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Zinc Oxide Nanorods-Decorated Graphene Nanoplatelets: A Promising Antimicrobial Agent against the Cariogenic Bacterium Streptococcus mutans Elena Zanni 1,2 , Chandrakanth Reddy Chandraiahgari 2,3 , Giovanni De Bellis 2,3 , Maria Rita Montereali 4 , Giovanna Armiento 4 , Paolo Ballirano 5 , Antonella Polimeni 6 , Maria Sabrina Sarto 2,3, * and Daniela Uccelletti 1,2, * 1 2 3 4

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BBCD, Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome 00185, Italy; [email protected] SNN Lab, Sapienza Nanotechnology & Nano-Science Laboratory, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome 00185, Italy; [email protected] (C.R.C.); [email protected] (G.D.B.) DIAEE, Department of Astronautical, Electrical, Energy Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome 00185, Italy Sustainable Territorial and Production Systems Department (SSPT) PROTER Division, BioGeoChemistry Laboratory, ENEA, National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Rome 00123, Italy; [email protected] (M.R.M.); [email protected] (G.A.) Department of Earth Science, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome 00185, Italy; [email protected] Department of Dentistry and Maxillo-Facial Sciences, Unit of Pediatric Dentistry Sapienza University of Rome, Rome 00185, Italy; [email protected] Correspondence: [email protected] (M.S.S.); [email protected] (D.U.); Tel.: +39-06-4458-5542 (M.S.S.); +39-06-4991-2258 (D.U.); Fax: +39-06-4991-2351 (D.U.)

Academic Editor: Guogang Ren Received: 10 August 2016; Accepted: 21 September 2016; Published: 29 September 2016

Abstract: Nanomaterials are revolutionizing the field of medicine to improve the quality of life due to the myriad of applications stemming from their unique properties, including the antimicrobial activity against pathogens. In this study, the antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties of a novel nanomaterial composed by zinc oxide nanorods-decorated graphene nanoplatelets (ZNGs) are investigated. ZNGs were produced by hydrothermal method and characterized through field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The antimicrobial activity of ZNGs was evaluated against Streptococcus mutans, the main bacteriological agent in the etiology of dental caries. Cell viability assay demonstrated that ZNGs exerted a strikingly high killing effect on S. mutans cells in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, FE-SEM analysis revealed relevant mechanical damages exerted by ZNGs at the cell surface of this dental pathogen rather than reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In addition, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) measurements showed negligible zinc dissolution, demonstrating that zinc ion release in the suspension is not associated with the high cell mortality rate. Finally, our data indicated that also S. mutans biofilm formation was affected by the presence of graphene-zinc oxide (ZnO) based material, as witnessed by the safranin staining and growth curve analysis. Therefore, ZNGs can be a remarkable nanobactericide against one of the main dental pathogens. The potential applications in dental care and therapy are very promising. Keywords: streptococcus mutans; antimicrobial activity; graphene nanoplatelets; zinc oxide; composite; dental caries

Nanomaterials 2016, 6, 179; doi:10.3390/nano6100179

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1. Introduction Dental caries represent an increasingly serious health problem for which Streptococcus mutans has been identified as the main etiologic cause (reviewed in [1]). Nowadays, attention is focused on the development of suitable materials able to kill or inhibit this bacterium and, thus, to control the pathologic condition. Although antimicrobial compounds have been reported to decrease the occurrence of dental diseases, the use of antibiotics as well as chemical bactericides can impact negatively on the bacterial flora of oral cavity and intestine tract [2,3]. Since pathogens are able to acquire resistance against different antibiotics, agents characterized by a notable antibacterial activity and that do not develop resistance are now highly requested [4]. Based on that, nanotechnology is considered a powerful tool. During the last few years, ever-growing attention was focused on metals nanoparticles (i.e., silver and zinc) due to their remarkable antimicrobial properties [5]. The high antibacterial effect of these nanostructured agents is ascribed to the high surface area to volume ratio, enabling greater presence of atoms on the surface, and thus providing maximum contact with the environment. Because of their capability to easily penetrate cell membranes, several intracellular processes are disrupted resulting in high reactivity and antibacterial activity [6]. Graphitic nanomaterials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerenes, and graphene, are considered as novel and very promising agents due to their innovative features, including antibacterial properties [7–9]. Graphene, a two-dimensional mono-atomic thick material with sp2 hybridized carbon arrangement, has attracted extensive attention during the past decade. Its unique and outstanding electrical conductivity, mechanical properties, large surface area, low coefficient of thermal expansion, and very high aspect ratio make it very attractive for several potential applications in many different fields [10–14]. Moreover, graphene is biocompatible and it is a suitable substrate for biological/chemical functionalizations [15,16]. Similar to CNTs, graphene-based materials have received significant attention for their potential applications in the biological/medical field, including bacterial inhibition, drug delivery, and photothermal cancer therapy [17–19]. In this context, graphene-related structures like graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), can represent a valuable tool in the biological/medical field, also owing to the fact that their production process is very easy, inexpensive, and scalable [12]. The antimicrobial properties of GNPs against both gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and gram-positive (S. mutans) bacteria have been investigated in previous studies [20,21], and their very low cytotoxicity was also demonstrated through in vivo system (Caenorhabditis elegans) [20]. However, one of the main limitations for a wide exploitation of GNPs as antimicrobial agent in dental application, is represented by the grey color and by the aptitude in aggregating when dispersed in a colloidal suspension. Metal oxides are largely utilized in the field of nanotechnology; among them, zinc oxide (ZnO), a wide band-gap II–VI semiconductor, has attracted growing interest due to its unique optical, luminescent, electronic, optoelectronic, and biocompatible properties [22,23]. Several methods have been developed to synthesize ZnO materials as one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures with different morphologies including nanowires, nanorods, nanoneedles, and nanorings [24–28]. Synthesis of ZnO nanorods (ZnO-NRs) via chemical approaches opens the route to low-cost catalyst-free mass-production of ZnO nanostructures [29–32]. In our previous studies, through both in vitro and in vivo systems, we have demonstrated the very low cytotoxicity of ZnO-NRs [33], together with their great potential as antibacterial material acting as nano-needles against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis [34]. In the present work, we aim to propose the original use of a novel hybrid material, featured by ZnO-NRs grown on multilayer graphene sheets (i.e., GNPs), as antimicrobial nanomaterial against S. mutans, combining the antimicrobial effect of GNPs with the light color and biocidal properties of ZnO-NRs. ZnO-NRs-decorated GNPs (ZNGs) are a novel class of engineered nanomaterials in which pristine GNPs are densely decorated with ZnO-NRs through a facile hydrothermal method [35]. In this study,

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the intriguing antimicrobial activity of ZNGs dispersed in water was compared with the one of colloidal suspensions containing either pristine GNPs or ZnO-NRs or both GNPs and ZnO-NRs. The final goal Nanomaterials 2016, 6, 179 3 of 14 is to reveal the potential applications of ZNGs, having strikingly high antimicrobial properties, in the dental material field. ZnO-NRs. The final goal is to reveal the potential applications of ZNGs, having strikingly high antimicrobial properties, in the dental material field.

2. Results and Discussion

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Morphological and Structural Properties 2.1. Morphological Structural Properties and hybrid ZNG nanostructures were produced in Pristine GNPs, and pristine ZnO-NRs water-based colloidal suspension Sapienzaand Nanotechnology Nanosciencewere Laboratory (SNN-Lab) Pristine GNPs, pristine at ZnO-NRs hybrid ZNG and nanostructures produced in water-based colloidal suspension at Sapienza and Nanoscience (SNN(as described in Section 3.2). The morphology of Nanotechnology the produced nanomaterials wasLaboratory investigated through Lab) (as described in Sectionscanning 3.2). The morphology of the produced nanomaterials was investigated high-resolution field emission electron microscopy (FE-SEM) (Figure 1). GNPs (Figure 1A) through high-resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) (Figure 1). of GNPs are made of multiple graphene sheets staked in 2D-platelets having thickness in the range 2–10 nm (Figure 1A) are made of multiple graphene sheets staked in 2D-platelets having thickness in the range and average lateral dimensions in the range of 1–10 µm [20]. ZnO-NRs (Figure 1B) are straight rods of of 2–10 nm and average lateral dimensions in the range of 1–10 µ m [20]. ZnO-NRs (Figure 1B) are ZnO having a hexagonal cross section, with average diameter of ~36 nm and length in the range of straight rods of ZnO having a hexagonal cross section, with average diameter of ~36 nm and length 400 nm–1 µm. Figure 1C,D show the surface morphology of ZNGs: GNPs are densely decorated with in the range of 400 nm–1 µ m. Figure 1C,D show the surface morphology of ZNGs: GNPs are densely ZnO-NRs having diameter of ~34 nm and length of 300–400 nm. decorated withaverage ZnO-NRs having average diameter of ~34 nm and length of 300–400 nm.

Figure 1. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) images of (A) pristine graphene

Figure 1. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) images of (A) pristine graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), (B) pristine zinc oxide nanorods (ZnO-NRs), and (C–D) ZnO-NRs-decorated nanoplatelets (GNPs), (B) pristine zinc oxide nanorods (ZnO-NRs), and (C,D) ZnO-NRs-decorated GNPs (ZNGs). GNPs (ZNGs).

Figure 2A–E show the elemental analysis and typical energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) spectrum obtained for ZNGs.analysis The elemental analysis of ZNGs was performed in the specific(EDX) Figure 2A–E show the elemental and typical energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy area shown in Figure 2A and revealed that only carbon (C), zinc (Zn), and oxygen (O) signals were area spectrum obtained for ZNGs. The elemental analysis of ZNGs was performed in the specific detected (Figure 2B–D). No other signal of secondary phase or impurity was detected as shown in shown in Figure 2A and revealed that only carbon (C), zinc (Zn), and oxygen (O) signals were detected Figure 2E. This indicates the high purity chemical composition of the ZNGs used in this study. The (Figure 2B–D). No other signal of secondary phase or impurity was detected as shown in Figure 2E. elemental mapping also demonstrated that the GNPs are densely decorated with ZnO-NRs. This indicates the high purity chemical composition of the ZNGs used in this study. The elemental mapping also demonstrated that the GNPs are densely decorated with ZnO-NRs.

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Figure Figure 2. 2. Energy-dispersive Energy-dispersive X-ray X-ray spectroscopy spectroscopy (EDX) (EDX) elemental elemental analysis analysis performed performed on the the (A) (A) ZNGs ZNGs and and elemental elemental mapping mapping for for (B) (B) carbon, (C) zinc, (D) oxygen, and (E) corresponding EDX spectrum.

The diffraction (XRD) ofof GNPs, ZnO-NRs andand ZNGs areon shown in Figure 3. The3. Figure 2. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) elemental analysis performed the shown (A) ZNGs The X-ray X-ray diffraction (XRD)patterns patterns GNPs, ZnO-NRs ZNGs are in Figure and of elemental mapping spectra for (B) carbon, (C) zinc, (D) oxygen, and (E) corresponding EDX spectrum. peak positions the obtained for samples of ZnO-NRs and ZNGs are in excellent agreement The peak positions of the obtained spectra for samples of ZnO-NRs and ZNGs are in excellent with the published Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) cardcard 036-1451 of agreement with the published on Powder Diffraction Standards The X-ray diffractionJoint (XRD)Committee patterns of GNPs, ZnO-NRs and ZNGs are shown(JCPDS) in Figure 3. The036-1451 wurtzite structure of ZnO, with lattice constants a = 3.25 Å and c = 5.17 Å . The spectrum of the pristine peak positions of of the ZnO, obtained spectra for samples of ZnO-NRs and excellent agreement of wurtzite structure with lattice constants a = 3.25 ÅZNGs and are c =in5.17 Å. The spectrum of GNPs consists of a strong graphitic peak at its 2θ value of 26.53° and in secondary peaks from 40° to ◦ with the published Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) card 036-1451 of the pristine GNPs consists of a strong graphitic peak at its 2θ value of 26.53 and in secondary 60° [36]. The 40 same are present in constants the XRDaare of csample No diffraction peaks of wurtzite ZnO, with lattice =pattern 3.25 Å and = 5.17 Å .ZNGs. The spectrum of the pristine ◦structure peaks from to peaks 60◦of[36]. The same peaks present in the XRD pattern of sample ZNGs. GNPs consists of a strong graphitic peak atsynthesized its 2θ value of 26.53° and in secondary peaks from 40° to impurity were detected, suggesting that the nanomaterials are of high-purity. Further, the No diffraction peaks of impurity were detected, suggesting that the synthesized nanomaterials are of 60°intense [36]. The same peaks are present in the highly XRD pattern of sample ZNGs. Noproduced diffraction nanostructures. peaks of sharp and diffraction peaks indicate crystalline nature of high-purity. Further, the sharp and intensethe diffraction peaks indicate thethe highly crystalline nature of impurity were detected, suggesting that the synthesized nanomaterials are of high-purity. Further, the

the produced nanostructures. sharp and intense diffraction peaks indicate the highly crystalline nature of the produced nanostructures.

Figure 3. X-ray diffraction patterns of all the produced nanostructures.

Figure 3. 3. X-ray X-raydiffraction diffraction patterns patterns of of all all the the produced produced nanostructures. nanostructures. Figure 2.2. Antimicrobial Activity

2.2. Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Activity Activity 2.2. In the last years, our attention has been focused towards the study of the antibacterial properties characterizing and metal oxide-based such as GNPs and ZnO-NRs, In the the last years, years,grapheneour attention attention has been been focused nanomaterials, towards the the study study of the the antibacterial properties In last our has focused towards of antibacterial properties respectively [20,34]. Inand ordermetal to compare the killing activity of GNPssuch and ZnO-NRs versus oral characterizing grapheneoxide-based nanomaterials, as GNPs and ZnO-NRs, characterizing graphene- and metal oxide-based nanomaterials, such as GNPs and ZnO-NRs, pathogen bacteria, the antimicrobial potential of such nanomaterials was firstly evaluated on S. respectively [20,34]. [20,34]. In Inorder order to to compare compare the the killing killing activity activity of of GNPs GNPs and and ZnO-NRs ZnO-NRs versus versus oral oral respectively mutans cells. Among the 500 different bacterial species identified in the oral cavity, S. mutans is the

pathogen bacteria, the antimicrobial potential of such nanomaterials was firstly evaluated on S. mutans cells. Among the 500 different bacterial species identified in the oral cavity, S. mutans is the

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pathogen bacteria, the antimicrobial potential of such nanomaterials was firstly evaluated on S. mutans cells. Among the 500 different bacterial species identified in the oral cavity, S. mutans is the most Nanomaterials 2016, 6, 179 and like other oral streptococci it is considered as the primary plaque-former 5 of 14 commonly isolated [37], and is involved in plaque formation and initiation of dental caries [38,39]. most commonly isolated [37], and like other oral streptococci it is considered as the primary plaqueAs shown in Figure 4, ZnO-NRs displayed a strikingly bactericidal effect (up to 95% of cell former and is involved in plaque formation and initiation of dental caries [38,39]. viability reduction) on S. mutans cells, even at a very low concentration (5 µg/mL). This observation is As shown in Figure 4, ZnO-NRs displayed a strikingly bactericidal effect (up to 95% of cell in line with the strong antimicrobial potential ZnO-NRs against S. aureus and B. subtilis viability reduction) on S. mutans cells, even atreported a very lowfor concentration (5 µ g/mL). This observation that, islike S. mutans, are members of the Gram-positive class [34]. Actually, to their in line with the strong antimicrobial potential reported forbacteria ZnO-NRs against S. aureus and B.due subtilis 1D-structure, ZnO-NRs actmembers as nano-needles inducing serious of Actually, the cell membrane. that, like S. mutans, are of the Gram-positive bacteriadamage class [34]. due to their 1DBy contrast, no effect S. mutansinducing viability was damage highlighted with GNPs treatment at the structure, ZnO-NRs act ason nano-needles serious of the cell membrane. By contrast, no effect on S. mutans viability was highlighted with GNPs treatment at the concentration of 50 µg/mL (Figure 4). Actually, graphene and graphene-related materials, such as concentration of 50 µ g/mL (Figure graphene and graphene-related materials, such as GNPs, have been demonstrated to have4).a Actually, remarkable antibacterial effect against many microorganisms. GNPs, been demonstrated to havereported a remarkable antibacterial against activities many of In fact, in thehave last few years, Liu and coworkers the comparison of theeffect antibacterial microorganisms. In fact, in the last few years, Liu and coworkers reported the comparison of the four graphene-based materials towards Escherichia coli and found that graphene oxide (GO) dispersion antibacterial activities of four graphene-based materials towards Escherichia coli and found that showed the highest antibacterial activity [40]. In addition, we demonstrated that GNPs, produced from graphene oxide (GO) dispersion showed the highest antibacterial activity [40]. In addition, we thermal exfoliationthat of graphite intercalation compound, have bactericidal effects against P. aeruginosa demonstrated GNPs, produced from thermal exfoliation of graphite intercalation compound, and S. mutans cells. This is mainly due to a mechanical interaction originated by the GNP wrapping have bactericidal effects against P. aeruginosa and S. mutans cells. This is mainly due to a mechanical around the cells and a local damage of the cell wall produced by the GNP sharp edges acting interaction originated by the GNP wrapping around the cells and a local damage of the cell wall as nano-knives main problem in [20,21]. the useHowever, of GNPs water-based produced by[20,21]. the GNPHowever, sharp edgesthe acting as nano-knives theinmain problem incolloidal the use of GNPs water-based colloidal suspension is thethe formation of aggregates, which inhibit the suspension is the in formation of aggregates, which inhibit antimicrobial action of the nanostructures. antimicrobial action of theofnanostructures. concentration of too GNPs used this study Therefore, the concentration GNPs used inTherefore, this studythe (50 µg/mL) was low for in killing S. mutans (50 µ g/mL) was too low for killing S. mutans cells, probably due to the formation of large aggregates. cells, probably due to the formation of large aggregates. Indeed, we previously reported a remarkable Indeed, we previously reported a remarkable mortality rate for the planktonic form of this bacterium mortality rate for the planktonic form of this bacterium only at very high concentrations of GNPs [21]. only at very high concentrations of GNPs [21]. In order to exploit the combined effect of GNPs and ZnO-NRs, we performed the vitality test using In order to exploit the combined effect of GNPs and ZnO-NRs, we performed the vitality test a two-phase containingcontaining both nanomaterials (50 µg/mL GNPsofand 5 µg/mL using a colloidal two-phasesuspension colloidal suspension both nanomaterials (50 of µ g/mL GNPs and of ZnO-NRs). This resulted in a 50% reduction of bacterial survival (Figure 4), revealing that the presence 5 µ g/mL of ZnO-NRs). This resulted in a 50% reduction of bacterial survival (Figure 4), revealing that of thethe GNPs in the suspension may inhibit the of ZnO-NRs as nano-needles. presence of the GNPs in the suspension maykilling inhibitaction the killing action of ZnO-NRs as nano-needles.

Figure 4. Cell survival after treatmentwith withGNPs, GNPs, ZnO-NRs, the combination of both materials. Figure 4. Cell survival after treatment ZnO-NRs,and and the combination of both materials. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) method coupled with Statistical analysis was performed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) method coupled with the the Bonferroni post-test (ns not significant; *** p < 0.001 compared to the control). Bonferroni post-test (ns not significant; *** p < 0.001 compared to the control).

Starting from this, we produced ZNGs in which GNP offers a wide 2D-substrate for the oriented

Starting this,nearly we produced in which GNP offers a wide 2D-substrate for the growth offrom ZnO-NRs orthogonalZNGs to the platelet surface. Consequently, the new nanomaterial enables exploitation of the large-interaction area with cells offered by GNPs with the nanooriented growth of ZnO-NRs nearly orthogonal to bacterial the platelet surface. Consequently, the new needle action of ZnO-NRs. Moreover, of with GNPsbacterial prevents cells GNP offered agglomerate nanomaterial enables exploitation of the ZnO-NRs-decoration large-interaction area by GNPs formation in water-based suspension, and lightens the characteristic grey color of the carbon with the nano-needle action of ZnO-NRs. Moreover, ZnO-NRs-decoration of GNPs prevents GNP nanostructures at different concentrations (Figure 5), making ZNGs very promising for dental agglomerate formation in water-based suspension, and lightens the characteristic grey color of applications. the carbon nanostructures at different concentrations (Figure 5), making ZNGs very promising for dental applications.

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Figure 5. Photographs of GNPs and ZNGs aqueous suspensions prepared at various concentrations.

Figure 5. Photographs of GNPs and ZNGs aqueous suspensions prepared at various concentrations. In order to evaluate whether this novel nanomaterial could be exploited to debate S. mutans, bacterial cells were challenged 24ZNGs h with ZNGs.suspensions Remarkably, the exposure of the tested cells to Figure 5. Photographs of GNPsfor and aqueous prepared various concentrations. In order to evaluate whether this novel nanomaterial could beatexploited to debate S. mutans, ZNGs induced a relevant mortality rate in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 6). A 10% survival was bacterial cells were challenged for 24 h with ZNGs. Remarkably, the exposure of the tested cells pointed outto when exposing cells to just 5 µ g/mL, while a 99.9% bactericidal effect observed at to ZNGs In order evaluate whether this novel nanomaterial could be exploited to was debate S. mutans, inducedbacterial a the relevant mortality rate in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 6). A 10% survival was highest concentration (50 µ g/mL). S. mutans is of considerable clinical importance in dentistry, cells were challenged for 24 h with ZNGs. Remarkably, the exposure of the tested cells topointed but compared toto other species ofrate microbes, relatively reports onobserved the survival effectsatof ZNGs inducedcells a relevant in a dose-dependent mannerfew (Figure 6). A 10% was out when exposing justmortality 5 µg/mL, while a there 99.9%arebactericidal effect was the highest nanomaterials onexposing this organism. The antimicrobial properties of metal-based nanoparticles have been at pointed out when cells to just 5 µ g/mL, while a 99.9% bactericidal effect was observed concentration (50 µg/mL). S. mutans is of considerable clinical importance in dentistry, but compared highlighted by Espinosa-Cristobal et al. Moreover, it has been clinical found that silver nanoparticles highest concentration (50 µ g/mL). S. [41]. mutans is of considerable importance in dentistry, to otherthespecies of microbes, there are relatively few reports on the effects of nanomaterials on more antibacterial to S. mutans than the traditional disinfectant in dentistry butwere compared to other species of microbes, there arechlorhexidine relatively few reports used on the effects of this organism. The antimicrobial properties of metal-based nanoparticles have highlighted by [42]. Furthermore, ZnO and copper oxide nanoparticles inhibited biofilm formation of S.been mutans [43].

nanomaterials on this organism. The antimicrobial properties of metal-based nanoparticles have been

Espinosa-Cristobal al. [41]. Moreover, it has been found thatfound silver were more highlighted byet Espinosa-Cristobal et al. [41]. Moreover, it has been thatnanoparticles silver nanoparticles antibacterial to S. mutans than the traditional chlorhexidine disinfectant indentistry dentistry [42]. were more antibacterial to S. mutans than the traditional chlorhexidine disinfectantused used in [42]. Furthermore, andoxide coppernanoparticles oxide nanoparticles inhibited biofilmformation formation of [43]. Furthermore, ZnO and ZnO copper inhibited biofilm ofS.S.mutans mutans [43].

Figure 6. Concentration-dependent antibacterial activity of ZnO-NRs-decorated GNPs (ZNG) against bacteria cells. Loss of cell viability rate was obtained by colony counting method. Error bars represent the standard deviation. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA method coupled with the Bonferroni post-test (ns not significant; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001 compared to the control).

Figure 6. Concentration-dependent antibacterialAnalysis activity of ofCells GNPsOxide (ZNG) against Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy Interaction with Zinc Figure2.3. 6. Concentration-dependent antibacterial activity ofZnO-NRs-decorated ZnO-NRs-decorated GNPs (ZNG) against Nanorods-Decorated Nanoplatelets bacteria cells. Loss Graphene of cell viability rate was obtained by colony counting method. Error bars represent bacteria cells. Loss of cell viability rate was obtained by colony counting method. Error bars represent the standard deviation. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA method coupled with Since cellular mechanical damages can be caused by aby direct contact between bacterialcoupled surface with the standard deviation. Statistical was the Bonferroni post-test (ns not analysis significant; * p