversity and flexible working policies in order to recruit and retain the right staff. At the same time however, it was clear that there are also organisations in the region where tackling gender discrimination is not regarded as a business priority, and therefore policy and practice in this respect remain undeveloped. Research showed that this was particularly the case in relation to organisations and sectors that were particularly male-dominated and where recruitment shortages were often overcome by employing male applicants from overseas. As a result, there appears to be little incentive to develop strategies to promote the role of women, evidence-based or otherwise. “Companies are recruiting from Eastern Europe – the industry does not need to appeal to women”. Road Haulage Business “We don’t have activities directly designed to address gender discrimination in the workplace….this would possibly result in positive discrimination”. Major Retailer
8.3.2 Key drivers impacting on the use of evidence within organisations There appear to be a number of causal factors that influence the use of evidence-based policy and practice to tackle gender discrimination in the North East. However the majority felt that central Government policy and related campaign initiatives were the key drivers determining organisational approaches to addressing equality and diversity. This was particularly the case in the public sector. For example, the “Positively Diverse” initiative in the health sector and the Equality Standard and the Best Value performancemonitoring framework in Local Government, were cited as examples of centrally inspired initiatives driving evidenced-based practice at the regional or local level. This illustrates the role that a central Government framework can have in enabling the development of evidenced based practice, a view backed up in earlier studies (Goldstone and Levy 1996). “The ethos of the NHS informs policy…there is an organisational commitment to fairness. But directives from central Government are also important in influencing policy”. NHS Trust
The overall ethos or organisational culture of an organisation was also perceived to be an important factor determining approaches to addressing gender discrimination in both the public and private sector. For example, public sector organisations felt that as providers of public services, they had a basic duty to promote equality and diversity. This was a less important concern for private sector organisations; here the drive to tackle gender discrimination in the workplace appeared to be based more on the potential business benefits of promoting equality and diversity. In particular, a number of interviewees from the private sector felt that the promotion of flexible working practices was integral to recruiting and retaining staff, and that this contributed to an organisation having a competitive edge. This belief underpinned the development and continuation of flexible working policy and practice. In this respect, this reflects the findings from other recent research that has found the business case to be the most commonly cited reason for addressing diversity and equality issues in the workplace (Rutherford and Ollerearnshaw 2002). “It makes good business sense to have these kind of policies in place because it assists recruitment and retention”. Equality Organisation
77
Additionally, organisations in the region felt that without commitment from senior staff, policies to address gender discrimination would not become sufficiently embedded within the organisation. Gender discrimination is more fully addressed in organisations where there is managerial commitment to doing so. In relation to larger private sector organisations, the role of the national board was particularly important in developing policies and practice to promote equality and diversity. In this context, the role of the regions is often to implement policies that are decided centrally. Finally, interviews with private sector organisations also highlighted the role of the professional press in influencing the issues that an organisation chooses to address. In one organisation interviewed, the professional press had directly impacted on their decision to undertake a job evaluation scheme in order to address possible gender pay inequity. 8.3.3 Role of monitoring in measuring the impact of policies and informing future developments in employment practice Findings from the interviews indicate that monitoring of the effectiveness of strategies to address gender discrimination is being undertaken in the region. However the extent of this monitoring and the way in which the evidence it generates is used to inform future development of policy practice to address gender discrimination varies from organisation to organisation. Monitoring often falls within the remit of a specific forum or steering group responsible for the development of an organisation’s equality and diversity policy and practice. These bodies review relevant evidence, including staff feedback, good practice advice and so forth, and develop policy and practice as appropriate. In the public sector in particular, the interviews demonstrated that the role of such groups in progressing policy development was central. For example, one local authority interviewed has an Equalities Board that oversees and implements all initiatives related to equality and diversity. In addition, a Care Trust in the North East has in place an Equality & Diversity Steering Group that manages the organisation’s policy in that area. In turn, this is implemented by the Equality & Diversity Lead who liaises with a working group to progress policy and diversity practice throughout the wider Trust. “The audit and survey carried out as part of Positively Diverse will inform the recommendations of the Steering Group and in turn the Trusts’ policies to address gender equality” NHS Trust
Indeed, in general terms, the role of monitoring in relation to the development of equality practice appears to be significantly more developed in the public sector. For example in the NHS, the “Positively Diverse” initiative requires that policy and practice is monitored at least every three years. In order to achieve this, steering groups have been established to monitor the progress of the initiative and annual staff surveys are also undertaken to enable Trusts to see the extent to which their equality and diversity policies are regarded as being effective. The evidence produced by these monitoring activities may then be fed into practice and strategy development. Additionally, other public sector organisations in the region also collect monitoring data. Typically this data includes information about the number of women employed in the relevant organisation and their position, as well as recruitment and selection data disaggregated by gender. However, within some organisations in the public sector, it is not clear to what extent this monitoring is carried out on a formal basis or whether this monitoring feeds directly into ongoing policy development.
78
In the private sector the picture is more mixed in relation to monitoring. Whilst there is evidence of some organisations having in place specific bodies and groups to oversee and monitor the development and implementation of equality and diversity policy and practice, this is not always the case. Overall, the private sector organisations interviewed were far less likely than those in the public sector to have in place specific structures supporting the development of equality and diversity initiatives. In particular, for those organisations with a policy making remit, and organisations that focus on influencing and disseminating best practice, the long term demands of monitoring can be challenging. These organisations are not in a position to monitor the impact of their work on external organisations over time. However, despite these issues, these organisations did still feel that monitoring progress was a vital element in the development of evidenced based practice. Additionally, the fact that the evidence generated by monitoring activities often fails to feed effectively into future policy and practice development is a widespread issue. For example, a number of organisations have introduced various forms of flexible working practices designed to support women in the workplace by enabling them to balance paid employment with other responsibilities. However there was little evidence of formal monitoring of these strategies and therefore their impact on addressing gender discrimination could not be accurately quantified. Finally, in both public and private sector organisations, limited resources are also a factor determining the success or otherwise of monitoring activities carried out in support of employment policy development. For example, one interview revealed how work undertaken by a local authority to assess its performance related to equality and diversity was not being fed directly into practice development due to the need to review the cost implications of doing so. This example illustrates how finite financial resources, in the context of other priorities, can prevent evidenced based practice being implemented successfully in the public sector. 8.3.4 Discussion, dissemination and sharing practice “Networking can be good but it needs to be done effectively… you need to ensure networks have clear focus and are well managed so they meet the needs of all members” Regional Assembly
In the North East, discussion and dissemination around issues and practice related to tackling gender discrimination in employment takes place in a variety of ways. Internally, the organisations interviewed all discussed and disseminated information from their human resource function out into the wider organisation. In addition, discussion also takes place in the form of internal equality and diversity networks and groups. Interviews showed that both public and private sector organisations have specific staff groups that focus on gender issues specifically or equality and diversity more generally. These tend to involve the discussion of ideas and issues that can be then fed up the organisational chain to the appropriate decision making body. Such groups can also have a role in terms of contributing to equality and diversity strategies. For example discussion in one such network, has led the organisation to consider the introduction of a term-time working option for its employees. Finally, a number of organisations interviewed also argued that communication through training is important to ensure that staff understand the importance of addressing diversity and equality. “Information and practice sharing in the region can be a source of information that can inform policy” Local Authority
In terms of external dissemination activities, it was clear that organisations in both sectors discuss and disseminate good practice through a range of sector based networks 79
and forums. These forums are focused both on general human resource issues in addition to diversity and equality issues. Regional policy-making and practitioner organisations in particular appear to have well developed links with each other that enable effective communication and sharing of good practice. For example, there are bilateral links between the Regional Development Agencies, equality organisations and the Learning & Skills Council. In addition a number of organisations interviewed were also members of the regional Equality & Diversity Forum. Furthermore, human resource practitioners in both the public and private sector also liaise with Job Centres in the region to gain demographic data (for example on marginalised groups such as single parents who are mainly women) so that this can inform their recruitment strategies. At the same time, it appears that discussion and dissemination tends to be limited within an organisations particular employment sector. This was particularly the case in public sector organisations. For example, regional development agencies, local authorities and the NHS in the region all have their own sector-specific information sharing networks that appear to reduce the need to build links to other sectors. In contrast, discussion and dissemination activities in the private sector often take place through cross-sector regional human resource practitioner forums, via conference attendance and through liaison with specialist organisations with a diversity remit as well as relevant trades unions. This is supplemented by informal bilateral contact between organisations. This bilateral contact is often facilitated through membership of the more formal networks and groups. Indeed some private sector employers are engaged in fairly comprehensive discussion and dissemination activities. This appears to be a two way process, where organisations both give information regarding their activities and also receive information and support in terms of good practice to address gender discrimination. These organisations liaise with Opportunity Now and Equality North East, the regional CBI Human Resources Directors Forum, organisations that both work with employers to address gender discrimination issues in employment. A positive element of networking is that it enables practitioners to know if they are “doing the right thing” and allows them to benchmark equality and diversity policy against other similar organisations. However, it is important to note that the types of networks and forums mentioned here are not always solely focused on addressing gender discrimination. Rather, this is discussed within the wider equalities agenda including, other issues such as disability and ethnicity. Interviews indicated that if these issues are deemed to be more of a priority by a particular network, then it is possible for the issue of gender to be crowded out. Nevertheless there is evidence that information sharing between organisations does have a role in the development of employment practice. For example, a local authority in the region used work undertaken by Demos to inform its approach to establishing a Women’s Network.
8.3.5 Looking to the future Interview subjects in the North East felt that there were a number of issues that needed to be addressed in order to make evidenced based practice more effective. 8.3.5.1 Making evidence more accessible
First, there was a general consensus that evidence about the types of strategies that are available to address gender discrimination in the workplace needs to be more easily accessible. Those organisations with an equality and diversity remit felt that the evidence base and access to it was largely adequate but acknowledged that for those with less experience in the area, accessing evidence to inform practice could be difficult. A number of suggestions were made about how this evidence could be made more easily 80
available. These included web-based availability or the development of a regional forum to discuss specifically best practice around gender discrimination in employment. “Websites are good for dissemination if they are easy to navigate” Local Authority 8.3.5.2 Role of networking
Policy makers felt that networking and forums for dissemination are particularly important in terms of enabling equality and diversity issue to be addressed. However the nature of future networking needs to be considered and the importance of a clear agenda was felt to be crucial. Networks that focus too widely often fail to meet the needs of their members, attendance rates drop and the impact of networking is lost. “I would like some forum where I could go to share information about good practice, receive information and get knowledge”. Disability Skills Organisation 8.3.5.3 Statistical data “We need an IT system that allows for statistical data to be monitored by gender”. NHS Trust
In relation to regional statistics, those organisations that have begun to develop strategies to address gender discrimination felt that they had access to adequate information. This is because these organisations have established data collection and monitoring systems which enable them to collect and analyse data about their respective workforces. However these organisations did note that it can be more difficult for organisations to access statistical data from outside their own organisation or sector and that, as such, it would be worthwhile to address this issue. 8.3.5.4 Importance of qualitative evidence “Capturing more intangible evidence of the positive results of addressing gender discrimination is important – for example of benefits to organisational cultures of doing so” Financial Institution “It’s not about statistics…real change is about changing attitudes and cultures”. Emergency
Services Interviewees felt that it was important to develop an evidence base in a way which ensures that the more qualitative benefits of addressing gender discrimination in employment are captured, such as the positive impact on working culture that can be achieved by addressing gender discrimination. These comments support the findings of research that looked at the business case for addressing diversity and equality in the workplace which has acknowledged how difficult it can be to prove and quantify the business benefits of addressing these issues (Rutherford and Ollerearnshaw 2002).
8.4 East of England interview findings 8.4.1 Use of evidence to support the development of employment policy and practice The interviews conducted in the East of England demonstrated that public sector organisations in the region are adopting an evidence-based approach to addressing gender discrimination. For example, a number of public sector organisations have in place working groups and forums that are responsible for progressing strategies to address discrimination in the workplace and this work is often focused around the delivery of an action plan to address equality and diversity issues. These bodies receive 81
both statistical information about the gender composition of the workforce and feedback from staff surveys, as well as information about the extent to which action plan priorities are being delivered. On the basis of this evidence, these bodies make appropriate modifications to employment practice. One example is the case of a local authority developing a special leave policy based on evidence gained about its effectiveness through participation in regional networks of human resource practitioners. In addition there is evidence of public sector organisations accessing information and evidence from outside sources (for example the local Government employers association, periodicals and on-line advice) to inform policy and practice. Policy development activity in the region includes a significant focus on addressing gender discrimination in employment through the promotion of women’s entrepreneurship. A key initiative is the development of a Women’s Enterprise Strategic Framework, a joint collaboration between the Exemplas consultancy and the East of England Development Agency (EEDA). An element of the Framework includes an evidenced based approach, which focuses on gathering the views of women in the region on the barriers that exist to their economic activity and how these may be overcome. This information will then feed into an overall final strategy designed to inform practice to support women to be as economically active as they wish to be. Included in the recommendations will be suggestions not only about ways forward but also who should take responsibility for implementing the recommendations. This may result in a number of organisations, in the region, becoming centres of information in relation to addressing gender discrimination and this in turn may facilitate the further development of an evidenced based approach. This work has also been an important influencing factor on EEDAs decision to establish a Diversity and Equality Co-ordinator post. Independent policy makers and advisors are also adopting an evidence-based approach to addressing gender discrimination in employment in their work. In addition to their work around the Women’s Enterprise Strategic Framework, Exemplas has also undertaken research into issues such as women and leadership in business, the impact of the “glass ceiling” on working women and the role of women in the rural economy. Using evidence generated by this work, Exemplas have developed a range of strategies that are delivered as part of commitment to address gender discrimination. For example, findings from Exemplas’ work have fed into the development of tailored one-to-one coaching for women, leadership training, business advice and management development. These strategies were developed on the basis of research evidence that indicated that the development of women’s self-confidence was a crucial factor in promoting their economic activity. “The collection of evidence is an integral part of this organisations’ work”. People Management Consultancy
Exemplas is also in the process of further developing its approach to evidenced based practice through the Diversity Analysis Model. This tool is being designed to capture evidence of the benefits for business of addressing issues such as gender discrimination. In particular, this model will seek to illustrate the financial benefits that employers receive by addressing gender discrimination in the workplace. In turn this information will help to make the “business case” for addressing gender issues more robust. Another independent practitioner/human resources specialist organisation in the East of England also carried out research designed to inform practice to address gender discrimination in the workplace. This included examining the impact of informal networks in employment on women. More generally this organisation adopts an evidenced based approach to 82
address gender related issues in the workplace with research findings used to develop strategies and policies for clients to use. Finally, there is evidence that private sector employers are also using an evidenced based approach to inform strategies to address gender discrimination. Organisations are using internal statistical data to analyse the extent of possible gender discrimination as a first step to assessing any action that needs to be taken. Staff surveys have also been conducted by organisations and the resulting evidence used to inform the development of policy and practice. One organisation that was interviewed has established a network for women where gender related issues may be discussed and fed into the development of employment practice through the relevant management structures. This provides an opportunity for the direct experiences of women to inform the development of practice to address gender discrimination. Such initiatives are helping to embed an evidenced based practice approach to addressing gender discrimination in the organisation concerned.
8.4.2 Drivers “Other factors influence policies around diversity in addition to evidence: expectations of society; requirements placed on organisations by Government policy; the need to be recognised as a good employer and the expectations of employees”. Automotive Business
As in the North East, initiatives to address gender discrimination are also structured by the wider context in the East of England. Organisational priorities and commitment impact on the use of an evidenced based approach. For example, public sector organisations in the East of England were keen to audit and analyse their diversity policies but other issues, such as organisational change, have priority and as such serve to slow the development of evidenced based practice. Other influencing factors on policy and practice reflected findings in the North East. Wider Government policy is regarded as an important driver (again, particularly in the public sector) alongside the need to be regarded as a good employer. “The council wants to be perceived in a positive light.” Local Authority
Senior level commitment was also regarded as important in facilitating an evidenced based approach because it enabled the issue of gender discrimination to be addressed in the first place and increased wider organisational compliance with equality and diversity initiatives. It was also noted that the perceived business case for addressing gender discrimination was an important factor in explaining why organisations are addressing this issue.
8.4.3 Measuring the impact of policies The extent of monitoring to assess the impact of strategies designed to address gender discrimination varies amongst policy-makers and practitioners in the region. Public sector organisations in the East of England monitor the impact of their policies to address gender discrimination. As is the case in the North East, this monitoring of policy and practice is generally carried out by a specific group that then feeds the results into the wider decision making structures of the organisation. Relevant groups and forums meet regularly to assess the extent to which statistical evidence and evidence from consultation exercises indicates that strategies are being successfully implemented. The interviewees discussed the use of forums such as the Equality and Diversity Group and Diversity Councils whose role includes monitoring the progress of equality and diversity practice. 83
“We conduct regular employee surveys and hold regular meetings for staff that can assist in the shaping of policies” Automotive Business
Both public and private sector organisations collect monitoring data to assess the gender composition of their workforce (for example individual records are audited as is recruitment, promotion and in some instances take-up of flexible working by gender). The appropriate organisational groups, networks and forums are then able to use this evidence to inform the future direction of their equality and diversity policies to address any gender discrimination issues. In addition, both private and public sector organisations in the region are involved in benchmarking activities to compare their performance in terms of the gender profile of their workforce. The information that benchmarking generates gives organisations evidence that enables them to see where can see where they are under-performing and therefore which areas they need to improve. Such benchmarking exercises clearly facilitate the development of an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination in employment. “We have in place a continuous impact assessment tool so that the impact of strategies can be monitored over time.” People Management Consultancy
In general, the private sector experience is more varied. One organisation has developed a Continuous Impact Assessment tool to continually evaluate the outcomes of their work with individuals and organisations. However other organisations with a policy or practice development remit felt that they were not in a position to monitor the progress of the initiatives in which they were involved. A key reason for this was the fact that funding from client organisations does not include a ring-fenced amount to monitor the impact of strategies that have been developed.
8.4.4 Discussion, dissemination and sharing practice Discussion and dissemination of best practice is taking place within both the public and private sectors as well as in the sphere of regional policy making. Internal discussion and dissemination often occurs between the human resource function and/or working groups responsible for progressing equality and diversity strategies and the wider decision making structures of the organisation concerned across both sectors. For example, in one private sector organisation, there is regular liaison between its human resources function and the groups that have been established for women employees and employees who are parents. This liaison provides staff with an opportunity to influence organisational policy and practices. In one instance, this has led to reshaping of staff training around equality and diversity awareness. Interviews showed that organisations in the East of England with a policy development remit in particular, discuss and disseminate the evidence gained from their research as a part of their wider work. This includes conference attendance and liaison with Government departments (such as the Department of Trade and Industry). Human resource practitioner organisations in the region also have links with local Job Centre Plus offices, adult education providers, local authorities and Local Learning and Skills Councils, and are able to disseminate and share practice using these links. Discussion and dissemination also occurs through membership of the organisation Fair Play in the region. Such membership enables these organisations to gain information on best practice to address gender discrimination and the business case for equality and diversity, along with providing opportunities to network and attend relevant discussion
84
groups around equality issues. Indeed networking emerged as an important influential factor driving regional policy makers to address equality and diversity issues. The public sector in the East of England also discusses and disseminates its work around use of evidence-based practice to address gender discrimination through a range of local authority or organisation based groups and forums that also provide links to the wider public sector. Membership of such groups (for example the Regional Development Agency Equality and Diversity Officers Group) provides opportunities for informal, bilateral liaison and information sharing between individual human resource practitioners. There was direct evidence of such networking being a crucial factor in influencing the development of equality practice. For example, based on the positive example of another organisation, one local authority in the region adopted a special leave policy in order to improve retention rates for female employees. These examples indicate how important networking opportunities can be in contributing to the development of an evidencedbased approach to tackle gender discrimination in the workplace. At a national level, information is also shared with central Government. For example, local authorities pass on statistical information about the gender composition of their workforce to national Government agencies such as the Audit Commission as a part of their work around benchmarking. Externally in the private sector, discussion and dissemination is achieved through conference attendance and via liaison with the CBI and with Business in the Community. Groups that focus on gender issues also have links with their counterparts in other organisations. For example, staff councils with an equality and diversity remit often meet to share practice. There is also evidence of independent bilateral contact between private sector organisations. However, there are some organisations in the region that feel that there are a lack of networking opportunities at present in relation to supporting their activities to address gender discrimination. In particular, it seems that there is scope for greater collaboration between regional policy making agencies and the private sector. In this respect, the Women’s Enterprise Strategic Framework should prove a positive development.
8.4.5 Looking to the future Policy makers, practitioners and employers in the east of England feel that a number of issues need to be addressed to inform the future of evidenced based practice to address gender discrimination in employment. In general, policy makers, employers and practitioners felt that it would be beneficial to improve the evidence base because it was often perceived that employers adopt strategies because they think these will work rather than because of evidence that illustrates that the strategies concerned are effective. 8.4.5.1 Addressing the needs of SMEs “Improvements are most need in relation to small and medium sized businesses…they don’t always have access to the right kind of resources.” People Management Consultancy
There is a need to make an evidenced-based approach more accessible for small and medium sized businesses to adopt. In particular, it is important to recognise that such organisations often do not have a separate human resource function with the resources to spend substantial amounts of time gathering evidence around best practice or to implement the necessary strategies. To compensate for this, SMEs need easy access to best practice advice around how to implement evidenced based best practice. Interview subjects stressed it is vital that this information can be accessed quickly otherwise the ability of such organisations to engage with an evidenced based approach would be 85
limited. Suggestions for possible hosts of this type of information included the Regional Development Agency and local authorities. 8.4.5.2 Developing the business case “The evidence base needs to indicate the benefits for business in quantitative and monetary terms” Automotive Business
In addition, employer and practitioner organisations interviewed in the East of England felt that it was particularly important for the evidence base to be developed in a way that included more information about the business benefits of addressing gender discrimination. The point was also made that evidence is not simply needed on the extent of gender discrimination. 8.4.5.3 Information around good practice “Evidence is more focused towards exposing the problems than informing the solutions” Regional Assembly
There needs to be more information on best practice and how to implement it as well as some kind of independent assessment of what solutions are most effective. The Regional Development Agency or local authorities were mentioned again as possible websites to host this kind of information.
8.5 South East of England interview findings 8.5.1 Use of evidence to support the development of employment policy and practice “Research findings will inform the development and delivery of future policies and strategies around gender discrimination”. Development Agency
Interviews held with policy-making agencies in the South East of England revealed that these organisations are involved in the development and delivery of strategies to address gender discrimination in the workplace as a part of their wider policy remit. A key example is the work of the South East of England Development Agency (SEEDA) with Greenwich University on a research project examining how businesses in the region are responding to gender in terms of pay, practice and working patterns. Overall, the project aims to identify the barriers that prevent women from making a full contribution to the labour market and in turn, contribute to the development of a regional strategy to address these barriers. The project will include analysis of statistical data to enable an understanding of gender discrimination in the South East of England, a survey of employers in the region and interviews with human resource practitioners. It is envisaged that this research will contribute to and disseminate good practice that both raises awareness and facilitates discussion through the set of recommendations that will be included in the final report. It is also intended that this work will feed into SEEDA’s future strategies around gender discrimination. In particular it is felt that work has informed the development of the revised regional economic strategy during 2005. This work will represent an important example of a policy making body in the South East adopting an evidenced based approach towards policy development to address gender discrimination in employment. In addition, SEEDA also works with Prowess (a campaigning organisation to promote women in business) and the Small Business Service to gain information and evidence to support its work around diversity issues. Furthermore, the
86
organisation has recently appointed a regional co-ordinator to work with business support agencies in the region to increase the number of women entrepreneurs. “Policy and practice is aimed at producing a cultural change where the needs of women are reflected in the organisation rather than being target driven”. Local Authority
Indeed, in the public sector in particular, it appears that organisations in the region are using an evidenced based approach to address gender discrimination in employment. For example, several local authorities in the South East are adopting an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination by undertaking pay audits to inform their pay practice in relation to gender. Recruitment and selection processes in local authorities are also being analysed along gender lines. Analysis of these recruitment and selection processes has led one local authority to separate out personal information from the rest of the application form to prevent gender bias. Another local authority undertakes regular audits of its workforce profile and the information provided by these audits has played a key part in the development of strategies to address gender discrimination within the organisation. Within the private sector in the region, an evidence-based approach to practice is also being used to address gender discrimination. One employing organisation interviewed has recently undertaken a staff survey that enabled the organisation to determine the extent and nature of gender discrimination. It is envisaged that this information will inform future equality and diversity practice. Private sector organisations also mentioned how they accessed evidence from sources such as the Chartered Institute of Personnel Development, the Work Foundation and other human resource practitioners to inform their equality and diversity practice. A further private sector organisation interviewed also used information from individual staff appraisals and its annual staff survey to inform policy development. For example, feedback from these sources had illustrated that qualified women were not applying for promotions to the higher level of the organisation because of the perception that they would be unable to combine these roles with their non-paid work responsibilities. This contributed to the development of a carers policy that is designed to support women to balance their paid and non-paid commitments more effectively. “Data from our Annual Engagement Survey and staff Individual Performance Reviews have informed and kick-started our work to address equality and diversity.” Energy Supplier
8.5.2 Drivers As in the North East and East of England regions, interviewees in the South East felt that a number of other factors influence and structure the development and delivery of policies and best practice around gender discrimination. These include the national policy and legislative framework, a particularly strong driver within the public sector. Local authorities interviewed, for example, discussed the Equality Standard In Local Government Initiative as being an important driver to address gender discrimination. Other factors influencing how organisations address gender discrimination include the need to be perceived as a “good” employer and the commitment of senior staff to addressing gender discrimination in the organisation concerned. “So far the focus has been on the requirements of Government legislation.” Development Agency “Legislation and policy guidance from central Government is important because if creates a climate where organisations feel that they should address gender issues.” Local Authority
87
In this region, auditing is an important driver in the development of evidenced based practice. For example, analysis of the findings of an audit undertaken by one local authority illustrated that it was necessary for more women to be employed at the senior levels of the organisation and in turn, this resulted in the implementation of a staff development plan to enable women to develop the skills they need if they are to be promoted in the organisation. There was also evidence of public sector organisations using evidence taken from exit interviews. For example, information from these interviews contributed to the decision of one public sector employer to develop a career break initiative to improve retention rates of female employees.
8.5.3 Measuring the impact of policies Monitoring of the impact of policy and practice to address gender discrimination in the workplace appears to be limited in the South East region to policy makers and those organisations with specific equality and diversity remit. There appeared to be two main factors behind this. First, work to address gender discrimination in some organisations is at such an early stage of implementation, there is little progress to monitor. Second, monitoring is not possible within the context of the funding conditions given to practitioners who work with organisations to develop their practice around addressing gender discrimination in employment. However in the future, policy makers and practitioners anticipate that monitoring will become more embedded as a part of their practice. “Lack of monitoring is mainly down to resources”. Employers Organisation
Local authorities in the region monitor their performance in terms of recruitment data broken down by gender, with several also benchmarking their performance against other authorities, by comparing number of women in senior positions for example. Salaries are also assessed to ensure there is no comparative bias. Local authorities also have in place working groups to direct and oversee the development and implementation of diversity policy that feed into the wider decision-making process. Examples include the Strategic Equalities Group, established by one local authority, and the Core Values Working Group set up in another authority. These groups set the objectives of the Authority’s Equality & Diversity policy and oversee its implementation. In general these bodies may request that an action plan be established by a relevant department should evidence indicate that there is a problem to address. There are also examples of local authorities undertaking regular audits to assess their workforce profile in order to highlight where they may need to focus their strategies to address specific issues within the wider issue of equality and diversity. Furthermore, local authorities in the region feel that as they develop their equality and diversity practice alongside the Best Value and Equality Standard in Local Government Frameworks, monitoring will become increasingly embedded in organisations and so facilitate an evidenced based approach to the development of practice to address gender discrimination. As already indicated, there is more limited evidence of private sector organisations monitoring their progress in relation to addressing gender discrimination in the workplace. Although regular analysis of the gender profile of the workforce takes place in some organisations, interviewees acknowledged that in general terms, there is scope for improvement. This was mainly linked to the fact that private sector organisations are often in the early stages of establishing an equality and diversity strategy and as such, their monitoring systems are still at a development stage. However, there is evidence of specific structures being established to oversee the implementation of equality and 88
diversity strategies in some private sector organisations. For example, one organisation has a Diversity and Inclusion Action Group that develops and discusses practice and which also feeds into the wider structure of the organisation and also establishes action plans for each part of the organisation concerned. Overall it appears that the existence of specific organisational structures is related to how comprehensive and embedded a commitment to addressing discrimination is within the organisation concerned. The further developed and more embedded practice is the more likely it is that practice will be the responsibility of a particular working group to progress.
8.5.4 Discussion, dissemination and sharing practice The discussion and dissemination of findings by policy makers and practitioners at the regional level takes place at a range of levels in the South East of England, with the Development Agency taking a lead role. For example, SEEDA discusses and disseminates practice with other RDAs through the Regional Development Agencies Equalities and Diversity Forum and also engages with the Department of Trade and Industry. In addition SEEDA has also recently funded an event for employers that focused on diversity and equality issues in order to promote best practice. There are also a number of diversity champions who are responsible for promoting equality and diversity within SEEDA. These champions meet to discuss issues and share practices to address discrimination in the workplace. However as this network is a recent development its impact, to date, has been limited. The organisation is also involved in work to develop a Framework for Women’s Enterprise. “We monitor our performance against other local authorities in the region….this enables the Council to see how when they are performing relative to similar employers.” Local Authority
As is the case in the North East and East of England, the discussion and dissemination of practice takes place in a number of ways: within organisations, within sectors and across organisations and sectors through networking forums and bilateral liaison. For example a local authority in the region works with the local police force and fire service while another shares practice and information through a network of personnel managers. Local authorities are also members of networks that facilitate discussion and dissemination, for example the Equality Standards Best Practice Network and the Equality Lead Officers Group. Another local authority in the region is a member of a regional Race Information Group, which covers gender discrimination issues. Local authorities also liaise with central Government (for example the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister) and the Audit Commission to disseminate their work around addressing diversity. Furthermore, practice tends to be discussed and monitored on an internal basis within the public sector through working groups established to take a lead on diversity issues. “Networking has informed practice….the development programme in place to support women into management was developed out of information sharing forums with other local authorities that were developing similar initiatives.” Local Authority
A number of private sector employers interviewed in the South East discussed and disseminated practice through the CBI (via the CBI’s Equal Opportunities Forum) and the Work Foundation, alongside internal dissemination of data within the organisation concerned. Other organisations worked with the Department for Work and Pensions, the Department of Trade and Industry and other companies on a bilateral basis. This networking was felt to be crucial as a way of gaining information to feed into policies. For example, one private sector organisation felt that their liaison with the DTI was important 89
in the organisation developing a mentoring scheme to support women in gaining promotion. A further private sector company also linked with local schools to promote careers to female pupils as a way of recruiting women by working to change the perceptions of female pupils about the industry in question.
8.5.5 Looking to the future Interview findings in the South East of England highlighted a number of issues that need to be addressed in order to develop evidence-based policy and practice to address gender discrimination in employment in the region. 8.5.5.1 More information about women entrepreneurs “We need regional information about the numbers of women who own businesses that is disaggregated by locality and information about the number of women who may require assistance to establish and maintain their business.” Development Agency
As indicated previously, a key regional policy dimension focuses on developing the capacity of women as business owners and entrepreneurs. As a result, a number of those interviewed felt that that the evidence base should include more information about women who are business owners and that this information should be disaggregated by locality. 8.5.5.2 The business case “We need statistical information that indicates the monetary benefits of addressing discrimination”. Development Agency
As in other regions, it is felt that more evidence is required to demonstrate the “business case” for addressing gender discrimination. In particular, it was felt that information is needed on the economic costs of failing to enable women to be as fully economically active as they wish. 8.5.5.3 Gender pay gap
Practitioners working with local authorities in the region felt that they could benefit from more evidence about the gender pay gap, its causes and the potential consequences for them. It was also felt that linking in gender discrimination with other issues such as income, race and disability, was important. 8.5.5.4 Role of networking “The key issue is to make it easier to access information around practice rather than statistical data.” Local Authority
Interviewees also felt it was important for networking opportunities to be improved to enable good practice to be shared. Suggested improvements included the development of some form of virtual network or a dedicated network that focused on gender rather than on a range of issues of which gender was only one element. 8.5.5.5 Role of single equalities commission “The equality and diversity agenda is much more fragmented than the law reflects – there is a real need to a more focussed approach, tackling overlapping concerns of race, income, disability etc with gender”. Employers Organisation
90
“A single equality board would help to provide a one-stop-shop to gain information, best practice guidance, policy and legal information. Currently information is spread across too many sources which makes it time consuming to access and unclear where to go to for a specific piece of information.” Energy Supplier
A single statutory equalities organisation was felt to be important to improve evidenced based practice as this organisation could act as a repository for information about good practice, implementation and legal matters. This single agency would help to address concerns around the fragmented nature of the existing evidence case. It was also suggested that an associated national database and email network could be useful.
8.6 Workshops with regional networks 8.6.1 North East: Equality and Diversity Forum Membership of the North East Equality and Diversity Forum includes equality and diversity practitioners from across the region. Discussions conducted as part of the workshop focussed on the need for a regional information strategy in order to both develop and co-ordinate improvements in the evidence base. In order to maximise impact, it was felt that this strategy should focus on a limited number of key issues. 8.6.1.1 Improve regional statistical data
Forum members felt that a key issue impacting on evidenced-based practice in the region was the fragmented nature of the existing statistical evidence base. Particular areas identified for improvement included regional information about the position of women in the labour market and the need to disaggregate statistics by gender. For example, a clearer picture of the experiences of women would be possible if data was available broken down by gender and linked to age, childcare responsibilities and ethnicity. Evidence of this sort would make it much easier to illustrate particular issues around gender equality in the region. 8.6.1.2 Develop the qualitative evidence base
The availability of qualitative evidence was felt to be important in order to ensure that the evidence base captures the real experiences of women so that these may inform future policy development. Members pointed out that statistical information about the number of women who work part time tells you little about the quality of such work and its impact on women. Qualitative research that focused on the experiences of women part-time workers, would enable evidence of this nature to be gained and used to inform policy and practice. 8.6.1.3 Ensure evidence is up to date
A challenge, related to the availability of data to promote evidenced based practice, is the need to ensure that information is up to date and so of relevance. Consequently Forum members argued that it is important to have in place mechanisms that ensure that information is up to date and comprehensive. This issue is linked to the comments made by forum members about the need to provide incentives and support to ensure that information is up to date.. 8.6.1.4 Networking to share best practice
The importance of networking was also identified as being important to enable the development of an evidenced based practice approach to address gender discrimination 91
in employment. Forum members also noted that much best practice work, to address gender inequality employment is associated with a focus on presentational aspects, selling the organisation positively to others and with practice that wins awards. It was argued that a problem that this can create is that the detail about implementation and impact can be lost. To compensate for this there is a need for closer relationships between organisations to be developed. Such relationships enable organisations to advise each other about good practice in an open and honest way. Professional networks, such as the Equality & Diversity Forum, were considered to be useful as they provided organisations with opportunities to learn from each other’s experiences. However these networks need to consist of members who are comfortable with sharing both their negative and positive experiences. It was felt that only by having open discussions can networking make a positive contribution towards the development of evidenced based practice to address gender discrimination.
8.6.2 East of England: Equality and Diversity Network The East of England Equality and Diversity Network is comprised in the main of human resource and equality and diversity practitioners from local authorities across the region. Debate focused on issues related to implementing the Equality Standard in Local Government and the way in which this could be improved and developed in order to support evidence-based practice in the public sector. 8.6.2.1 Resolve resource issues
Discussion focussed on the extent to which effective evidence-based employment practice is possible within the existing financial and human resource constraints. For example, key elements of the Equality Standard include the requirement for authorities to undertake an Equal Pay Review and Job Evaluation exercise. Practitioners noted that currently, this is both time consuming and costly and competes with other budgetary priorities. Evidence-based practice needs to be properly resourced in order for it to become part of everyday organisational practice. 8.6.2.2 Improve accessibility
The case studies and interviews conducted with policy-makers and practitioners in the regions identified that evidence-based practice needs to be clear and accessible if it is to be used to support organisational strategies to tackle gender discrimination. However members of the group felt that the Equality Standard in particular lacks clarity, is not accessible or easily understandable. 8.6.2.3 Reduce competitiveness
In common with practitioners in the North East, members of the Equality and Diversity Network discussed how initiatives to address equality and diversity in the workplace can often result in the creation of a competitive environment which organisations feel compelled to adopt a particular policy or practice even if it may not be the most effective way to address gender discrimination. For example, it was argued that the Equality Standard creates a situation in which local authorities feel it is necessary to compete with one another as this equates to success. As a result, progress may not be based on the needs of the individual local authority concerned. 8.6.2.4 Widen the Standard’s remit
Practitioners felt that a particular weakness of the Equality Standard for Local Government is that is does not enable local authorities to demonstrate all of the work that 92
they are undertaking to address gender discrimination. As such the standard may act to limit the extent to which local authorities are able to evidence the impact of their policy and practice. 8.6.2.5 Improve its impact on best practice
A particular concern raised by practitioners is that the Equality Standard in Local Government does not impact on or inform good employment practice. The work the standard generates is so onerous that it is felt to negate against innovation. The previous phase of the research identified that locating policy and practice within a wider framework of performance measurement was regarded as a key driver to address gender discrimination using an evidenced-based approach. However work with practitioner networks illustrates that this may not always be the case and that the characteristics of equality frameworks are important. 8.6.2.6 Better support networking activities
Members of the Equality and Diversity Network also emphasised the importance of networking in the development of equality policy and practice. In particular, it was felt that by working together more effectively, local authorities could share practice in order to make the Standard easier to implement and to get more out of it as a potential tool.
8.6.3 South East: Performance Through Inclusion and Major Employers Human Resources Forum Workshops took place with two networks based in the South East of England. The first was conducted with members of the Performance Through Inclusion Network, comprised of senior human resource practitioners in the region. A further workshop was conducted with members of the Major Employers Human Resources Forum. Participants included representatives of the Police Force, HMS Naval bases, Ministry of Defence, Local Authorities and an HR consultant. Discussions in both workshops highlighted the role that an employment performance monitoring framework for the region could play in driving forward and delivering progress around equality and diversity. It was felt that this framework could be linked to the development of a statutory requirement covering the type of data that employers must collect, and could also provide an evidence-base for organisations seeking to benchmark themselves. 8.6.3.1 Improve the legislative and policy framework “Unless you have the big stick from the top which says this is what you get and you have to work with that…” “Avalanches of legislation coming down… middle sized and smaller corporations rather than seeing the opportunities in it just see the difficulties”
The current policy and legal framework was felt to be a key barrier to progressing evidenced-based practice. For example, it can be difficult to gain certain information about employees and even if this information is asked for, individuals do not have to provide it. This situation is exacerbated by a reluctance of employees to provide types of information (for example in relation to lone-parents or around stress) as they can often be sceptical about how this information will be used by an organisation. Furthermore, at present there is a strong disincentive to collect evidence in addition to the basic legal requirement as this information could potentially be used against the organisation.
93
8.6.3.2 Improved qualitative evidence “The problem with statistical evidence is that small movements either way in the number of women in particular positions can make a huge difference to performance figures if the number of women involved is small.”
Group members also commented on the quality of the current evidence base. In particular, it was felt that the evidence base has to have a qualitative dimension as statistical evidence can only provide a partial picture. Qualitative evidence was needed to better understand the experiences of different types of women and in turn, to allow organisations to develop policy and practice that most effectively meets their needs. 8.6.3.3 Developing the business case “With senior people the business case is probably always going to win the day. If you can start from what they’re trying to achieve and then argue that if you do this or think about this you’ll actually be more successful, you’ll be able to achieve it more effectively”.
The business case was regarded as the key driver that would result in organisations addressing gender discrimination and gender issues in the workplace. Therefore evidence that can demonstrate the business benefits of addressing gender discrimination is particularly important.
8.7 Summary To varying degrees, evidenced-based practice is being used to address gender discrimination in each of the three case study regions. Across the regions, there are common drivers behind the adoption of this approach. Policy and legislative requirements of central Government (especially in relation to the public sector); the right organisational culture; the business case for equality and diversity; and the demands of wider performance management frameworks are all factors that seem to drive forward evidenced-based policy and employment practice in organisations. Furthermore, whilst discussion, dissemination and networking at the regional level are vital in helping to promote the development of an evidenced-based approach, in all three case study regions, there appears to be scope for the development of new networks to help bridge the existing public sector-private sector gap in particular. At the organisational level, it appears that evidenced-based practice is only likely to be adopted successfully if there is a recognition of the importance of equality and diversity within an organisation. An appropriate organisational structure is also critical in facilitating effective evidence-based practice. In particular, the role of an internal body with a specific equality and diversity remit appears crucial in addition to the provision of adequate opportunities for staff to give their views on equality and diversity strategies. As evidenced-based practice is in its infancy in many organisations, there is scope for monitoring to be more comprehensive across both the public and private sectors. Furthermore, organisations that focus on promoting and disseminating good practice are not often in a position to monitor the impact of their work since such initiatives are usually implemented by others. In addition, it is not always clear to what extent monitoring activity feeds into the ongoing development of policy and practice. Finally, reflecting the national interview findings policy makers and practitioners at the regional level see the quality and availability of current evidence as the major barrier to developing effective evidence-based practice. In particular, there is a need to make the current evidence base less fragmented, more easily accessible and to improve the quality of statistical information and evidence supporting the business case for equality and diversity.
94
9. Findings and Recommendations 9.1 Main Findings The Use of Evidence to Tackle Gender Discrimination in Employment research project has found that at both the national and regional level, the development of policy and practice to promote equality and diversity in the workplace is increasingly evidencedbased. National policy makers in particular are strongly committed to using a range of evidence in the formulation of policy around women and equality. This has been encouraged by the current Government’s interest in defining and strengthening the relationship between research evidence and policy-making and is further facilitated by well-developed links between Government, national equality organisations, the research community and business. Furthermore, the research has shown that to a varying extent, initiatives to tackle gender discrimination in employment at the regional level are also evidencedbased. In each of the three case study regions there appear to be some common drivers compelling policy makers, practitioners and employers to adopt this approach. The demands of central Government policy and legislation (particularly in relation to public sector organisations); the impact of internal organisational culture; the perceived “business case” for equality and diversity; and the requirements of wider performance management frameworks are all factors that seem to drive forward evidenced-based policy and employment practice in organisations. At the same time, the extent of monitoring carried out to assess the impact of policy and practice in order to inform their ongoing development varied at both the national and regional level. In those organisations in which comprehensive monitoring does take place, it is undertaken using a range of approaches including benchmarking, attitudinal surveys and the analysis of internal workforce profile data. However non-Governmental organisations and equality practitioners whose focus is around the dissemination of good policy and practice to others are less likely to be in a position to monitor the impact of their work using these means. Furthermore, the research found that at both the national and regional level, there appear to be a number of issues undermining the ability of policy-makers, practitioners and employers to implement an evidence-based approach successfully. First, there is widespread concern that the quality of the existing evidence base is a major barrier to the successful use of evidence in developing policy and employment practice. In particular, the fragmented nature of the existing evidence base and problems around accessibility make it difficult for smaller organisations in particular to utilise evidence effectively. For example, interviewees expressed an almost universal desire to see statistical data disaggregated by gender on a routine basis and felt that the qualitative evidence base also needed improvement in order to capture the views and experiences of a wider range of women more comprehensively. Finally, the evidence base to support the business case for equality and diversity was seen as a particularly weak area and participants in the research process were keen to see more “hard economic” evidence supporting this argument. Second, whilst networking plays a vital role in the evidence process, enabling organisations to share information, experiences and best practice advice, the research 95
showed that this could be more effective. In particular, links between Government, other organisations and the business sector appear to be less than robust at present (although this situation does seem to be improving). Furthermore, there is a concern that overreliance on existing sector-based networks may serve to limit the extent and scope of evidence-sharing, and in turn, the wider development and promotion of an evidencedbased approach to addressing gender discrimination. In this respect, there is scope for enhanced communication between policy makers, practitioners, the research community and employers, in both the public and private sectors. Finally, there is a view that the current legal framework can act as a disincentive to employers seeking to use an evidenced based approach to addressing gender discrimination. For example, the research found that employers are reluctant to use limited resources to evidence problems in the workplace, for example by conducting an Equal Pay Audit, in case the findings make them immediately liable under current legislation. Furthermore, whilst the majority of organisations appear to value the Equal Opportunities Commission as an essential resource and support agency around gender equality, a significant minority feel that it is more concerned with investigation and enforcement than with promoting best practice. This is a key issue in considering the kind of changes needed to the existing legal and policy framework in order to better support evidence-based practice.
9.2 Recommendations These recommendations are intended to reflect specific trends emerging from the research process, at both the national and regional level. In developing the recommendations, the research team revisited the national and regional interview findings and held a series of follow-up meetings with key policy makers and practitioners in order to discuss findings and policy recommendations in greater depth. These included: the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development; Equal Opportunities Commission; Fawcett Society; Race for Opportunity; Women and Equality Unit; South East based energy supplier; and a North East based Financial Institution. On publication of this report, the research team will seek to disseminate the research findings along with these main recommendations with the key agencies that have been involved with the project. The research team recommends that the key agencies (Women and Equality Unit, Women and Work Commission, Commission for Equality and Human Rights, Equal Opportunities Commission, key employers’ organisations and the regional Government Offices and Development Agencies) give due consideration to the following issues. 1. Create a more supportive statutory framework “Will the new Commission be an organisation that is an enabler for change, that shares information and is a source for information or is it just a guardian of legislation?” South East Based Energy Supplier
The role of the new single Commission for Equality and Human Rights is central to the successful promotion of evidence-based policy and practice in the UK. Alongside its statutory responsibilities, it needs to support and promote change by providing a central and objective repository for evidence around gender discrimination in employment and organisational best practice
96
2. Introduce a statutory requirement for employing organisations to conduct Equal Pay Audits Currently, employing organisations in the private sector are required to take only the minimum steps to avoid liability rather than taking a proactive approach to tackling equality and diversity in the workplace. In line with the new 'gender equality duty' for public sector employers under the Government’s Equality Bill, there should be a broadened statutory requirement for all employing organisations to conduct Equal Pay Audits. This could include a time limited immunity period for SMEs in particular to allow them to address pay issues before legal penalties are incurred. 3. Ensure the public sector takes a leading role in promoting evidence-based practice As part of the establishment of the new single Commission, it is essential that there is a wider legislative requirement for public sector agencies to promote equality, and to evidence their progress toward this goal. In order for this to impact on employers in the private sector, this requirement should be extended to public sector procurement strategies so that external contractors would have to meet similar equality monitoring requirements in order to be appointed. 4. Take steps to improve regional networking and information sharing “Increased networking between the public and private sectors is important. This offers the opportunity for others to learn and share practice, It can generate new thinking and overcome stereotypes that the sectors have.” Race for Opportunity “One region never knows what the other region is doing.” Women and Equality Unit
In all three case study regions, there appears to be scope for the development of new networks to help bridge the existing public sector-private sector gap in particular, and the Regional Development Agencies, Confederation of British Industry and local Chambers of Commerce may have a role to play in this respect. In addition, it would appear that inter-regional links could be improved and in the first instance, this could be achieved via increased legal requirements on RDAs to forward information to a central Government data hub that could in turn, disseminate this information. 5. Need for more research to develop the business case for equality and diversity “Business case evidence is critical to engage people in both the public and private sector to address gender discrimination in the workplace” Race for Opportunity “There is not a lot of good evidence out there at all.” Women and Equality Unit
More research is needed in order to quantify the business benefits of equality and diversity to employing organisations. Existing research has focussed on the soft outcomes that equality in the workplace can produce, such as improved customer focus and staff morale, but there is a critical knowledge gap around the actual economic benefits of such an approach. In turn, there is a need to better publicise the business benefits of addressing gender discrimination to organisations. Raising awareness of the business benefits is vital to generate the culture change and commitment necessary. Key organisations to play a more proactive role in this respect include the Confederation of British Industry, Federation of Small Businesses and local Chambers of Commerce. 97
6. Make evidence user-friendly and accessible, particularly for SMEs “Pulling together information can be difficult. It’s fragmented.” Race for Opportunity
The availability and accessibility of evidence needs to be improved if evidenced-based practice is to be adopted by employing organisations on a wider basis. Businesses, in particular SMEs, feel that existing evidence base is both fragmented and at times relatively inaccessible, and this makes evidenced-based practice time consuming and so difficult to achieve. A single, well-publicised website dedicated to evidenced based practice would help address these concerns and suggestions include the new unified equalities body, the Office of National Statistics or the Regional Development Agencies as possible repositories for this information. 7. Improve the statistical evidence base “Census needs to explore reasons behind women’s non-participation in the labour market more fully. For example information about childcare would help explain why women opt out of the labour market.” Women and Equality Unit
There is a universally held view that the current statistical evidence base needs to be disaggregated along gender lines on a routine basis. In addition, statistics need to be broken down in terms of ethnicity, age, socio-demographic status and linked to caring responsibilities where possible, in order to illustrate more clearly the differing experiences of women. Suggested strategies for capturing this information include using the Census more effectively and assigning responsibility for the collection, collation and dissemination of evidence to the new unified equalities commission and/or the RDAs. 8. Engage hard to reach groups of women “One of the key challenges for the UK is to integrate the race and gender diversity agendas and engage more alienated and hard to reach gender groups.” Race for Opportunity
In relation to the qualitative evidence base, there is a need for more research to capture the views and experiences of women experiencing particular and / or multiple levels of disadvantage, including low paid women and those outside employment; women with low levels of educational attainment; and black and ethnic minority women. This would help to determine the barriers to employment that exist for particularly excluded groups of women, and the polarisation that exists between such groups.
9.3 Regional Strategies At the regional level, workshops held in the case study regions also identified a variety of strategies that could support the development of evidence-based employment practice. These included:
The need for a regional information strategy to co-ordinate and develop the evidence base, in particular in relation to the improved provision of statistical data, to help capture the experiences of a wider range of women, and to promote and facilitate enhanced networking and dissemination activities.
The important role that the local Government’s Equality Standard could play in supporting evidence-based practice in the public sector, and the need to resolve
98
related resource, accessibility and competitiveness issues in order to make this more effective.
The need to develop a regional employment performance monitoring framework to drive forward and deliver progress around equality and diversity, by providing a supportive environment which encourages change, promotes best practice and publicises the business case for equality.
99
REFERENCES Allsopp, C. (2003). Review of the statistical requirement for monetary and wider economic policy making. London, HM Treasury. Allsopp, C. (2004). Review of Statistics for Economic Policymaking. London, HM Treasury. Anderson, T., J. Forth, et al. (2001). The gender pay gap. London, Women and Equality Unit. Arthur, L. (2002). Work-Life Balance: Britain and Germany Compared. London, AngloGerman Foundation for the Study of Industrial Society. Arup, MSC, et al. (2003). Structure and Dynamics of the South-East Regional Economic: Reducing Intra-regional Disparities. Guildford, South East Development Agency. Audit Commission (2002). Equality and Diversity: Learning from Audit, Inspection and Research. London, Audit Commission. Barnard, C., S. Deakin, et al. (2002). "Equality, Non-discrimination and the Labour Market in the UK." The International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations 18 (2): pp. 129 - 147. Bernstein, A. (2004). "Women's Pay: Why the gap remains a chasm." Business Week(Issue 3887): p.58. Bevan, S., P. Dench, et al. (1999). Family-Friendly Employment: The Business Case. London, DfEE. Blakemore, K. a. R. D. (1997). Understanding Equal Opportunities Policies. London, Harvester Wheatsheaf. Bond, S. (2002). Family-Friendly Working: Putting Policy into Action. York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Bruegal, I. a. H. K. (1995). "The Moment of Muncipal Feminism: Gender and Class in 1980s Local Government." Critical Social Policy(44/45 (Autumn)). Buckner, D. L., D. N. Tang, et al. (2004). Gender and Employment in Local Labour Markets: Gender Profile of Newcastle's Labour Market 2004. Sheffield, Sheffield Hallam University. Bulmer, M. (1986). Social science and social policy. London, Allen and Unwin. Cabinet Office (1999). Modernising Government. London, Stationery Office. Cassels, J. (2001). Modern Apprenticeships: the way to work, The report of the Modern Apprenticeship Advisory Committee. Sheffield, Department for Education and Skills. CBI and Pertemps (2003). Annual Employment Trends Survey. London, Confederation of British Industry. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2002). Work, Parenting and Careers. London, CIPD.
100
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2003). Living to work? London, CIPD. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2003). Work, Parenting and Careers. London, CIPD. Cockburn, C. (1989). "Equal Opportunties: The Short and Long Agenda." Industrial Relations Journal 20. Cumbers, A. (1996). "Continuity or Change in Employment Relations? Evidence from the UK's Old Industrial Regions." Capital and Class 58: 33-57. Cunningham, R., L. Dobbs, et al. (2004). Negotiating the Work-Life Balance: Women with Care Responsibilities in the North East Labour Market, Centre for Public Policy, Northumbria University. Cunningham, R., A. Lord, et al. (1999). "'Next Steps' for Equality? The impact of organisational change on opportunities for women in the Civil Service." Gender, Work and Organisation 6(2): pp. 67-78. Dale, A., N. Jackson, et al. (2005). Women in non-traditional training and employment. EOC Working Papers Series. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. Davies, H. T. O., S. M. Nutley, et al., Eds. (2000). What works?. Evidence-based policy and practice in public services. Bristol, The Policy Press. Davies, P. (2004). Is Evidence-Based Government Possible? 4th Annual Campbell Collaboration Colloquium, Washington DC. Department for Education and Skills (2001). Education and training statistics for the United Kingdom. London: The Stationery Office, DfES. Department for Work and Pensions (2000-2001). Family Resources Survey. Department of Trade and Industry (2003). Flexible Working: The Business Case. London. Dex, D. and F. Scheibl (1999). "Business performance and family-friendly policies." Journal of General Management Vol. 24(No. 4). DfEE and LGNTO (1998). Gender imbalances in modern apprenticeships. London, Department for Education and Employment: Local Government NTO. DfWP (2001). Public Attitudes to Pensions and Planning for Retirement, Research Report 130. London, Department for Social Security. East of England Development Agency (2003). Framework for Regional Employment and Skills Action. Cambridge, EEDA. East of England Development Agency (2005). East of England Women's Enterprise Strategy 2005-2008. Cambridge, EEDA. East of England Development Agency (2005). A shared vision: the regional economic strategy for the East of England. Cambridge, EEDA. EOC (2003). Facts About Women and Men in Great Britain: 2003. Manchester, Equal Oppotunities Commission. Equal Opportunities Commision (2002). Women and Men in Britain: Management. Manchester, EOC. Equal Opportunities Commission (2004). Plugging Britain’s skills gap: challenging gender segregation in training and work (Phase 1 report). London. 101
Equal Pay Task Force (2001). Just Pay. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. European Commission (2003). Employment in Europe 2002. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. European Commission (2003). Gender pay gaps in European labour markets Measurement, analysis and policy implications. Brussels, Commission Staff Working Paper, EC. Exemplas Ltd (2004a). Women Entrepreneurs: Issues and Barriers, A Regional, National and International Perspective. Exemplas Ltd (2004b). Improving Opportunities: Access and Choices to work for women who are disadvantaged, hard to reach or socially excluded. A Regional, National and International Perspective. Exemplas Ltd (2004c). Women in the Work Place: Under Representation and Exclusion. A Regional, National and International Perspective. Fair Play Southeast (2002). The Missing Link: A Preliminary Report into the Underemployment of Women in the Southeast, Fair Play South East. Forth, J. (2002). The gender pay gap. Paper presented to the Gender Research Forum. London: The Stationery Office, Department for Trade and Industry. Fuller, A., V. Beck, et al. (2005). Employers, young people and gender segregation (England). U. o. L. Centre for Labour Market Studies. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. EOC Working Paper Series No. Goldstone, C. and Y. Levy (1996). Evaluation of Equality Opportunities Publications. London, Department for Education and Employment. Government Office for the South East (Updated 2004). ESF Objective 3: South East England Regional Development Plan, January 2002-December 2007, Government Office for the South East. Gray, H. (2002). Family-Friendly Working: What a Performance! An Analysis of the Relationship between the Availability of Family Friendly Policies and Establishment Performance. London, London School of Economics. Hakim, C. (2001). "Taking Women Seriously." People and Place 9(4): 1-6. Harkness, S. (2002). Low Pay, Times of Work and Gender. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. Hayes, G., C. Wragg, et al. (2005). Equality and Pathfinders. U. o. E. School of Education and Lifelong Learning. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. EOC Working Paper Series No. 36. Himmelweit, S. and M. Sigala (2002). Internal and external constraints on mothers' employment: some implications for policy. Milton Keynes, The Open University. HM Treasury (2003). UK Membership of the Single Currency: An assessment of the five economic tests. London, Stationery Office. Hoque, K. and M. Noon (2002). Equal Opportunities Policy and Practice in the UK: Evaluating the 'Empty Shell' Hypothesis. Leicester, Leicester Business School Occasional Paper 72. Institute for Employment Research and IFF Research Limited (2004). National Employers Skills Survey 2003. London, Learning and Skills Council.
102
Institute for Employment Studies, D. (2000). Work-Life Balance 2000 Baseline Survey, Department for Education and Employment. Jewson, N., D. Mason, A. Drewett, and W. Rossiter (1995). Former Equal Opportunities Policies and Employment Best Practice. London, Department for Education and Employment. Jewson, N. and D. Mason (1986). "The theory and practice of equal opportunities policies: liberal and radical approaches." Sociological Review 34((2)): p.307-334. Joseph, E. (2002). What's on the agenda? How UK directors contribute to social and environmental objectives. London, Institute for Public Policy Research. Kodz, J., S. Davis, et al. (2003). "Working long hours in the UK: A review of the research literature, analysis of survey data and cross-national organizational case studies." Employment Relations Research Series(No. 16). LFS (2003). Quarterly Supplement. London, Office for National Statistics. LSC (2003). National Employers Skills Survey. London, Institute for Employment Research at University of Warwick and IFF Research Ltd for Learning and Skills Council. McGivney, V. (1999). Returing Women: Their Training and Employment Choices and Needs, NIACE. Miller, L. and F. Neathey (2004). Advancing women in the workplace: case studies. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. Moss, P., H. van Ewijk, et al. (2002). Mapping of care services and the care workforce. London, Thomas Coram Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. Myck, M. and G. Paul (2001). The role of employment experience in explaining the gender wage gap. London, Institute for Fiscal Studies. Newman, J. (2002). "Putting the ‘Policy’ back into Social Policy." Social Policy and Society 1(4): 347-354. NHS Employers (2005). The fieldbook: A Practice Guide to Managing Diversity in the NHS., Positively Diverse. Nutley, S., H. Davies, et al. (2003). "Evidence-based Policy and Practice: Cross-sector Lessons from the UK." Social Policy Journal of New Zealand(20). O'Cinneide, C. (2003). Taking equal opportunities seriously: the extension of positive duties to promote equality. London, Equality and Diversity Forum. Office of National Statistics (1998). British Labour Market Projections. London. Olgiati E and Shapiro G (2002). Promoting Gender Equality in the Workplace, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. ONE North East (2002). Realising our Potential: The Regional Economic Strategy for the North East of England. Newcastle upon Tyne, ONE North East. ONE North East (2003). Regional Skills Strategy. Newcastle upon Tyne, ONE North East. ONS (2001a). Census 2001, National Report for England and Wales. London, National Statistics. ONS (2002). Labour Force Survey Spring 2002. London, National Statistics. 103
ONS (2003b). Labour Market Statistics October 2003: North East. London, National Statistics. ONS (2003c). New Earnings Survey 2003. London, National Statistics. Opportunity Now (2000). Breaking the Barriers: Women in Senior Management in the UK. London, Business in the Community. Opportunity Now (2001). Equality and excellence: the business case. London, Business in the Community. Ozbilgin, M. F. (2000). "Is the practice of equal opportunities management keeping place with theory? Management of sex equality in the financial services sector in Britain and Turkey." Human Resource Development International Vol. 3((1)): pp. 43-67. Parekh, B. (2000). Rethinking multiculturalism : cultural diversity and political theory. Basingstoke, Macmillan. Paul, G. and M. Brewer (2003). "How can suitable, affordable childcare be provided for all parents who need it to enable them to work?" Institute for Fiscal Studies Briefing Note No. 34. Payne, J. (1991). Women Training and the Skills Shortage, Policy Studies Institute. Quality Performance and Improvement Division (1999). Modern apprenticeships and gender stereotyping. Sheffield, QPID Study Report No. 71 for Department for Education and Employment. Rake, K. (2000). Women's Incomes Over the Lifetime, Cabinet Office. Riley, L. A. and J. L. Glass (2002). "You Can't Always Get What You Want - Infant Care Preferences and Use Among Emplyed Mothers." Journal of Marriage and Family 64(1): 2-15. Rooke, A., I. Slater, et al. (unpublished). We Build the Road as We Go: Women's Participation in the London Construction Industry. London, Gender in Construction Research Project, Goldsmith College. Ross, R. and R. Schneider (1992). From Equality to Diversity: A Business Case for Equal Opportunities. London, Pitman Publishing. Rutherford, S. and S. Ollerearnshaw (2002). The Business of Diversity. Scheibl, F. (1999). "Measure and Communicate the Benefits of Work-Life Policies more Effectively?" ESRC Working Paper 135. Schon, D. A. (1991). The reflective practitioner. Aldershot, Ashgate Publishing. Scriven, M. (1967). The methodology of evaluation. Perspectives of Curriculum Evaluation. R. M. Gagne and M. Scriven. Chicago, Rand McNally. South East England Regional Assembly (2002). Regional Monitoring Report 2003. Guildford, SEERA. South East England Regional Development Agency (2002). Framework for Employment and Skills Action, South East Development Agency. SQW Limited and Land Use Consultants (2004). An Integrated Regional Strategy for the East of England (revised draft for consultation). Bury St Edmonds, East of England Regional Assembly. Step Ahead Research Ltd (2004). Routes from Inactivity to Sustained Employment (RISE). Kent, ESF and Jobcentre Plus. 104
Strategic Policy Making Team (SPMT) (1999). Professional policy making in the 21st century. London, Cabinet Office. The Industrial Society (2001). Flexible Work Patterns, Managing Best Practice. Thewlis, M., L. Miller, et al. (2004). Advancing women in the workplace. Manchester, Equal Opportunities Commission. TUC (2002). Women at Work: Gender Inequality in the North East Labour Market. Newcastle upon Tyne, Northern TUC. Walby, S. (1997). Gender Transformations. London, Routledge. WEU (2003). Advancing Women in the Workplace: Good Practice Guide. London, Department of Trade and Industry. Wheelock, J. and K. Jones (2002). "Grandparents Are the Next Best Thing: Informal Childcare For Working Parents in Urban Britain." Journal of Social Policy 3.1(3): 441-463. Williams, A. and N. Arshad-Mather (1999). Widening Horizons: A report on Employer's Policies and Practices on the Engineering and Technology Industries in the Bradford Region of the UK. Bradford, Bradford College. Women and Equality Unit (2001). The Gender Pay Gap. London, Department of Trade and Industry. Women and Equality Unit (2003). Advancing Women in the Workplace: Good Practice Guide. London, Department of Trade and Industry. Women and Equality Unit (2003). Business Case for Diversity and Equality. London, Department of Trade and Industry. Women and Equality Unit (2003). Delivering on Gender Equality: Supporting the PSA Objective on Gender Equality 2003-2006. London, Department of Trade and Industry. Woodland, S., N. Simmonds, et al. (2003). The Second Work-Life Balance Study: Results from the Employer Survey. London, National Centre for Social Research for Department for Trade and Industry. Yeandle, S., R. Crompton, et al. (2002). Employers, Carers and Family-Friendly Employment Policies. Bristol, Policy Press.
105
